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GRE 1

GRE RC (No. 2 —No. 9)

No. 2-1

SECTION A

Extended debate concerning the exact point of origin of individual folktales

told by Afro-American slaves has unfortunately taken precedence over analysis of

the tales’ meaning and function. Cultural continuities with Africa were not

dependent on importation and perpetuation of specic folktales in their pristine

form. t is in the place that tales occupied in the lives of the slaves and in the

meaning slaves derived from them that the clearest resemblances to African

tradition can be found. Afro-American slaves did not borrow tales indiscriminately

from the !hites among whom they lived. "lack people were most in#uenced by

those Euro-American tales whose functional meaning and aesthetic appeal had

the greatest similarity to the tales with deep roots in their ancestral homeland.

$egardless of where slave tales came from% the essential point is that% with

respect to language% delivery% details of characteri&ation% and plot% slaves 'uickly

made them their own.

17. The author claims that most studies of folktales told by Afro-American slaves are

inadequate because the studies

(A) fail to recognize any ossible !uro-American influence on the folktales(") do not ay enough attention to the features of a folktale that best reveal an

African influence

(#) overestimate the number of folktales brought from Africa by the slaves

($) do not consider the fact that a folktale can be changed as it is retold many

times

(!) oversimlify the diverse and comle% traditions of the slaves ancestral

homeland

1&. The author's main urose is to

(A) create a ne field of study

(") discredit an e%isting field of study

(#) change the focus of a field of study

($) translant scholarly techniques from one field of study to another

(!) restrict the scoe of a burgeoning ne field of study

1. The assage suggests that the author ould regard hich of the folloing areas

of inquiry as most likely to reveal the slaves' cultural continuities ith Africa*

(A) The means by hich "lacks disseminated their folktales in nineteenth-

century America



GRE +

(") ,ecific regional differences in the styles of delivery used by the slaves in

telling folktales

(#) The functional meaning of "lack folktales in the lives of hite children

raised by slave

($) The secific ay the slaves used folktales to imart moral teaching to their

children

(!) The comle%ities of lot that aear most frequently in the slaves' tales

+. hich of the folloing techniques is used by the author in develoing the

argument in the assage*

(A) /iving a clich0 a ne meaning

(") ointedly refusing to define key terms

(#) Alternately resenting generalities and concrete details

($) #oncluding the assage ith a restatement of the first oint made in the

assage

(!) 2u%taosing statements of hat is not the case and statements of hat is the

case

(he energy contained in rock within the earth’s crust represents a nearly

unlimited energy source% but until recently commercial retrieval has been limited

to underground hot water and)or steam recovery systems. (hese systems have

been developed in areas of recent volcanic activity% where high rates of heat #ow

cause visible eruption of water in the form of geysers and hot springs. n other

areas% however% hot rock also exists near the surface but there is insu*cient

water present to produce eruptive phenomena. (hus a potential hot dry rock

+,$ reservoir exists whenever the amount of spontaneously produced

geothermal #uid has been /udged inade'uate for existing commercial systems.

As a result of recent energy crisis% new concepts for creating ,$ recovery

systems0which involve drilling holes and connecting them to articial reservoirs

placed deep within the crust0are being developed. n all attempts to retrieve

energy from ,$’s% articial stimulation will be re'uired to create either su*cient

permeability or bounded #ow paths to facilitate the removal of heat by circulation

of a #uid over the surface of the rock.

(he ,$ resource base is generally dened to included crustal rock that is

hotter than 123℃% is at depths less than ten kilometers% and can be drilled with

presently available e'uipment. Although wells deeper than ten kilometers are

technically feasible% prevailing economic factors will obviously determine the

commercial feasibility of wells at such depths. $ock temperatures as low as 133℃

may be useful for space heating4 however% for producing electricity% temperatures

greater than 533℃ are desirable.

(he geothermal gradient% which specically determines the depth of drilling

re'uired to reach a desired temperature% is a ma/or factor in the recoverability of



GRE 3

geothermal resources. (emperature gradient maps generated from oil and gas

well temperature-depth records kept by the American Association of 6etroleum

7eologists suggest that tappable high-temperature gradients are distributed all

across the 8nited 9tates. +(here are many areas% however% for which no

temperature gradient records exist.

ndications are that the ,$ resource base is very large. f an average

geothermal temperature gradient of 55℃ per kilometer of depth is used% a

staggering 1:%333%333 'uadrillion ".(.8.’s of total energy are calculated to be

contained in crustal rock to a ten-kilometer depth in the 8nited 9tates. f we

conservatively estimate that only about 3.5 percent is recoverable% we nd a total

of all the coal remaining in the 8nited 9tates. (he remaining problem is to balance

the economics of deeper% hotter% more costly wells and shallower% cooler% less

expensive wells against the value of the nal product% electricity and)or heat.

+1. The rimary urose of the assage is to

(A) alert readers to the e%istence of 4$5's as an available energy source

(") document the challengers that have been surmounted in the effort to recover

energy from 4$5's

(#) arn the users of coal and oil that 4$5's are not an economically feasible

alternative

($) encourage the use of ne techniques for the recovery of energy from

underground hot ater and steam

(!) urge consumers to demand quicker develoment of 4$5 resources for the roduction of energy

++. The assage ould be most likely to aear in a

(A) etrological research reort focused on the history of temerature-deth

records in the 6nited ,tates

(") congressional reort urging the conservation of oil and natural gas reserves in

the 6nited ,tates

(#) technical ournal article concerned ith the recoverability of nely identified

energy sources

($) consumer reort describing the e%tent and accessibility of remaining coal

resources

(!) amhlet designed to introduce homeoners to the advantages of 4$5

sace-heating systems

+3. According the assage8 an average geothermal gradient of ++℃ er kilometer of

deth can be used to

(A) balance the economics of 4$5 energy retrieval against that of underground

hot ater or steam recovery systems

(") determine the amount of energy that ill used for sace heating in the 6nited



GRE 9

,tates

(#) rovide comarisons beteen hot ater and 4$5 energy sources in 6nited

,tates

($) revise the estimates on the e%tent of remaining coal resources in the 6nited

,tates

(!) estimate the total 4$5 resource base in the 6nited ,tates

+9. :t can be inferred from the assage that the availability of temerature-deth

records for any secific area in the 6nited ,tates deends rimarily on the

(A) ossibility that 4$5's may be found in that area

(") e%istence of revious attemts to obtain oil or gas in that area

(#) history of successful hot ater or steam recovery efforts in that area

($) failure of inhabitants to conserve oil gas reserves in that area

(!) use of coal as a substitute for oil or gas in that area

+;. According to the assage8 in all 4$5 recovery systems fluid ill be necessary in

order to allo

(A) sufficient ermeability

(") artificial stimulation

(#) drilling of holes

($) construction of reservoirs

(!) transfer of heat

+<. According to the assage8 if the average geothermal gradient in an area is ++℃

er kilometer of deth8 hich of the folloing can be reliably redicted*

:. The temerature at the base of a 1-kilometer ell ill be sufficient for the

roduction of electricity.

::. $rilling of ells deeer than 1 kilometers ill be economically feasible.

:::. :nsufficient ater is resent to roduce erutive henomena.

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) : and :: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+7. hich of the folloing ould be the most aroriate title for the assage*

(A) !nergy from ater ,ources= The >easibility of #ommercial ,ystems

(") /eothermal !nergy 5etrieval= ?olcanic Activity and 4ot $ry 5ocks

(#) !nergy 6nderground= /eothermal ,ources /ive ay to >ossil >uels

($) Taable !nergy for America's >uture= 4ot $ry 5ocks



GRE ;

(!) 4igh /eothermal /radients in the 6nited ,tates= @yth or 5eality*

SECTION B

;our legal approaches may be followed in attempting to channel technologicaldevelopment in socially useful direction< specic directives% market incentive

modications% criminal prohibitions% and changes in decision-making structures.

9pecic directives involve the government’s identifying one or more factors

controlling research% development% or implementation of a given technology.

irectives a=ecting such factors may vary from administrative regulation of

private activity to government ownership of a technological operation. >arket

incentive modications are deliberate alterations of the market within which

private decisions regarding the development and implementation of technology

are made. 9uch modications may consist of imposing taxes to cover the costs to

society of a given technology% granting subsidies to pay for social benets of a

technology% creating the right to sue to prevent certain technological

development% or easing procedural rules to enable the recovery of damages to

compensate for harm caused by destructive technological activity. Criminal

prohibitions may modify technological activity in areas impinging on fundamental

social values% or they may modify human behavior likely to result from

technological applications0for example% the deactivation of automotive pollution

control devices in order to improve vehicle performance. Alteration of decision-

making structures includes all possible modications in the authority% constitution%

or responsibility of private and public entities deciding 'uestions of technologicaldevelopment and implementation. 9uch alterations include the addition of public-

interest members to corporate boards% the imposition by statute of duties on

governmental decision-makers% and the extension of warranties in response to

consumer action.

E=ective use of these methods to control technology depends on whether or

not the goal of regulation is the optimal allocation of resources. !hen the ob/ect is

optimal resource allocation% that combination of legal methods should be used

that most nearly yields the allocation that would exist if there were no external

costs resulting from allocating resources through market activity. (here are

external costs when the price set by buyers and sellers of goods fails to include

some costs% to anyone% that result from the production and use of the goods. 9uch

costs are internali&ed when buyers pay them.

Air pollution from motor vehicles imposes external costs on all those exposed

to it% in the form of soiling% materials damage% and disease< these externalities

result from failure to place a price on air% thus making it a free good% common to

all. 9uch externalities lead to nonoptimal resource allocation% because the private

net product and the social net product of market activity are not often identical. f

all externalities were internali&ed% transactions would occur until bargaining could

no longer improve the situation% thus giving an optimal allocation of resources at a



GRE <

given time.

17. The assage is rimarily concerned ith describing

(A) obectives and legal method for directing technological develoment

(") technical aroaches to the roblem of controlling market activity(#) economic rocedures for facilitating transactions beteen buyers and sellers

($) reasons for sloing the technological develoment in light of

environmentalist obections

(!) technological innovations making it ossible to achieve otimum allocation of

resources

1&. The author cites air ollution from motor vehicles in lines ;9-;< in order to

(A) revise cost estimates calculated by including the costs of resources

(") evaluate legal methods used to revent technological develoments(#) give e%amles of costs not included in buyer-seller bargains

($) refute hyotheses not made on the basis of monetary e%change values

(!) commend technological research undertaken for the common elfare

1. According to the assage8 transactions beteen rivate buyers and sellers have

effects on society that generally

(A) are harmful hen all factors are considered

(") give rise to ever-increasing resource costs

(#) reflect an otimal allocation of natural resources

($) encomass more than the effects on the buyers and sellers alone

(!) are guided by legal controls on the develoment of technology

+. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author does BT favor hich of the

folloing*

(A) rotecting the environment for future use

(") #hanging the balance of oer beteen oosing interests in business

(#) :ntervening in the activity of the free market

($) @aking rices reflect costs to everyone in society

(!) #ausing technological develoment to cease

+1. A gasoline-conservation ta% on the urchase of large automobiles8 ith the

roceeds of the ta% rebated to urchasers of small automobiles8 is an e%amle of

(A) a secific directive

(") a market incentive modification

(#) an otimal resource allocation

($) an alteration of a decision-making structure

(!) an e%ternal cost



GRE 7

++. :f there ere no e%ternal costs8 as they are described in the assage8 hich of the

folloing ould be true*

(A) All technology-control methods ould be effective.

(") ,ome resource allocations ould be illegal.

(#) rices ould include all costs to members of society.

($) ,ome decision-making structures ould be altered.

(!) The availability of common goods ould increase.

+3. The author assumes that8 in determining hat ould be an otimal allocation of

resources8 it ould be ossible to

(A) assign monetary value to all damage resulting from the use of technology

(") combine legal methods to yield the theoretical otimum

(#) convince buyers to bear the burden of damage from technological

develoments

($) redict the costs of ne technological develoments

(!) derive an equation making costs deend on rices

+9. Bn the basis of the assage8 it can be inferred that the author ould agree ith

hich of the folloing statements concerning technological develoment*

(A) The government should on technological oerations.

(") The effect of technological develoment cannot be controlled.

(#) ,ome technological develoments are beneficial.

($) The current state of technological develoment results in a good allocation of

resources.

(!) Alications of technological develoments are criminally destructive.

(he whole biosphere% like the individual organisms that live inside it% exists in

a chemically dynamic state. n this homeostatic system% a great number of

organic compounds are synthesi&ed% transformed% and decomposed continuously4

together% these processes constitute the ma/or parts of the carbon cycle. ;or the

smooth operation of this cycle% degradation is /ust as important as synthesis< the

green plants produce great 'uantities of polymers% such as cellulose% and

innumerable other compounds like alkaloids% terpenes% and #avonoids% that green

plants cannot use as sources of energy during respiration. (he release of the

carbon in these compounds for recycling depends almost entirely on the action of

both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria and certain types of fungi. 9ome bacteria and

fungi possess the uni'ue and extremely important biochemical asset of being able

to cataly&e the oxidation of numerous inert products% thereby initiating reaction

se'uences that produce carbon dioxide and so return much carbon to a form that

actively enters into life cycles once again.

+;. The assage contains information that ould anser hich of the folloingquestions about the carbon cycle*



GRE &

:. hat are some of the comounds that are broken don in the carbon cycle*

::. hy are some comounds that are involved in the carbon cycle less reactive

than others*

:::. hat role do bacteria and fungi lay in the carbon cycle*

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) ::: only

($) : and :: only

(!) : and ::: only

+<. The author imlies that hich of the folloing is the rimary reason that

degradation is as imortant as synthesis to the smooth oeration of the carbon

cycle*

(A) @ost of the olymers and organic comounds found in the lant kingdom are

chemically unstable.

(") The synthesis of some organic material derives life rocesses of an energy

source.

(#) $ecomosition ermits the recycling of carbon that ould otherise be fi%ed

in certain substances.

($) @any organisms cannot use lants as a source of food8 but can feed on

bacteria and fungi.

(!) "acteria and fungi could not survive if some carbon comounds ere notdegraded.

+7. The author's contention about the imortance of bacteria and fungi in the

roduction of energy for life rocesses ould be most clearly strengthened if

hich of the folloing ere found to be true*

(A) "oth aerobes and anaerobes rovide sources of energy through the

decomosition of organic material.

(") @ost comounds containing carbon are unavailable as energy sources e%cet

to some bacteria and fungi.

(#) "acteria and fungi break don inert material in ays that do not involve

o%idation.

($) @any comounds remain inert8 even in the resence of bacteria and fungi.

(!) "acteria and fungi assist in the synthesis of many organic comounds.

No. 2-2

SECTION A

Even as the number of females processed through /uvenile courts climbs



GRE

steadily% an implicit consensus remains among scholars in criminal /ustice that

male adolescents dene the delin'uency problem in the 8nited 9tates. !e

suggest two reasons why this view persists. ;irst% female adolescents are accused

primarily of victimless crimes% such as truancy% that do not involve clear-cut

damage to persons or property. f committed by adults% these actions are not evenconsidered prosecutable4 if committed by /uvenile males% they have traditionally

been looked on leniently by the courts. (hus% ironically% the plight of female

delin'uents receives little scrutiny because they are accused of committing

relatively minor o=enses. 9econd% the courts have long /ustied so-called

preventive intervention into the lives of young females viewed as antisocial with

the rationale that women are especially vulnerable. (raditional stereotypes of

women as the weaker and more dependent sex have led to earlier intervention

and longer periods of misdirected supervision for female delin'uents than for

males.

17. hich of the folloing statements best e%resses the irony ointed out by the

authors in lines 13-1< of the assage*

(A) >emale delinquents tend to commit victimless crimes more frequently than

their male counterarts.

(") The redicament of male delinquents receives more attention than that of

females because males are accused of more serious crimes.

(#) Adults are frequently unished less severely than adolescents for committing

more serious crimes.

($) The uvenile ustice system cannot correct its biases because it does not even

recognize them.

(!) Although the number of female delinquents is steadily increasing8 the crimes

of hich they are accused are not articularly serious.

1&. :t can be inferred from the assage that the authors believe traditional stereotyes

of omen to be

(A) frequently challenged

(") ersistently ine%licable

(#) otentially harmful

($) raidly changing

(!) habitually disregarded

1. The assage suggests that scholars in criminal ustice could be criticized for

hich of the folloing*

(A) 6nderestimating the seriousness of uvenile crime

(") 5ationalizing the distinction made beteen uveniles and adults in the legal

system

(#) #oncerning themselves too little ith the revention of uvenile delinquency



GRE 1

($) >ocusing on those hose crimes have involved damage to ersons or

roerty

(!) >ailing to oint out inustices in the correctional system

9cattered around the globe are more than one hundred regions of volcanic

activity known as hot spots. 8nlike most volcanoes% hot spots are rarely found

along the boundaries of the continental and oceanic plates that comprise the

Earth’s crust4 most hot spots lie deep in the interior of plates and are anchored

deep in the layers of the Earth’s surface. ,ot spots are also distinguished from

other volcanoes by their lavas% which contain greater amounts of alkali metals

than do those from volcanoes at plate margins.

n some cases% plates moving past hot spots have left trails of extinct

volcanoes in much the same way that wind passing over a chimney carries o=

pu=s of smoke. t appears that the ,awaiian slands were created in such a

manner by a single source of lava% welling up from a hot spot% over which the

6acic ?cean plate passed on a course roughly from the east toward the

northwest% carrying o= a line of volcanoes of increasing age. (wo other 6acic

island chains0the Austral $idge and the (uamotu $idge0parallel the

conguration of the ,awaiian chain4 they are also aligned from the east toward

the northwest% with the most recent volcanic activity near their eastern

terminuses.

(hat the 6acic plate and the other plates are moving is now beyond dispute4

the relative motion of the plates has been reconstructed in detail. ,owever% the

relative motion of the plates with respect to the Earth’s interior cannot bedetermined easily. ,ot spots provide the measuring instruments for resolving the

'uestion of whether two continental plates are moving in opposite directions or

whether one is stationary and the other is drifting away from it. (he most

compelling evidence that a continental plate is stationary is that% at some hot

spots% lavas of several ages are superposed instead of being spread out in

chronological se'uence. ?f course% reconstruction of plate motion from the tracks

of hot-spot volcanoes assumes that hot spots are immobile% or nearly so. 9everal

studies support such an assumption% including one that has shown that prominent

hot spots throughout the world seem not to have moved during the past ten

million years.

"eyond acting as frames of reference% hot spots apparently in#uence the

geophysical processes that propel the plates across the globe. !hen a continental

plate comes to rest over a hot spot% material welling up from deeper layers forms

a broad dome that% as it grows% develops deep ssures. n some instances% the

continental plate may rupture entirely along some of the ssures so that the hot

spot initiates the formation of a new ocean. (hus% /ust as earlier theories have

explained the mobility of the continental plates% so hot-spot activity may suggest

a theory to explain their mutability.

+. The rimary urose of the assage is to



GRE 11

(A) describe the ay in hich hot sots influence the e%tinction of volcanoes

(") describe and e%lain the formation of the oceans and continents

(#) e%lain ho to estimate the age of lava flos from e%tinct volcanoes

($) describe hot sots and e%lain ho they aear to influence and record the

motion of lates

(!) describe the formation and orientation of island chains in the acific Bcean

+1. According to the assage8 hot sots differ from most volcanoes in that hot sots

(A) can only be found near islands

(") are active hereas all other volcanoes are e%tinct

(#) are situated closer to the earth's surface

($) can be found along the edges of the lates

(!) have greater amounts of alkali metals in their lavas

++. :t can be inferred from the assage that evidence for the aarent course of the

acific late has been rovided by the

(A) contours of the continents

(") dimensions of ocean hot sots

(#) concurrent movement of to hot sots

($) attern of fissures in the ocean floor

(!) configurations of several mid-ocean island chains

+3. :t can be inferred from the assage that the sreading out of lavas of different

ages at hot sots indicates that a

(A) hot sot is active

(") continental late has moved

(#) continental ruture is imminent

($) hot sot had been moving very raidly

(!) volcano contains large concentrations of alkali metals

+9. The assage suggests hich of the folloing about the 4aaiian :slands8 the

Austral 5idge8 and the Tuamotu 5idge*

(A) The three chains of islands are moving eastard.

(") All the islands in the three chains have stoed moving.

(#) The three island chains are a result of the same late movement.

($) The 4aaiian :slands are receding from the other to island chains at a

relatively raid rate.

(!) The Austral 5idge and the Tuamotu 5idge chains have moved closer together

hereas the 4aaiian :slands have remained stationary.

+;. hich of the folloing8 if true8 ould best suort the author's statement that



GRE 1+

hot-sot activity may e%lain the mutability of continental lates*

(A) 4ot sots move more raidly than the continental and oceanic lates.

(") 4ot sots are reliable indicators of the age of continental lates.

(#) 4ot sots are regions of volcanic activity found only in the interiors of the

continental lates.

($) The alignment of hot sots in the acific Bcean arallels the alignment of

acific Bcean islands.

(!) The coastlines of Africa and ,outh America suggest that they may once have

constituted a single continent that rutured along a line of hot sots.

+<. The author's argument that hot sots can be used to reconstruct the movement of

continental lates is eakened by the fact that

(A) hot sots are never found at the boundaries of lates

(") only e%tinct volcanoes remain after a late moves over a hot sot

(#) lava flo atterns for all hot sots have not been shon to be the same

($) the immobility or near immobility of hot sots has not been conclusively

roven

(!) the changing configurations of islands make inointing the locations of hot

sots difficult

+7. The author's style can best be described as

(A) dramatic

(") archaic

(#) esoteric

($) obective

(!) humanistic

SECTION B

Although scientists observe that an organism’s behavior falls into rhythmic

patterns% they disagree about how these patterns are a=ected when the organism

is transported to a new environment. ?ne experimenter% "rown% brought oysters

from Connecticut waters to llinois waters. 9he noted that the oysters initially

opened their shells widest when it was high tide in Connecticut% but that after

fourteen days their rhythms had adapted to the tide schedule in llinois. Although

she could not posit an une'uivocal causal relationship between behavior and

environmental change% "rown concluded that a change in tide schedule is one of

several possible exogenous in#uences +those outside the organism on the

oysters’ rhythms. Another experimenter% ,amner% however% discovered that

hamsters from California maintain their original rhythms even at the 9outh 6ole.

,e concluded that endogenous in#uences +those inside the organism seem to

a=ect an organism’s rhythmic behavior.



GRE 13

17. All of the folloing could be considered e%amles of e%ogenous influences on an

organism !C#!T the influence of the

(A) level of a hormone on a field mouse's readiness for mating

(") temerature of a region on a bear's hibernation

(#) salt level of a river on a fish's migration

($) humidity of an area on a cat's shedding of its fur

(!) ro%imity of an ol on a lizard's searching for food

1&. hich of the folloing statements best describes the conclusion dran by "ron

(lines 19-17)

(A) A change in tide schedule is the rimary influence on an oyster's rhythms.

(") A change in tide schedule may be an imortant e%ogenous influence on an

oyster's rhythms.

(#) !%ogenous influences8 such as a change in tide schedule8 seldom affect an

oyster's rhythms.

($) !ndogenous influences have no effect on an oyster's rhythms.

(!) !ndogenous influences are the only influences on an oyster's rhythms.

1. The assage suggests that "ron's study as similar to 4amner's in hich of the

folloing ays*

:. "oth e%erimenters discovered that a ne environment had a significant

effect on an organism's behavior rhythms.

::. "oth e%erimenters observed an organism's behavioral rhythms after the

organism had been transorted to a ne environment.

:::. "oth e%erimenters kne an organism's rhythmic atterns in its original

environment.

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) : and :: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+. hich of the folloing8 if true8 ould most eaken "ron's conclusion*

(A) The oyster gradually closed their shells after high tide in :llinois had assed.

(") The oysters' behavioral rhythms maintained their adatation to the tide

schedule in :llinois throughout thirty days of observation.

(#) ,i%teen days after they ere moved to :llinois8 the oysters oened their shells

idest hen it as high tide in #onnecticut.

($) A scientist ho brought @aryland oysters to @aine found that the oysters

oened their shells idest hen it as high tide in @aine.(!) :n an e%eriment similar to "ron's8 a scientist as able to establish a clear



GRE 19

causal relationshi beteen environmental change and behavioral rhythms.

6icture-taking is a techni'ue both for annexing the ob/ective world and for

expressing the singular self. 6hotographs depict ob/ective realities that already

exist% though only the camera can disclose them. And they depict an individual

photographer’s temperament% discovering itself through the camera’s cropping of

reality. (hat is% photography has two antithetical ideals< in the rst% photography is

about the world and the photographer is a mere observe who counts for little4 but

in the second% photography is the instrument of intrepid% 'uesting sub/ectivity and

the photographer is all.

(hese con#icting ideals arise from a fundamental uneasiness on the part of

both photographers and viewers of photographs toward the aggressive

component in @taking a picture. Accordingly% the ideal of a photographer as

observer is attractive because it implicitly denies that picture-taking is an

aggressive act. (he issue% of course% is not so clear-cut. !hat photographers docannot be characteri&ed as simply predatory or as simply% and essentially%

benevolent. As a conse'uence% one ideal of picture-taking or the other is always

being rediscovered and championed.

An important result of the coexistence of these two ideals is a recurrent

ambivalence toward photography’s means. !hatever the claims that photography

might make to be a form of personal expression on a par with painting% its

originality is inextricably linked to the powers of a machine. (he steady growth of

these powers has made possible the extraordinary informativeness and

imaginative formal beauty of many photographs% like ,arold Edgerton’s high-speed photographs of a bullet hitting its target or of the swirls and eddies of a

tennis stroke. "ut as cameras become more sophisticated% more automated% some

photographers are tempted to disarm themselves or to suggest that they are not

really armed% preferring to submit themselves to the limits imposed by premodern

camera technology because a cruder% less high-powered machine is thought to

give more interesting or emotive results% to leave more room for creative accident.

;or example% it has been virtually a point of honor for many photographers%

including !alker Evans and Cartier-"resson% to refuse to use modern e'uipment.

(hese photographers have come to doubt the value of the camera as an

instrument of @fast seeing. Cartier-"resson% in fact% claims that the modern

camera may see too fast.

(his ambivalence toward photographic means determines trends in taste. (he

cult of the future +of faster and faster seeing alternates over time with the wish to

return to a purer past0when images had a handmade 'uality. (his nostalgia for

some pristine state of the photographic enterprise is currently widespread and

underlies the present-day enthusiasm for daguerreotypes and the wok of

forgotten nineteenth-century provincial photographers. 6hotographers and

viewers of photographs% it seems% need periodically to resist their own

knowingness.



GRE 1;

+1. According to the assage8 interest among hotograhers in each of hotograhy's

to ideals can be described as

(A) raidly changing

(") cyclically recurring

(#) steadily groing

($) unimortant to the vieers of hotograhs

(!) unrelated to changes in technology

++. The author is rimarily concerned ith

(A) establishing ne technical standards for contemorary hotograhy

(") analyzing the influence of hotograhic ideals on icture-taking

(#) tracing the develoment of camera technology in the tentieth century

($) describing ho hotograhers' individual temeraments are reflected in theirork

(!) e%laining ho the technical limitations imosed by certain hotograhers on

themselves affect their ork

+3. The assage states all of the folloing about hotograhs !C#!T=

(A) They can dislay a croed reality.

(") The can convey information.

(#) They can deict the hotograher's temerament.

($) They can ossess great formal beauty.(!) They can change the vieer's sensibilities.

+9. The author mentions the ork of 4arold !dgerton in order to rovide an e%amle

of

(A) ho a controlled ambivalence toard hotograhy's means can roduce

outstanding ictures

(") ho the content of hotograhs has changed from the nineteenth century to

the tentieth

(#) the oularity of high-seed hotograhy in the tentieth century

($) the relationshi beteen hotograhic originality and technology

(!) the rimacy of formal beauty over emotional content

+;. The assage suggests that hotograhers such as alker !vans refer old-

fashioned techniques and equiment because these hotograhers

(A) admire instruments of fast seeing

(") need to feel armed by technology

(#) strive for intense formal beauty in their hotograhs

($) like the disciline that comes from self-imosed limitations(!) dislike the deendence of hotograhic effectiveness on the oers of a



GRE 1<

machine

+<. According to the assage8 the to antithetical ideals of hotograhy differ

rimarily in the

(A) value that each laces on the beauty of the finished roduct(") emhasis that each laces on the emotional imact of the finished roduct

(#) degree of technical knoledge that each requires of the hotograher

($) e%tent of the oer that each requires of the hotograher's equiment

(!) ay in hich each defines the role of the hotograher

+7. hich of the folloing statements ould be most likely to begin the aragrah

immediately folloing the assage*

(A) hotograhers8 as a result of their heightened aareness of time8 are

constantly trying to cature events and actions that are fleeting.(") Thus the cult of the future8 the orshi of machines and seed8 is firmly

established in site of efforts to the contrary by some hotograhers.

(#) The reection of technical knoledge8 hoever8 can never be comlete and

hotograhy cannot for any length of time retend that it has no eaons.

($) The oint of honor involved in reecting comle% equiment is8 hoever8 of

no significance to the vieer of a hotograh.

(!) #onsequently the imulse to return to the ast through images that suggest a

handrought quality is nothing more that a assing fad.

No. 2-3

SECTION A

t is well known that biological changes at the molecular level have

morphogenetic conse'uences% conse'uences a=ecting the formation and

di=erentiation of tissues and organs. t is super#uous to point out that gene

mutations and disturbances of the bio-synthetic processes in the embryo may

result in abnormalities in the morphology +structure of an organism. ,owever%

whereas much is known about causes and conse'uences at the molecular level%

and in spite of an enormous accumulation of chemical and morphological data on

embryos of various kinds% our understanding of how genes control morphogenesis

is still far from complete. 6erhaps one reason for this is that molecular biologists

and morphologists speak di=erent languages. !hereas the former speak about

messenger-$BA and conformational changes of protein molecules% the latter

speak of ectoderms% hypoblasts% and neural crests.

?ne solution to this predicament is to try to nd some phenomena relevant to

morphogenesis which both the molecular biologist and the morphologist can

understand and discuss. As morphogenesis must be basically the result of



GRE 17

changes in behavior of the individual cells% it seems logical to ask morphologists

to describe the morphogenetic events observed in terms of changes in cellular

contact% changes in the rate of proliferation of cells% or similar phenomena. ?nce

this is done% it may be appropriate to ask 'uestions about the molecular

background for these changes. ?ne may% for instance% ask whether variations incell contact re#ect alterations in the populations of molecules at the cell surface%

or one may in'uire about the molecular basis for the increased cell mobility

involved in cell dispersion.

9tudies of this kind have been carried out with cells released from tissues in

various ways and then allowed to reveal their behavior after being spread out into

a thin layer. n many cases% such cells show the ability to reaggregate% after which

di=erent cell types may sort themselves out into di=erent layers and even take

part in still more intricate morphogenetic events. "ut in most cases% the behavior

of cells in the intact embryo is di*cult to study because of the thickness andopacity of the cell masses. (he sea urchin embryo% however% has the advantage

that it is so transparent that each cell can be easily observed throughout

development. (hus% by recording the development of a sea urchin embryo with

time-lapse photography% the research scientist might discover previously unknown

features of cellular behavior. 6erhaps the study of the sea urchin in this manner

can provide a medium by which the molecular biologist and the morphologist can

begin communicating with each other more e=ectively about the way in which

genes control morphogenesis.

17. The author's rimary urose is to(A) outline a rocedure and discuss ossible alications

(") evaluate an e%eriment in terms of its alicability to medical research

(#) roose a method for curing secific genetic disorders

($) e%lain a roblem and suggest a solution for it

(!) reveal the shortcomings of several attitudes toard genetic research

1&. The author states that research into the genetic control of morhogenesis has been

imeded by

(A) an incomlete understanding of biomolecular reactions that are highlycomle%

(") a lack of communication beteen scientists hose ork could be

comlementary

(#) a reluctance on the art of morhologists to share data ith molecular

biologists

($) a lack of research in the area of morhology

(!) the unavailability of suitable research equiment

1. The maor obective of the author's roosal is to(A) devise a technique for roving that abnormalities in morhology result from



GRE 1&

gene mutations

(") imrove the rocedures for organizing chemical and morhological data

(#) increase the accuracy of measurements of cell oulations and cell mobility

($) reduce the margin of error in the study of conformational changes of rotein

molecules

(!) rovide a lan for increasing knoledge about the influence of genes on

morhogenesis

+. :t can be inferred from the assage that some cells that have been isolated from an

organism have the ability to

(A) control morhogenesis

(") reform to make higher organisms

(#) reorganize to form clusters of cells

($) regulate the transmission of light through the cell all

(!) regulate the rate of tissue formation

+1. :t can be inferred from the assage that the study of the effects of genes on

morhogenesis is best accomlished by observing

(A) intact develoing embryos

(") adult sea urchins

(#) isolated living cells

($) grous of genetically mutated cells

(!) cells from the same kink of tissue

++. According to the assage8 it is difficult to study cells in most intact embryos

because

(A) morhogenetic events cannot be isolated

(") embryos die quickly

(#) embryos are difficult to obtain

($) individual cells reaggregate too quickly

(!) individual cells are difficult to see

+3. hich of the folloing sequences best describes the author's suggestion for

future research on morhogenesis*

(A) Accumulation of data8 simlification of language8 e%lanation of

morhogenesis

(") $isersion of cells8 evaluation of cell activity8 develoment of an e%lanatory

hyothesis

(#) #lassification of cell tyes8 searation of cell8 observation of cell activity

($) Bbservation of cell develoment8 descrition of cell behavior8 e%lanation at

the molecular level



GRE 1

(!) $ifferentiation of cell tyes8 descrition of cell structure8 analysis of

molecular comonents

+9. The tone of the author's discussion of the difference in the language used by

morhologists and that used by molecular biologists is one of

(A) indifference

(") neutrality

(#) derision

($) arobation

(!) indignation

(he black experience% one might automatically assume% is known to every

"lack author. ,enry ames was pondering a similar assumption when he said< @Dou

were to su=er your fate. (hat was not necessarily to know it. (his disparity

between an experience and knowledge of that experience is the longest bridge an

artist must cross. on . ee% in his picture of the "lack poet% @studying his own

poetry and the poetry of other "lack poets% touches on the crucial point. n order

to transform his own su=erings0or /oys0as a "lack person into usable knowledge

for his readers% the author must rst order his experiences in his mind. ?nly then

can he create feelingly and coherently the combination of fact and meaning that

"lack audiences re'uire for the reexploration of their lives. A cultural community

of "lack authors studying one another’s best works systematically would

represent a dynamic interchange of the spirit0corrective and instructive and

increasingly beautiful in its recorded expression.

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author considers oetry to be hich of

the folloing*

(A) A means of diversion in hich suffering is transformed into oy

(") An art form that sometimes stifles creative energy

(#) A bridge beteen the mundane and the unreal

($) A medium for conveying imortant information

(!) An area here beauty must be sacrificed for accuracy

+<. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author ould be D!A,T likely toarove of hich of the folloing*

(A) #ourses that romote cultural aareness through the study of contemorary

art

(") The develoment of creative riting courses that encourage mutual criticism

of student ork

(#) /roing interest in e%temoraneous riting that records e%eriences as they

occur

($) A shift in interest from abstract hilosohical oetry to concrete

autobiograhical oetry



GRE +

(!) orkshos and nesletters designed to romote dialogues beteen oets

+7. The author refers to 4enry 2ames rimarily in order to

(A) suort his on ercetion of the Elongest bridgeF (lines <-7)

(") illustrate a coherent Ecombination of fact and meaningF (lines 19-1;)(#) rovide an e%amle of Edynamic interchange of the siritF (line 1)

($) establish the ervasiveness of lack of self-knoledge

(!) contrast 2ames's ideas about oetry ith those of $on D. Dee

SECTION B

>y ob/ective is to analy&e certain forms of knowledge% not in terms of

repression or law% but in terms of power. "ut the word power is apt to lead to

misunderstandings about the nature% form% and unity of power. "y power% do notmean a group of institutions and mechanisms that ensure the subservience of the

citi&enry. do not mean% either% a mode of sub/ugation that% in contrast to

violence% has the form of the rule. ;inally% do not have in mind a general system

of domination exerted by one group over another% a system whose e=ects%

through successive derivations% pervade the entire social body. (he sovereignty of

the state% the form of law% or the overall unity of a domination are only the

terminal forms power takes.

t seems to me that power must be understood as the multiplicity of force

relations that are immanent in the social sphere4 as the process that% through

ceaseless struggle and confrontation% transforms% strengthens% or reverses them4

as the support that these force relations nd in one another% or on the contrary%

the dis/unctions and contradictions that isolate them from one another4 and lastly%

as the strategies in which they take e=ect% whose general design or institutional

crystalli&ation is embodied in the state apparatus% in the formulation of the law% in

the various social hegemonies.

(hus% the viewpoint that permits one to understand the exercise of power%

even in its more @peripheral e=ects% and that also makes it possible to use its

mechanisms as a structural framework for analy&ing the social order% must not be

sought in a uni'ue source of sovereignty from which secondary and descendent

forms of power emanate but in the moving substrate of force relations that% by

virtue of their ine'uality% constantly engender local and unstable states of power.

f power seems omnipresent% it is not because it has the privilege of consolidating

everything under its invincible unity% but because it is produced from one moment

to the next% at every point% or rather in every relation from one point to another.

6ower is everywhere% not because it embraces everything% but because it comes

from everywhere. And if power at times seems to be permanent% repetitious% inert%

and self-reproducing% it is simply because the overall e=ect that emerges from all

these mobilities is a concatenation that rests on each of them and seeks in turn to

arrest their movement. ?ne needs to be nominalistc% no doubt< power is not an



GRE +1

institution% and not a structure4 neither is it a certain strength we are endowed

with4 it is the name that one attributes to a complex strategic situation in a

particular society.

17. The author's rimary urose in defining oer is to

(A) counteract self-serving and confusing uses of the term

(") establish a comromise among those ho have defined the term in different

ays

(#) increase comrehension of the term by roviding concrete e%amles

($) demonstrate ho the meaning of the term has evolved

(!) avoid ossible misinterretations resulting from the more common uses of the

term

1&. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing best describes the relationshi

beteen la and oer*

(A) Da is the rotector of oer.

(") Da is the source of oer.

(#) Da sets bounds to oer.

($) Da is a roduct of oer.

(!) Da is a stabilizer of oer.

1. hich of the folloing methods is BT used e%tensively by the author in

describing his on concetion of oer*

(A) 5estatement of central ideas

(") rovision of concrete e%amles

(#) Analysis and classification

($) #omarison and contrast

(!) ,tatement of cause and effect

+. ith hich of the folloing statement ould the author be most likely to agree*

(A) oer tends to corrutG absolute oer corruts absolutely.

(") The highest roof of virtue is to ossess boundless oer ithout abusing it.(#) To love knoledge is to love oer.

($) :t is from the eole and their deeds that oer srings.

(!) The health of the eole as a state is the foundation on hich all their oer

deends.

+1. The author's attitude toard the various kinds of comulsion emloyed by social

institutions is best described as

(A) concerned and symathetic

(") scientific and detached



GRE ++

(#) susicious and cautious

($) reroachful and disturbed

(!) meditative and istful

++. According to the assage8 states of oer are transient because of the(A) differing natures and directions of the forces that create them

(") rigid structural frameork in hich they oerate

(#) unique source from hich they emanate

($) ervasive nature and comle%ity of the mechanisms by hich they oerate

(!) concatenation that seeks to arrest their movement

+3. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author believes the conflict among

social forces to be

(A) essentially the same from one society to another even though its outardmanifestation may seem different

(") usually the result of misunderstandings that imede social rogress

(#) an inevitable feature of the social order of any state

($) rongly blamed for disruting the stability of society

(!) best moderated in states that ossess a strong central government

(he hypothesis of an expanding Earth has never attracted notable support%

and if it were not for the historical example of continental drift% such indi=erence

might be a legitimate response to an apparently improbable concept. t should be

remembered% however% that drift too was once regarded as illusory% but the idea

was kept alive until evidence from physicists compelled geologists to reinterpret

their data.

?f course% it would be as dangerous to overreact to history by concluding that

the ma/ority must now be wrong about expansion as it would be to reenact the

response that greeted the suggestion that the continents had drifted. (he cases

are not precisely analogous. (here were serious problems with the pre-drift world

view that a drift theory could help to resolve% whereas Earth expansion appears to

o=er no comparable advantages. f% however% physicists could show that the

Earth’s gravitational force has decreased with time% expansion would have to be

reconsidered and accommodated.

+9. The assage indicates that one reason hy the e%ansion hyothesis has attracted

little suort is that it ill not

(A) overcome deficiencies in current geologic hyotheses

(") clarify theories concerning the !arth's gravitational forces

(#) comlement the theory of continental drift

($) accommodate relevant theories from the field of hysics

(!) ithstand criticism from scientists outside the field of geology



GRE +3

+;. The final accetance of a drift theory could best be used to suort the argument

that

(A) hysicists are reluctant to communicate ith other scientists

(") imrobable hyotheses usually turn out to be valid

(#) there should be cooeration beteen different fields of science

($) there is a need for governmental control of scientific research

(!) scientific theories are often roved by accident

+<. :n develoing his argument8 the author arns against

(A) relying on incomlete measurements

(") introducing irrelevant information

(#) reecting corroborative evidence

($) acceting uninformed oinions(!) making unarranted comarisons

+7. :t can be deduced from the assage that the gravitational force at a oint on the

!arth's surface is

(A) reresentative of the geologic age of the !arth

(") analogous to the movement of land masses

(#) similar to otical henomena such as mirages

($) roortional to the size of the !arth

(!) deendent on the seed of the !arth's rotation

No. 3-1

SECTION A

Botable as important nineteenth-century novels by women% >ary 9helley’s

Frankenstein and Emily "ronte’s Wuthering Heights treat women very di=erently.

9helley produced a @masculine text in which the fates of subordinate female

characters seem entirely dependent on the actions of male heroes or anti-heroes.

"ronte produced a more realistic narrative% portraying a world where men battle

for the favors of apparently high-spirited% independent women. Bevertheless%

these two novels are alike in several crucial ways. >any readers are convinced

that the compelling mysteries of each plot conceal elaborate structures of allusion

and erce% though shadowy% moral ambitions that seem to indicate metaphysical

intentions% though e=orts by critics to articulate these intentions have generated

much controversy. "oth novelists use a storytelling method that emphasi&es ironic

dis/unctions between di=erent perspectives on the same events as well as ironic

tensions that inhere in the relationship between surface drama and concealed

authorial intention% a method call an evidentiary narrative techni'ue.



GRE +9

17. The rimary urose of the assage is to

(A) defend a controversial interretation of to novels

(") e%lain the source of idely recognized resonses to to novels

(#) delineate broad differences beteen to novels

($) comare and contrast to novels

(!) criticize and evaluate to novels

1&. According the assage8 Frankenstein differs from Wuthering Heights in its

(A) use of multile narrators

(") method of disguising the author's real uroses

(#) ortrayal of men as determiners of the novel's action

($) creation of a realistic story

(!) controversial effect on readers

1. hich of the folloing narrative strategies best e%emlifies the Eevidentiary

narrative techniqueF mentioned in line +9*

(A) Telling a story in such a ay that the author's real intentions are discernible

only through interretations of allusions to a orld outside that of the story

(") Telling a story in such a ay that the reader is aare as events unfold of the

author's underlying uroses and the ays these uroses conflict ith the

drama of the lot

(#) Telling a story in a ay that both directs attention to the incongruities among

the oints of vie of several characters and hints that the lot has a

significance other than that suggested by its mere events

($) Telling a story as a mystery in hich the reader must deduce8 from the

conflicting evidence resented by several narrators8 the moral and

hilosohical significance of character and event

(!) Telling a story from the author's oint of vie in a ay that imlies both the

author's and the reader's ironic distance from the dramatic unfolding of

events

+. According to the assage8 the lots of Wuthering Heights and Frankenstein arenotable for their elements of

(A) drama and secrecy

(") heroism and tension

(#) realism and ambition

($) mystery and irony

(!) morality and metahysics

Climatic conditions are delicately ad/usted to the composition of the Earth’s

atmosphere. f there were a change in the atmosphere0for example% in the

relative proportions of atmospheric gases0the climate would probably change



GRE +;

also. A slight increase in water vapor% for instance% would increase the heat-

retaining capacity of the atmosphere and would lead to a rise in global

temperatures. n contrast% a large increase in water vapor would increase the

thickness and extent of the cloud layer% reducing the amount of solar energy

reaching the Earth’s surface.

(he level of carbon dioxide% C?5% in the atmosphere has an important e=ect on

climatic change. >ost of the Earth’s incoming energy is short-wavelength

radiation% which tends to pass through atmospheric C?5 easily. (he Earth%

however% reradiates much of the received energy as long-wavelength radiation%

which C?5 absorbs and then remits toward the Earth. (his phenomenon% known as

the greenhouse e=ect% can result in an increase in the surface temperature of a

planet. An extreme example of the e=ect is shown by Fenus% a planet covered by

heavy clouds composed mostly of C?5% whose surface temperatures have been

measured at G:3℃

. f the C?5 content of the atmosphere is reduced% thetemperature falls. According to one respectable theory% if the atmospheric C?5

concentration were halved% the Earth would become completely covered with ice.

Another e'ually respectable theory% however% states that a halving of the C?5

concentration would lead only to a reduction in global temperatures of :℃.

f% because of an increase in forest res or volcanic activity% the C?5 content of

the atmosphere increased% a warmer climate would be produced. 6lant growth%

which relies on both the warmth and the availability of C?5 would probably

increase. As a conse'uence% plants would use more and more C?5. Eventually C?5

levels would diminish and the climate% in turn% would become cooler. !ith reduced

temperatures many plants would die4 C?5 would thereby be returned to the

atmosphere and gradually the temperature would rise again. (hus% if this process

occurred% there might be a long-term oscillation in the amount of C?5 present in

the atmosphere% with regular temperature increases and decreases of a set

magnitude.

9ome climatologists argue that the burning of fossil fuels has raised the level

of C?5 in the atmosphere and has caused a global temperature increase of at

least 1℃. "ut a supposed global temperature rise of 1℃ may in reality be only

several regional temperature increases% restricted to areas where there are many

meteorological stations and caused simply by shifts in the pattern of atmospheric

circulation. ?ther areas% for example the 9outhern ,emisphere oceanic &one% may

be experiencing an e'uivalent temperature decrease that is unrecogni&ed

because of the shortage of meteorological recording stations.

+1. The assage sulies information for ansering hich of the folloing

questions*

(A) hy are roections of the effects of changes in ater vaor levels on the

climate so inaccurate*

(") hat are the stes in the rocess that takes lace as #B + absorbs long-

avelength radiation*



GRE +<

(#) 4o might our understanding of the greenhouse effect be imroved if the

burning of fossil fuels ere decreased*

($) hat might cause a series of regular increases and decreases in the amount of

#B+ in the atmoshere*

(!) hy are there feer meteorological recording stations in the ,outhern

4emishere oceanic zone than elsehere*

++. The author is rimarily concerned ith

(A) e%laining the effects that the burning of fossil fuels might have on climate

(") illustrating the effects of #B+ on atmosheric radiation

(#) discussing effects that changes in the #B+ level in the atmoshere might have

on climate

($) challenging hyotheses about the effects of ater vaor and #B+ on climate

(!) refuting hyotheses by climatologists about the causes of global temerature

fluctuations

+3. The assage suggests that a large decrease in the amount of #B+ in the

atmoshere ould result in

(A) at least a slight decrease in global temeratures

(") at the most a slight increase in short-avelength radiation reaching the !arth

(#) a slight long-term increase in global temeratures

($) a large long-term increase in the amount of volcanic activity

(!) a slight short-term increase in atmoshere ater vaor content

+9. The author refers to ?enus rimarily in order to

(A) sho the inherent eakness of the greenhouse effect theory

(") sho that the greenhouse effect orks on other lanets but not on !arth

(#) sho the e%tent to hich !arth's atmoshere differs from that of ?enus

($) suort the contention that as ater vaor increase8 the amount of #B+

increases

(!) suort the argument that the #B+ level in the atmoshere has a significant

effect on climate

+;. The assage suggests that if there ere a slight global arming at the resent

time8 it ould be

(A) easy to measure the e%act increase in temerature because of the abundance

of temerature recording stations throughout the orld

(") difficult to measure the increase of #B+ in the atmoshere because of local

variations in amounts

(#) easy to demonstrate the effects of the arming on the ater vaor in the

atmoshere



GRE +7

($) difficult to rove that the arming as caused by the burning of fossil fuels

(!) easy to rove that the arming as caused by an increase of cloud cover

+<. The discussion of climate in the assage suggests hich of the folloing

conclusion*:. #limate is not erfectly stable8 and slight regional temerature variations can

be considered a normal feature of the environment.

::. e are unable at resent to measure global temerature changes recisely.

:::. The most imortant cause of regional climatic fluctuations is the change in

#B+ levels in the atmoshere.

(A) : only

(") ::: only

(#) : and :: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+7. All of the folloing can be found in the author's discussion of climate !C#!T

(A) a statement about the effects of increased volcanic activity on the !arth's

temeratures

(") an indication of the effect of an increase in ater vaor in the atmoshere

(#) a contrast beteen to theories about the effects of a loering of #B + levels

in the atmoshere

($) a generalization about the efficiency of meteorological recording stations

(!) a hyothesis about the relationshi beteen atmosheric gases and changes in

climate

SECTION B

(he ;ood and rug Administration has recently proposed severe restrictions

on the use of antibiotics to promote the health and growth of meat animals.

>edications added to feeds kill many microorganisms but also encourage the

appearance of bacterial strains that are resistant to anti-infective drugs. Already%for example% penicillin and the tetracyclines are not as e=ective therapeutically as

they once were. (he drug resistance is chie#y conferred by tiny circlets of genes%

called plasmids% that can be exchanged between di=erent strains and even

di=erent species of bacteria. 6lasmids are also one of the two kinds of vehicles

+the other being viruses that molecular biologists depend on when performing

gene transplant experiments. Even present guidelines forbid the laboratory use of

plasmids bearing genes for resistance to antibiotics. Det% while congressional

debate rages over whether or not to toughen these restrictions on scientists in

their laboratories% little congressional attention has been focused on an ill-advised

agricultural practice that produces known deleterious e=ects.



GRE +&

17. :n the assage8 the author is rimarily concerned ith

(A) discovering methods of eliminating harmful microorganisms ithout

subsequently generating drug-resistant bacteria

(") e%laining reasons for congressional inaction on the regulation of gene

translant e%eriments

(#) describing a roblematic agricultural ractice and its serious genetic

consequences

($) verifying the theraeutic ineffectiveness of anti-infective drugs

(!) evaluating recently roosed restrictions intended to romote the groth of

meat animals

1&. According to the assage8 the e%change of lasmids beteen different bacteria

can results in hich of the folloing*

(A) @icroorganisms resistant to drugs

(") Theraeutically useful circlets of genes

(#) Anti-infective drugs like enicillin

($) ?iruses for use by molecular biologists

(!) ?ehicles for erforming gene translant e%eriments

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author believes that those in favor of

stiffening the restrictions on gene translant research should logically also

(A) encourage e%eriments ith any lasmids e%cet those bearing genes for

antibiotic resistance

(") question the addition of anti-infective drugs to livestock feeds

(#) resist the use of enicillin and tetracyclines to kill microorganisms

($) agree to the develoment of meatier livestock through the use of antibiotics

(!) favor congressional debate and discussion of all science and health issues

+. The author's attitude toard the develoment of bacterial strains that render

antibiotic drugs ineffective can best be described as

(A) indifferent

(") erle%ed

(#) retentious

($) insincere

(!) arehensive

uring adolescence% the development of political ideology becomes apparent

in the individual4 ideology here is dened as the presence of roughly consistent

attitudes% more or less organi&ed in reference to a more encompassing% though

perhaps tacit% set of general principles. As such% political ideology is dim or absent

at the beginning of adolescence. ts ac'uisition by the adolescent% in even the

most modest sense% re'uires the ac'uisition of relatively sophisticated cognitive



GRE +

skills< the ability to manage abstractness% to synthesi&e and generali&e% to

imagine the future. (hese are accompanied by a steady advance in the ability to

understand principles.

(he child’s rapid ac'uisition of political knowledge also promotes the growth

of political ideology during adolescence. "y knowledge mean more than the

dreary @facts% such as the composition of county government that the child is

exposed to in the conventional ninth-grade civics course. Bor do mean only

information on current political realities. (hese are facets of knowledge% but they

are less critical than the adolescent’s absorption% often unwitting% of a feeling for

those many unspoken assumptions about the political system that comprise the

common ground of understanding0for example% what the state can appropriately

demand of its citi&ens% and vice versa% or the proper relationship of government to

subsidiary social institutions% such as the schools and churches. (hus political

knowledge is the awareness of social assumptions and relationships as well as ofob/ective facts. >uch of the naivetH that characteri&es the younger adolescent’s

grasp of politics stems not from an ignorance of @facts but from conventions of

the system% of what is and is not customarily done% and of how and why it is or is

not done.

Det do not want to overemphasi&e the signicance of increased political

knowledge in forming adolescent ideology. ?ver the years have become

progressively disenchanted about the centrality of such knowledge and have

come to believe that much current work in political sociali&ation% by relying too

heavily on its apparent ac'uisition% has been misled about the tempo of political

understanding in adolescence. ust as young children can count numbers in series

without grasping the principle of ordination% young adolescents may have in their

heads many random bits of political information without a secure understanding

of those concepts that would give order and meaning to the information.

ike magpies% children’s minds pick up bits and pieces of data. f you

encourage them% they will drop these at your feet0$epublicans and emocrats%

the tripartite division of the federal system% perhaps even the capital of

>assachusetts. "ut until the adolescent has grasped the integumental function

that concepts and principles provide% the data remain fragmented% random%

disordered.

+1. The author's rimary urose in the assage is to

(A) clarify the kinds of understanding an adolescent must have in order to

develo a olitical ideology

(") disute the theory that a olitical ideology can be acquired during

adolescence

(#) e%lain hy adolescents are generally uninterested in olitical arguments

($) suggest various means of encouraging adolescents to develo ersonal

olitical ideologies



GRE 3

(!) e%lain hy an adolescent's olitical ideology usually aears more

sohisticated than it actually is

++. According to the author8 hich of the folloing contributes to the develoment of

olitical ideology during adolescence*

(A) #onscious recognition by the adolescent of his or her on naivet0

(") Thorough comrehension of the concet of ordination

(#) !valuation by the adolescent of the general rinciles encomassing his or

her secific olitical ideas

($) :ntuitive understanding of relationshis among various comonents of society

(!) 5eection of abstract reasoning in favor of involvement ith ragmatic

situations

+3. The author uses the term Ecommon ground of understandingF (line +7) to refer to

(A) familiar legislation regarding olitical activity

(") the e%eriences that all adolescents share

(#) a society's general sense of its on olitical activity

($) a society's illingness to resolve olitical tensions

(!) the assumtion that the state controls social institutions

+9. The assage suggests that8 during early adolescence8 a child ould find hich of

the folloing most difficult to understand*

(A) A book chronicling the ays in hich the residential inauguration ceremonyhas changed over the years

(") An essay in hich an incident in "ritish history is used to e%lain the system

of monarchic succession

(#) A summary of the resective resonsibilities of the legislative8 e%ecutive8 and

udicial branches of government

($) A debate in hich the articiants argue8 resectively8 that the federal

government should or should not suort rivate schools

(!) An article detailing the secific religious grous that founded American

colonies and the guiding rinciles of each one

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author ould be most likely to agree

ith hich of the folloing statements about schools*

(A) They should resent olitical information according to carefully lanned8

schematic arrangements.

(") They themselves constitute art of a general socioolitical system that

adolescents are learning to understand.

(#) :f they ere to introduce olitical subect matter in the rimary grades8

students ould understand current olitical realities at an earlier age.

($) They are ineffectual to the degree that they disregard adolescents' olitical



GRE 31

naivet0.

(!) "ecause they are subsidiary to government their contribution to the olitical

understanding of adolescent must be limited.

+<. hich of the folloing best summarizes the author's evaluation of theaccumulation of olitical knoledge by adolescents*

(A) :t is unquestionably necessary8 but its significance can easily be

overestimated.

(") :t is imortant8 but not as imortant as is the ability to aear knoledgeable.

(#) :t delays the necessity of considering underlying rinciles.

($) :t is rimarily relevant to an understanding of limited8 local concerns8 such as

county olitics.

(!) :t is rimarily deendent on information gleaned from high school courses

such as civics.

+7. hich of the folloing statements best describes the organization of the author's

discussion of the role of olitical knoledge in the formation of olitical ideology

during adolescence*

(A) 4e acknoledges its imortance8 but then modifies his initial assertion of that

imortance.

(") 4e consistently resists the idea that it is imortant8 using a series of e%amles

to suort his stand.

(#) 4e avers in evaluating it and finally uses analogies to e%lain hy he isindecisive.

($) 4e begins by questioning conventional ideas about its imortance8 but finally

concedes that they are correct.

(!) 4e carefully refrains from making an initial udgment about it8 but later

confirms its critical role.

No. 3-2

SECTION A

(he making of classications by literary historians can be a somewhat risky

enterprise. !hen "lack poets are discussed separately as a group% for instance%

the extent to which their work re#ects the development of poetry in general

should not be forgotten% or a distortion of literary history may result. (his caution

is particularly relevant in an assessment of the di=erences between "lack poets at

the turn of the century +1I33-1I3I and those of the generation of the 1I53’s.

(hese di=erences include the bolder and more forthright speech of the later

generation and its technical inventiveness. t should be remembered% though% that

comparable di=erences also existed for similar generations of !hite poets.



GRE 3+

!hen poets of the 1I13’s and 1I53’s are considered together% however% the

distinctions that literary historians might make between @conservative and

@experimental would be of little signicance in a discussion of "lack poets%

although these remain helpful classications for !hite poets of these decades.

Certainly di=erences can be noted between @conservative "lack poets such asCounter Cullen and Claude >cJay and @experimental ones such as ean (oomer

and angston ,ughes. "ut "lack poets were not battling over old or new styles4

rather% one accomplished "lack poet was ready to welcome another% whatever his

or her style% for what mattered was racial pride.

,owever% in the 1I53’s "lack poets did debate whether they should deal with

specically racial sub/ects. (hey asked whether they should only write about "lack

experience for a "lack audience or whether such demands were restrictive. t may

be said% though% that virtually all these poets wrote their best poems when they

spoke out of racial feeling% race being% as ames !eldon ohnson rightly put it%@perforce the thing the Begro poet knows best.

At the turn of the century% by contrast% most "lack poets generally wrote in

the conventional manner of the age and expressed noble% if vague% emotions in

their poetry. (hese poets were not unusually gifted% though $oscoe amison and 7.

>. >cClellen may be mentioned as exceptions. (hey chose not to write in dialect%

which% as 9terling "rown has suggested% @meant a re/ection of stereotypes of

Begro life% and they refused to write only about racial sub/ects. (his refusal had

both a positive and a negative conse'uence. As "rown observes% @Faluably

insisting that Begro poets should not be conned to issues of race% these poets

committed KanL errorM they refused to look into their hearts and write. (hese are

important insights% but one must stress that this refusal to look within was also

typical of most !hite poets of the 8nited 9tates at the time. (hey% too% often

turned from their own experience and conse'uently produced not very

memorable poems about vague topics% such as the peace of nature.

17. According to the assage8 most turn-of-the-century "lack oets generally did


(A) rote in ays that did not challenge acceted literary ractice.

(") $escribed scenes from their on lives.(#) Aroused atriotic feelings by e%ressing devotion to the land.

($) !%ressed comle% feelings in the ords of ordinary eole.

(!) :nterreted the frustrations of "lacks to an audience of hites.

1&. According to the assage8 an issue facing "lack oets in the 1+'s as hether

they should

(A) seek a consensus on ne techniques of oetry

(") rite e%clusively about and for "lacks

(#) ithdra their suort from a reressive society



GRE 33

($) turn aay from social questions to recollect the tranquility of nature

(!) identify themselves ith an international movement of "lack riters

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that classifying a oet as either conservative

or e%erimental ould be of Elittle significanceF (line +1) hen discussing "lack oets of the 11's and the 1+'s because

(A) these oets rote in very similar styles

(") these oets all rote about nature in the same ay

(#) these oets ere fundamentally united by a sense of racial achievement

desite differences in oetic style

($) such a method of classification ould fail to take account of the influence of

general oetic ractice

(!) such a method of classification ould be relevant only in a discussion of

oets searated in time by more than three decades

+. The author quotes ,terling "ron in lines ;3-;< in order to

(A) resent an interretation of some black oets that contradicts the author's

on assertion about their accetance of various oetic styles

(") introduce a distinction beteen "lack oets ho used dialect and hite oets

ho did not

(#) disrove 2ames eldon 2ohnson's claim that race is hat Ethe egro oet

knos bestF

($) suggest hat ere the effects of some "lack oets' decision not to rite onlyabout racial subects

(!) rove that "lack oets at the turn of the century rote less conventionally

than did their hite counterarts

+1. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author finds the ork of the maority

of the "lack oets at the turn of the century to be

(A) une%citing

(") calming

(#) confusing($) delightful

(!) insiring

++. The author ould be most likely to agree that oets tend to roduce better oems

hen they

(A) e%ress a love of nature

(") declaim noble emotions

(#) avoid technical questions about style

($) emulate the best ork of their redecessors



GRE 39

(!) rite from ersonal e%erience

+3. hich of the folloing best describes the attitude of the author toard

classification as a technique in literary history*

(A) !nthusiastic(") :ndifferent

(#) ary

($) $erisive

(!) $efensive

(he primary method previously used by paleontologists to estimate climatic

changes that occurred during 6leistocene glacial cycles was the determination of1N?)1O? ratios in calcareous fossils. ,owever% because this ratio is in#uenced by a

number of factors% the absolute magnitude of the temperature di=erence between

6leistocene glacial and interglacial cycles could not be une'uivocally ascertained.

;or example% both temperature #uctuations and isotopic changes in seawater

a=ect the 1N?)1O? ratio. And% since both factors in#uence the ratio in the same

direction% the contribution of each to the 1N?)1O? cannot be determined.

;ortunately% recent studies indicate that the racemi&ation reaction of amino

acids can be used to determine more accurately temperatures that occurred

during 6leistocene glacial cycles. ?nly -amino acids are usually found in the

proteins of living organisms% but over long periods of geological time these acids

undergo racemi&ation% producing -amino acids% which are not found in proteins.

(his reaction depends on both time and temperature4 thus% if one variable isknown% the reaction can be used to calculate the other.

+9. :t can be inferred from the assage that determination of the temeratures

mentioned in line 17 through 1&BH1<B ratios and determination through

racemization reactions both require hich of the folloing*

(A) #alcium deosits knon to be from leistocene seas

(") roteins containing both D-amino acids and $-amino acids

(#) /lacial debris from both before and after the leistocene eriod

($) >ossil material from organisms living during the leistocene eriod(!) roteins containing both amino acids and 1&B

+;. The assage suggests that the 1&BH1<B ratio could be used more successfully as a

means of measurement if scientists ere able to

(A) determine the 1&BH1<B ratio in living animals as ell as in fossil remains

(") locate a greater number of calcareous fossils from the leistocene glacial and

interglacial cycles

(#) locate the factors other than temerature fluctuations and isotoic changes in

seaater that affect the 1&BH1<B ratio

($) arrive at more e%act determinations of hich amino acids are found in the



GRE 3;

roteins of living organisms

(!) isolate the relative effects of temerature fluctuations and isotoic changes in

seaater on 1&BH1<B ratios

+<. The information in the assage can be used to anser hich of the folloingquestions*

:. $o temerature variations and isotoic changes in seaater cause the 1&BH1<B

ratio to shift in the same direction*

::. hat are the methods used to determine the 1&BH1<B ratio*

:::. :s the study of racemization reactions useful in estimating climatic changes

that occurred during leistocene glacial cycles if only one of the to

imortant variables is knon*

(A) : only

(") : and :: only

(#) : and ::: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+7. According to the assage8 before the recent e%eriments described in the assage

ere comleted8 scientists could

(A) determine temeratures only for leistocene seas

(") determine temeratures that occurred during leistocene glacial cycles only

by e%amining fossil remains

(#) measure changes in temeratures that occurred during leistocene glacial

cycles ith only questionable accuracy

($) only artially identify factors tending to loer leistocene temeratures

(!) accurately determine temeratures only for land masses affected by glaciation

SECTION B

Chimps and children% gulls and 7reeks0the ethologists go their merry way%

comparing bits of human cultural behavior with bits of genetically programmedanimal behavior. (rue% humans are animals4 they share certain anatomical

features with other animals% and some items of human behavior may seem

analogous to the behavior of other animals. "ut such analogies can seriously

mislead if we fail to look at the context of a particular item of behavior. (hus one

ethologist compares the presentation of a twig by a cormorant with gift-giving in

humans. Det the cormorant’s twig-presentation simply inhibits attack and is

comparable to other appeasement rituals found in many species. ,uman gift-

giving di=ers in form and purpose not only from culture to culture% but within the

same culture in various social contexts. Everything signicant about it derives

from its social context. (hus% ethologists can accomplish little0beyond reminding



GRE 3<

us that we are animals0until they study humans as cultural beings.

17. The author is rimarily concerned ith

(A) demonstrating the usefulness of ethology in discovering the behavioral limits

ithin hich humans oerate(") obecting to the degradation of humanity imlicit in the ethologists equation

of humans and animals

(#) ointing out the dangers inherent in comaring highly dissimilar secies8 such

as humans and cormorants8 rather than similar ones8 such as humans and

aes

($) refuting the idea that the aeasement rituals in human cultural behavior can

be rofitably subected to ethological analysis

(!) arguing that the ethologists' assumtion that human behavior can be

straightforardly comared ith animal behavior is invalid

1&. The author believes that gift-giving in humans

(A) is instinctive behavior

(") is analogous to aeasement rituals in other animals

(#) is not an aroriate subect of study for ethologists

($) must be considered ithin its social conte%t to be roerly understood

(!) may be a cultural remnant of behavior originally designed to inhibit attack

1. The author's attitude toard contemorary ethologists can best be described as

(A) uzzled

(") conciliatory

(#) defensive

($) amused

(!) disaraging

+. hich of the folloing statements from a reort on a cross-cultural study of gift-

giving ould8 if true8 most strongly suort the author's assertions concerning

human gift-giving*

(A) :n every culture studied8 it as found that some forms of gift-giving are acts

of aggression that lace the receiver under obligation to the giver.

(") @ost governmental ta%ation systems differentiate beteen gifts of roerty

given to children during a arent's lifetime8 and a child's inheritance of the

same roerty from a arent dying ithout a ill.

(#) ,ome gift-giving customs have analogous forms in nearly every culture8 as in

the almost universal custom of elcoming strangers ith gifts of food.

($) :n orth America8 generally seaking8 money is an accetable holiday gift to

one's letter carrier or garbage collector8 but is often considered an insult ifgiven to one's emloyer8 friends8 or relatives.



GRE 37

(!) ,ome gifts8 being conciliatory in nature8 indicate by their costliness the degree

of hostility they must aease in the reciient.

;ew areas of neurobehavioral research seemed more promising in the early

sixties than that investigating the relationship between protein synthesis and

learning. (he conceptual framework for this research was derived directly from

molecular biology% which had shown that genetic information is stored in nucleic

acids and expressed in proteins. !hy not ac'uired information as wellP

(he rst step toward establishing a connection between protein synthesis and

learning seemed to be block memory +cause amnesia by interrupting the

production of protein. !e were fortunate in nding a nonlethal dosage of

puromycin that could% it rst appeared% thoroughly inhibit brain protein synthesis

as well as reliably produce amnesia.

"efore the actual connection between protein synthesis and learning could be

established% however% we began to have doubts about whether inhibition of

protein synthesis was in fact the method by which puromycin produced amnesia.

;irst% other drugs% glutarimides0themselves potent protein-synthesis inhibitors0

either failed to cause amnesia in some situations where it could easily be induced

by puromycin or produced an amnesia with a di=erent time course from that of

puromycin. 9econd% puromycin was found to inhibit protein synthesis by breaking

certain amino-acid chains% and the resulting fragments were suspected of being

the actual cause of amnesia in some cases. (hird% puromycin was reported to

cause abnormalities in the brain% including sei&ures. (hus% not only were

decreased protein synthesis and amnesia dissociated% but alternative mechanismsfor the amnestic action of puromycin were readily suggested.

9o% puromycin turned out to be a disappointment. t came to be regarded as a

poor agent for amnesia studies% although% of course% it was poor only in the

context of our original paradigm of protein-synthesis inhibition. n our frustration%

our initial response was simply to change drugs rather than our conceptual

orientation. After many such disappointments% however% it now appears unlikely

that we will make a rm connection between protein synthesis and learning

merely by pursuing the approaches of the past. ?ur experience with drugs has

shown that all the amnestic agents often interfere with memory in ways that

seem unrelated to their inhibition of protein synthesis. >ore importantly% the

notion that the interruption or intensication of protein production in the brain can

be related in cause-and-e=ect fashion to learning now seems simplistic and

unproductive. $emove the battery from a car and the car will not go. rive the car

a long distance at high speed and the battery will become more highly charged.

Beither of these facts proves that the battery powers the car4 only a knowledge of

the overall automotive system will reveal its mechanism of the locomotion and

the role of the battery within that system.

+1. This assage as most likely e%certed from

(A) a diary ket by a racticing neurobehavioral researcher



GRE 3&

(") a nesaer article on recent advances in the biochemistry of learning

(#) a technical article on e%erimental techniques in the field of molecular

biology

($) an article summarizing a series of scientific investigations in neurobehavioral

research

(!) a book revie in a leading ournal devoted to genetic research

++. The rimary urose of the assage is to sho that e%tensive e%erimentation has

(A) demonstrated the imortance of amino-acid fragmentation in the induction of

amnesia

(") cast doubt on the value of uromycin in the neurobehavioral investigation of

learning

(#) revealed the imortance of amnesia in the neurobehavioral study of learning

($) not yet demonstrated the alicability of molecular biology to

neurobehavioral research

(!) not suorted the hyothesis that learning is directly deendent on rotein

synthesis

+3. According to the assage8 neurobehaviorists initially based their belief that

rotein synthesis as related to learning on hich of the folloing*

(A) Traditional theories about learning

(") e techniques in rotein synthesis

(#) revious discoveries in molecular biology

($) ,ecific research into learning and amnesia

(!) 4istoric e%eriments on the effects of uromycin

+9. The assage mentions all of the folloing as effects of uromycin !C#!T=

(A) brain seizures

(") memory loss

(#) inhibition of rotein synthesis

($) destruction of genetic information

(!) fragmentation of amino-acid chains

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that8 after uromycin as erceived to be a

disaointment8 researchers did hich of the folloing*

(A) They ceased to e%eriment ith uromycin and shifted to other romising

rotein-synthesis inhibitors.

(") They ceased to e%eriment ith uromycin8 and ree%amined through

e%eriments the relationshi beteen genetic information and acquired

information.

(#) The continued to e%eriment ith uromycin8 but alied their results to



GRE 3

other facets of memory research.

($) They continued to e%eriment ith uromycin8 but also tried other rotein-

synthesis inhibitors.

(!) They continued to e%eriment ith uromycin until a ne neuroanatomical

frameork as develoed.

+<. :n the e%amle of the car (lines ;&-<;)8 the battery is meant to reresent hich of

the folloing elements in the neurobehavioral research rogram*

(A) uromycin

(") Amnesia

(#) /lutarimides

($) rotein synthesis

(!) Acquired information

+7. hich of the folloing statements could be most likely to come after the last

sentence of the assage*

(A) The failures of the ast8 hoever8 must not imede further research into the

amnestic action of rotein-synthesis inhibitors.

(") :t is a legacy of this research8 therefore8 that molecular biology's genetic

models have led to disagreements among neurobehaviorists.

(#) The ambivalent status of current research8 hoever8 should not deter

neurobehaviorists from e%loring the deeer connections beteen rotein

roduction and learning.($) :t is imortant in the future8 therefore8 for behavioral biochemists to

emhasize more strongly the lace of their secific findings ithin the

overall rotein-synthesis model of learning.

(!) :t is imortant in the future8 therefore8 for behavioral biochemists to focus on

the several comonents of the total learning system.

No. 3-3

SECTION A

Although pathogenic organisms constantly alight on the skin% they nd it a

very unfavorable environment and% in the absence of in/ury% have great di*culty

coloni&ing it. (his @self-sterili&ing capacity of the skin results from the tendency

of all well-developed ecosystems toward homeostasis% or the maintenance of the

status 'uo.

9pecies that typically live in soil% water% and elsewhere rarely multiply on the

skin. 8ndamaged skin is also unfavorable to most human pathogens. (he skin is

too acid and too arid for some species. (he constant shedding of the surface skinlayers further hinders the establishment of invaders. (he most interesting defense



GRE 9

mechanism% however% results from the metabolic activities of the resident #ora.

8nsaturated fatty acids% an important component of the lipids in sebum collected

from the skin surface% inhibit the growth of several bacterial and fungal cutaneous

pathogens. (hese acids are a metabolic product of certain gram-positive members

of the cutaneous community% which break down the more complex lipids in freshlysecreted sebum.


(A) offer an analysis of metabolic rocesses

(") detail the ays in hich bacteria and fungi can be inhibited

(#) describe mechanisms by hich the skin rotects itself against athogens

($) analyze the methods hereby biological systems maintain the status quo

(!) rovide a secific e%amle of the skin's basic defenses against athogens

1&. The Eresident floraF mentioned in line 1< refer to

(A) E6nsaturated fatty acidsF (line 17)

(") Esebum collected from the skin surfaceF (lines 1&-1)

(#) Ebacterial and fungal cutaneous athogensF (lines 1-+)

($) Ecertain gram-ositive members of the cutaneous communityF (lines +1-++)

(!) Emore comle% liidsF (lines +3)

1. Among the natural defenses of the skin against athogenic organisms are all of

the folloing !C#!T the

(A) dryness of the skin

(") acidity of the skin

(#) tendency of the athogens toard homeostasis

($) shedding of surface layers of the skin

(!) metabolic breakdon of liids

+. The author resents her material in hich of the folloing ays*

(A) ,tating a roblem and then sulying a solution

(") resenting a henomenon and then analyzing reason for it(#) roviding information and then draing a conclusion from it

($) @aking a general statement and then arguing by analogy

(!) @aking an inference and then develoing it by illustration

@>asterpieces are dumb% wrote ;laubert% @(hey have a tran'uil aspect like

the very products of nature% like large animals and mountains. ,e might have

been thinking of War and Peace, that vast% silent work% unfathomable and simple%

provoking endless 'uestions through the ma/esty of its being. (olstoi’s simplicity is

@overpowering% says the critic "ayley% @disconcerting% because it comes from

@his casual assumption that the world is as he sees it. ike other nineteenth-



GRE 91

century $ussian writers he is @impressive because he @means what he says% but

he stands apart from all others and from most !estern writers in his identity with

life% which is so complete as to make us forget he is an artist. ,e is the center of

his work% but his egocentricity is of a special kind. 7oethe% for example% says

"ayley% @cared for nothing but himself. (olstoi was nothing but himself.

;or all his varied modes of writing and the multiplicity of characters in his

ction% (olstoi and his work are of a piece. (he famous @conversion of his middle

years% movingly recounted in his Confession, was a culmination of his early

spiritual life% not a departure from it. (he apparently fundamental changes that

led from epic narrative to dogmatic parable% from a /oyous% buoyant attitude

toward life to pessimism and cynicism% from War and Peace to The Kreutzer

Sonata, came from the same restless% impressionable depths of an independent

spirit yearning to get at the truth of its experience. @(ruth is my hero% wrote

(olstoi in his youth% reporting the ghting in 9ebastopol. (ruth remained his hero0his own% not others’% truth. ?thers were awed by Bapoleon% believed that a single

man could change the destinies of nations% adhered to meaningless rituals%

formed their tastes on established canons of art. (olstoi reversed all

preconceptions4 and in every reversal he overthrew the @system% the @machine%

the externally ordained belief% the conventional behavior in favor of unsystematic%

impulsive life% of inward motivation and the solutions of independent thought.

n his work the articial and the genuine are always exhibited in dramatic

opposition< the supposedly great Bapoleon and the truly great% unregarded little

Captain (ushin% or Bicholas $ostov’s actual experience in battle and his later

account of it. (he simple is always pitted against the elaborate% knowledge gained

from observation against assertions of borrowed faiths. (olstoi’s magical simplicity

is a product of these tensions4 his work is a record of the 'uestions he put to

himself and of the answers he found in his search. (he greatest characters of his

ction exemplify this search% and their happiness depends on the measure of their

answers. (olstoi wanted happiness% but only hard-won happiness% that emotional

fulllment and intellectual clarity which could come only as the pri&e of all-

consuming e=ort. ,e scorned lesser satisfactions.

+1. hich of the folloing best characterizes the author's attitude toard Tolstoi*

(A) ,he derecates the cynicism of his later orks.

(") ,he finds his theatricality artificial.

(#) ,he admires his holehearted sincerity.

($) ,he thinks his inconsistency disturbing.

(!) ,he resects his devotion to orthodo%y.

++. hich of the folloing best arahrases >laubert's statement quoted in lines 1-9*

(A) @asteriece seem ordinary and unremarkable from the ersective of a later

age.

(") /reat orks of art do not e%lain themselves to us any more than natural



GRE 9+

obects do.

(#) :mortant orks of art take their lace in the ageant of history because of

their uniqueness.

($) The most imortant asects of good art are the orderliness and tranquility it

reflects.

(!) @asterieces hich are of enduring value reresent the forces of nature.

+3. The author quotes from "ayley (line &-+) to sho that

(A) although Tolstoi observes and interrets life8 he maintains no self-conscious

distance from his e%erience

(") the realism of Tolstoi's ork gives the illusion that his novels are reorts of

actual events

(#) unfortunately8 Tolstoi is unaare of his on limitation8 though he is sincere in

his attemt to describe e%erience

($) although Tolstoi orks casually and makes unarranted assumtion8 his ork

has an ine%licable aearance of truth

(!) Tolstoi's ersonal ersective makes his ork almost unintelligible to the

maority of his readers

+9. The author states that Tolstoi's conversion reresented

(A) a radical renunciation of the orld

(") the reection of avant-garde ideas

(#) the natural outcome of his earlier beliefs

($) the accetance of religion he had earlier reected

(!) a fundamental change in his riting style

+;. According to the assage8 Tolstoi's resonse to the acceted intellectual and

artistic values of his times as to

(A) select the most valid from among them

(") combine oosing vieoints into a ne doctrine

(#) reect the claims of religion in order to serve his art

($) subvert them in order to defend a ne olitical vieoint

(!) uset them in order to be faithful to his e%erience

+<. :t can be inferred from the assage that hich of the folloing is true of War and

Peace*

(A) :t belongs to an early eriod of Tolstoi's ork.

(") :t incororates a olemic against the disorderliness of 5ussian life.

(#) :t has a simle structural outline.

($) :t is a ork that reflects an ironic vie of life.

(!) :t conforms to the standard of aesthetic refinement favored by Tolstoi's



GRE 93

contemoraries.

+7. According to the assage8 the e%lanation of Tolstoi's Emagical simlicityF (line

;;) lies artly in his

(A) remarkable oer of observation and his facility in e%act descrition(") ersistent disregard for conventional restraints together ith his great energy

(#) unusual ability to reduce the descrition of comle% situations to a fe ords

($) abiding hatred of religious doctrine and reference for ne scientism

(!) continuing attemt to reresent the natural in oosition to the retentious

SECTION B

(he stratospheric o&one layer is not a completely uniform stratum% nor does it

occur at the same altitude around the globe. t lies closest to the Earth over thepoles and rises to maximum altitude over the e'uator. n the stratosphere% o&one

is continuously being made and destroyed by natural processes. uring the day

the 9un breaks down some of the oxygen molecules to single oxygen atoms% and

these reacting with the oxygen molecules that have not been dissociated% form

o&one. ,owever% the sunlight also breaks down o&one by converting some of it

back to normal oxygen. n addition naturally occurring nitrogen oxides enter into

the cycle and speed the breakdown reactions. (he amount of o&one present at

any one time is the balance between the processes that create it and those that

destroy it.

9ince the splitting of the oxygen molecules depends directly upon the

intensity of solar radiation% the greatest rate of o&one production occurs over the

tropics. ,owever o&one is also destroyed most rapidly there% and wind circulation

patterns carry the o&one-enriched upper layers of the atmosphere away from the

e'uator. t turns out that the largest total o&one amounts are found at high

latitudes. ?n a typical day the amount of o&one over >innesota% for example% is

:3 percent greater than the amount over (exas% I33 miles farther south. (he

density and altitude of the o&one layer also change with the seasons% the weather%

and the amount of solar activity. Bevertheless% at any one place above the Earth’s

surface% the long-term averages maintained by natural processes are believed tobe reasonably constant.

(he amount of o&one near the Earth is only a small percent of the amount in

the stratosphere% and exchange of molecules between the o&one layer and the air

at ground level is thought to be relatively small. ;urthermore% the o&one molecule

is so unstable that only a tiny fraction of ground-level o&one could survive the

long trip to the stratosphere% so the o&one layer will not be replenished to any

signicant degree by the increasing concentrations of o&one that have been

detected in recent years near the earth’s surface. (he long-term averages of

o&one both near ground level and in the stratosphere are regulated by continuous

processes that are constantly destroying and creating it in each of these places.



GRE 99

(his is why scientists are so concerned about human beings in/ection into the

stratosphere of chemicals like nitrogen oxides% which are catalysts that facilitate

the breakdown of o&one. f the o&one layer is depleted signicantly% more

ultraviolet radiation would penetrate to the Earth’s surface and damage many

living organisms.

17. The assage suggests that factors contributing to the variation in the amount of

ozone above different areas of the !arth's surface include hich of the folloing*

:. ,ome of the ozone found at higher latitudes as roduced elsehere.

::. There is usually a smaller amount of naturally occurring nitrogen o%ide over

high latitudes.

:::. The rate of ozone roduction over the oles is less than that over the troics.

(A) :: only

(") ::: only(#) : and :: only

($) : and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

1&. hich of the folloing best states the central idea of the assage*

(A) aturally occurring nitrogen o%ides8 as ell as those introduced by humans8

threaten to delete the layer of ozone in the stratoshere.

(") A delicate but reasonably constant balance e%ists beteen the natural

rocesses that roduce and those that destroy ozone in the stratoshere.(#) There is little hoe that the increased concentrations of ground-level ozone

observed in recent years can offset any future deletion of stratosheric

ozone.

($) @eteorologically induced changes in the concentration of ozone in the

stratoshere tend to cancel themselves out over a eriod of time.

(!) ,olar radiation not only roduces and destroys zone but also oses a hazard to

human life.

1. The rocesses that determine the amount of ozone in a given ortion of the

stratoshere most resemble hich of the folloing*

(A) Automobile emissions and seasonal fog that create a layer of smog over a city

(") lanting and harvesting activities that roduce a cro hose size is alays

about the same

(#) ithdraals and deosits made in a bank account hose average balance

remains about the same

($) Assets and liabilities that determine the net orth of a cororation

(!) 4igh grades and lo grades made by a student hose average remains about

the same from term to term



GRE 9;

+. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing has the D!A,T effect on the

amount of ozone at a given location in the uer atmoshere*

(A) Datitude

(") eather

(#) ,eason

($) /round-level ozone

(!) ,olar activity

+1. The author rovides information that ansers hich of the folloing questions*

:. hat is the average thickness of the stratosheric ozone layer*

::. hy does increased e%osure to ultraviolet radiation damage many living

organisms*

:::. hat is the role of o%ygen in the roduction of stratosheric zone*

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) ::: only

($) : and ::

(!) :: and :::

++. :n e%laining hat determines the amount of ozone in the stratoshere8 the author

describes natural rocesses that form

(A) an interactive relationshi(") a reductive system

(#) a linear rogression

($) a set of randomly occurring henomena

(!) a set of soradically recurring events

;eelings of hopelessness among medieval workers trapped in the poverty

cycle gradually lessened as it became possible for women’s labor to supplement a

family’s money income by more than pennies. "y 1:33% women spinners could be

found working on their own for wealthy sponsors% even after the introduction in

taly and ;rance of prohibition against advancing money for supplies to womenspinners. ,istorians have usually interpreted this prohibition simply as evidence of

women’s economic sub/ection% since it obliged them to turn to usurers4 however%

it was also almost certainly a response to a trend toward di=erential reward for

women’s higher skill. Darn can be spun irregularly and lumpily% but perfectly

smooth yarn is worth more. !orking for merchant entrepreneurs on time rates%

women had been paid hardly more than children4 working as entrepreneurs

themselves and producing good work by the piece% they could break into the

rational system of di=erential rewards.




GRE 9<

(A) roose and defend a theory about the consequences of a certain historical

event

(") resent historical facts and offer a broader interretation of those facts than

has been offered in the ast

(#) describe the socioeconomic effects of a idely held attitude during a

articular historical eriod

($) demonstrate the sueriority of using an economic aroach to historical

analysis

(!) call attention to the influence of the te%tile industry on society during a

articular historical eriod

+9. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author vies the system of aying all

orkers equally on time rates as

(A) unfair and not rational(") undesirable but unavoidable

(#) efficient and rofitable

($) advantageous to most omen orkers

(!) evidence of a trend toard a more modern age system

+;. The assage imlies hich of the folloing about omen sinners in medieval

!uroe*

(A) @ost of them orked indeendently for ealthy sonsors.

(") They ere not tyical of medieval omen entrereneurs.

(#) ,ome of them ere aid for their ork after it as done8 according to its

value.

($) They ould have been able to contribute substantial amounts to their families

incomes ere it not for the rohibition against advancing money to them.

(!) They ere inevitably disadvantaged in the marketlace because they ere

obliged to obtain money for their sulies from usurers.

+<. The assage imlies that feelings of hoelessness among medieval orkers

(A) resulted rimarily from the lack of a rational system of differential reards(") disaeared comletely once medieval te%tile orkers ere able to break the

cycle of overty

(#) ere more revalent among female orkers than among male orkers

($) came into being in art because of omen's limited earning caacity

(!) ere articularly common among te%tile orkers in :taly and >rance

+7. The author suggests that historians have done hich of the folloing*

(A) >ailed to give adequate consideration to the economic contribution of omen

during the medieval eriod.



GRE 97

(") Bverestimated the degree of hoelessness e%erienced by medieval orkers

traed in the overty cycle.

(#) :gnored the fact that by 13 many omen sinners ere orking

indeendently rather than for merchant entrereneurs.

($) 5egard the economic status of omen in :taly and >rance as reresentative of

omen's status throughout medieval !uroe.

(!) Bverlooked art of the significance of a rohibition governing one asect of

yarn roduction in medieval !uroe.

No. 4-1

SECTION A

"y the time the American colonists took up arms against 7reat "ritain in order

to secure their independence% the institution of "lack slavery was deeply

entrenched. "ut the contradiction inherent in this situation was% for many% a

source of constant embarrassment. @t always appeared a most ini'uitous scheme

to me% Abigail Adams wrote her husband in 1QQG% @to ght ourselves for what we

are daily robbing and plundering from those who have as good a right to freedom

as we have.

>any Americans besides Abigail Adams were struck by the inconsistency of

their stand during the !ar of ndependence% and they were not averse to making

moves to emancipate the slaves. Ruakers and other religious groups organi&edantislavery societies% while numerous individuals manumitted their slaves. n fact%

within several years of the end of the !ar of ndependence% most of the Eastern

states had made provisions for the gradual emancipation of slaves.

17. hich of the folloing best states the central idea of the assage*

(A) The ar of :ndeendence roduced among many "lack Americans a

heightened consciousness of the inequities in American society.

(") The ar of :ndeendence strengthened the bonds of slavery of many "lack

Americans hile intensifying their desire to be free.

(#) The ar of :ndeendence e%osed to many Americans the contradiction of

slavery in a country seeking its freedom and resulted in efforts to resolve

that contradiction.

($) The ar of :ndeendence rovoked strong criticisms by many Americans of

the institution of slavery8 but roduced little substantive action against it.

(!) The ar of :ndeendence reneed the efforts of many American grous

toard achieving "lack emanciation.

1&. The assage contains information that ould suort hich of the folloing

statements about the colonies before the ar of :ndeendence*



GRE 9&

(A) They contained organized antislavery societies.

(") They alloed individuals to on slaves.

(#) They rohibited religious grous from olitical action.

($) They ere inconsistent in their legal definitions of slave status.

(!) They encouraged abolitionist societies to e%and their influence.

1. According to the assage8 the ar of :ndeendence as embarrassing to some

Americans for hich of the folloing reasons*

:. :t involved a struggle for many of the same liberties that Americans ere

denying to others.

::. :t involved a struggle for indeendence from the very nation that had

founded the colonies.

:::. :t involved a struggle based on inconsistencies in the articiants'

concetions of freedom.

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) : and :: only

($) : and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+. hich of the folloing statements regarding American society in the years

immediately folloing the ar of :ndeendence is best suorted by the

assage*

(A) The une%ected successes of the antislavery societies led to their gradual

demise in the !astern states.

(") ,ome of the nely indeendent American states had begun to make rogress

toard abolishing slavery.

(#) Americans like Abigail Adams became disillusioned ith the slo rogress of

emanciation and gradually abandoned the cause.

($) !manciated slaves gradually ere acceted in the !astern states as equal

members of American society.

(!) The abolition of slavery in many !astern states as the result of close

cooeration beteen religious grous and free "lacks.

(he evolution of sex ratios has produced% in most plants and animals with

separate sexes% approximately e'ual numbers of males and females. !hy should

this be soP (wo main kinds of answers have been o=ered. ?ne is couched in terms

of advantage to population. t is argued that the sex ratio will evolve so as to

maximi&e the number of meetings between individuals of the opposite sex. (his is

essentially a @group selection argument. (he other% and in my view correct% type

of answer was rst put forward by ;isher in 1I:3. (his @genetic argument starts

from the assumption that genes can in#uence the relative numbers of male and



GRE 9

female o=spring produced by an individual carrying the genes. (hat sex ratio will

be favored which maximi&es the number of descendants an individual will have

and hence the number of gene copies transmitted. 9uppose that the population

consisted mostly of females< then an individual who produced sons only would

have more grandchildren. n contrast% if the population consisted mostly of males%it would pay to have daughters. f% however% the population consisted of e'ual

numbers of males and females% sons and daughters would be e'ually valuable.

(hus a one-to-one sex ratio is the only stable ratio4 it is an @evolutionarily stable

strategy. Although ;isher wrote before the mathematical theory of games had

been developed% his theory incorporates the essential feature of a game0that the

best strategy to adopt depends on what others are doing.

9ince ;isher’s time% it has been reali&ed that genes can sometimes in#uence

the chromosome or gamete in which they nd themselves so that the gamete will

be more likely to participate in fertili&ation. f such a gene occurs on a sex-determining +S or D chromosome% then highly aberrant sex ratios can occur. "ut

more immediately relevant to game theory are the sex ratios in certain parasitic

wasp species that have a large excess of females. n these species% fertili&ed eggs

develop into females and unfertili&ed eggs into males. A female stores sperm and

can determine the sex of each egg she lays by fertili&ing it or leaving it

unfertili&ed. "y ;isher’s argument% it should still pay a female to produce e'ual

numbers of sons and daughters. ,amilton% noting that the eggs develop within

their host0the larva of another insect0and that the newly emerged adult wasps

mate immediately and disperse% o=ered a remarkably cogent analysis. 9ince only

one female usually lays eggs in a given larva% it would pay her to produce one

male only% because this one male could fertili&e all his sisters on emergence. ike

;isher% ,amilton looked for an evolutionarily stable strategy% but he went a step

further in recognizing that he was looking for a strategy.

+1. The author suggests that the ork of >isher and 4amilton as similar in that both

scientists

(A) conducted their research at aro%imately the same time

(") sought to maniulate the se% ratios of some of the animals they studied

(#) sought an e%lanation of hy certain se% ratios e%ist and remain stable($) studied game theory8 thereby roviding imortant groundork for the later

develoment of strategy theory

(!) studied reroduction in the same animal secies

++. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author considers >isher's ork to be

(A) fallacious and unrofessional

(") definitive and thorough

(#) inaccurate but oular8 comared ith 4amilton's ork

($) admirable8 but not as u-to-date as 4amilton's ork



GRE ;

(!) accurate8 but trivial comared ith 4amilton's ork

+3. The assage contains information that ould anser hich of the folloing

questions about ass*

:. 4o many eggs does the female as usually lay in a single host larva*::. #an some secies of as determine se% ratios among their offsring*

:::. hat is the aro%imate se% ratio among the offsring of arasitic ass*

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) ::: only

($) : and :: only

(!) :: and ::: only

+9. :t can be inferred that the author discusses the genetic theory in greater detail thanthe grou selection theory rimarily because he believes that the genetic theory is

more

(A) comlicated

(") accurate

(#) oular

($) comrehensive

(!) accessible

+;. According to the assage8 successful game strategy deends on(A) the ability to adust one's behavior in light of the behavior of others

(") one's aareness that there is safety in numbers

(#) the degree of stability one can create in one's immediate environment

($) the accuracy ith hich one can redict future events

(!) the success one achieves in conserving and storing one's resources

+<. :t can be inferred from the assage that the mathematical theory of games has

been

(A) develoed by scientists ith an interest in genetics

(") adoted by 4amilton in his research

(#) helful in e%laining ho genes can sometimes influence gametes

($) based on animals studies conducted rior to 13

(!) useful in e%laining some biological henomena

+7. hich of the folloing is BT true of the secies of arasitic ass discussed in

the assage*

(A) Adult female ass are caable of storing serm.

(") >emale ass lay their eggs in the larvae of other insects.



GRE ;1

(#) The adult female as can be fertilized by a male that as hatched in the

same larva as herself.

($) ,o fe male ass are roduced that e%tinction is almost certain.

(!) @ale ass do not emerge from their hosts until they reach se%ual maturity.

SECTION B

(homas ,ardy’s impulses as a writer% all of which he indulged in his novels%

were numerous and divergent% and they did not always work together in harmony.

,ardy was to some degree interested in exploring his characters’ psychologies%

though impelled less by curiosity than by sympathy. ?ccasionally he felt the

impulse to comedy +in all its detached coldness as well as the impulse to farce%

but he was more often inclined to see tragedy and record it. ,e was also inclined

to literary realism in the several senses of that phrase. ,e wanted to describe

ordinary human beings4 he wanted to speculate on their dilemmas rationally +and%

unfortunately% even schematically4 and he wanted to record precisely the

material universe. ;inally% he wanted to be more than a realist. ,e wanted to

transcend what he considered to be the banality of solely recording things exactly

and to express as well his awareness of the occult and the strange.

n his novels these various impulses were sacriced to each other inevitably

and often. nevitably% because ,ardy did not care in the way that novelists such as

;laubert or ames cared% and therefore took paths of least resistance. (hus% one

impulse often surrendered to a fresher one and% unfortunately% instead of exacting

a compromise% simply disappeared. A desire to throw over reality a light that

never was might give way abruptly to the desire on the part of what we might

consider a novelist-scientist to record exactly and concretely the structure and

texture of a #ower. n this instance% the new impulse was at least an energetic

one% and thus its indulgence did not result in a relaxed style. "ut on other

occasions ,ardy abandoned a perilous% risky% and highly energi&ing impulse in

favor of what was for him the fatally relaxing impulse to classify and schemati&e

abstractly. !hen a relaxing impulse was indulged% the style0that sure index of an

author’s literary worth0was certain to become verbose. ,ardy’s weakness

derived from his apparent inability to control the comings and goings of thesedivergent impulses and from his unwillingness to cultivate and sustain the

energetic and risky ones. ,e submitted to rst one and then another% and the

spirit blew where it listed4 hence the unevenness of any one of his novels. ,is

most controlled novel% Under the Greenwood Tree, prominently exhibits two

di=erent but reconcilable impulses0a desire to be a realist-historian and a desire

to be a psychologist of love0but the slight interlockings of plot are not enough to

bind the two completely together. (hus even this book splits into two distinct

parts.

17. hich of the folloing is the most aroriate title for the assage8 based on itscontent*



GRE ;+

(A) Under the Greenwood Tree= 4ardy's Ambiguous Triumh

(") The 5eal and the ,trange= The ovelist's ,hifting 5ealms

(#) !nergy Versus 5eose= The 5ole of= Brdinary eole in 4ardy's >iction

($) 4ardy's ovelistic :mulses= The roblem of #ontrol

(!) $ivergent :mulses= The :ssue of 6nity in the ovel

1&. The assage suggests that the author ould be most likely to agree ith hich of

the folloing statements about literary realism*

(A) Diterary realism is most concerned ith the e%loration of the internal lives

of ordinary human beings.

(") The term Eliterary realismF is suscetible to more than a single definition.

(#) Diterary realism and an interest in sychology are likely to be at odds in a

novelist's ork.

($) EDiterary realismF is the term most often used by critics in describing the

method of 4ardy's novels.

(!) A roensity toard literary realism is a less interesting novelistic imulse

than is an interest in the occult and the strange.

1. The author of the assage considers a riter's style to be

(A) a reliable means by hich to measure the riter's literary merit

(") most aarent in those arts of the riter's ork that are not realistic

(#) roblematic hen the riter attemts to follo erilous or risky imulses

($) shaed rimarily by the riter's desire to classify and schematize

(!) the most accurate inde% of the riter's literary reutation

+. hich of the folloing ords could best be substituted for Erela%edF (line 37)

ithout substantially changing the author's meaning*

(A) informal

(") confined

(#) risky

($) ordy

(!) metahoric

+1. The assage sulies information to suggest that its author ould be most likely

to agree ith hich of the folloing statements about the novelists >laubert and

2ames*

(A) They indulged more imulses in their novels than did 4ardy in his novels.

(") They have elicited a greater degree of favorable resonse from most literary

critics than has 4ardy.

(#) :n the riting of their novels8 they often took ains to effect a comromise

among their various novelistic imulses.



GRE ;3

($) 5egarding novelistic construction8 they cared more about the oinions of

other novelists than about the oinions of ordinary readers.

(!) They rote novels in hich the imulse toard realism and the imulse aay

from realism ere evident in equal measure.

++. hich of the folloing statements best describes the organization of lines +7 to

91 of the assage (EThusIabstractlyF)*

(A) The author makes a disaroving observation and then resents to cases8

one of hich leads to a qualification of his disaroval and the other of

hich does not.

(") The author dras a conclusion from a revious statement8 e%lains his

conclusion in detail8 and then gives a series of e%amles that have the effect

of resolving an inconsistency.

(#) The author concedes a oint and then makes a counterargument8 using ane%tended comarison and contrast that qualifies his original concession.

($) The author makes a udgment8 oints out an e%cetion to his udgment8 and

then contradicts his original assertion.

(!) The author summarizes and e%lains an argument and then advances a brief

history of oosing arguments.

+3. hich of the folloing statements about the use of comedy in 4ardy's novels is

best suorted by the assage*

(A) 4ardy's use of comedy in his novels tended to eaken his literary style.

(") 4ardy's use of comedy in his novels as insired by his natural symathy.

(#) #omedy aeared less frequently in 4ardy's novels than did tragedy.

($) #omedy layed an imortant role in 4ardy's novels though that comedy as

usually in the form of farce.

(!) #omedy layed a secondary role in 4ardy's more controlled novels only.

+9. The author imlies hich of the folloing about Under the Greenwood Tree in

relation to 4ardy's other novels*

(A) :t is 4ardy's most thorough investigation of the sychology of love.

(") Although it is his most controlled novel8 it does not e%hibit any harsh or risky

imulses.

(#) :t8 more than his other novels8 reveals 4ardy as a realist interested in the

history of ordinary human beings.

($) :n it 4ardy's novelistic imulses are managed somehat better than in his

other novels.

(!) :ts lot8 like the lots of all of 4ardy's other novels8 slits into to distinct

arts.

8pwards of a billion stars in our galaxy have burnt up their internal energysources% and so can no longer produce the heat a star needs to oppose the inward



GRE ;9

force of gravity. (hese stars% of more than a few solar masses% evolve% in general%

much more rapidly than does a star like the 9un. >oreover% it is /ust these more

massive stars whose collapse does not halt at intermediate stages +that is% as

white dwarfs or neutron stars. nstead% the collapse continues until a singularity

+an innitely dense concentration of matter is reached.

t would be wonderful to observe a singularity and obtain direct evidence of

the undoubtedly bi&arre phenomena that occur near one. 8nfortunately in most

cases a distant observer cannot see the singularity4 outgoing light rays are

dragged back by gravity so forcefully that even if they could start out within a few

kilometers of the singularity% they would end up in the singularity itself.

+;. The author's rimary urose in the assage is to

(A) describe the formation and nature of singularities

(") e%lain hy large numbers of stars become singularities(#) comare the characteristics of singularities ith those of stars

($) e%lain hat haens during the stages of a singularity's formation

(!) imly that singularities could be more easily studied if observers could get

closer to them

+<. The assage suggests hich of the folloing about the ,un*

:. The ,un could evolve to a stage of collase that is less dense than a

singularity.

::. :n the ,un8 the inard force of gravity is balanced by the generation of heat.

:::. The ,un emits more observable light than does a hite darf or a neutron

star.

(A) : only

(") ::: only

(#) : and :: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+7. hich of the folloing sentences ould most robably follo the last sentenceof the assage*

(A) Thus8 a hysicist interested in studying henomena near singularities ould

necessarily hoe to find a singularity ith a measurable gravitational field.

(") Accordingly8 hysicists to date have been unable to observe directly any

singularity.

(#) :t is secifically this startling henomenon that has alloed us to codify the

scant information currently available about singularities.

($) @oreover8 the e%istence of this e%traordinary henomenon is imlied in the

e%tensive reorts of several hysicists.



GRE ;;

(!) Although unanticiated8 henomena such as these are consistent ith the

structure of a singularity.

No. 4-2

SECTION A

(he evolution of intelligence among early large mammals of the grasslands

was due in great measure to the interaction between two ecologically

synchroni&ed groups of these animals% the hunting carnivores and the herbivores

that they hunted. (he interaction resulting from the di=erences between predator

and prey led to a general improvement in brain functions4 however% certain

components of intelligence were improved far more than others.

(he kind of intelligence favored by the interplay of increasingly smartercatchers and increasingly keener escapers is dened by attention0that aspect of

mind carrying consciousness forward from one moment to the next. t ranges from

a passive% free-#oating awareness to a highly focused% active xation. (he range

through these states is mediated by the arousal system% a network of tracts

converging from sensory systems to integrating centers in the brain stem. ;rom

the more relaxed to the more vigorous levels% sensitivity to novelty is increased.

(he organism is more awake% more vigilant4 this increased vigilance results in the

apprehension of ever more subtle signals as the organism becomes more

sensitive to its surroundings. (he processes of arousal and concentration give

attention its direction. Arousal is at rst general% with a #ooding of impulses in the

brain stem4 then gradually the activation is channeled. (hus begins concentration%

the holding of consistent images. ?ne meaning of intelligence is the way in which

these images and other alertly searched information are used in the context of

previous experience. Consciousness links past attention to the present and

permits the integration of details with perceived ends and purposes.

(he elements of intelligence and consciousness come together marvelously to

produce di=erent styles in predator and prey. ,erbivores and carnivores develop

di=erent kinds of attention related to escaping or chasing. Although in both kinds

of animal% arousal stimulates the production of adrenaline and norepinephrine by

the adrenal glands% the e=ect in herbivores is primarily fear% whereas in carnivores

the e=ect is primarily aggression. ;or both% arousal attunes the animal to what is

ahead. 6erhaps it does not experience forethought as we know it% but the animal

does experience something like it. (he predator is searchingly aggressive%

innerdirected% tuned by the nervous system and the adrenal hormones% but aware

in a sense closer to human consciousness than% say% a hungry li&ard’s instinctive

snap at a passing beetle. 8sing past events as a framework% the large mammal

predator is working out a relationship between movement and food% sensitive to

possibilities in cold trails and distant sounds0and yesterday’s unforgotten

lessons. (he herbivore prey is of a di=erent mind. ts mood of wariness rather than



GRE ;<

searching and its attitude of general expectancy instead of anticipating are silk-

thin veils of tran'uility over an explosive endocrine system.


(A) disroving the vie that herbivores are less intelligent than carnivores(") describing a relationshi beteen animals' intelligence and their ecological

roles

(#) establishing a direct link beteen early large mammals and their modern

counterarts

($) analyzing the ecological basis for the dominance of some carnivores over

other carnivores

(!) demonstrating the imortance of hormones in mental activity

1&. The author refers to a hungry lizard (line ;;) rimarily in order to

(A) demonstrate the similarity beteen the hunting methods of mammals and

those of nonmammals

(") broaden the alication of his argument by including an insectivore as an

e%amle

(#) make a distinction beteen higher and loer levels of consciousness

($) rovide an additional illustration of the brutality characteristic of redators

(!) offer an obection to suggestions that all animals lack consciousness

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that in animals less intelligent than the

mammals discussed in the assage

(A) ast e%erience is less helful in ensuring survival

(") attention is more highly focused

(#) muscular coordination is less highly develoed

($) there is less need for cometition among secies

(!) environment is more imortant in establishing the roer ratio of rey to

redator

+. The sensitivity described in lines ;<-<1 is most clearly an e%amle of

(A) Efree-floating aarenessF (lines 1<-17)

(") Eflooding of imulses in the brain stemF (lines +-3)

(#) Ethe holding of consistent imagesF (lines 31-3+)

($) Eintegration of details ith erceived ends and urosesF (lines 37-3&)

(!) Esilk-thin veils of tranquilityF (line <9)

+1. The author's attitude toard the mammals discussed in the assage is best

described as

(A) suerior and condescending

(") lighthearted and ocular



GRE ;7

(#) aologetic and conciliatory

($) istful and tender

(!) resectful and admiring

++. The author rovides information that ould anser hich of the folloingquestions*

:. hy is an aroused herbivore usually fearful*

::. hat are some of the degrees of attention in large mammals*

:::. hat occurs hen the stimulus that causes arousal of a mammal is

removed*

(A) : only

(") ::: only

(#) : and :: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 :: and :::

+3. According to the assage8 imrovement in brain function among early large

mammals resulted rimarily from hich of the folloing*

(A) :nterlay of redator and rey

(") ersistence of free-floating aareness in animals of the grasslands

(#) /radual dominance of arm-blooded mammals over cold-blooded retiles

($) :nteraction of early large mammals ith less intelligent secies(!) :mrovement of the caacity for memory among herbivores and carnivores

+9. According to the assage8 as the rocess of arousal in an organism continues8 all

of the folloing may occur !C#!T=

(A) the roduction of adrenaline

(") the roduction of noreinehrine

(#) a heightening of sensitivity to stimuli

($) an increase in selectivity ith resect to stimuli

(!) an e%ansion of the range of states mediated by the brain stem (oc'ueville% apparently% was wrong. acksonian America was not a #uid%

egalitarian society where individual wealth and poverty were ephemeral

conditions. At least so argues E. 6essen in his iconoclastic study of the very rich in

the 8nited 9tates between 1N52 and 1N23.

6essen does present a 'uantity of examples% together with some refreshingly

intelligible statistics% to establish the existence of an inordinately wealthy class.

(hough active in commerce or the professions% most of the wealthy were not self-

made% but had inherited family fortunes. n no sense mercurial% these great

fortunes survived the nancial panics that destroyed lesser ones. ndeed% inseveral cities the wealthiest one percent constantly increased its share until by



GRE ;&

1N23 it owned half of the community’s wealth. Although these observations are

true% 6essen overestimates their importance by concluding from them that the

undoubted progress toward ine'uality in the late eighteenth century continued in

the acksonian period and that the 8nited 9tates was a class-ridden% plutocratic

society even before industriali&ation.

+;. According to the assage8 essen indicates that all of the folloing ere true of

the very ealthy in the 6nited ,tates beteen 1&+; and 1&; !C#!T=

(A) They formed a distinct uer class.

(") @any of them ere able to increase their holdings.

(#) ,ome of them orked as rofessionals or in business.

($) @ost of them accumulated their on fortunes.

(!) @any of them retained their ealth in site of financial uheavals.

+<. The author's attitude toard essen's resentation of statistics can be best

described as

(A) disaroving

(") shocked

(#) susicious

($) amused

(!) laudatory

+7. hich of the folloing best states the author's main oint*

(A) essen's study has overturned the reviously established vie of the social

and economic structure of early nineteenth-century America.

(") Tocqueville's analysis of the 6nited ,tates in the 2acksonian era remains the

definitive account of this eriod.

(#) essen's study is valuable rimarily because it shos the continuity of the

social system in the 6nited ,tates throughout the nineteenth century.

($) The social atterns and olitical oer of the e%tremely ealthy in the 6nited

,tates beteen 1&+; and 1&; are ell documented.

(!) essen challenges a vie of the social and economic system in the 6nited,tates from 1&+; to 1&;8 but he dras conclusions that are incorrect.

SECTION B

@ want to critici&e the social system% and to show it at work% at its most

intense. Firginia !oolf’s provocative statement about her intentions in writing

Mrs. a!!owa" has regularly been ignored by the critics% since it highlights an

aspect of her literary interests very di=erent from the traditional picture of the

@poetic novelist concerned with examining states of reverie and vision and with

following the intricate pathways of individual consciousness. "ut Firginia !oolf



GRE ;

was a realistic as well as a poetic novelist% a satirist and social critic as well as a

visionary< literary critics’ cavalier dismissal of !oolf’s social vision will not

withstand scrutiny.

n her novels% !oolf is deeply engaged by the 'uestions of how individuals are

shaped +or deformed by their social environments% how historical forces impinge

on people’s lives% how class% wealth% and gender help to determine people’s fates.

>ost of her novels are rooted in a realistically rendered social setting and in a

precise historical time.

!oolf’s focus on society has not been generally recogni&ed because of her

intense antipathy to propaganda in art. (he pictures of reformers in her novels are

usually satiric or sharply critical. Even when !oolf is fundamentally sympathetic

to their causes% she portrays people anxious to reform their society and possessed

of a message or program as arrogant or dishonest% unaware of how their political

ideas serve their own psychological needs. +,er Writer#s iar" notes< @the onlyhonest people are the artists% whereas @these social reformers and

philanthropistsMharborMdiscreditable desires under the disguise of loving their

kindM !oolf detested what she called @preaching in ction% too% and critici&ed

novelist . ,. awrence +among others for working by this method.

!oolf’s own social criticism is expressed in the language of observation rather

than in direct commentary% since for her% ction is a contemplative% not an active

art. 9he describes phenomena and provides materials for a /udgment about

society and social issues4 it is the reader’s work to put the observations together

and understand the coherent point of view behind them. As a moralist% !oolfworks by indirection% subtly undermining o*cially accepted mores% mocking%

suggesting% calling into 'uestion% rather than asserting% advocating% bearing

witness< hers is the satirist’s art.

!oolf’s literary models were acute social observers like Chekhov and Chaucer.

As she put it in The Co$$on %eader, @t is safe to say that not a single law has

been framed or one stone set upon another because of anything Chaucer said or

wrote4 and yet% as we read him% we are absorbing morality at every pore. ike

Chaucer% !oolf chose to understand as well as to /udge% to know her society root

and branch0a decision crucial in order to produce art rather than polemic.

17. hich of the folloing ould be the most aroriate title for the assage*

(A) oetry and ,atire as :nfluences on the ovels of ?irginia oolf

(") ?irginia oolf= #ritic and #ommentator on the Tentieth-#entury ovel

(#) Trends in #ontemorary 5eform @ovements as a Jey to 6nderstanding

?irginia oolf's ovels

($) ,ociety as Allegory for the :ndividual in the ovels of ?irginia oolf

(!) ?irginia oolf's ovels= #ritical 5eflections on the :ndividual and on ,ociety

1&. :n the first aragrah of the assage8 the author's attitude toard the literarycritics mentioned can best be described as



GRE <

(A) disaraging

(") ironic

(#) facetious

($) sketical but resigned

(!) disaointed but hoeful

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that oolf chose #haucer as a literary model

because she believed that

(A) #haucer as the first !nglish author to focus on society as a hole as ell as

on individual characters

(") #haucer as an honest and forthright author8 hereas novelists like $8 48

Darence did not sincerely ish to change society

(#) #haucer as more concerned ith understanding his society than ith calling

its acceted mores into question

($) #haucer's riting as greatly8 if subtly8 effective in influencing the moral

attitudes of his readers

(!) her on novels ould be more idely read if8 like #haucer8 she did not

overtly and vehemently criticize contemorary society

+. :t can be inferred from the assage that the most robable reason oolf

realistically described the social setting in the maority of her novels as that she

(A) as aare that contemorary literary critics considered the novel to be the

most realistic of literary genres(") as interested in the effect of a erson's social milieu on his or her character

and actions

(#) needed to be as attentive to detail as ossible in her novels in order to suort

the arguments she advanced in them

($) anted to sho that a ainstaking fidelity in the reresentation of reality did

not in any ay hamer the artist

(!) ished to revent critics from charging that her novels ere ritten in an

ambiguous and ine%act style

+1. hich of the folloing hrases best e%resses the sense of the ord

EcontemlativeF as it is used in lines 93-99 of the assage*

(A) /radually elucidating the rational structures underlying acceted mores

(") 5eflecting on issues in society ithout reudice or emotional commitment

(#) Avoiding the aggressive assertion of the author's ersective to the e%clusion

of the reader's udgment

($) #onveying a broad vie of society as a hole rather than focusing on an

isolated individual consciousness

(!) Areciating the orld as the artist sees it rather than udging it in moral



GRE <1

terms

++. The author imlies that a maor element of the satirist's art is the satirist's

(A) consistent adherence to a osition of lofty disdain hen vieing the foibles

of humanity(") insistence on the hellessness of individuals against the social forces that seek

to determine an individual's fate

(#) cynical disbelief that visionaries can either enlighten or imrove their

societies

($) fundamental assumtion that some ambiguity must remain in a ork of art in

order for it to reflect society and social mores accurately

(!) refusal to indulge in olemic hen resenting social mores to readers for their

scrutiny

+3. The assage sulies information for ansering hich of the folloing

questions*

(A) 4ave literary critics ignored the social criticism inherent in the orks of

#hekhov and #haucer*

(") $oes the author believe that oolf is solely an introsective and visionary

novelist*

(#) hat are the social causes ith hich oolf shos herself to be symathetic

in her ritings*

($) as $. 4. Darence as concerned as oolf as ith creating realisticsettings for his novels*

(!) $oes oolf attribute more oer to social environment or to historical forces

as shaers of a erson's life*

t is a popular misconception that nuclear fusion power is free of radioactivity4

in fact% the deuterium-tritium reaction that nuclear scientists are currently

exploring with such &eal produces both alpha particles and neutrons. +(he

neutrons are used to produce tritium from a lithium blanket surrounding the

reactor. Another common misconception is that nuclear fusion power is a virtually

unlimited source of energy because of the enormous 'uantity of deuterium in the

sea. Actually% its limits are set by the amount of available lithium% which is about

as plentiful as uranium in the Earth’s crust. $esearch should certainly continue on

controlled nuclear fusion% but no energy program should be premised on its

existence until it has proven practical. ;or the immediate future% we must

continue to use hydroelectric power% nuclear ssion% and fossil fuels to meet our

energy needs. (he energy sources already in ma/or use are in ma/or use for good

reason.


(A) criticize scientists ho believe that the deuterium-tritium fusion reaction can be made feasible as an energy source



GRE <+

(") admonish scientists ho have failed to correctly calculate the amount of

lithium available for use in nuclear fusion reactors

(#) defend the continued short-term use of fossil fuels as a maor energy source

($) caution against uncritical embrace of nuclear fusion oer as a maor energy

source

(!) correct the misconcetion that nuclear fusion oer is entirely free of

radioactivity

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author believes hich of the folloing

about the current state of ublic aareness concerning nuclear fusion oer*

(A) The ublic has been deliberately misinformed about the advantages and

disadvantages of nuclear fusion oer.

(") The ublic is unaare of the rincial advantage of nuclear fusion over

nuclear fission as an energy source.(#) The ublic's aareness of the scientific facts concerning nuclear fusion

oer is somehat distorted and incomlete.

($) The ublic is not interested in increasing its aareness of the advantages and

disadvantages of nuclear fusion oer.

(!) The ublic is aare of the disadvantages of nuclear fusion oer but not of

its advantages.

+<. The assage rovides information that ould anser hich of the folloing

questions*

(A) hat is likely to be the rincial source of deuterium for nuclear fusion

oer*

(") 4o much incidental radiation is roduced in the deuterium tritium fusion

reaction*

(#) hy are scientists e%loring the deuterium-tritium fusion reaction ith such

zeal*

($) hy must the tritium for nuclear fusion be synthesized from lithium*

(!) hy does the deuterium-tritium reaction yield both alha articles and

neutrons*

+7. hich of the folloing statements concerning nuclear scientists is most directly

suggested in the assage*

(A) uclear scientists are not themselves aare of all of the facts surrounding the

deuterium-tritium fusion reaction.

(") uclear scientists e%loring the deuterium-tritium reaction have overlooked

key facts in their eagerness to rove nuclear fusion ractical.

(#) uclear scientists may have overestimated the amount of lithium actually

available in the !arth's crust.

($) uclear scientists have not been entirely disassionate in their investigation



GRE <3

of the deuterium-tritium reaction.

(!) uclear scientists have insufficiently investigated the lithium-to-tritium

reaction in nuclear fusion.

No. 4-3

SECTION A

7reat comic art is never otherwordly% it does not seek to mystify us% and it

does not deny ambiguity by branding as evil whatever di=ers from good. 7reat

comic artists assume that truth may bear all lights% and thus they seek to

accentuate contradictions in social action% not gloss over or transcend them by

appeals to extrasocial symbols of divine ends% cosmic purpose% or laws of nature.

(he moment of transcendence in great comic art is a social moment% born out ofthe conviction that we are human% even though we try to be gods. (he comic

community to which artists address themselves is a community of reasoning%

loving% /oyful% compassionate beings% who are willing to assume the human risks

of acting rationally. !ithout invoking gods or demons% great comic art arouses

courage in reason% courage which grows out of trust in what human beings can do

as humans.

17. The assage suggests that great comic art can be characterized as otimistic about

the ability of humans to

(A) rid themselves of ride

(") transcend the human condition

(#) differentiate clearly beteen good and evil

($) avoid social conflicts

(!) act rationally

1&. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author admires great comic artists

rimarily for their

(A) ability to understand the frequently subtle differences beteen good and evil

(") ability to reconcile the contradictions in human behavior

(#) ability to distinguish beteen rational and irrational behavior

($) insistence on confronting the truth about the human condition

(!) insistence on condemning human faults and eaknesses

1. hich of the folloing is the most accurate descrition of the organization of the

assage*

(A) A sequence of observations leading to a rediction

(") A list of inferences dran from facts stated at the beginning of the assage

(#) A series of assertions related to one general subect



GRE <9

($) A statement of the maor idea8 folloed by secific e%amles

(!) A succession of ideas moving from secific to general

t has long been known that the rate of oxidative metabolism +the process that

uses oxygen to convert food into energy in any animal has a profound e=ect on

its living patterns. (he high metabolic rate of small animals% for example% gives

them sustained power and activity per unit of weight% but at the cost of re'uiring

constant consumption of food and water. Fery large animals% with their relatively

low metabolic rates% can survive well on a sporadic food supply% but can generate

little metabolic energy per gram of body weight. f only oxidative metabolic rate is

considered% therefore% one might assume that smaller% more active% animals could

prey on larger ones% at least if they attacked in groups. 6erhaps they could if it

were not for anaerobic glycolysis% the great e'uali&er.

Anaerobic glycolysis is a process in which energy is produced% without oxygen%

through the breakdown of muscle glycogen into lactic acid and adenosine

triphosphate +A(6% the energy provider. (he amount of energy that can be

produced anaerobically is a function of the amount of glycogen present0in all

vertebrates about 3.2 percent of their muscles’ wet weight. (hus the anaerobic

energy reserves of a vertebrate are proportional to the si&e of the animal. f% for

example% some predators had attacked a 133-ton dinosaur% normally torpid% the

dinosaur would have been able to generate almost instantaneously% via anaerobic

glycolysis% the energy of :%333 humans at maximum oxidative metabolic energy

production. (his explains how many large species have managed to compete with

their more active neighbors< the compensation for a low oxidative metabolic rate

is glycolysis.

(here are limitations% however% to this compensation. (he glycogen reserves

of any animal are good% at most% for only about two minutes at maximum e=ort%

after which only the normal oxidative metabolic source of energy remains. !ith

the conclusion of a burst of activity% the lactic acid level is high in the body #uids%

leaving the large animal vulnerable to attack until the acid is reconverted% via

oxidative metabolism% by the liver into glucose% which is then sent +in part back

to the muscles for glycogen resynthesis. uring this process the enormous energy

debt that the animal has run up through anaerobic glycolysis must be repaid% a

debt that is proportionally much greater for the larger vertebrates than for the

smaller ones. !hereas the tiny shrew can replace in minutes the glycogen used

for maximum e=ort% for example% the gigantic dinosaur would have re'uired more

than three weeks. t might seem that this interminably long recovery time in a

large vertebrate would prove a grave disadvantage for survival. ;ortunately%

muscle glycogen is used only when needed and even then only in whatever

'uantity is necessary. ?nly in times of panic or during mortal combat would the

entire reserves be consumed.


(A) refute a misconcetion about anaerobic glycolysis



GRE <;

(") introduce a ne hyothesis about anaerobic glycolysis

(#) describe the limitations of anaerobic glycolysis

($) analyze the chemistry of anaerobic glycolysis and its similarity to o%idative

metabolism

(!) e%lain anaerobic glycolysis and its effects on animal survival

+1. According to the author8 glycogen is crucial to the rocess of anaerobic glycolysis

because glycogen

(A) increases the organism's need for AT

(") reduces the amount of AT in the tissues

(#) is an inhibitor of the o%idative metabolic roduction of AT

($) ensures that the synthesis of AT ill occur seedily

(!) is the material from hich AT is derived

++. According to the author8 a maor limitation of anaerobic glycolysis is that it can

(A) roduce in large animals more lactic acid than the liver can safely reconvert

(") necessitate a dangerously long recovery eriod in large animals

(#) roduce energy more sloly than it can be used by large animals

($) consume all of the available glycogen regardless of need

(!) reduce significantly the rate at hich energy is roduced by o%idative

metabolism

+3. The assage suggests that the total anaerobic energy reserves of a vertebrate are roortional to the vertebrate's size because

(A) larger vertebrates conserve more energy than smaller vertebrates

(") larger vertebrates use less o%ygen er unit eight than smaller vertebrates

(#) the ability of a vertebrate to consume food is a function of its size

($) the amount of muscle tissue in a vertebrate is directly related to its size

(!) the size of a vertebrate is roortional to the quantity of energy it can utilize

+9. The author suggests that8 on the basis of energy roduction8 a 1-ton dinosaur

ould have been markedly vulnerable to hich of the folloing*

:. 5eeated attacks by a single smaller8 more active adversary

::. ,ustained attack by numerous smaller8 more active adversaries

:::. An attack by an individual adversary of similar size

(A) :: only

(") : and :: only

(#) : and ::: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::



GRE <<

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that the time required to relenish muscle

glycogen folloing anaerobic glycolysis is determined by hich of the folloing

factors*

:. 5ate of o%idative metabolism

::. Kuantity of lactic acid in the body fluids

:::. ercentage of glucose that is returned to the muscles

(A) : only

(") ::: only

(#) : and :: only

($) : and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+<. The author is most robably addressing hich of the folloing audiences*

(A) #ollege students in an introductory course on animal hysiology

(") 4istorians of science investigating the discovery of anaerobic glycolysis

(#) /raduate students ith secialized training in comarative anatomy

($) Loologists interested in rehistoric animals

(!) "iochemists doing research on o%idative metabolism

+7. hich of the folloing best states the central idea of the assage*

(A) The disadvantage of a lo o%idative metabolic rate in large animals can be

offset by their ability to convert substantial amounts of glycogen into energy.(") The most significant roblem facing animals that have used anaerobic

glycolysis for energy is the resynthesis of its by-roduct8 glucose8 into

glycogen.

(#) The benefits to animals of anaerobic glycolysis are offset by the rofound

costs that must be aid.

($) The maor factor ensuring that a large animal ill triumh over a smaller

animal is the large animal's ability to roduce energy via anaerobic

glycolysis.

(!) The great differences that e%ist in metabolic rates beteen secies of smallanimals and secies of large animals can have imortant effects on the

atterns of their activities.

SECTION B

(he dark regions in the starry night sky are not pockets in the universe that

are devoid of stars as had long been thought. $ather% they are dark because of

interstellar dust that hides the stars behind it. Although its visual e=ect is so

pronounced% dust is only a minor constituent of the material% extremely low in

density% that lies between the stars. ust accounts for about one percent of the



GRE <7

total mass of interstellar matter. (he rest is hydrogen and helium gas% with small

amounts of other elements. (he interstellar material% rather like terrestrial clouds%

comes in all shapes and si&es. (he average density of interstellar material in the

vicinity of our 9un is 1%333 to 13%333 times less than the best terrestrial

laboratory vacuum. t is only because of the enormous interstellar distances thatso little material per unit of volume becomes so signicant. ?ptical astronomy is

most directly a=ected% for although interstellar gas is perfectly transparent% the

dust is not.

17. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing is a direct ercetual

consequence of interstellar dust*

(A) ,ome stars are rendered invisible to observers on !arth.

(") @any visible stars are made to seem brighter than they really are.

(#) The resence of hydrogen and helium gas is revealed.

($) The night sky aears dusty at all times to observers on !arth.

(!) The dust is consicuously visible against a background of bright stars.

1&. :t can be inferred from the assage that the density of interstellar material is

(A) higher here distances beteen the stars are shorter

(") equal to that of interstellar dust

(#) unusually lo in the vicinity of our ,un

($) indeendent of the incidence of gaseous comonents

(!) not homogeneous throughout interstellar sace

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that it is because sace is so vast that

(A) little of the interstellar material in it seems substantial

(") normal units of volume seem futile for measurements of density

(#) stars can be far enough from !arth to be obscured even by very sarsely

distributed matter

($) interstellar gases can8 for all ractical uroses8 be regarded as transarent

(!) otical astronomy ould be of little use even if no interstellar dust e%isted

n his 1IQO study of slavery in the 8nited 9tates% ,erbert 7utman% like ;ogel%

Engerman% and 7enovese% has rightly stressed the slaves’ achievements. "ut

unlike these historians% 7utman gives plantation owners little credit for these

achievements. $ather% 7utman argues that one must look to the "lack family and

the slaves’ extended kinship system to understand how crucial achievements%

such as the maintenance of a cultural heritage and the development of a

communal consciousness% were possible. ,is ndings compel attention.

7utman recreates the family and extended kinship structure mainly through

an ingenious use of what any historian should draw upon% 'uantiable data%

derived in this case mostly from plantation birth registers. ,e also uses accountsof ex-slaves to probe the human reality behind his statistics. (hese sources



GRE <&

indicate that the two-parent household predominated in slave 'uarters /ust as it

did among freed slaves after emancipation. Although 7utman admits that forced

separation by sale was fre'uent% he shows that the slaves’ preference% revealed

most clearly on plantations where sale was infre'uent% was very much for stable

monogamy. n less conclusive fashion ;ogel% Engerman% and 7enovese hadalready indicated the predominance of two-parent households4 however% only

7utman emphasi&es the preference for stable monogamy and points out what

stable monogamy meant for the slaves’ cultural heritage. 7utman argues

convincingly that the stability of the "lack family encouraged the transmission of

0and so was crucial in sustaining0the "lack heritage of folklore% music% and

religious expression from one generation to another% a heritage that slaves were

continually fashioning out of their African and American experiences.

7utman’s examination of other facets of kinship also produces important

ndings. 7utman discovers that cousins rarely married% an exogamous tendencythat contrasted sharply with the endogamy practiced by the plantation owners.

(his preference for exogamy% 7utman suggests% may have derived from !est

African rules governing marriage% which% though they di=ered from one tribal

group to another% all involved some kind of prohibition against unions with close

kin. (his taboo against cousins’ marrying is important% argues 7utman% because it

is one of many indications of a strong awareness among slaves of an extended

kinship network. (he fact that distantly related kin would care for children

separated from their families also suggests this awareness. !hen blood

relationships were few% as in newly created plantations in the 9outhwest% @ctive

kinship arrangements took their place until a new pattern of consanguinity

developed. 7utman presents convincing evidence that this extended kinship

structure0which he believes developed by the mid-to-late eighteenth century0

provided the foundations for the strong communal consciousness that existed

among slaves.

n sum% 7utman’s study is signicant because it o=ers a closely reasoned and

original explanation of some of the slaves’ achievements% one that correctly

emphasi&es the resources that slaves themselves possessed.

+. According to the assage8 >ogel8 !ngerman8 /enovese8 and /utman have all

done hich of the folloing*

:. $iscounted the influence of lantation oners on slaves' achievements.

::. !mhasized the achievements of slaves.

:::. ointed out the revalence of the to-arent household among slaves.

:?. ,hoed the connection beteen stable monogamy and slaves' cultural

heritage.

(A) : and :: only

(") : and :? only

(#) :: and ::: only



GRE <

($) :8 :::8 and :? only

(!) ::8 :::8 and :? only

+1. ith hich of the folloing statements regarding the resources that historians

ought to use ould the author of the assage be most likely to agree*(A) 4istorians ought to make use of ritten rather than oral accounts.

(") 4istorians should rely rimarily on birth registers.

(#) 4istorians should rely e%clusively on data that can be quantified.

($) 4istorians ought to make use of data that can be quantified.

(!) 4istorians ought to dra on earlier historical research but they should do so in

order to refute it.

++. hich of the folloing statements about the formation of the "lack heritage of

folklore8 music8 and religious e%ression is best suorted by the information resented in the assage*

(A) The heritage as formed rimarily out of the e%eriences of those slaves ho

attemted to reserve the stability of their families.

(") The heritage as not formed out of the e%eriences of those slaves ho

married their cousins.

(#) The heritage as formed more out of the African than out of the American

e%eriences of slaves.

($) The heritage as not formed out of the e%eriences of only a single

generation of slaves.(!) The heritage as formed rimarily out of slaves' e%eriences of

interdeendence on nely created lantations in the ,outhest.

+3. :t can be inferred from the assage that8 of the folloing8 the most robable

reason hy a historian of slavery might be interested in studying the tye of

lantations mentioned in line +; is that this tye ould

(A) give the historian access to the most comlete lantation birth registers

(") ermit the historian to observe the kinshi atterns that had been most

oular among est African tribes

(#) rovide the historian ith evidence concerning the reference of freed slaves

for stable monogamy

($) furnish the historian ith the oortunity to discover the kind of marital

commitment that slaves themselves chose to have

(!) allo the historian to e%amine the influence of slaves' references on the

actions of lantation oners

+9. According to the assage8 all of the folloing are true of the est African rules

governing marriage mentioned in lines 9<-; !C#!T=

(A) The rules ere derived from rules governing fictive kinshi arrangements.



GRE 7

(") The rules forbade marriages beteen close kin.

(#) The rules are mentioned in 4erbert /utman's study.

($) The rules ere not uniform in all resects from one est African tribe to

another.

(!) The rules have been considered to be a ossible source of slaves' marriage

references.

+;. hich of the folloing statements concerning the marriage ractices of

lantation oners during the eriod of "lack slavery in the 6nited ,tates can

most logically be inferred from the information in the assage*

(A) These ractices began to alter sometime around the mid-eighteenth century.

(") These ractices varied markedly from one region of the country to another.

(#) lantation oners usually based their choice of marriage artners on

economic considerations.

($) lantation oners often married earlier than slaves.

(!) lantation oners often married their cousins.

+<. hich of the folloing best describes the organization of the assage*

(A) The author comares and contrasts the ork of several historians and then

discusses areas for ossible ne research.

(") The author resents his thesis8 dras on the ork of several historians for

evidence to suort his thesis8 and concludes by reiterating his thesis.

(#) The author describes some features of a historical study and then uses thosefeatures to ut forth his on argument.

($) The author summarizes a historical study8 e%amines to main arguments

from the study8 and then shos ho the arguments are otentially in conflict

ith one another.

(!) The author resents the general argument of a historical study8 describes the

study in more detail8 and concludes ith a brief udgments of the study's

value.

+7. hich of the folloing is the most aroriate title for the assage8 based on its

content*

(A) The :nfluence of 4erbert /utman on 4istorians of ,lavery in the 6nited

,tates

(") /utman's !%lanation of 4o ,laves #ould @aintain a #ultural 4eritage and

$evelo a #ommunal #onsciousness

(#) ,lavery in the 6nited ,tates= e #ontroversy About an Bld ,ubect

($) The "lack 4eritage of >olklore8 @usic8 and 5eligious !%ression= :ts

/roing :nfluence

(!) The "lack >amily and !%tended Jinshi ,tructure= 4o They ere



GRE 71

:mortant for the >reed ,lave

No. 5-1

SECTION A

A >arxist sociologist has argued that racism stems from the class struggle

that is uni'ue to the capitalist system0that racial pre/udice is generated by

capitalists as a means of controlling workers. ,is thesis works relatively well when

applied to discrimination against "lacks in the 8nited 9tates% but his denition of

racial pre/udice as @racially-based negative pre/udgments against a group

generally accepted as a race in any given region of ethnic competition% can be

interpreted as also including hostility toward such ethnic groups as the Chinese in

California and the ews in medieval Europe. ,owever% since pre/udice againstthese latter peoples was not inspired by capitalists% he has to reason that such

antagonisms were not really based on race. ,e disposes thusly +albeit

unconvincingly of both the intolerance faced by ews before the rise of capitalism

and the early twentieth-century discrimination against ?riental people in

California% which% inconveniently% was instigated by workers.

17. The assage sulies information that ould anser hich of the folloing

questions*

(A) hat accounts for the reudice against the 2es in medieval !uroe*

(") hat conditions caused the discrimination against Briental eole in#alifornia in the early tentieth century*

(#) hich grous are not in ethnic cometition ith each other in the 6nited

,tates*

($) hat e%lanation did the @ar%ist sociologist give for the e%istence of racial

reudice*

(!) hat evidence did the @ar%ist sociologist rovide to suort his thesis*

1&. The author considers the @ar%ist sociologist's thesis about the origins of racial

reudice to be(A) unoriginal

(") unersuasive

(#) offensive

($) obscure

(!) seculative

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that the @ar%ist sociologist ould argue that

in a noncaitalist society racial reudice ould be

(A) ervasive



GRE 7+

(") tolerated

(#) ignored

($) forbidden

(!) none%istent

+. According to the assage8 the @ar%ist sociologist's chain of reasoning required

him to assert that reudice toard Briental eole in #alifornia as

(A) directed rimarily against the #hinese

(") similar in origin to reudice against the 2es

(#) understood by Briental eole as ethnic cometition

($) rovoked by orkers

(!) nonracial in character

"y 1I23% the results of attempts to relate brain processes to mentalexperience appeared rather discouraging. 9uch variations in si&e% shape%

chemistry% conduction speed% excitation threshold% and the like as had been

demonstrated in nerve cells remained negligible in signicance for any possible

correlation with the manifold dimensions of mental experience.

Bear the turn of the century% it had been suggested by ,ering that di=erent

modes of sensation% such as pain% taste% and color% might be correlated with the

discharge of specic kinds of nervous energy. ,owever% subse'uently developed

methods of recording and analy&ing nerve potentials failed to reveal any such

'ualitative diversity. t was possible to demonstrate by other methods rened

structural di=erences among neuron types4 however% proof was lacking that the

'uality of the impulse or its condition was in#uenced by these di=erences% which

seemed instead to in#uence the developmental patterning of the neural circuits.

Although 'ualitative variance among nerve energies was never rigidly disproved%

the doctrine was generally abandoned in favor of the opposing view% namely% that

nerve impulses are essentially homogeneous in 'uality and are transmitted as

@common currency throughout the nervous system. According to this theory% it is

not the 'uality of the sensory nerve impulses that determines the diverse

conscious sensations they produce% but rather the di=erent areas of the brain into

which they discharge% and there is some evidence for this view. n oneexperiment% when an electric stimulus was applied to a given sensory eld of the

cerebral cortex of a conscious human sub/ect% it produced a sensation of the

appropriate modality for that particular locus% that is% a visual sensation from the

visual cortex% an auditory sensation from the auditory cortex% and so on. ?ther

experiments revealed slight variations in the si&e% number% arrangement% and

interconnection of the nerve cells% but as far as psychoneural correlations were

concerned% the obvious similarities of these sensory elds to each other seemed

much more remarkable than any of the minute di=erences.

,owever% cortical locus% in itself% turned out to have little explanatory value.9tudies showed that sensations as diverse as those of red% black% green% and



GRE 73

white% or touch% cold% warmth% movement% pain% posture% and pressure apparently

may arise through activation of the same cortical areas. !hat seemed to remain

was some kind of di=erential patterning e=ects in the brain excitation< it is the

di=erence in the central distribution of impulses that counts. n short% brain theory

suggested a correlation between mental experience and the activity of relativelyhomogeneous nerve-cell units conducting essentially homogeneous impulses

through homogeneous cerebral tissue. (o match the multiple dimensions of

mental experience psychologists could only point to a limitless variation in the

spatiotemporal patterning of nerve impulses.

+1. The author suggests that8 by 1;8 attemts to correlate mental e%erience ith

brain rocesses ould robably have been vieed ith

(A) indignation

(") imatience

(#) essimism

($) indifference

(!) defiance

++. The author mentions Ecommon currencyF in line +< rimarily in order to

emhasize the

(A) lack of differentiation among nerve imulses in human beings

(") similarity of the sensations that all human beings e%erience

(#) similarities in the vies of scientists ho have studied the human nervous

system

($) continuous assage of nerve imulses through the nervous system

(!) recurrent questioning by scientists of an acceted e%lanation about the

nervous system

+3. The descrition in lines 3+-3& of an e%eriment in hich electric stimuli ere

alied to different sensory fields of the cerebral corte% tends to suort the

theory that

(A) the simle resence of different cortical areas cannot account for the diversity

of mental e%erience

(") variation in satiotemoral atterning of nerve imulses correlates ith

variation in subective e%erience

(#) nerve imulses are essentially homogeneous and are relatively unaffected as

they travel through the nervous system

($) the mental e%eriences roduced by sensory nerve imulses are determined

by the cortical area activated

(!) variation in neuron tyes affects the quality of nerve imulses

+9. According to the assage8 some evidence e%ists that the area of the corte%activated by a sensory stimulus determines hich of the folloing*



GRE 79

:. The nature of the nerve imulse

::. The modality of the sensory e%erience

:::. Kualitative differences ithin a modality

(A) :: only

(") ::: only

(#) : and :: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 :: and :::

+;. The assage can most accurately be described as a discussion concerning

historical vies of the

(A) anatomy of the brain

(") manner in hich nerve imulses are conducted(#) significance of different cortical areas in mental e%erience

($) mechanics of sense ercetion

(!) hysiological correlates of mental e%erience

+<. hich of the folloing best summarizes the author's oinion of the suggestion

that different areas of the brain determine ercetions roduced by sensory nerve

imulses*

(A) :t is a lausible e%lanation8 but it has not been comletely roved.

(") :t is the best e%lanation of brain rocesses currently available.(#) :t is disroved by the fact that the various areas of the brain are

hysiologically very similar.

($) There is some evidence to suort it8 but it fails to e%lain the diversity of

mental e%erience.

(!) There is e%erimental evidence that confirms its correctness.

+7. :t can be inferred from the assage that hich of the folloing e%hibit the

D!A,T qualitative variation*

(A) erve cells

(") erve imulses

(#) #ortical areas

($) ,atial atterns of nerve imulses

(!) Temoral atterns of nerve imulses

SECTION B

(he transfer of heat and water vapor from the ocean to the air above it

depends on a dise'uilibrium at the interface of the water and the air. !ithin about

a millimeter of the water% air temperature is close to that of the surface water%



GRE 7;

and the air is nearly saturated with water vapor. "ut the di=erences% however

small% are crucial% and the dise'uilibrium is maintained by air near the surface

mixing with air higher up% which is typically appreciably cooler and lower in water-

vapor content. (he air is mixed by means of turbulence that depends on the wind

for its energy. As wind speed increases% so does turbulence% and thus the rate ofheat and moisture transfer. etailed understanding of this phenomenon awaits

further study. An interacting0and complicating0phenomenon is wind-to-water

transfer of momentum that occurs when waves are formed. !hen the wind makes

waves% it transfers important amounts of energy0energy that is therefore not

available to provide turbulence.


(A) resolve a controversy

(") describe a henomenon

(#) outline a theory

($) confirm research findings

(!) classify various observations

1&. According to the assage8 ind over the ocean generally does hich of the

folloing*

:. #auses relatively cool8 dry air to come into ro%imity ith the ocean surface.

::. @aintains a steady rate of heat and moisture transfer beteen the ocean and

the air.

:::. #auses frequent changes in the temerature of the ater at the ocean's

surface.

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) : and :: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author regards current knoledge

about heat and moisture transfer from the ocean to air as

(A) revolutionary

(") inconsequential

(#) outdated

($) derivative

(!) incomlete

+. The assage suggests that if on a certain day the ind ere to decrease until there

as no ind at all hich of the folloing ould occur*

(A) The air closest to the ocean surface ould become saturated ith ater vaor.



GRE 7<

(") The air closest to the ocean surface ould be armer than the ater.

(#) The amount of moisture in the air closest to the ocean surface ould

decrease.

($) The rate of heat and moisture transfer ould increase.

(!) The air closest to the ocean ould be at the same temerature as air higher u.

Extraordinary creative activity has been characteri&ed as revolutionary% #ying

in the face of what is established and producing not what is acceptable but what

will become accepted. According to this formulation% highly creative activity

transcends the limits of an existing form and establishes a new principle of

organi&ation. ,owever% the idea that extraordinary creativity transcends

established limits is misleading when it is applied to the arts% even though it may

be valid for the sciences. i=erences between highly creative art and highly

creative science arise in part from a di=erence in their goals. ;or the sciences% a

new theory is the goal and end result of the creative act. nnovative science

produces new propositions in terms of which diverse phenomena can be related to

one another in more coherent ways. 9uch phenomena as a brilliant diamond or a

nesting bird are relegated to the role of data% serving as the means for formulating

or testing a new theory. (he goal of highly creative art is very di=erent< the

phenomenon itself becomes the direct product of the creative act. 9hakespeare’s

Ha$!et is not a tract about the behavior of indecisive princes or the uses of

political power4 nor is 6icasso’s painting Guernica primarily a propositional

statement about the 9panish Civil !ar or the evils of fascism. !hat highly

creative artistic activity produces is not a new generali&ation that transcendsestablished limits% but rather an aesthetic particular. Aesthetic particulars

produced by the highly creative artist extend or exploit% in an innovative way% the

limits of an existing form% rather than transcend that form.

(his is not to deny that a highly creative artist sometimes establishes a new

principle of organi&ation in the history of an artistic eld4 the composer

>onteverdi% who created music of the highest aesthetic value% comes to mind.

>ore generally% however% whether or not a composition establishes a new

principle in the history of music has little bearing on its aesthetic worth. "ecause

they embody a new principle of organi&ation% some musical works% such as the

operas of the ;lorentine Camerata% are of signal historical importance% but few

listeners or musicologists would include these among the great works of music.

?n the other hand% >o&art’s The Marriage of Figaro is surely among the

masterpieces of music even though its modest innovations are conned to

extending existing means. t has been said of "eethoven that he toppled the rules

and freed music from the sti#ing connes of convention. "ut a close study of his

compositions reveals that "eethoven overturned no fundamental rules. $ather% he

was an incomparable strategist who exploited limits0the rules% forms% and

conventions that he inherited from predecessors such as ,aydn and >o&art%

,andel and "ach0in strikingly original ways.



GRE 77

+1. The author considers a ne theory that coherently relates diverse henomena to

one another to be the

(A) basis for reaffirming a ell-established scientific formulation

(") byroduct of an aesthetic e%erience

(#) tool used by a scientist to discover a ne articular

($) synthesis underlying a great ork of art

(!) result of highly creative scientific activity

++. The author imlies that "eethoven's music as strikingly original because

"eethoven

(A) strove to outdo his redecessors by becoming the first comoser to e%loit

limits

(") fundamentally changed the musical forms of his redecessors by adoting a

richly inventive strategy

(#) embellished and interove the melodies of several of the great comosers

ho receded him

($) maniulated the established conventions of musical comosition in a highly

innovative fashion

(!) attemted to create the illusion of having transcended the musical forms of his

redecessors

+3. The assage states that the oeras of the >lorentine #amerata are

(A) unustifiably ignored by musicologists

(") not generally considered to be of high aesthetic value even though they are

imortant in the history of music

(#) among those orks in hich oular historical themes ere ortrayed in a

musical roduction

($) often inaroriately cited as e%amles of musical orks in hich a ne

rincile of organization as introduced

(!) minor e%cetions to the ell-established generalization that the aesthetic

orth of a comosition determines its imortance in the history of music

+9. The assage sulies information for ansering all of the folloing questions

!C#!T=

(A) 4as unusual creative activity been characterized as revolutionary*

(") $id "eethoven ork ithin a musical tradition that also included 4andel and

"ach*

(#) :s @ozart's The Marriage of Figaro an e%amle of a creative ork that

transcended limits*

($) ho besides @onteverdi rote music that the author ould consider to

embody ne rinciles of organization and to be of high aesthetic value*



GRE 7&

(!) $oes anyone claim that the goal of e%traordinary creative activity in the arts

differs from that of e%traordinary creative activity in the sciences*

+;. The author regards the idea that all highly creative artistic activity transcends

limits ith

(A) dee sketicism

(") strong indignation

(#) marked indifference

($) moderate amusement

(!) shar derision

+<. The author imlies that an innovative scientific contribution is one that

(A) is cited ith high frequency in the ublications of other scientists

(") is acceted immediately by the scientific community(#) does not relegate articulars to the role of data

($) resents the discovery of a ne scientific fact

(!) introduces a ne valid generalization

+7. hich of the folloing statements ould most logically concluded the last

aragrah of the assage*

(A) 6nlike "eethoven8 hoever8 even the greatest of modern comosers8 such as

,travinsky8 did not transcend e%isting musical forms.

(") :n similar fashion8 e%isting musical forms ere even further e%loited by thene%t generation of great !uroean comosers.

(#) Thus8 many of the great comosers dislayed the same combination of talents

e%hibited by @onteverdi.

($) "y contrast8 the vie that creativity in the arts e%loits but does not transcend

limits is suorted in the field of literature.

(!) Actually8 "eethoven's most original orks ere largely unareciated at the

time that they ere first erformed.

No. 5-2

SECTION A

Fisual recognition involves storing and retrieving memories. Beural activity%

triggered by the eye% forms an image in the brain’s memory system that

constitutes an internal representation of the viewed ob/ect. !hen an ob/ect is

encountered again% it is matched with its internal representation and thereby

recogni&ed. Controversy surrounds the 'uestion of whether recognition is a

parallel% one-step process or a serial% step-by-step one. 6sychologists of the

7estalt school maintain that ob/ects are recogni&ed as wholes in a parallel



GRE 7

procedure< the internal representation is matched with the retinal image in a

single operation. ?ther psychologists have proposed that internal representation

features are matched serially with an ob/ect’s features. Although some

experiments show that% as an ob/ect becomes familiar% its internal representation

becomes more holistic and the recognition process correspondingly more parallel%the weight of evidence seems to support the serial hypothesis% at least for ob/ects

that are not notably simple and familiar.


(A) e%laining ho the brain receives images

(") synthesizing hyotheses of visual recognition

(#) e%amining the evidence suorting the serial recognition hyothesis

($) discussing visual recognition and some hyotheses roosed to e%lain it

(!) reorting on recent e%eriments dealing ith memory systems and theirrelationshi to neural activity

1&. According to the assage8 /estalt sychologists make hich of the folloing

suositions about visual recognition*

:. A retinal image is in e%actly the same forms as its internal reresentation.

::. An obect is recognized as a hole ithout any need for analysis into

comonent arts.

:::. The matching of an obect ith its internal reresentation occurs in only one

ste.

(A) :: only

(") ::: only

(#) : and ::: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that the matching rocess in visual recognition

is

(A) not a neural activity

(") not ossible hen an obect is vieed for the very first time

(#) not ossible if a feature of a familiar obect is changed in some ay

($) only ossible hen a retinal image is received in the brain as a unitary hole

(!) no fully understood as a combination of the serial and arallel rocesses

+. :t terms of its tone and form8 the assage can best be characterized as

(A) a biased e%osition

(") a seculative study

(#) a disassionate resentation



GRE &

($) an indignant denial

(!) a dogmatic e%lanation

n large part as a conse'uence of the feminist movement% historians have

focused a great deal of attention in recent years on determining more accurately

the status of women in various periods. Although much has been accomplished

for the modern period% premodern cultures have proved more di*cult< sources are

restricted in number% fragmentary% di*cult to interpret% and often contradictory.

(hus it is not particularly surprising that some earlier scholarship concerning such

cultures has so far gone unchallenged. An example is ohann "achofen’s 1NO1

treatise on Ama&ons% women-ruled societies of 'uestionable existence

contemporary with ancient 7reece.

9tarting from the premise that mythology and legend preserve at least a

nucleus of historical fact% "achofen argued that women were dominant in many

ancient societies. ,is work was based on a comprehensive survey of references in

the ancient sources to Ama&onian and other societies with matrilineal customs0

societies in which descent and property rights are traced through the female line.

9ome support for his theory can be found in evidence such as that drawn from

,erodotus% the 7reek @historian of the fth century ". C.% who speaks of an

Ama&onian society% the 9auromatae% where the women hunted and fought in

wars. A woman in this society was not allowed to marry until she had killed a

person in battle.

Bonetheless% this assumption that the rst recorders of ancient myths have

preserved facts is problematic. f one begins by examining why ancients refer toAma&ons% it becomes clear that ancient 7reek descriptions of such societies were

meant not so much to represent observed historical fact0real Ama&onian

societies0but rather to o=er @moral lessons on the supposed outcome of

women’s rule in their own society. (he Ama&ons were often characteri&ed% for

example% as the e'uivalents of giants and centaurs% enemies to be slain by 7reek

heroes. (heir customs were presented not as those of a respectable society% but

as the very antitheses of ordinary 7reek practices.

(hus% would argue% the purpose of accounts of the Ama&ons for their male

7reek recorders was didactic% to teach both male and female 7reeks that all-

female groups% formed by withdrawal from traditional society% are destructive and

dangerous. >yths about the Ama&ons were used as arguments for the male-

dominated status 'uo% in which groups composed exclusively of either sex were

not permitted to segregate themselves permanently from society. "achofen was

thus misled in his reliance on myths for information about the status of women.

(he sources that will probably tell contemporary historians most about women in

the ancient world are such social documents as gravestones% wills% and marriage

contracts. 9tudies of such documents have already begun to show how mistaken

we are when we try to derive our picture of the ancient world exclusively from

literary sources% especially myths.



GRE &1


(A) comare cometing ne aroaches to understanding the role of omen in

ancient societies

(") investigate the ramifications of "achofen's theory about the dominance of

omen in ancient societies

(#) e%lain the burgeoning interest among historians in determining the actual

status of omen in various societies

($) analyze the nature of Amazonian society and uncover similarities beteen it

and the /reek orld

(!) criticize the value of ancient myths in determining the status of omen in

ancient societies

++. All of the folloing are stated by the author as roblems connected ith the

sources for knoledge of remodern cultures !C#!T=(A) artial comleteness

(") restricted accessibility

(#) difficulty of interretation

($) limited quantity

(!) tendency toard contradiction

+3. hich of the folloing can be inferred from the assage about the myths

recorded by the ancient /reeks*

:. They sometimes included ortrayals of omen holding ositions of oer.

::. They sometimes contained elaborate e%lanations of inheritance customs.

:::. They comrise almost all of the material available to historians about ancient

/reece.

(A) : only

(") ::: only

(#) : and ::: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+9. hich of the folloing is resented in the assage as evidence suorting the

author's vie of the ancient /reeks' descritions of the Amazons*

(A) The requirement that ,auromatae omen kill in battle before marrying

(") The failure of historians to verify that omen ere ever governors of ancient

societies

(#) The classing of Amazons ith giants and centaurs

($) The ell-established unreliability of 4erodotus as a source of information

about ancient societies(!) The recent discovery of ancient societies ith matrilineal customs



GRE &+

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that the robable reactions of many males in

ancient /reece to the idea of a society ruled by omen could best characterized

as

(A) confused and dismayed

(") ary and hostile

(#) cynical and disinterested

($) curious but fearful

(!) e%cited but an%ious

+<. The author suggests that the main reason for the ersisting influence of

"achofen's ork is that

(A) feminists have shon little interest in ancient societies

(") "achofen's knoledge of Amazonian culture is unaralleled

(#) reliable information about the ancient orld is difficult to acquire

($) ancient societies sho the best evidence of omen in ositions of oer

(!) historians have been rimarily interested in the modern eriod

+7. The author's attitude toard "achofen's treatise is best described as one of

(A) qualified aroval

(") rofound ambivalence

(#) studied neutrality

($) ointed disagreement(!) unmitigated hostility

SECTION B

nitially the Finaver theory that >alory’s eight romances% once thought to be

fundamentally unied% were in fact eight independent works produced both a

sense of relief and an unpleasant shock. Finaver’s theory comfortably explained

away the apparent contradictions of chronology and made each romance

independently satisfying. t was% however% disagreeable to nd that what had

been thought of as one book was now eight books. 6art of this response was the

natural reaction to the disturbance of set ideas. Bevertheless% even now% after

lengthy consideration of the theory’s rened but legitimate observations% one

cannot avoid the conclusion that the eight romances are only one work. t is not

'uite a matter of disagreeing with the theory of independence% but of re/ecting its

implications< that the romances may be taken in any or no particular order% that

they have no cumulative e=ect% and that they are as separate as the works of a

modern novelist.


(A) discuss the validity of a hyothesis



GRE &3

(") summarize a system of general rinciles

(#) roose guidelines for future argument

($) stiulate conditions for accetance of an interretation

(!) deny accusations about an aarent contradiction

1&. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author believes hich of the folloing

about @alory's orks*

:. There are meaningful links beteen and among the romances.

::. The subtleties of the romances are obscured hen they are taken as one

ork.

:::. Any contradictions in chronology among the romances are less imortant

than their overall unity.

(A) : only

(") ::: only

(#) : and ::: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

1. The author of the assage concedes hich of the folloing about the ?inaver

theory*

(A) :t gives a clearer understanding of the unity of @alory's romances.

(") :t demonstrates the irrationality of considering @alory's romances to be

unified.

(#) :t establishes accetable links beteen @alory's romances and modern

novels.

($) :t unifies earlier and later theories concerning the chronology of @alory's

romances.

(!) :t makes valid and subtle comments about @alory's romances.

+. :t can be inferred from the assage that8 in evaluating the ?inaver theory8 some

critics ere

(A) frequently misled by the inconsistencies in @alory's ork

(") initially biased by revious interretations of @alory's ork

(#) concetually disleased by the general interretation that ?inaver reected

($) generally in agreement ith ?inaver's comarisons beteen @alory and

modern novelists

(!) originally sketical about ?inaver's early conclusions ith resect to modern

novels

!e can distinguish three di=erent realms of matter% three levels on the

'uantum ladder. (he rst is the atomic realm% which includes the world of atoms%their interactions% and the structures that are formed by them% such as molecules%



GRE &9

li'uids and solids% and gases and plasmas. (his realm includes all the phenomena

of atomic physics% chemistry% and% in a certain sense% biology. (he energy

exchanges taking place in this realm are of a relatively low order. f these

exchanges are below one electron volt% such as in the collisions between

molecules of the air in a room% then atoms and molecules can be regarded aselementary particles. (hat is% they have @conditional elementarity because they

keep their identity and do not change in any collisions or in other processes at

these low energy exchanges. f one goes to higher energy exchanges% say 13G

electron volts% then atoms and molecules will decompose into nuclei and

electrons4 at this level% the latter particles must be considered as elementary. !e

nd examples of structures and processes of this rst rung of the 'uantum ladder

on Earth% on planets% and on the surfaces of stars.

(he next rung is the nuclear realm. ,ere the energy exchanges are much

higher% on the order of millions of electron volts. As long as we are dealing withphenomena in the atomic realm% such amounts of energy are unavailable% and

most nuclei are inert< they do not change. ,owever% if one applies energies of

millions of electron volts% nuclear reactions% ssion and fusion% and the processes

of radioactivity occur4 our elementary particles then are protons% neutrons% and

electrons. n addition% nuclear processes produce neutrinos% particles that have no

detectable mass or charge. n the universe% energies at this level are available in

the centers of stars and in star explosions. ndeed% the energy radiated by the

stars is produced by nuclear reactions. (he natural radioactivity we nd on Earth

is the long-lived remnant of the time when now-earthly matter was expelled into

space by a ma/or stellar explosion.

(he third rung of the 'uantum ladder is the subnuclear realm. ,ere we are

dealing with energy exchanges of many billions of electron volts. !e encounter

excited nucleons% new types of particles such as mesons% heavy electrons% 'uarks%

and gluons% and also antimatter in large 'uantities. (he gluons are the 'uanta% or

smallest units% of the force +the strong force that keeps the 'uarks together. As

long as we are dealing with the atomic or nuclear realm% these new types of

particles do not occur and the nucleons remain inert. "ut at subnuclear energy

levels% the nucleons and mesons appear to be composed of 'uarks% so that the

'uarks and gluons gure as elementary particles.

+1. The rimary toic of the assage is hich of the folloing*

(A) The interaction of the realms on the quantum ladder

(") Atomic structures found on !arth8 on other lanets8 and on the surfaces of

stars

(#) Devels of energy that are released in nuclear reactions on !arth and in stars

($) articles and rocesses found in the atomic8 nuclear8 and subnuclear realms

(!) e tyes of articles occurring in the atomic realm

++. According to the assage8 radioactivity that occurs naturally on !arth is the result



GRE &;

of

(A) the roduction of articles that have no detectable mass or electric charge

(") high energy e%changes on the nuclear level that occurred in an ancient

e%losion in a star

(#) rocesses that occur in the center of the ,un8 hich emits radiation to the

!arth

($) henomena in the atomic realm that cause atoms and molecules to decomose

into nuclei and electrons

(!) high-voltage discharges of electricity that took lace in the atmoshere of the

!arth shortly after the !arth as formed

+3. The author organizes the assage by

(A) making distinctions beteen to grous of articles8 those that are

elementary and those that are comosite

(") e%laining three methods of transferring energy to atoms and to the smaller

articles that constitute atoms

(#) describing several levels of rocesses8 increasing in energy8 and

corresonding sets of articles8 generally decreasing in size

($) utting forth an argument concerning energy levels and then conceding that

several qualifications of that argument are necessary

(!) making several successive refinements of a definition of elementarity on the

basis of several grous of e%erimental results

+9. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing can be found in the atomic

realm*

(A) @ore than one level of energy e%change

(") !%actly one elementary article

(#) !%actly three kinds of atomic structures

($) Three levels on the quantum ladder

(!) o articles smaller than atoms

+;. According to the author8 gluons are not(A) considered to be detectable

(") roduced in nuclear reactions

(#) encountered in subnuclear energy e%changes

($) related to the strong force

(!) found to be conditionally elementary

+<. At a higher energy level than the subnuclear level described8 if such a higher level

e%ists8 it can be e%ected on the basis of the information in the assage that there

ould robably be



GRE &<

(A) e%cited nucleons

(") elementary mesons

(#) a kind of article ithout detectable mass or charge

($) e%changes of energy on the order of millions of electron volts

(!) another set of elementary articles

+7. The assage seaks of articles as having conditional elementarity if they

(A) remain unchanged at given level of energy e%change

(") cannot be decomosed into smaller constituents

(#) are mathematically simler than some other set of articles

($) release energy at a lo level in collisions

(!) belong to the nuclear level on the quantum ladder

No. 5-3

SECTION A

(he belief that art originates in intuitive rather than rational faculties was

worked out historically and philosophically in the somewhat wearisome volumes

of "enedetto Croce% who is usually considered the originator of a new aesthetic.

Croce was% in fact% expressing a very old idea. ong before the $omantics stressed

intuition and self-expression% the fren&y of inspiration was regarded as

fundamental to art% but philosophers had always assumed it must be controlled by

law and by the intellectual power of putting things into harmonious order. (his

general philosophic concept of art was supported by technical necessities. t was

necessary to master certain laws and to use intellect in order to build 7othic

cathedrals% or set up the stained glass windows of Chartres. !hen this bracing

element of craftsmanship ceased to dominate artists’ outlook% new technical

elements had to be adopted to maintain the intellectual element in art. 9uch were

linear perspective and anatomy.

17. The assage suggests that hich of the folloing ould most likely have

occurred if linear ersective and anatomy had not come to influence artistic

endeavor*

(A) The craftsmanshi that shaed /othic architecture ould have continued to

dominate artists' outlooks.

(") ,ome other technical elements ould have been adoted to disciline artistic

insiration.

(#) :ntellectual control over artistic insiration ould not have influenced

ainting as it did architecture.

($) The role of intuitive insiration ould not have remained fundamental totheories of artistic creation.



GRE &7

(!) The assumtions of aesthetic hilosohers before #roce ould have been

invalidated.

1&. The assage sulies information for ansering hich of the folloing

questions*

(A) $oes 5omantic art e%hibit the triumh of intuition over intellect*

(") $id an emhasis on linear ersective and anatomy dominate 5omantic art*

(#) Are the intellectual and intuitive faculties harmoniously balanced in ost-

5omantic art*

($) Are the effects of the rational control of artistic insiration evident in the

great orks of re-5omantic eras*

(!) as the artistic craftsmanshi dislayed in /othic cathedrals also an element

in aintings of this eriod*

1. The assage imlies that hich of the folloing as a traditional assumtion of

aesthetic hilosohers*

(A) :ntellectual elements in art e%ert a necessary control over artistic insiration.

(") Architecture has never again reached the artistic greatness of the /othic

cathedrals.

(#) Aesthetic hilosohy is determined by the technical necessities of art.

($) Artistic craftsmanshi is more imortant in architectural art than in ictorial

art.

(!) aintings lacked the intellectual element before the invention of linear ersective and anatomy.

+. The author mentions Elinear ersective and anatomyF in the last sentence in

order to do hich of the folloing*

(A) !%and his argument to include ainting as ell as architecture

(") :ndicate his disagreement ith #roce's theory of the origins of art

(#) ,uort his oint that rational order of some kind has often seemed to

disciline artistic insiration

($) !%lain the rational elements in /othic ainting that corresonded tocraftsmanshi in /othic architecture

(!) ,ho the increasing sohistication of artists after the /othic eriod

+(he passage below is drawn from an article published in 1IO5.

Computer programmers often remark that computing machines% with a

perfect lack of discrimination% will do any foolish thing they are told to do. (he

reason for this lies% of course% in the narrow xation of the computing machine’s

@intelligence on the details of its own perceptions0its inability to be guided by

any large context. n a psychological description of the computer intelligence%

three related ad/ectives come to mind< single-minded% literal-minded% andsimpleminded. $ecogni&ing this% we should at the same time recogni&e that this



GRE &&

single-mindedness% literal-mindedness% and simplemindedness also characteri&es

theoretical mathematics% though to a lesser extent.

9ince science tries to deal with reality% even the most precise sciences

normally work with more or less imperfectly understood approximations toward

which scientists must maintain an appropriate skepticism. (hus% for instance% it

may come as a shock to mathematicians to learn that the 9chrodinger e'uation

for the hydrogen atom is not a literally correct description of this atom% but only

an approximation to a somewhat more correct e'uation taking account of spin%

magnetic dipole% and relativistic e=ects4 and that this corrected e'uation is itself

only an imperfect approximation to an innite set of 'uantum eld-theoretical

e'uations. 6hysicists% looking at the original 9chrodinger e'uation% learn to sense

in it the presence of many invisible terms in addition to the di=erential terms

visible% and this sense inspires an entirely appropriate disregard for the purely

technical features of the e'uation. (his very healthy skepticism is foreign to themathematical approach.

>athematics must deal with well-dened situations. (hus% mathematicians

depend on an intellectual e=ort outside of mathematics for the crucial

specication of the approximation that mathematics is to take literally. 7ive

mathematicians a situation that is the least bit ill-dened% and they will make it

well-dened% perhaps appropriately% but perhaps inappropriately. n some cases%

the mathematicians’ literal-mindedness may have unfortunate conse'uences. (he

mathematicians turn the scientists’ theoretical assumptions% that is% their

convenient points of analytical emphasis% into axioms% and then take these axioms

literally. (his brings the danger that they may also persuade the scientists to take

these axioms literally. (he 'uestion% central to the scientic investigation but

intensely disturbing in the mathematical context0what happens if the axioms are

relaxedP0is thereby ignored.

(he physicist rightly dreads precise argument% since an argument that is

convincing only if it is precise loses all its force if the assumptions on which it is

based are slightly changed% whereas an argument that is convincing though

imprecise may well be stable under small perturbations of its underlying

assumptions.

+1. The author discusses comuting machines in the first aragrah rimarily in order

to do hich of the folloing*

(A) :ndicate the dangers inherent in relying to a great e%tent on machines

(") :llustrate his vies about the aroach of mathematicians to roblem solving

(#) #omare the ork of mathematicians ith that of comuter rogrammers

($) rovide one definition of intelligence

(!) !mhasize the imortance of comuters in modern technological society

++. According to the assage8 scientists are sketical toard their equations becausescientists



GRE &

(A) ork to e%lain real8 rather than theoretical or simlified8 situations

(") kno that ell-defined roblems are often the most difficult to solve

(#) are unable to e%ress their data in terms of multile variables

($) are unilling to rela% the a%ioms they have develoed

(!) are unable to accet mathematical e%lanations of natural henomena

+3. :t can be inferred from the assage that scientists make hich of the folloing

assumtions about scientific arguments*

(A) The literal truth of the arguments can be made clear only in a mathematical

conte%t.

(") The arguments necessarily ignore the central question of scientific

investigation.

(#) The arguments robably ill be convincing only to other scientists.

($) The conclusions of the arguments do not necessarily follo from their

remises.

(!) The remises on hich the arguments are based may change.

+9. According to the assage8 mathematicians resent a danger to scientists for hich

of the folloing reasons*

(A) @athematicians may rovide theories that are incomatible ith those

already develoed by scientists.

(") @athematicians may define situation in a ay that is incomrehensible to

scientists.

(#) @athematicians may convince scientists that theoretical assumtions are

facts.

($) ,cientists may come to believe that a%iomatic statements are untrue.

(!) ,cientists may begin to rovide arguments that are convincing but imrecise.

+;. The author suggests that the aroach of hysicists to solving scientific roblems

is hich of the folloing*

(A) ractical for scientific uroses

(") $etrimental to scientific rogress

(#) 6nimortant in most situations

($) !%edient8 but of little long-term value

(!) !ffective8 but rarely recognized as such

+<. The author suggests that a mathematician asked to solve a roblem in an ill-

defined situation ould first attemt to do hich of the folloing*

(A) :dentify an analogous situation

(") ,imlify and define the situation

(#) ?ary the underlying assumtions of a descrition of the situation



GRE

($) $etermine hat use ould be made of the solution rovided

(!) !valuate the theoretical assumtions that might e%lain the situation

+7. The author imlies that scientists develo a healthy sketicism because they are

aare that(A) mathematicians are better able to solve roblems than are scientists

(") changes in a%iomatic roositions ill inevitably undermine scientific

arguments

(#) ell-defined situations are necessary for the design of reliable e%eriments

($) mathematical solutions can rarely be alied to real roblems

(!) some factors in most situations must remain unknon

SECTION B

n eighteenth-century ;rance and England% reformers rallied around egalitarian

ideals% but few reformers advocated higher education for women. Although the

public decried women’s lack of education% it did not encourage learning for its own

sake for women. n spite of the general pre/udice against learned women% there

was one place where women could exhibit their erudition< the literary salon. >any

writers have dened the woman’s role in the salon as that of an intelligent

hostess% but the salon had more than a social function for women. t was an

informal university% too% where women exchanged ideas with educated persons%

read their own works and heard those of others% and received and gave criticism.

n the 1Q23’s% when salons were rmly established in ;rance% some English

women% who called themselves @"luestocking% followed the example of the

sa!onnieres +;rench salon hostesses and formed their own salons. >ost

"luestockings did not wish to mirror the sa!onnieres4 they simply desired to adapt

a proven formula to their own purpose0the elevation of women’s status through

moral and intellectual training. i=erences in social orientation and background

can account perhaps for di=erences in the nature of ;rench and English salons.

(he ;rench salon incorporated aristocratic attitudes that exalted courtly pleasure

and emphasi&ed artistic accomplishments. (he English "luestockings% originating

from a more modest background% emphasi&ed learning and work over pleasure.Accustomed to the regimented life of court circles% sa!onnieres tended toward

formality in their salons. (he English women% though somewhat puritanical% were

more casual in their approach.

At rst% the "luestockings did imitate the sa!onnieres by including men in their

circles. ,owever% as they gained cohesion% the "luestockings came to regard

themselves as a women’s group and to possess a sense of female solidarity

lacking in the sa!onnieres% who remained isolated from one another by the

primacy each held in her own salon. n an atmosphere of mutual support% the

"luestockings went beyond the salon experience. (hey traveled% studied% worked%wrote for publication% and by their activities challenged the stereotype of the



GRE 1

passive woman. Although the sa!onnieres were aware of sexual ine'uality% the

narrow boundaries of their world kept their intellectual pursuits within

conventional limits. >any sa!onnieres% in fact% camou#aged their nontraditional

activities behind the role of hostess and deferred to men in public.

(hough the "luestockings were trailbla&ers when compared with the

sa!onnieres% they were not feminists. (hey were too traditional% too hemmed in by

their generation to demand social and political rights. Bonetheless% in their desire

for education% their willingness to go beyond the connes of the salon in pursuing

their interests% and their championing of unity among women% the "luestockings

began the process of 'uestioning women’s role in society.

17. hich of the folloing best states the central idea of the assage*

(A) The establishment of literary salons as a resonse to reformers' demands for

social rights for omen.

(") Diterary salons ere originally intended to be a meeting ground for

intellectuals of both se%es8 but eventually became social gatherings ith

little educational value.

(#) :n !ngland8 as in >rance8 the general reudice against higher education for

omen limited omen's function in literary salons to a rimarily social one.

($) The literary salons rovided a sounding board for >rench and !nglish omen

ho called for access to all the educational institutions in their societies on

an equal basis ith men.

(!) >or omen8 ho did not have access to higher education as men did8 literarysalons rovided an alternate route to learning and a challenge to some of

society's basic assumtions about omen.

1&. According to the assage8 a significant distinction beteen the salonnieres and

"luestockings as in the ay each grou regarded hich of the folloing*

(A) The value of acquiring knoledge

(") The role of leasure in the activities of the literary salon

(#) The desirability of a comlete break ith societal traditions

($) The inclusion of omen of different backgrounds in the salons

(!) The attainment of full social and olitical equality ith men

1. The author refers to differences in social background beteen salonnieres and

"luestockings in order to do hich of the folloing*

(A) #riticize the vie that their choices of activities ere significantly influenced

by male salon members

(") $iscuss the reasons hy literary salons in >rance ere established before

those in !ngland

(#) Kuestion the imortance of the "luestockings in shaing ublic attitudes

toard educated omen



GRE +

($) 5efute the argument that the >rench salons had little influence over the

direction the !nglish salons took

(!) !%lain the differences in atmoshere and style in their salons

+. hich of the folloing statements is most comatible ith the rinciles of the salonnieres as described in the assage*

(A) omen should asire to be not only educated but indeendent as ell.

(") The duty of the educated omen is to rovide an active olitical model for

less educated omen.

(#) $evotion to leasure and art is ustified in itself.

($) ,ubstance8 rather than form8 is the most imortant consideration in holding a

literary salon.

(!) @en should be e%cluded from grous of omen's rights suorters.

+1. The assage suggests that the "luestockings might have had a more significant

imact on society if it had not been for hich of the folloing*

(A) #ometitiveness among their salons

(") Their emhasis on individualism

(#) The limited scoe of their activities

($) Their accetance of the >rench salon as a model for their on salons

(!) Their unillingness to defy aggressively the conventions of their age

++. hich of the folloing could best be considered a tentieth-century counterartof an eighteenth century literary salon as it is described in the assage*

(A) A social sorority

(") A community center

(#) A lecture course on art

($) A humanities study grou

(!) An association of moral reformers

+3. To an assertion that "luestockings ere feminists8 the author ould most

robably resond ith hich of the folloing*

(A) Admitted uncertainty

(") Kualified disagreement

(#) 6nquestioning aroval

($) #omlete indifference

(!) ,trong disaragement

+9. hich of the folloing titles best describes the content of the assage*

(A) !ighteenth-#entury !galitarianism

(") >eminists of the !ighteenth #entury



GRE 3

(#) !ighteenth-#entury recursors of >eminism

($) :ntellectual Dife in the !ighteenth #entury

(!) >emale !ducation 5eform in the !ighteenth #entury

!hen the same parameters and 'uantitative theory are used to analy&e both

termite colonies and troops of rhesus maca'ues% we will have a unied science of

sociobiology. Can this ever really happenP As my own studies have advanced%

have been increasingly impressed with the functional similarities between insect

and vertebrate societies and less so with the structural di=erences that seem% at

rst glance% to constitute such an immense gulf between them. Consider for a

moment termites and maca'ues. "oth form cooperative groups that occupy

territories. n both kinds of society there is a well-marked division of labor.

>embers of both groups communicate to each other hunger% alarm% hostility%

caste status or rank% and reproductive status. ;rom the specialist’s point of view%

this comparison may at rst seem facile0or worse. "ut it is out of such deliberateoversimplication that the beginnings of a general theory are made.

+;. hich of the folloing best summarizes the author's main oint*

(A) Bversimlified comarisons of animal societies could diminish the likelihood

of develoing a unified science of sociobiology.

(") 6nderstanding the ays in hich animals as different as termites and rhesus

macaques resemble each other requires train in both biology and sociology.

(#) @ost animals organize themselves into societies that e%hibit atterns of grou

behavior similar to those of human societies.($) Animals as different as termites and rhesus macaques follo certain similar

and redictable atterns of behavior.

(!) A study of the similarities beteen insect and vertebrate societies could

rovide the basis for a unified science of sociobiology.

+<. The author's attitude toard the ossibility of a unified theory in sociobiology is

best described as hich of the folloing*

(A) /uarded otimism

(") 6nqualified enthusiasm

(#) Bbective indifference

($) 5esignation

(!) $issatisfaction

+7. :n discussing insect and vertebrate societies8 the author suggests hich of the

folloing*

(A) A distinguishing characteristic of most insect and vertebrate societies is a

ell-marked division of labor.

(") The caste structure of insect societies is similar to that of vertebrate societies.

(#) @ost insect and vertebrate societies form cooerative grous in order to



GRE 9

occuy territory.

($) The means of communication among members of insect societies is similar to

that among members of vertebrate societies.

(!) There are significant structural differences beteen insect and vertebrate

societies.

No. 6-1

SECTION A

A mysterious phenomenon is the ability of over-water migrants to travel on

course. "irds% bees% and other species can keep track of time without any sensory

cues from the outside world% and such @biological clocks clearly contribute to

their @compass sense. ;or example% they can use the position of the 9un or stars%along with the time of day% to nd north. "ut compass sense alone cannot explain

how birds navigate the ocean< after a #ock traveling east is blown far south by a

storm% it will assume the proper northeasterly course to compensate. 6erhaps%

some scientists thought% migrants determine their geographic position on Earth by

celestial navigation% almost as human navigators use stars and planets% but this

would demand of the animals a fantastic map sense. $esearchers now know that

some species have a magnetic sense% which might allow migrants to determine

their geographic location by detecting variations in the strength of the Earth’s

magnetic eld.

17. The main idea of the assage is that

(A) migration over land requires a simler e%lanation than migration over ater

does

(") the means by hich animals migrate over ater are comle% and only artly

understood

(#) the ability of migrant animals to kee track of time is related to their magnetic

sense

($) knoledge of geograhic location is essential to migrants ith little or no

comass sense

(!) e%lanations of ho animals migrate tend to relace8 rather than build on8 one

another

1&. :t can be inferred from the assage that if the flock of birds described in lines &-

1+ ere navigating by comass sense alone8 they ould8 after the storm8 fly

(A) east

(") north

(#) northest

($) south



GRE ;

(!) southeast

1. :n maintaining that migrating animals ould need Ea fantastic ma senseF (line

17) to determine their geograhic osition by celestial navigation8 the author

intends to e%ress

(A) admiration for the ability of the migrants

(") sketicism about celestial navigation as an e%lanation

(#) certainly that the henomenon of migration ill remain mysterious

($) interest in a ne method of accounting for over-ater migration

(!) surrise that animals aarently navigate in much the same ay that human

beings do

+. Bf the folloing descritions of migrating animals8 hich most strongly suggests

that the animals are deending on magnetic cues to orient themselves*

(A) igeons can roerly readust their course even hen flying long distances

through e%ceedingly dense fogs.

(") "ison are able to reach their destination by assing through a landscae that

has been artially altered by a recent fire.

(#) !lehants are able to find grounds that some members of the herd have never

seen before.

($) ,allos are able to return to a given sot at the same time every year.

(!) @onarch butterflies coming from different arts of orth America are able to

arrive at the same location each inter.$oger $osenblatt’s book &!ack Fiction% in attempting to apply literary rather

than sociopolitical criteria to its sub/ect% successfully alters the approach taken by

most previous studies. As $osenblatt notes% criticism of "lack writing has often

served as a pretext for expounding on "lack history. Addison 7ayle’s recent work%

for example% /udges the value of "lack ction by overtly political standards% rating

each work according to the notions of "lack identity which it propounds.

Although ction assuredly springs from political circumstances% its authors

react to those circumstances in ways other than ideological% and talking about

novels and stories primarily as instruments of ideology circumvents much of thectional enterprise. $osenblatt’s literary analysis discloses a*nities and

connections among works of "lack ction which solely political studies have

overlooked or ignored.

!riting acceptable criticism of "lack ction% however% presupposes giving

satisfactory answers to a number of 'uestions. ;irst of all% is there a su*cient

reason% other than the racial identity of the authors% to group together works by

"lack authorsP 9econd% how does "lack ction make itself distinct from other

modern ction with which it is largely contemporaneousP $osenblatt shows that

"lack ction constitutes a distinct body of writing that has an identiable%

coherent literary tradition. ooking at novels written by "lacks over the last eighty



GRE <

years% he discovers recurring concerns and designs independent of chronology.

(hese structures are thematic% and they spring% not surprisingly% from the central

fact that the "lack characters in these novels exist in a predominantly !hite

culture% whether they try to conform to that culture of rebel against it.

&!ack Fiction does leave some aesthetic 'uestions open. $osenblatt’s

thematic analysis permits considerable ob/ectivity4 he even explicitly states that it

is not his intention to /udge the merit of the various works0yet his reluctance

seems misplaced% especially since an attempt to appraise might have led to

interesting results. ;or instance% some of the novels appear to be structurally

di=use. s this a defect% or are the authors working out of% or trying to forge% a

di=erent kind of aestheticP n addition% the style of some "lack novels% like ean

(oomer’s Cane% verges on expressionism or surrealism4 does this techni'ue

provide a counterpoint to the prevalent theme that portrays the fate against

which "lack heroes are pitted% a theme usually conveyed by more naturalisticmodes of expressionP

n spite of such omissions% what $osenblatt does include in his discussion

makes for an astute and worthwhile study. &!ack Fiction surveys a wide variety of

novels% bringing to our attention in the process some fascinating and little-known

works like ames !eldon ohnson’s 'uto(iogra)h" of an *+Co!ored Man. ts

argument is tightly constructed% and its forthright% lucid style exemplies

levelheaded and penetrating criticism.

+1. The author of the assage obects to criticism of "lack fiction like that by

Addison /ayle because it(A) emhasizes urely literary asects of such fiction

(") misinterrets the ideological content of such fiction

(#) misunderstands the notions of "lack identity contained in such fiction

($) substitutes olitical for literary criteria in evaluating such fiction

(!) ignores the interlay beteen "lack history and "lack identity dislayed in

such fiction

++. The author of the assage is rimarily concerned ith

(A) evaluating the soundness of a ork of criticism

(") comaring various critical aroaches to a subect

(#) discussing the limitations of a articular kind of criticism

($) summarizing the maor oints made in a ork of criticism

(!) e%laining the theoretical background of a certain kind of criticism

+3. The author of the assage believes that Black Fiction ould have been imroved

had 5osenblatt

(A) evaluated more carefully the ideological and historical asects of "lack

fiction



GRE 7

(") attemted to be more obective in his aroach to novels and stories by "lack

authors

(#) e%lored in greater detail the recurrent thematic concerns of "lack fiction

throughout its history

($) established a basis for lacing "lack fiction ithin its on unique literary

tradition

(!) assessed the relative literary merit of the novels he analyzes thematically

+9. The author's discussion of Black Fiction can be best described as

(A) edantic and contentious

(") critical but admiring

(#) ironic and derecating

($) argumentative but unfocused

(!) stilted and insincere

+;. :t can be inferred that the author of the assage ould be D!A,T likely to

arove of hich of the folloing*

(A) An analysis of the influence of olitical events on the ersonal ideology of

"lack rites

(") A critical study that alies socioolitical criteria to autobiograhies by "lack

authors

(#) A literary study of "lack oetry that araises the merits of oems according

to the olitical accetability of their themes

($) An e%amination of the groth of a distinct "lack literary tradition ithin the

conte%t of "lack history

(!) A literary study that attemts to isolate aesthetic qualities unique to "lack

fiction

+<. The author of the assage uses all of the folloing in the discussion of

5osenblatt's book !C#!T

(A) rhetorical questions

(") secific e%amles(#) comarison and contrast

($) definition of terms

(!) ersonal oinion

+7. The author of the assage refers to 2ames eldon 2ohnson's Autobiograph of an

!"#$olored Man most robably in order to

(A) oint out affinities beteen 5osenblatt's method of thematic analysis and

earlier criticism

(") clarify the oint about e%ressionistic style made earlier in the assage



GRE &

(#) qualify the assessment of 5osenblatt's book made in the first aragrah of the

assage

($) illustrate the affinities among "lack novels disclosed by 5osenblatt's literary

analysis

(!) give a secific e%amle of one of the accomlishments of 5osenblatt's ork

SECTION B

(he molecules of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere a=ect the heat

balance of the Earth by acting as a one-way screen. Although these molecules

allow radiation at visible wavelengths% where most of the energy of sunlight is

concentrated% to pass through% they absorb some of the longer-wavelength%

infrared emissions radiated from the Earth’s surface% radiation that would

otherwise be transmitted back into space. ;or the Earth to maintain a constant

average temperature% such emissions from the planet must balance incoming

solar radiation. f there were no carbon dioxide in the atmosphere% heat would

escape from the Earth much more easily. (he surface temperature would be so

much lower that the oceans might be a solid mass of ice.

(oday% however% the potential problem is too much carbon dioxide. (he

burning of fossil fuels and the clearing of forests have increased atmospheric

carbon dioxide by about 12 percent in the last hundred years% and we continue to

add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Could the increase in carbon dioxide cause

a global rise in average temperature% and could such a rise have serious

conse'uences for human societyP >athematical models that allow us to calculate

the rise in temperature as a function of the increase indicate that the answer is

probably yes.

8nder present conditions a temperature of-1N℃ can be observed at an

altitude of 2 to O kilometers above the Earth. "elow this altitude +called the

radiating level% the temperature increases by about O℃ per kilometer

approaching the Earth’s surface% where the average temperature is about 12℃.

An increase in the amount of carbon dioxide means that there are more molecules

of carbon dioxide to absorb infrared radiation. As the capacity of the atmosphere

to absorb infrared radiation increases% the radiating level and the temperature ofthe surface must rise.

?ne mathematical model predicts that doubling the atmospheric carbon

dioxide would raise the global mean surface temperature by 5.2℃. (his model

assumes that the atmosphere’s relative humidity remains constant and the

temperature decreases with altitude at a rate of O.2℃ per kilometer. (he

assumption of constant relative humidity is important% because water vapor in the

atmosphere is another e*cient absorber of radiation at infrared wavelengths.

"ecause warm air can hold more moisture than cool air% the relative humidity will

be constant only if the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere increases as thetemperature rises. (herefore% more infrared radiation would be absorbed and



GRE

reradiated back to the Earth’s surface. (he resultant warming at the surface could

be expected to melt snow and ice% reducing the Earth’s re#ectivity. >ore solar

radiation would then be absorbed% leading to a further increase in temperature.


(A) arn of the dangers of continued burning of fossil fuels

(") discuss the significance of increasing the amount of carbon dio%ide in the

atmoshere

(#) e%lain ho a constant temerature is maintained on the !arth's surface

($) describe the ays in hich various atmosheric and climatic conditions

contribute to the !arth's eather

(!) demonstrate the usefulness of mathematical models in redicting long-range

climatic change

1&. According to the assage8 the greatest art of the solar energy that reaches the

!arth is

(A) concentrated in the infrared sectrum

(") concentrated at visible avelengths

(#) absorbed by carbon dio%ide molecules

($) absorbed by atmosheric ater vaor

(!) reflected back to sace by sno and ice

1. According to the assage8 atmosheric carbon dio%ide erforms all of the

folloing functions !C#!T=

(A) absorbing radiation at visible avelengths

(") absorbing infrared radiation

(#) absorbing outgoing radiation from the !arth

($) heling to retain heat near the !arth's surface

(!) heling to maintain a constant average temerature on the !arth's surface

+. hich of the folloing best describes the author's attitude toard the increasing

amount of carbon dio%ide in the atmoshere and its consequences*

(A) :ncredulous

(") #omletely detached

(#) :nterested but sketical

($) Angry yet resigned

(!) Bbective yet concerned

+1. :t can be concluded from information contained in the assage that the average

temerature at an altitude of 1 kilometer above the !arth is about

(A) 1;℃

(") ℃



GRE 1

(#) +.;℃

($) -1+℃

(!) -1&℃

++. :t can be inferred from the assage that the construction of the mathematicalmodel mentioned in the assage involved the formulation of hich of the

folloing*

(A) An assumtion that the amount of carbon dio%ide added to the atmoshere

ould in reality steadily increase

(") An assumtion that human activities are the only agencies by hich carbon

dio%ide is added to the atmoshere

(#) Assumtions about the social and olitical consequences of any curtailment

of the use of fossil fuels

($) Assumtions about the hysical conditions that are likely to revail during the eriod for hich the model as made

(!) Assumtions about the differential behavior of carbon dio%ide molecules at

the various levels of temerature calculated in the model

+3. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing is true of the last hundred

years*

(A) >ossil fuels ere burned for the first time.

(") /reater amounts of land ere cleared than at any time before.

(#) The average temerature at the !arth's surface has become +℃ cooler.($) The amount of carbon dio%ide in the atmoshere has increased measurably.

(!) The amount of farmland orldide has doubled.

9ome modern anthropologists hold that biological evolution has shaped not

only human morphology but also human behavior. (he role those anthropologists

ascribe to evolution is not of dictating the details of human behavior but one of

imposing constraints0ways of feeling% thinking% and acting that @come naturally

in archetypal situations in any culture. ?ur @frailties0emotions and motives such

as rage% fear% greed% gluttony% /oy% lust% love0may be a very mixed assortment%

but they share at least one immediate 'uality< we are% as we say% @in the grip ofthem. And thus they give us our sense of constraints.

8nhappily% some of those frailties0our need for ever-increasing security

among them0are presently maladaptive. Det beneath the overlay of cultural

detail% they% too% are said to be biological in direction% and therefore as natural to

us as are our appendixes. !e would need to comprehend thoroughly their

adaptive origins in order to understand how badly they guide us now. And we

might then begin to resist their pressure.

+9. The rimary urose of the assage is to resent

(A) a osition on the foundations of human behavior and on hat those



GRE 11

foundations imly

(") a theory outlining the arallel develoment of human morhology and of

human behavior

(#) a diagnostic test for searating biologically determined behavior atterns

from culture-secific detail

($) a ractical method for resisting the ressures of biologically determined

drives

(!) an overvie of those human emotions and motives that imose constraints on

human behavior

+;. The author imlies that control to any e%tent over the EfrailtiesF that constrain our

behavior is thought to resuose

(A) that those frailties are recognized as currently beneficial and adative

(") that there is little or no overlay of cultural detail that masks their true nature

(#) that there are cultures in hich those frailties do not Ecome naturallyF and

from hich such control can be learned

($) a full understanding of hy those frailties evolved and of ho they function

no

(!) a thorough gras of the rincile that cultural detail in human behavior can

differ arbitrarily from society to society

+<. hich of the folloing most robably rovides an aroriate analogy from

human morhology for the EdetailsF versus EconstraintsF distinction made in the assage in relation to human behavior*

(A) The ability of most eole to see all the colors of the visible sectrum as

against most eole's inability to name any but the rimary colors

(") The ability of even the least fortunate eole to sho comassion as against

eole's inability to mask their feelings comletely

(#) The ability of some eole to dive to great deths as against most eole's

inability to sim long distances

($) The sychological rofile of those eole ho are able to delay gratification

as against eole's inability to control their lives comletely

(!) The greater lung caacity of mountain eoles that hels them live in o%ygen-

oor air as against eole's inability to fly ithout secial aaratus

+7. :t can be inferred that in his discussion of maladative frailties the author assumes

that

(A) evolution does not favor the emergence of adative characteristics over the

emergence of maladative ones

(") any structure or behavior not ositively adative is regarded as transitory in

evolutionary theory

(#) maladative characteristics8 once fi%ed8 make the emergence of other



GRE 1+

maladative characteristics more likely

($) the designation of a characteristic as being maladative must alays remain

highly tentative

(!) changes in the total human environment can outace evolutionary change

No. 6-2

SECTION A

!hether the languages of the ancient American peoples were used for

expressing abstract universal concepts can be clearly answered in the case of

Bahuatl. Bahuatl% like 7reek and 7erman% is a language that allows the formation

of extensive compounds. "y the combination of radicals or semantic elements%

single compound words can express complex conceptual relations% often of anabstract universal character.

(he t!a$atini$e +@those who know were able to use this rich stock of

abstract terms to express the nuances of their thought. (hey also availed

themselves of other forms of expression with metaphorical meaning% some

probably original% some derived from (oltec coinages. ?f these forms the most

characteristic in Bahuatl is the /uxtaposition of two words that% because they are

synonyms% associated terms% or even contraries% complement each other to evoke

one single idea. 8sed as metaphor% the /uxtaposed terms connote specic or

essential traits of the being they refer to% introducing a mode of poetry as analmost habitual form of expression.

17. A main urose of the assage is to

(A) delineate the function of the tla%atini%e in ahuatl society

(") e%lain the abstract hilosohy of the ahuatl thinkers

(#) argue against a theory of oetic e%ression by citing evidence about the

ahuatl

($) e%lore the rich metahorical heritage the ahuatl received from the Toltecs

(!) describe some concetual and aesthetic resources of the ahuatl language

1&. According to the assage8 some abstract universal ideas can be e%ressed in

ahuatl by

(A) taking aay from a ord any reference to articular instances

(") removing a ord from its associations ith other ords

(#) giving a ord a ne and oosite meaning

($) utting various meaningful elements together in one ord

(!) turning each ord of a hrase into a oetic metahor

1. :t can be inferred solely from the information in the assage that



GRE 13

(A) there are many languages that8 like /reek or /erman8 allo e%tensive

comounding

(") all abstract universal ideas are ideas of comle% relations

(#) some record or evidence of the thought of the tla%atini%e e%ists

($) metahors are alays used in ahuatl to e%ress abstract concetual

relationshis

(!) the abstract terms of the ahuatl language are habitually used in oetry

>any theories have been formulated to explain the role of gra&ers such as

&ooplankton in controlling the amount of planktonic algae +phytoplankton in

lakes. (he rst theories of such gra&er control were merely based on observations

of negative correlations between algal and &ooplankton numbers. A low number of

algal cells in the presence of a high number of gra&ers suggested% but did not

prove% that the gra&ers had removed most of the algae. (he converse observation%

of the absence of gra&ers in areas of high phytoplankton concentration% led ,ardy

to propose his principle of animal exclusion% which hypothesi&ed that

phytoplankton produced a repellent that excluded gra&ers from regions of high

phytoplankton concentration. (his was the rst suggestion of algal defenses

against gra&ing.

6erhaps the fact that many of these rst studies considered only algae of a

si&e that could be collected in a net +net phytoplankton% a practice that

overlooked the smaller phytoplankton +nannoplankton that we now know gra&ers

are most likely to feed on% led to a de-emphasis of the role of gra&ers in

subse'uent research. ncreasingly% as in the individual studies of und% $ound% and

$eynolds% researchers began to stress the importance of environmental factors

such as temperature% light% and water movements in controlling algal numbers.

(hese environmental factors were amenable to eld monitoring and to simulation

in the laboratory. 7ra&ing was believed to have some e=ect on algal numbers%

especially after phytoplankton growth rates declined at the end of bloom periods%

but gra&ing was considered a minor component of models that predicted algal

population dynamics.

(he potential magnitude of gra&ing pressure on freshwater phytoplankton has

only recently been determined empirically. 9tudies by ,argrave and 7eenestimated natural community gra&ing rates by measuring feeding rates of

individual &ooplankton species in the laboratory and then computing community

gra&ing rates for eld conditions using the known population density of gra&ers.

(he high estimates of gra&ing pressure postulated by these researchers were not

fully accepted% however% until the gra&ing rates of &ooplankton were determined

directly in the eld% by means of new experimental techni'ues. 8sing a specially

prepared feeding chamber% ,aney was able to record &ooplankton gra&ing rates in

natural eld conditions. n the periods of peak &ooplankton abundance% that is% in

the late spring and in the summer% ,aney recorded maximum daily community

gra&ing rates% for nutrient-poor lakes and bog lakes% respectively% of O.O percent



GRE 19

and 11G percent of daily phytoplankton production. Cladocerans had higher

gra&ing rates than copepods% usually accounting for N3 percent of the community

gra&ing rate. (hese rates varied seasonally% reaching the lowest point in the

winter and early spring. ,aney’s thorough research provides convincing eld

evidence that gra&ers can exert signicant pressure on phytoplankton population.

+. The author most likely mentions 4ardy's rincile of animal e%clusion in order to

(A) give an e%amle of one theory about the interaction of grazers and

hytolankton

(") defend the first theory of algal defenses against grazing

(#) suort the contention that hytolankton numbers are controlled rimarily

by environmental factors

($) demonstrate the sueriority of laboratory studies of zoolankton feeding rates

to other kinds of studies of such rates(!) refute researchers ho believed that lo numbers of hytolankton indicated

the grazing effect of lo numbers of zoolankton

+1. :t can be inferred from the assage that the Efirst theoriesF of grazer control

mentioned in line 9 ould have been more convincing if researchers had been

able to

(A) observe high hytolankton numbers under natural lake conditions

(") discover negative correlations beteen algae and zoolankton numbers from

their field research

(#) understand the central imortance of environmental factors in controlling the

groth rates of hytolankton

($) make verifiable correlations of cause and effect beteen zoolankton and

hytolankton numbers

(!) invent laboratory techniques that ould have alloed them to byass their

field research concerning grazer control

++. hich of the folloing8 if true8 ould call into question 4ardy's rincile of

animal e%clusion*

(A) Loolankton are not the only organisms that are affected by hytolanktonreellents.

(") Loolankton e%clusion is unrelated to hytolankton oulation density.

(#) Loolankton oulation density is higher during some arts of the year than

during others.

($) et hytolankton are more likely to e%clude zoolankton than are

nannolankton.

(!) hytolankton numbers can be strongly affected by environmental factors.

+3. The author ould be likely to agree ith hich of the folloing statementsregarding the ressure of grazers on hytolankton numbers*



GRE 1;

:. /razing ressure can vary according to the individual tye of zoolankton.

::. /razing ressure can be loer in nutrient-oor lakes than in bog lakes.

:::. /razing tends to e%ert about the same ressure as does temerature.

(A) : only

(") ::: only

(#) : and :: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+9. The assage sulies information to indicate that 4argrave and /een's

conclusion regarding the grazing ressure e%erted by zoolankton on

hytolankton numbers as most similar to the conclusion regarding grazing

ressure reached by hich of the folloing researchers*

(A) 4ardy

(") Dund

(#) 5ound

($) 5eynolds

(!) 4aney

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that one ay in hich many of the early

researchers on grazer control could have imroved their data ould have been to

(A) emhasize the effects of temerature8 rather than of light8 on hytolankton

(") disregard nannolankton in their analysis of hytolankton numbers

(#) collect hytolankton of all sizes before analyzing the e%tent of

hytolankton concentration

($) recognize that hytolankton other than net hytolankton could be collected

in a net

(!) understand the crucial significance of net hytolankton in the diet of

zoolankton

+<. According to the assage8 4argrave and /een did hich of the folloing in their

e%eriments*

(A) They comared the grazing rates of individual zoolankton secies in the

laboratory ith the natural grazing rates of these secies.

(") The hyothesized about the oulation density of grazers in natural habitats

by using data concerning the oulation density of grazers in the laboratory.

(#) They estimated the community grazing rates of zoolankton in the laboratory

by using data concerning the natural community grazing rates of

zoolankton.

($) They estimated the natural community grazing rates of zoolankton by using

data concerning the knon oulation density of hytolankton.



GRE 1<

(!) They estimated the natural community grazing rates of zoolankton by using

laboratory data concerning the grazing rates of individual zoolankton

secies.

+7. hich of the folloing is a true statement about the zoolankton numbers and

zoolankton grazing rates observed in 4aney's e%eriments*

(A) hile zoolankton numbers began to decline in August8 zoolankton grazing

rates began to increase.

(") Although zoolankton numbers ere high in @ay8 grazing rates did not

become high until 2anuary.

(#) "oth zoolankton numbers and grazing rates ere higher in $ecember than in

ovember.

($) "oth zoolankton numbers and grazing rates ere loer in @arch than in

2une.(!) "oth zoolankton numbers and grazing rates ere highest in >ebruary.

SECTION B

,ydrogeology is a science dealing with the properties% distribution% and

circulation of water on the surface of the land% in the soil and underlying rocks%

and in the atmosphere. (he hydrologic cycle% a ma/or topic in this science% is the

complete cycle of phenomena through which water passes% beginning as

atmospheric water vapor% passing into li'uid and solid form as precipitation%

thence along and into the ground surface% and nally again returning to the form

of atmospheric water vapor by means of evaporation and transpiration.

(he term @geohydrology is sometimes erroneously used as a synonym for

@hydrogeology. 7eohydrology is concerned with underground water. (here are

many formations that contain water but are not part of the hydrologic cycle

because of geologic changes that have isolated them underground. (hese

systems are properly termed geohydrologic but not hydrogeologic. ?nly when a

system possesses natural or articial boundaries that associate the water within it

with the hydrologic cycle may the entire system properly be termed

hydrogeologic.

17. The author's rimary urose is most robably to

(A) resent a hyothesis

(") refute an argument

(#) correct a misconcetion

($) redict an occurrence

(!) describe an enigma

1&. :t can be inferred that hich of the folloing is most likely to be the subect of

study by a geohydrologist*



GRE 17

(A) ,oft8 orous rock being orn aay by a aterfall

(") ater deositing minerals on the banks of a gorge through hich the ater

runs

(#) The traing of ater in a sealed underground rock cavern through the action

of an earthquake

($) ater becoming unfit to drink through the release of ollutants into it from a

manufacturing lant

(!) The changing course of a river channel as the action of the ater ears aay

the rocks ast hich the river flos

1. The author refers to Emany formationsF (line 1<) rimarily in order to

(A) clarify a distinction

(") introduce a subect

(#) dra an analogy

($) emhasize a similarity

(!) resolve a conflict

(he historian ;rederick . (urner wrote in the 1NI3’s that the agrarian

discontent that had been developing steadily in the 8nited 9tates since about

1NQ3 had been precipitated by the closing of the internal frontier0that is% the

depletion of available new land needed for further expansion of the American

farming system. Bot only was (urner’s thesis in#uential at the time% it was later

adopted and elaborated by other scholars% such as ohn . ,icks in The Po)u!ist

%e-o!t +1I:1. Actually% however% new lands were taken up for farming in the

8nited 9tates throughout and beyond the nineteenth century. n the 1NI3’s% when

agrarian discontent had become most acute% 1%133%333 new farms were settled%

which was 233%333 more than had been settled during the previous decade. After

1NI3% under the terms of the ,omestead Act and its successors% more new land

was taken up for farming than had been taken up for this purpose in the 8nited

9tates up until that time. t is true that a high proportion of the newly farmed land

was suitable only for gra&ing and dry farming% but agricultural practices had

become su*ciently advanced to make it possible to increase the protability of

farming by utili&ing even these relatively barren lands.

(he emphasis given by both scholars and statesmen to the presumed

disappearance of the American frontier helped to obscure the great importance of

changes in the conditions and conse'uences of international trade that occurred

during the second half of the nineteenth century. n 1NOI the 9ue& Canal was

opened and the rst transcontinental railroad in the 8nited 9tates was completed.

An extensive network of telegraph and telephone communications was spun<

Europe was connected by submarine cable with the 8nited 9tates in 1NOO and

with 9outh America in 1NQG. "y about 1NQ3 improvements in agricultural

technology made possible the full exploitation of areas that were most suitable forextensive farming on a mechani&ed basis. ,uge tracts of land were being settled



GRE 1&

and farmed in Argentina% Australia% Canada% and in the American !est% and these

areas were /oined with one another and with the countries of Europe into an

interdependent market system. As a conse'uence% agrarian depressions no longer

were local or national in scope% and they struck several nations whose internal

frontiers had not vanished or were not about to vanish. "etween the early 1NQ3’sand the 1NI3’s% the mounting agrarian discontent in America paralleled the

almost uninterrupted decline in the prices of American agricultural products on

foreign markets. (hose staple-growing farmers in the 8nited 9tates who exhibited

the greatest discontent were those who had become most dependent on foreign

markets for the sale of their products. nsofar as Americans had been deterred

from taking up new land for farming% it was because market conditions had made

this period a perilous time in which to do so.

+. The author is rimarily concerned ith

(A) shoing that a certain interretation is better suorted by the evidence thanis an alternative e%lanation

(") develoing an alternative interretation by using sources of evidence that

formerly had been unavailable

(#) questioning the accuracy of the evidence that most scholars have used to

counter the author's on interretation

($) revieing the evidence that formerly had been thought to obscure a valid

interretation

(!) resenting evidence in suort of a controversial version of an earlier

interretation

+1. According to the author8 changes in the conditions of international trade resulted

in an

(A) underestimation of the amount of ne land that as being famed in the

6nited ,tates

(") underutilization of relatively small but rich lots of land

(#) overe%ansion of the orld transortation netork for shiing agricultural

roducts

($) e%tension of agrarian deressions beyond national boundaries

(!) emhasis on the imortance of market forces in determining the rices of

agricultural roducts

++. The author imlies that the change in the state of the American farmer's morale

during the latter art of the nineteenth century as traceable to the American

farmer's increasing ercetion that the

(A) costs of cultivating the land ere rohibitive ithin the 6nited ,tates

(") develoment of the first transcontinental railroad in the 6nited ,tates

occurred at the e%ense of the American farmer



GRE 1

(#) American farming system as about to run out of the ne farmland that as

required for its e%ansion

($) rices of American agricultural roducts ere deteriorating esecially raidly

on domestic markets

(!) roceeds from the sales of American agricultural roducts on foreign markets

ere unsatisfactory

+3. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing occurred rior to 1&*

(A) >rederick 2. Turner's thesis regarding the American frontier became

influential.

(") The 4omestead Act led to an increase in the amount of nely farmed land in

the 6nited ,tates.

(#) The manufacturers of technologically advanced agricultural machinery

raidly increased their marketing efforts.($) $irect lines of communication ere constructed beteen the 6nited ,tates

and ,outh America.

(!) Technological advances made it fruitful to farm e%tensively on a mechanized

basis.

+9. The author imlies that8 after certain territories and countries had been oined into

an interdeendent market system in the nineteenth century8 agrarian deressions

ithin that system

(A) sread to several nations8 e%cluding those in hich the internal frontier

remained oen

(") manifested themselves in several nations8 including those in hich ne land

remained available for farming

(#) sloed don the ace of ne technological develoments in international

communications and transortation

($) affected the local and national rices of the nonagricultural roducts of

several nations

(!) encouraged several nations to sell more of their agricultural roducts on

foreign markets

+;. The author rovides information concerning nely farmed lands in the 6nited

,tates (lines 11-+7) as evidence in direct suort of hich of the folloing*

(A) A roosal by >rederick 2. Turner that as later disuted by 2ohn $. 4icks

(") An elaboration by 2ohn $. 4icks of a thesis that formerly had been

questioned by >rederick 2. Turner

(#) The established vie that as disuted by those scholars ho adoted the

thesis of >rederick 2. Turner

($) The thesis that imortant changes occurred in the nature of international trade

during the second half of the nineteenth century



GRE 11

(!) The vie that the American frontier did not become closed during the

nineteenth century or soon thereafter

+<. The author imlies that the cause of the agrarian discontent as

(A) masked by the vagueness of the official records on nely settled farms(") overshadoed by disutes on the reliability of the e%isting historical evidence

(#) misidentified as a result of influential but erroneous theorizing

($) overlooked because of a reoccuation ith market conditions

(!) undetected because visible indications of the cause occurred so gradually and

soradically

+7. The author's argument imlies that8 comared to the yearly rice changes that

actually occurred on foreign agricultural markets during the 1&&'s8 American

farmers ould have most referred yearly rice changes that ere

(A) much smaller and in the same direction

(") much smaller but in the oosite direction

(#) slightly smaller and in the same direction

($) similar in size but in the oosite direction

(!) slightly greater and in the same direction

No. 6-3

SECTION A

(he use of heat pumps has been held back largely by skepticism about

advertisers’ claims that heat pumps can provide as many as two units of thermal

energy for each unit of electrical energy used% thus apparently contradicting the

principle of energy conservation. ,eat pumps circulate a #uid refrigerant that

cycles alternatively from its li'uid phase to its vapor phase in a closed loop. (he

refrigerant% starting as a low-temperature% low-pressure vapor% enters a

compressor driven by an electric motor. (he refrigerant leaves the compressor as

a hot% dense vapor and #ows through a heat exchanger called the condenser%

which transfers heat from the refrigerant to a body of air. Bow the refrigerant% as a

high-pressure% cooled li'uid% confronts a #ow restriction which causes the pressure

to drop. As the pressure falls% the refrigerant expands and partially vapori&es%

becoming chilled. t then passes through a second heat exchanger% the

evaporator% which transfers heat from the air to the refrigerant% reducing the

temperature of this second body of air. ?f the two heat exchangers% one is located

inside% and the other one outside the house% so each is in contact with a di=erent

body of air< room air and outside air% respectively.

(he #ow direction of refrigerant through a heat pump is controlled by valves.

!hen the refrigerant #ow is reversed% the heat exchangers switch function. (his



GRE 111

#ow-reversal capability allows heat pumps either to heat or cool room air. Bow% if

under certain conditions a heat pump puts out more thermal energy than it

consumes in electrical energy% has the law of energy conservation been

challengedP Bo% not even remotely< the additional input of thermal energy into the

circulating refrigerant via the evaporator accounts for the di=erence in the energye'uation.

8nfortunately% there is one real problem. (he heating capacity of a heat pump

decreases as the outdoor temperature falls. (he drop in capacity is caused by the

lessening amount of refrigerant mass moved through the compressor at one time.

(he heating capacity is proportional to this mass #ow rate< the less the mass of

refrigerant being compressed% the less the thermal load it can transfer through

the heat-pump cycle. (he volume #ow rate of refrigerant vapor through the

single-speed rotary compressor used in heat pumps is approximately constant.

"ut cold refrigerant vapor entering a compressor is at lower pressure than warmervapor. (herefore% the mass of cold refrigerant0and thus the thermal energy it

carries0is less than if the refrigerant vapor were warmer before compression.

,ere% then% lies a genuine drawback of heat pumps< in extremely cold climates

0where the most heat is needed0heat pumps are least able to supply enough

heat.


(A) e%lain the differences in the orking of a heat um hen the outdoor

temerature changes

(") contrast the heating and the cooling modes of heat ums

(#) describe heat ums8 their use8 and factors affecting their use

($) advocate the more idesread use of heat ums

(!) e%ose e%travagant claims about heat ums as false

1&. The author resolves the question of hether heat ums run counter to the

rincile of energy conservation by

(A) carefully qualifying the meaning of that rincile

(") ointing out a factual error in the statement that gives rise to this question

(#) sulying additional relevant facts

($) denying the relevance of that rincile to heat ums

(!) e%laining that heat ums can cool8 as ell as heat8 room air

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that8 in the course of a heating season8 the

heating caacity of a heat um is greatest hen

(A) heating is least essential

(") electricity rates are loest

(#) its comressor runs the fastest

($) outdoor temeratures hold steady



GRE 11+

(!) the heating demand surges

+. :f the author's assessment of the use of heat ums (lines 1-<) is correct8 hich of

the folloing best e%resses the lesson that advertisers should learn from this

case*

(A) $o not make e%aggerated claims about the roducts you are trying to

romote.

(") >ocus your advertising camaign on vague analogies and veiled imlications

instead of on facts.

(#) $o not use facts in your advertising that ill strain the rosective client's

ability to believe.

($) $o not assume in your advertising that the rosective clients kno even the

most elementary scientific rinciles.

(!) #oncentrate your advertising firmly on financially relevant issues such as rice discounts and efficiency of oeration.

+1. The assage suggests that heat ums ould be used more idely if

(A) they could also be used as air conditioners

(") they could be moved around to suly heat here it is most needed

(#) their heat outut could be thermostatically controlled

($) models ith truly suerior cooling caacity ere advertised more effectively

(!) eole areciated the role of the evaorator in the energy equation

++. According to the assage8 the role of the flo restriction (lines 1<-17) in a heat

um is to

(A) measure accurately the flo rate of the refrigerant mass at that oint

(") comress and heat the refrigerant vaor

(#) bring about the evaoration and cooling of refrigerant

($) e%change heat beteen the refrigerant and the air at that oint

(!) reverse the direction of refrigerant flo hen needed

+3. The author regards the notion that heat ums have a genuine draback as a

(A) cause for regret

(") sign of remature defeatism

(#) elcome challenge

($) case of sloy thinking

(!) focus for an educational camaign

All of ;rancoise uparc’s surviving paintings blend portraiture and genre. ,er

sub/ects appear to be ac'uaintances whom she has asked to pose4 she has

captured both their self-consciousness and the spontaneity of their everyday

activities% the depiction of which characteri&es genre painting. "ut genre painting%



GRE 113

especially when it portrayed members of the humblest classes% was never popular

in eighteenth-century ;rance. (he e Bain brothers and 7eorges de a (our% who

also chose such themes% were largely ignored. (heir present high standing is due

to a di=erent% more democratic political climate and to di=erent aesthetic values<

we no longer re'uire artists to provide ideal images of humanity for our moraledication but rather regard such ideali&ation as a falsication of the truth.

uparc gives no improving message and discreetly refrains from /udging her

sub/ects. n brief% her works neither elevate nor instruct. (his restraint largely

explains her lack of popular success during her lifetime% even if her talent did not

go completely unrecogni&ed by her eighteenth-century ;rench contemporaries.

+9. According to the assage8 modern vieers are not likely to value hich of the

folloing qualities in a ainting*

(A) The technical elements of the ainting

(") The sontaneity of the ainting

(#) The moral lesson imarted by the ainting

($) The degree to hich the ainting realistically deicts its subect

(!) The degree to hich the artist's ersonality is revealed in the ainting

+;. :f the history of $uarc's artistic reutation ere to follo that of the De ain

brothers and /eorges de Da Tour8 resent-day assessments of her ork ould be

likely to contain hich of the folloing*

(A) An evaluation that accords high status to her ork

(") Acknoledgement of her technical e%ertise but dismissal of her subect

matter as trivial

(#) Agreement ith assessments made in her on time but acknoledgements of

the e%cetional quality of a fe of her aintings

($) lacement of her among the foremost artists of her century

(!) A reclassification of her ork as ortraiture rather than genre ainting

+<. :t can be inferred from the assage that the term Egenre aintingF ould most

likely aly to hich of the folloing*

(A) A ainting deicting a glorious moment of victory folloing a battle

(") A ainting illustrating a narrative from the "ible

(#) A ortrayal of a mythological /reek goddess

($) A ortrayal of a servant engaged in his ork

(!) A formal ortrait of an eighteenth-century king

+7. The argument of the assage best suorts hich of the folloing contentions

concerning udgments of artistic ork*

(A) Aesthetic udgments can be influenced by the olitical beliefs of those

making the udgment.



GRE 119

(") 2udgments of the value of an artist's ork made by his or her contemoraries

must be discounted before a true udgment can be made.

(#) @odern aesthetic taste is once again moving in the direction of regarding

idealistic ainting as the most desirable form of ainting.

($) :n order to be highly regarded8 an artist cannot be solely identified ith one

articular kind of ainting.

(!) ,ontaneity is the most valuable quality a ortrait ainter can have.

SECTION B

>ycorrhi&al fungi infect more plants than do any other fungi and are

necessary for many plants to thrive% but they have escaped widespread

investigation until recently for two reasons. ;irst% the symbiotic association is so

well-balanced that the roots of host plants show no damage even when denselyinfected. 9econd% the fungi cannot as yet be cultivated in the absence of a living

root. espite these di*culties% there has been important new work that suggests

that this symbiotic association can be harnessed to achieve more economical use

of costly superphosphate fertili&er and to permit better exploitation of cheaper%

less soluble rock phosphate. >ycorrhi&al benets are not limited to improved

phosphate uptake in host plants. n legumes% mycorrhi&al inoculation has

increased nitrogen xation beyond levels achieved by adding phosphate fertili&er

alone. Certain symbiotic associations also increase the host plant’s resistance to

harmful root fungi. !hether this resistance results from exclusion of harmful fungi

through competition for sites% from metabolic change involving antibiotic

production% or from increased vigor is undetermined.

17. hich of the folloing most accurately describes the assage*

(A) A descrition of a relicable e%eriment

(") A summary reort of ne findings

(#) A recommendation for abandoning a difficult area of research

($) A refutation of an earlier hyothesis

(!) A confirmation of earlier research

1&. The level of information in the assage above is suited to the needs of all of the

folloing eole !C#!T=

(A) a researcher hose ob is to identify otentially rofitable areas for research

and roduct develoment

(") a state official hose osition requires her to alert farmers about ossible

innovations in farming

(#) an official of a research foundation ho identifies research roects for

otential funding

($) a biologist attemting to kee u ith scientific develoments in an area



GRE 11;

outside of his immediate area of secialization

(!) a botanist conducting e%eriments to determine the relationshi beteen

degree of mycorrhizal infection and e%ected utake of hoshate

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that hich of the folloing has been a factorinfluencing the e%tent to hich research on mycorrhizal fungi has rogressed*

(A) Dack of funding for such research

(") Dack of immediate alication of such research

(#) Dack of a method for identifying mycorrhizal fungi

($) $ifficulties surrounding laboratory roduction of secimens for study

(!) $ifficulties ensuing from the high cost and scarcity of suerhoshate

fertilizers

+. The assage suggests hich of the folloing about the increased resistance toharmful root fungi that some lants infected ith mycorrhizal fungi seem to

e%hibit*

(A) There are at least three hyotheses that might account for the increase.

(") An e%lanation lies in the fact that mycorrhizal fungi increase more raidly in

number than harmful root fungi do.

(#) The lants that sho increased resistance also e%hibit imroved nitrogen

fi%ation.

($) ,uch increases may be indeendent of mycorrhizal infection.

(!) :t is unlikely that a satisfactory e%lanation can be found to account for theincrease.

n the early 1I23’s% historians who studied preindustrial Europe +which we

may dene here as Europe in the period from roughly 1:33 to 1N33 began% for

the rst time in large numbers% to investigate more of the preindustrial European

population than the 5 or : percent who comprised the political and social elite< the

kings% generals% /udges% nobles% bishops% and local magnates who had hitherto

usually lled history books. ?ne di*culty% however% was that few of the remaining

IQ percent recorded their thoughts or had them chronicled by contemporaries.

;aced with this situation% many historians based their investigations on the onlyrecords that seemed to exist< birth% marriage% and death records. As a result%

much of the early work on the nonelite was aridly statistical in nature4 reducing

the vast ma/ority of the population to a set of numbers was hardly more

enlightening than ignoring them altogether. ,istorians still did not know what

these people thought or felt.

?ne way out of this dilemma was to turn to the records of legal courts% for

here the voices of the nonelite can most often be heard% as witnesses% plainti=s%

and defendants. (hese documents have acted as @a point of entry into the mental

world of the poor. ,istorians such as e $oy adurie have used the documents to

extract case histories% which have illuminated the attitudes of di=erent social



GRE 11<

groups +these attitudes include% but are not conned to% attitudes toward crime

and the law and have revealed how the authorities administered /ustice. t has

been societies that have had a developed police system and practiced $oman law%

with its written depositions% whose court records have yielded the most data to

historians. n Anglo-9axon countries hardly any of these benets obtain% but it hasstill been possible to glean information from the study of legal documents.

(he extraction of case histories is not% however% the only use to which court

records may be put. ,istorians who study preindustrial Europe have used the

records to establish a series of categories of crime and to 'uantify indictments

that were issued over a given number of years. (his use of the records does yield

some information about the nonelite% but this information gives us little insight

into the mental lives of the nonelite. !e also know that the number of indictments

in preindustrial Europe bears little relation to the number of actual criminal acts%

and we strongly suspect that the relationship has varied widely over time. naddition% aggregate population estimates are very shaky% which makes it di*cult

for historians to compare rates of crime per thousand in one decade of the

preindustrial period with rates in another decade. 7iven these inade'uacies% it is

clear why the case history use of court records is to be preferred.

+1. The author suggests that8 before the early 1;'s8 most historians ho studied

reindustrial !uroe did hich of the folloing*

(A) >ailed to make distinctions among members of the reindustrial !uroean

olitical and social elite.

(") 6sed investigatory methods that ere almost e%clusively statistical in nature.

(#) :naccurately estimated the influence of the reindustrial !uroean olitical

and social elite.

($) #onfined their ork to a narro range of the reindustrial !uroean

oulation.

(!) Tended to rely heavily on birth8 marriage8 and death records.

++. According to the assage8 the case histories e%tracted by historians have

(A) scarcely illuminated the attitudes of the olitical and social elite

(") indicated the manner in hich those in oer aortioned ustice

(#) focused almost entirely on the thoughts and feelings of different social grous

toard crime and the la

($) been considered the first kind of historical riting that utilized the records of

legal courts

(!) been based for the most art on the trial testimony of olice and other legal

authorities

+3. :t can be inferred from the assage that much of the early ork by historians on

the !uroean nonelite of the reindustrial eriod might have been moreilluminating if these historians had



GRE 117

(A) used different methods of statistical analysis to investigate the nonelite

(") been more successful in identifying the attitudes of civil authorities8

esecially those ho administered ustice8 toard the nonelite

(#) been able to dra on more accounts8 ritten by contemoraries of the

nonelite8 that described hat this nonelite thought

($) relied more heavily on the ersonal records left by members of the !uroean

olitical and social elite ho lived during the eriod in question

(!) been more illing to base their research on the birth8 marriage8 and death

records of the nonelite

+9. The author mentions De 5oy Dadurie (line +<) in order to

(A) give an e%amle of a historian ho has made one kind of use of court records

(") cite a historian ho has based case histories on the birth8 marriage8 and death

records of the nonelite

(#) identify the author of the quotation cited in the revious sentence

($) gain authoritative suort for the vie that the case history aroach is the

most fruitful aroach to court records

(!) oint out the first historian to realize the value of court records in illuminating

the beliefs and values of the nonelite

+;. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing is true of indictments for crime

in !uroe in the reindustrial eriod*

(A) They have8 in terms of their numbers8 remained relatively constant over time.(") They give the historian imortant information about the mental lives of those

indicted.

(#) They are not a articularly accurate indication of the e%tent of actual criminal

activity.

($) Their imortance to historians of the nonelite has been generally

overestimated.

(!) Their roblematic relationshi to actual crime has not been acknoledged by

most historians.

+<. :t can be inferred from the assage that a historian ho ished to comare crime

rates er thousand in a !uroean city in one decade of the fifteenth century ith

crime rates in another decade of that century ould robably be most aided by

better information about hich of the folloing*

(A) The causes of unrest in the city during the to decades

(") The aggregate number of indictments in the city nearest to the city under

investigation during the to decades

(#) The number of eole ho lived in the city during each of the decades under

investigation



GRE 11&

($) The mental attitudes of criminals in the city8 including their feelings about

authority8 during each of the decades under investigation

(!) The ossibilities for a member of the city's nonelite to become a member of

the olitical and social elite during the to decades

+7. The assage ould be most likely to aear as art of

(A) a book revie summarizing the achievements of historians of the !uroean

aristocracy

(") an essay describing trends in the ractice of riting history

(#) a te%tbook on the alication of statistical methods in the social sciences

($) a reort to the historical rofession on the ork of early-tentieth-century

historians

(!) an article urging the adotion of historical methods by the legal rofession

No. 7-1

SECTION A

?ur visual perception depends on the reception of energy re#ecting or

radiating from that which we wish to perceive. f our eyes could receive and

measure innitely delicate sense-data% we could perceive the world with innite

precision. (he natural limits of our eyes have% of course% been extended by

mechanical instruments4 telescopes and microscopes% for example% expand ourcapabilities greatly. (here is% however% an ultimate limit beyond which no

instrument can take us4 this limit is imposed by our inability to receive sense-data

smaller than those conveyed by an individual 'uantum of energy. 9ince these

'uanta are believed to be indivisible packages of energy and so cannot be further

rened% we reach a point beyond which further resolution of the world is not

possible. t is like a drawing a child might make by sticking indivisible discs of

color onto a canvas.

!e might think that we could avoid this limitation by using 'uanta with

extremely long wavelengths4 such 'uanta would be su*ciently sensitive to

convey extremely delicate sense-data. And these 'uanta would be useful% as long

as we only wanted to measure energy% but a completely accurate perception of

the world will depend also on the exact measurement of the lengths and positions

of what we wish to perceive. ;or this% 'uanta of extremely long wavelengths are

useless. (o measure a length accurately to within a millionth of an inch% we must

have a measure graduated in millionths of an inch4 a yardstick graduated in

inches in useless. Ruanta with a wavelength of one inch would be% in a sense%

measures that are graduated in inches. Ruanta of extremely long wavelength are

useless in measuring anything except extremely large dimensions.

espite these di*culties% 'uanta have important theoretical implications for



GRE 11

physics. t used to be supposed that% in the observation of nature% the universe

could be divided into two distinct parts% a perceiving sub/ect and a perceived

ob/ect. n physics% sub/ect and ob/ect were supposed to be entirely distinct% so that

a description of any part of the universe would be independent of the observer.

(he 'uantum theory% however% suggests otherwise% for every observation involvesthe passage of a complete 'uantum from the ob/ect to the sub/ect% and it now

appears that this passage constitutes an important coupling between observer

and observed. !e can no longer make a sharp division between the two in an

e=ort to observe nature ob/ectively. 9uch an attempt at ob/ectivity would distort

the crucial interrelatioship of observer and observed as parts of a single whole.

"ut% even for scientists% it is only in the world of atoms that this new development

makes any appreciable di=erence in the explanation of observations.


(A) discuss a roblem that hinders recise ercetion of the orld

(") oint out the inadequacies of acceted units of measurement

(#) criticize attemts to distinguish beteen erceiving subects and erceived

obects

($) comare and contrast rival scientific hyotheses about ho the orld should

be measured and observed

(!) suggest the limited function of sensory observation

1&. According to the assage8 quanta ith an e%tremely long avelength cannot be

used to give comlete information about the hysical orld because they(A) e%ist indeendently of sense-data

(") are graduated only in inches

(#) have an insignificant amount of energy

($) cannot8 ith resent-day instruments8 be isolated from quanta of shorter

avelength

(!) rovide an insufficiently recise means of measuring length and osition

1. hich of the folloing describes a situation most analogous to the situation

discussed in lines -13*(A) A mathematician can only solve roblems the solution of hich can be

deduced from knon a%iom.

(") An animal can resond to no command that is more comlicated syntactically

than any it has reviously received.

(#) A vieer ho has not learned8 at least intuitively8 the conventions of ainting8

cannot understand ersective in a draing.

($) A sensitized film ill record no detail on a scale that is smaller than the grain

of the film.

(!) A shado cast on a screen by an oaque obect ill have shar edge only if



GRE 1+

the light source is small or very distant.

+. The author uses the analogy of the child's draing (lines 17-1) rimarily in

order to

(A) illustrate the ultimate limitation in the recision of sense-data conveyed byquanta

(") sho the sense of hellessness scientists feel in the face of significant

observational roblems

(#) anticiate the obections of the those scientists ho believe that no

instrumental aid to observation is entirely reliable

($) e%emlify the similarities beteen ackages of energy and varieties of color

(!) disarage those scientists ho believe that measurement by means of quanta

offers an accurate icture of the orld

+1. The author imlies that making a shar division beteen subect and obect in

hysics is

(A) ossible in a measurement o obect's length and osition8 but not in a

measurement of its energy

(") still theoretically ossible in the small-scale orld of atoms and electrons

(#) ossible in the case of observations involving the assage of a comlete

quantum

($) no longer an entirely accurate ay to describe observation of the universe

(!) a goal at hich scientists still aim

++. The author's use of the hrase Ein a senseF (line 39) imlies hich of the

folloing*

(A) Kuanta of e%tremely long avelength are essentially graduated in inches.

(") quanta of one-inch avelength are not recisely analogous to yardsticks

graduated in inches.

(#) Kuanta of e%tremely long avelength8 in at least on e resect8 resemble

quanta of shorter avelength.

($) quanta of on-inch avelength and quanta of e%tremely long avelength donot differ only in their avelengths.

(!) quanta of one-inch avelength must be measured by different standards than

quanta of e%tremely long avelength.

+3. According to the assage8 the quantum theory can be distinguished from revious

theories of hysics by its

(A) insistence on scruulously recise mathematical formulations

(") understanding of the inherent interrelationshi of erceiver and erceived

(#) recognition of the need for sohisticated instruments of measurement

($) emhasis on small-scale rather than on large-scale henomena



GRE 1+1

(!) regard for hilosohical issues as ell as for strictly scientific ones

(illie ?lsen’s ction and essays have been widely and rightly acknowledged as

ma/or contributions to American literature. ,er work has been particularly valued

by contemporary feminists. Det few of ?lsen’s readers reali&e the extent to which

her vision and choice of sub/ect are rooted in an earlier literary heritage0the

tradition of radical political thought% mostly socialist and anarchist% of the 1I13’s

and 1I53’s% and the ?ld eft tradition of the 1I:3’s. do not mean that one can

ade'uately explain the elo'uence of her work in terms of its political origins% or

that left-wing politics were the single most important in#uence on it. >y point is

that its central consciousness0its profound understanding of class and gender as

shaping in#uences on people’s lives0owes much to that earlier literary heritage%

a heritage that% in general% has not been su*ciently valued by most contemporary

literary critics.


(A) argue that Blsen's understanding of class and gender is her greatest gift as a

riter

(") acknoledge Blsen's imortance as the leading sokeserson for a radical

literary heritage

(#) oint out a literary heritage to hich Blsen's ork is related

($) urge literary critics to investigate the origins of a literary heritage

(!) suggest that Blsen's ork has been laced in a literary heritage to hich it

does not belong

+;. According to the author8 hich of the folloing is true of the heritage mentioned

in the assage*

(A) :t emhasizes gender as the determinate influence on eole's lives.

(") :t has been the most imortant influence on Blsen's ork.

(#) :t includes olitical traditions that san three decades of the tentieth century.

($) :t e%lains the eloquence but not the subect matter of Blsen's ork.

(!) :t reflects rimarily the develoment of socialist olitical thought in the early

tentieth century.+<. :n the sentence E: do not I influence on itF (lines 1-19)8 the author dos hich of

the folloing*

(A) "roadens an e%isting classification.

(") #ontradicts the assage's central thesis.

(#) Kualifies a commonly acceted oint of vie.

($) resents conflicting e%lanations for a henomenon.

(!) $enies ossible interretations of an earlier assertion.

+7. According to the author8 Blsen's ork has been



GRE 1++

(A) rightly acknoledged for its contribution to olitical thought

(") thought to reresent the beginning of ne literary tradition

(#) a needed imetus for social change

($) most clearly influenced by feminism

(!) deservedly admired by readers

SECTION B

Currently% the paramount problem in the eld of biomaterials% the science of

replacing diseased tissue with human-made implants% is control over the interface%

or surface% between implanted biomaterials and living tissues. (he physical

properties of most tissues can be matched by careful selection of raw materials<

metals% ceramics% or several varieties of polymer materials. Even the re'uirement

that biomaterials processed from these materials be nontoxic to host tissue canbe met by techni'ues derived from studying the reactions of tissue cultures to

biomaterials or from short-term implants. "ut achieving necessary matches in

physical properties across interfaces between living and non-living matter re'uires

knowledge of which molecules control the bonding of cells to each other0an area

that we have not yet explored thoroughly. Although recent research has allowed

us to stabili&e the tissue-biomaterial interface by controlling either the chemical

reactions or the microstructure of the biomaterial% our fundamental understanding

of how implant devices adhere to tissues remains woefully incomplete.

17. According to the assage8 the maor roblem currently facing scientists in thefield of biomaterials is

(A) assessing and regulating the bonding beteen host tissue and imlants

(") controlling the transfer of otentially to%ic materials across the interface of

tissue and imlant

(#) discovering ne materials from hich to construct imlant devices

($) deciding in hat situations imlants are needed

(!) determining the imortance of short-term imlants to long-term stability of

tissue-imlant interfaces

1&. The assage suggests hich of the folloing about the recent research mentioned

in lines 1-+;*

(A) :t has solved one set of roblems but has created another.

(") :t has concentrated on secondary concerns but has ignored rimary concerns.

(#) :t has imroved ractical alications of biomaterial technology ithout

roviding a comlete theoretical e%lanation of that imrovement.

($) :t has thoroughly investigated roerties of biomaterials but has aid little

attention to relevant characteristics of human tissue.

(!) :t has rovided considerable information on short-term imlant technology



GRE 1+3

but little on long-term imlant technology.

1. The author's rimary urose is to

(A) anser a theoretical question in the field of biomaterials

(") discuss the current state of technology in the field of biomaterials(#) resolve a research disute in the field of biomaterial

($) redict an ethical crisis for biomaterials researchers

(!) suggest some ractical benefits of biomaterial imlants

slamic law is a particularly instructive example of @sacred law. slamic law is

a phenomenon so di=erent from all other forms of law0notwithstanding% of

course% a considerable and inevitable number of coincidences with one or the

other of them as far as sub/ect matter and positive enactments are concerned0

that its study is indispensable in order to appreciate ade'uately the full range of

possible legal phenomena. Even the two other representatives of sacred law that

are historically and geographically nearest to it% ewish law and $oman Catholic

canon law% are perceptibly di=erent.

"oth ewish law and canon law are more uniform than slamic law. (hough

historically there is a discernible break between ewish law of the sovereign state

of ancient srael and of the iaspora +the dispersion of ewish people after the

con'uest of srael% the spirit of the legal matter in later parts of the ?ld

(estament is very close to that of the (almud% one of the primary codications of

ewish law in the iaspora. slam% on the other hand% represented a radical

breakaway from the Arab paganism that preceded it4 slamic law is the result of anexamination% from a religious angle% of legal sub/ect matter that was far from

uniform% comprising as it did the various components of the laws of pre-slamic

Arabia and numerous legal elements taken over from the non-Arab peoples of the

con'uered territories. All this was unied by being sub/ected to the same kind of

religious scrutiny% the impact of which varied greatly% being almost nonexistent in

some elds% and in others originating novel institutions. (his central duality of

legal sub/ect matter and religious norm is additional to the variety of legal%

ethical% and ritual rules that is typical of sacred law.

n its relation to the secular state% slamic law di=ered from both ewish and

canon law. ewish law was buttressed by the cohesion of the community%

reinforced by pressure from outside4 its rules are the direct expression of this

feeling of cohesion% tending toward the accommodation of dissent. Canon and

slamic aw% on the contrary% were dominated by the dualism of religion and state%

where the state was not% in contrast with udaism% an alien power but the political

expression of the same religion. "ut the con#ict between state and religion took

di=erent forms4 in Christianity it appeared as the struggle for political power on

the part of a tightly organi&ed ecclesiastical hierarchy% and canon law was one of

its political weapons. slamic law% on the other hand% was never supported by an

organi&ed institution4 conse'uently% there never developed an overt trial of



GRE 1+9

strength. (here merely existed discordance between application of the sacred law

and many of the regulations framed by slamic states4 this antagonism varied

according to place and time.

+. The author's urose in comaring :slamic la to 2eish la and canon la is

most robably to

(A) contend that traditional legal subect matter does not lay a large role in

:slamic la

(") suort his argument that :slamic la is a unique kind of legal henomenon

(#) emhasize the variety of forms that can all be considered sacred la

($) rovide an e%amle of ho he believes comarative institutional study should

be undertaken

(!) argue that geograhical and historical ro%imity does not necessarily lead to

arallel institutional develoment

+1. The assage rovides information to anser hich of the folloing questions*

(A) $oes :slamic la deend on sources other than Arab legal rinciles*

(") hat secular ractices of :slamic states conflicted ith :slamic la*

(#) Are 2eish la and canon la the most tyical e%amles of sacred la*

($) :s 2eish la more uniform than canon la*

(!) hat characterized Arab la of the re-:slamic era*

++. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing statements about sacred la is

correct*

(A) The various systems of sacred la originated in a limited geograhical area.

(") The various systems of sacred la have had marked influence on one another.

(#) ,ystems of sacred la usually rely on a ide variety of recedents.

($) ,ystems of sacred la generally contain rescritions governing diverse

asects of human activity.

(!) ,ystems of sacred la function most effectively in communities ith

relatively small oulations.

+3. :t can be inferred from the assage that the alication of :slamic la in :slamic

states has

(A) systematically been oosed by grous ho believe it is contrary to their

interests

(") suffered irrearably from the lack of firm institutional backing

(#) frequently been at odds ith the legal activity of government institutions

($) remained unaffected by the olitical forces oerating alongside it

(!) benefited from the fact that it never e%erienced a direct confrontation ith

the state



GRE 1+;

+9. hich of the folloing most accurately describes the organization of the

assage*

(A) A universal rincile is advanced and then discussed in relation to a articular

historical henomenon.

(") A methodological innovation is suggested and then e%amles of its efficacy

are rovided.

(#) A traditional interretation is questioned and then modified to include ne

data.

($) A general oinion is e%ressed and then suortive illustrations are advanced.

(!) A controversial vieoint is resented and then both suortive evidence and

contradictory evidence are cited.

+;. The assage imlies that the relationshi of :slamic8 2eish8 and canon la is

correctly described by hich of the folloing statements*:. "ecause each constitutes an e%amle of sacred la8 they necessarily share

some features.

::. They each develoed in reaction to the interference of secular olitical

institutions.

:::. The differences among them result artly from their differing emhasis on

urely ethical rules.

(A) : only

(") ::: only

(#) : and :: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+<. The assage suggests that canon la differs from :slamic la in that only canon

la

(A) contains rescritions that nonsacred legal systems might regard as roerly

legal

(") concerns itself ith the duties of a erson in regard to the community as a

hole

(#) as affected by the tension of the conflict beteen religion and state

($) develoed in a olitical environment that did not challenge its fundamental

e%istence

(!) layed a role in the direct confrontation beteen institutions vying for oer

+7. All of the folloing statements about the develoment of :slamic la are imlied

in the assage !C#!T=

(A) re-:slamic legal rinciles ere incororated into :slamic la ith idely

differing degrees of change.



GRE 1+<

(") $iverse legal elements ere oined together through the alication of a

urely religious criterion.

(#) Although some of the sources of :slamic la ere agan8 its integrity as a

sacred la as not comromised by their incororation.

($) There as a fundamental shared characteristic in all re-:slamic legal matter

taken over by :slamic la.

(!) Although :slam emerged among the Arabs8 :slamic la as influenced by

ethnically diverse elements.

No. 7-2

SECTION A

Eight percent of the Earth’s crust is aluminum% and there are hundreds of

aluminum-bearing minerals and vast 'uantities of the rocks that contain them.

(he best aluminum ore is bauxite% dened as aggregates of aluminous minerals%

more or less impure% in which aluminum is present as hydrated oxides. "auxite is

the richest of all those aluminous rocks that occur in large 'uantities% and it yields

alumina% the intermediate product re'uired for the production of aluminum.

Alumina also occurs naturally as the mineral corundum% but corundum is not

found in large deposits of high purity% and therefore it is an impractical source for

making aluminum. >ost of the many abundant nonbauxite aluminous minerals

are silicates% and% like all silicate minerals% they are refractory% resistant toanalysis% and extremely di*cult to process. (he aluminum silicates are therefore

generally unsuitable alternatives to bauxite because considerably more energy is

re'uired to extract alumina from them.

17. The author imlies that a mineral must either be or readily suly hich of the

folloing in order to be classified as an aluminum ore*

(A) An aggregate

(") "au%ite

(#) Alumina

($) #orundum

(!) An aluminum silicate

1&. The assage sulies information for ansering all of the folloing questions

regarding aluminous minerals !C#!T=

(A) hat ercentage of the aluminum in the !arth's crust is in the form of

bau%ite*

(") Are aluminum-bearing nonbau%ite minerals lentiful*

(#) $o the aluminous minerals found in bau%ite contain hydrated o%ides*

($) Are aluminous hydrated o%ides found in rocks*



GRE 1+7

(!) $o large quantities of bau%ite e%ist*

1. The author imlies that corundum ould be used to roduce aluminum if

(A) corundum could be found that is not contaminated by silicates

(") the roduction of alumina could be eliminated as an intermediate ste inmanufacturing aluminum

(#) many large deosits of very high quality corundum ere to be discovered

($) ne technologies ere to make it ossible to convert corundum to a silicate

(!) manufacturers ere to realize that the orld's suly of bau%ite is not

unlimited

(raditionally% the study of history has had xed boundaries and focal points0

periods% countries% dramatic events% and great leaders. t also has had clear and

rm notions of scholarly procedure< how one in'uires into a historical problem%

how one presents and documents one’s ndings% what constitutes admissible and

ade'uate proof.

Anyone who has followed recent historical literature can testify to the

revolution that is taking place in historical studies. (he currently fashionable

sub/ects come directly from the sociology catalog< childhood% work% leisure. (he

new sub/ects are accompanied by new methods. !here history once was primarily

narrative% it is now entirely analytic. (he old 'uestions @!hat happenedP and

@,ow did it happenP have given way to the 'uestion @!hy did it happenP

6rominent among the methods used to answer the 'uestion @!hy is

psychoanalysis% and its use has given rise to psychohistory.

6sychohistory does not merely use psychological explanations in historical

contexts. ,istorians have always used such explanations when they were

appropriate and when there was su*cient evidence for them. "ut this pragmatic

use of psychology is not what psychohistorians intend. (hey are committed% not

/ust to psychology in general% but to ;reudian psychoanalysis. (his commitment

precludes a commitment to history as historians have always understood it.

6sychohistory derives its @facts not from history% the detailed records of events

and their conse'uences% but from psychoanalysis of the individuals who made

history% and deduces its theories not from this or that instance in their lives% but

from a view of human nature that transcends history. t denies the basic criterion

of historical evidence< that evidence be publicly accessible to% and therefore

assessable by% all historians. And it violates the basic tenet of historical method<

that historians be alert to the negative instances that would refute their theses.

6sychohistorians% convinced of the absolute rightness of their own theories% are

also convinced that theirs is the @deepest explanation of any event% that other

explanations fall short of the truth.

6sychohistory is not content to violate the discipline of history +in the sense of

the proper mode of studying and writing about the past4 it also violates the past

itself. t denies to the past an integrity and will of its own% in which people acted



GRE 1+&

out of a variety of motives and in which events had a multiplicity of causes and

e=ects. t imposes upon the past the same determinism that it imposes upon the

present% thus robbing people and events of their individuality and of their

complexity. nstead of respecting the particularity of the past% it assimilates all

events% past and present% into a single deterministic schema that is presumed tobe true at all times and in all circumstances.

+. hich of the folloing best states the main oint of the assage*

(A) The aroach of sychohistorians to historical study is currently in vogue

even though it lacks the rigor and verifiability of traditional historical

method.

(") Traditional historians can benefit from studying the techniques and findings

of sychohistorians.

(#) Areas of sociological study such as childhood and ork are of little interest to

traditional historians.

($) The sychological assessment of an individual's behavior and attitudes is

more informative than the details of his or her daily life.

(!) 4istory is comosed of unique and nonreeating events that must be

individually analyzed on the basis of ublicly verifiable evidence.

+1. :t can be inferred from the assage that one ay in hich traditional history can

be distinguished from sychohistory is that traditional history usually

(A) vies ast events as comle% and having their on individuality

(") relies on a single interretation of human behavior to e%lain historical events

(#) interrets historical events in such a ay that their secific nature is

transcended

($) turns to sychological e%lanations in historical conte%ts to account for

events

(!) relies strictly on data that are concrete and quantifiable

++. :t can be inferred from the assage that the methods used by sychohistorians

robably revent them from

(A) resenting their material in chronological order

(") roducing a one-sided icture of an individual's ersonality and motivations

(#) uncovering alternative e%lanations that might cause them to question their

on conclusions

($) offering a consistent interretation of the imact of ersonality on historical

events

(!) recognizing connections beteen a government's olitical actions and the

asirations of government leaders

+3. The assage sulies information for ansering hich of the folloingquestions*



GRE 1+

(A) hat are some secific e%amles of the use of sychohistory in historical

interretation*

(") hen ere the conventions governing the ractice of traditional history first

established*

(#) hen do traditional historians consider sychological e%lanations of

historical develoments aroriate*

($) hat sort of historical figure is best suited for sychohistorical analysis*

(!) hat is the basic criterion of historical evidence required by traditional

historians*

+9. The author mentions hich of the folloing as a characteristic of the ractice of

sychohistorians*

(A) The lives of historical figures are resented in eisodic rather than narrative

form.(") Archives used by sychohistorians to gather material are not accessible to

other scholars.

(#) ast and current events are all laced ithin the same deterministic schema.

($) !vents in the adult life of a historical figure are seen to be more consequential

than are those in the childhood of the figure.

(!) Analysis is focused on grou behavior rather than on articular events in an

individual's life.

+;. The author of the assage suggests that sychohistorians vie history rimarilyas

(A) a reort of events8 causes8 and effects that is generally acceted by historians

but hich is8 for the most art8 unverifiable

(") an eisodic account that lacks cohesion because records of the role of

childhood8 ork8 and leisure in the lives of historical figures are rare

(#) an uncharted sea of seemingly une%lainable events that have meaning only

hen e%amined as discrete units

($) a record of the ay in hich a closed set of immutable sychological las

seems to have shaed events

(!) a roof of the e%istence of intricate causal interrelationshis beteen ast and

resent events

+<. The author of the assage uts the ord EdeeestF (line 99) in quotation marks

most robably in order to

(A) signal her reservations about the accuracy of sychohistorians' claims for

their ork

(") dra attention to a contradiction in the sychohistorians' method

(#) emhasize the maor difference beteen the traditional historians' methodand that of sychohistorians



GRE 13

($) disassociate her oinion of the sychohistorians' claims from her oinion of

their method

(!) question the usefulness of sychohistorians' insights into traditional historical

scholarshi

+7. :n resenting her analysis8 the author does all of the folloing !C#!T=

(A) @ake general statement ithout reference to secific e%amles.

(") $escribe some of the criteria emloyed by traditional historians.

(#) Kuestion the adequacy of the sychohistorians' interretation of events.

($) oint out inconsistencies in the sychohistorians' alication of their

methods.

(!) #ontrast the underlying assumtions of sychohistorians ith those of

traditional historians.

SECTION B

ean !agner’s most enduring contribution to the study of Afro-American

poetry is his insistence that it be analy&ed in a religious% as well as secular% frame

of reference. (he appropriateness of such an approach may seem self-evident for

a tradition commencing with spirituals and owing its early forms% rhythms%

vocabulary% and evangelical fervor to !esleyan hymnals. "ut before !agner a

secular outlook that analy&ed "lack poetry solely within the context of political

and social protest was dominant in the eld.

t is !agner who rst demonstrated the essential fusion of racial and religious

feeling in Afro-American poetry. (he two% he argued% form a symbiotic union in

which religious feelings are often applied to racial issues and racial problems are

often pro/ected onto a metaphysical plane. !agner found this most elo'uently

illustrated in the "lack spiritual% where the desire for freedom in this world and the

hope for salvation in the next are inextricably intertwined.


(A) contrast the theories of 2ean agner ith those of other contemorary critics

(") document the influence of 2ean agner on the develoment of Afro-American oetry

(#) e%lain the relevance of 2ean agner's ork to the study of Afro-American

religion

($) indicate the imortance of 2ean agner's analysis of Afro-American oetry

(!) resent the contributions of 2ean agner to the study of "lack sirituals

1&. All of the folloing asects of Afro-American oetry are referred to in the

assage as having been influenced by esleyan hymnals !C#!T=

(A) subect matter



GRE 131

(") ord choice

(#) rhythm

($) structure

(!) tone

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that8 before agner8 most students of Afro-

American oetry did hich of the folloing*

(A) #ontributed areciably to the transfer of olitical rotest from Afro-

American oetry to direct olitical action.

(") :gnored at least some of the historical roots of Afro-American oetry.

(#) Analyzed fully the asects of social rotest to be found in such traditional

forms of Afro-American oetry as the "lack siritual.

($) 5egarded as unimortant the develoment of fervent emotionalism in a

ortion of Afro-American oetry.

(!) #oncentrated on the comle% relations beteen the technical elements in

Afro-American oetry and its olitical content.

(wo relatively recent independent developments stand behind the current

ma/or research e=ort on nitrogen xation% the process by which bacteria

symbiotically render leguminous plants independent of nitrogen fertili&er. (he one

development has been the rapid% sustained increase in the price of nitrogen

fertili&er. (he other development has been the rapid growth of knowledge of and

technical sophistication in genetic engineering. ;ertili&er prices% largely tied to the

price of natural gas% huge amounts of which go into the manufacture of fertili&er%

will continue to represent an enormous and escalating economic burden on

modern agriculture% spurring the search for alternatives to synthetic fertili&ers.

And genetic engineering is /ust the sort of fundamental breakthrough that opens

up prospects of wholly novel alternatives. ?ne such novel idea is that of inserting

into the chromosomes of plants discrete genes that are not a part of the plants’

natural constitution< specically% the idea of inserting into nonleguminous plants

the genes% if they can be identied and isolated% that t the leguminous plants to

be hosts for nitrogen-xing bacteria. ,ence% the intensied research on legumes.

Bitrogen xation is a process in which certain bacteria use atmosphericnitrogen gas% which green plants cannot directly utili&e% to produce ammonia% a

nitrogen compound plants can use. t is one of nature’s great ironies that the

availability of nitrogen in the soil fre'uently sets an upper limit on plant growth

even though the plants’ leaves are bathed in a sea of nitrogen gas. (he

leguminous plants0among them crop plants such as soybeans% peas% alfalfa% and

clover0have solved the nitrogen supply problem by entering into a symbiotic

relationship with the bacterial genus %hizo(iu$4 as a matter of fact% there is a

specic strain of %hizo(iu$ for each species of legume. (he host plant supplies

the bacteria with food and a protected habitat and receives surplus ammonia in

exchange. ,ence% legumes can thrive in nitrogen-depleted soil.



GRE 13+

8nfortunately% most of the ma/or food crops0including mai&e% wheat% rice%

and potatoes0cannot. ?n the contrary% many of the high-yielding hybrid varieties

of these food crops bred during the 7reen $evolution of the 1IO3’s were selected

specically to give high yields in response to generous applications of nitrogen

fertili&er. (his poses an additional% formidable challenge to plant geneticists< theymust work on enhancing xation within the existing symbioses. 8nless they

succeed% the yield gains of the 7reen $evolution will be largely lost even if the

genes in legumes that e'uip those plants to enter into a symbiosis with nitrogen

xers are identied and isolated% and even if the transfer of those gene

complexes% once they are found% becomes possible. (he overall task looks

forbidding% but the stakes are too high not to undertake it.


(A) e%ose the fragile nature of the foundations on hich the high yields of

modern agriculture rest

(") argue that genetic engineering romises to lead to even higher yields than are

achievable ith synthetic fertilizers

(#) argue that the caacity for nitrogen-fi%ing symbioses is transferable to

nonleguminous lants

($) e%lain the reasons for and the obectives of current research on nitrogen-

fi%ing symbioses

(!) describe the nature of the genes that regulate the symbiosis beteen legumes

and certain bacteria

+1. According to the assage8 there is currently no strain of &hi'obiu% that can enter

into a symbiosis ith

(A) alfalfa

(") clover

(#) maize

($) eas

(!) soybeans

++. The assage imlies that hich of the folloing is true of the bacterial genus &hi'obiu%*

(A) &hi'obiu% bacteria are found rimarily in nitrogen-deleted soils.

(") ,ome strains of &hi'obiu% are not caable of entering into a symbiosis ith

any lant.

(#) ely bred varieties of legumes cannot be hosts to any strain of &hi'obiu%.

($) &hi'obiu% bacteria cannot survive outside the rotected habitat rovided by

host lants.

(!) &hi'obiu% bacteria roduce some ammonia for their on uroses.

+3. :t can be inferred from the assage that hich of the folloing as the most



GRE 133

influential factor in bringing about intensified research on nitrogen fi%ation*

(A) The high yields of the /reen 5evolution

(") The ersistent uard surge in natural gas rices

(#) The variety of &hi'obiu% strains

($) The mechanization of modern agriculture

(!) The environmental ill effects of synthetic fertilizers

+9. hich of the folloing situations is most closely analogous to the situation

described by the author as one of nature's great ironies (lines +&-3+)*

(A) That of a farmer hose cros have failed because the normal midseason rains

did not materialize and no rearations for irrigation had been made

(") That of a long-distance runner ho loses a marathon race because of a rong

turn that cost him tenty seconds

(#) That of shirecked sailors at sea in a lifeboat8 ith one flask of drinking

ater to share among them

($) That of a motorist ho runs out of gas a mere five miles from the nearest gas

station

(!) That of travelers ho ant to reach their destination as fast and as chealy as

ossible8 but find that cost increases as travel seed increases

+;. According to the assage8 the ultimate goal of the current research on nitrogen

fi%ation is to develo

(A) strains of &hi'obiu% that can enter into symbioses ith e%isting varieties ofheat8 rice8 and other nonlegumes

(") strains of &hi'obiu% that roduce more ammonia for leguminous host lants

than do any of the strains resently knon

(#) varieties of heat8 rice8 and other nonlegumes that yield as much as do

e%isting varieties8 but require less nitrogen

($) varieties of heat8 rice8 and other nonlegumes that maintain an adequate

symbiotic relationshi ith nitrogen-fi%ing bacteria and roduce high yields

(!) high-yielding varieties of heat8 rice8 and other nonlegumes that are

genetically equied to fi% nitrogen from the air ithout the aid of bacteria

+<. The author regards the research rogram under discussion as

(A) original and e%tensive but ill-defined as to method

(") necessary and ambitious but vulnerable to failure

(#) cogent and orthhile but severely under-funded

($) rohibitively e%ensive but concetually elegant

(!) theoretically fascinating but ractically useless

+7. @ost nearly arallel8 in its fundamental aroach8 to the research rogramdescribed in the assage ould be a rogram designed to



GRE 139

(A) achieve greater frost resistance in frost-tender food lants by means of

selective breeding8 thereby e%anding those lants' area of cultivation

(") achieve greater yields from food lants by interlanting cro lants that are

mutually beneficial

(#) find ine%ensive and abundant natural substances that could8 ithout

reducing yields8 be substituted for e%ensive synthetic fertilizers

($) change the genetic makeu of food lants that cannot live in ater ith high

salinity8 using genes from lants adated to salt ater

(!) develo8 through genetic engineering8 a genetic configuration for the maor

food lants that imroves the storage characteristics of the edible ortion of

the lants

No. 7-3

SECTION A

?f ,omer’s two epic poems% the d"sse" has always been more popular than

the /!iad% perhaps because it includes more features of mythology that are

accessible to readers. ts sub/ect +to use >aynard >ack’s categories is @life-as-

spectacle% for readers% diverted by its various incidents% observe its hero

?dysseus primarily from without4 the tragic /!iad% however% presents @life-as-

experience< readers are asked to identify with the mind of Achilles% whose

motivations render him a not particularly likable hero. n addition% the /!iad% morethan the d"sse" % suggests the complexity of the gods’ involvement in human

actions% and to the extent that modern readers nd this complexity a needless

complication% the /!iad is less satisfying than the d"sse" % with its simpler scheme

of divine /ustice. ;inally% since the /!iad presents a historically veriable action%

(roy’s siege% the poem raises historical 'uestions that are absent from the

d"sse"#s blithely imaginative world.

17. The author uses @ack's EcategoriesF (lines 9-;) most robably in order to

(A) argue that the (liad should relace the )dsse as the more oular oem

(") indicate @ack's imortance as a commentator on the (liad and the )dsse

(#) suggest one ay in hich the (liad and the )dsse can be distinguished

($) oint out some of the difficulties faced by readers of the (liad and the

)dsse

(!) demonstrate that the (liad and the )dsse can best be distinguished by

comaring their resective heroes

1&. The author suggests that the variety of incidents in the )dsse is likely to deter

the reader from

(A) concentrating on the oem's mythological features



GRE 13;

(") concentrating on the sychological states of the oem's central character

(#) acceting the e%lanation that have been offered for the oem's oularity

($) acceting the oem's scheme of divine ustice

(!) acceting @aynard @ack's theory that the oem's subect is Elife-as-

sectacleF

1. The assage is rimarily concerned ith

(A) distinguishing arguments

(") alying classifications

(#) initiating a debate

($) resolving a disute

(!) develoing a contrast

+. :t can be inferred from the assage that a reader of the (liad is likely to havetrouble identifying ith the oem's hero for hich of the folloing reasons*

(A) The hero is eventually revealed to be unheroic.

(") The hero can be observed by the reader only from ithout.

(#) The hero's sychology is not historically verifiable.

($) The hero's emotions often do not seem aealing to the reader.

(!) The hero's emotions are not sufficiently various to engage the reader's

attention.

;latsh% such as the #ounder% are among the few vertebrates that lackapproximate bilateral symmetry +symmetry in which structures to the left and

right of the body’s midline are mirror images. >ost striking among the many

asymmetries evident in an adult #atsh is eye placement< before maturity one

eye migrates% so that in an adult #atsh both eyes are on the same side of the

head. !hile in most species with asymmetries virtually all adults share the same

asymmetry% members of the starry #ounder species can be either left-eyed +both

eyes on the left side of head or right-eyed. n the waters between the 8nited

9tates and apan% the starry #ounder populations vary from about 23 percent left-

eyed o= the 8nited 9tates !est Coast% through about Q3 percent left-eyed halfway

between the 8nited 9tates and apan% to nearly 133 percent left-eyed o= the

apanese coast.

"iologists call this kind of gradual variation over a certain geographic range a

@cline and interpret clines as strong indications that the variation is adaptive% a

response to environmental di=erences. ;or the starry #ounder this interpretation

implies that a geometric di=erence +between sh that are mirror images of one

another is adaptive% that left-eyedness in the apanese starry #ounder has been

selected for% which provokes a perplexing 'uestions< what is the selective

advantage in having both eyes on one side rather than on the otherP

(he ease with which a sh can reverse the e=ect of the sidedness of its eye



GRE 13<

asymmetry simply by turning around has caused biologists to study internal

anatomy% especially the optic nerves% for the answer. n all #atsh the optic nerves

cross% so that the right optic nerve is /oined to the brain’s left side and vice versa.

(his crossing introduces an asymmetry% as one optic nerve must cross above or

below the other. 7. ,. 6arker reasoned that if% for example% a #atsh’s left eyemigrated when the right optic nerve was on top% there would be a twisting of

nerves% which might be mechanically disadvantageous. ;or starry #ounders% then%

the left-eyed variety would be selected against% since in a starry #ounder the left

optic nerve is uppermost.

(he problem with the above explanation is that the apanese starry #ounder

population is almost exclusively left-eyed% an natural selection never promotes a

purely less advantageous variation. As other explanations proved e'ually

untenable% biologists concluded that there is no important adaptive di=erence

between left-eyedness and right-eyedness% and that the two characteristics aregenetically associated with some other adaptively signicant characteristic. (his

situation is one commonly encountered by evolutionary biologists% who must often

decide whether a characteristic is adaptive or selectively neutral. As for the left-

eyed and right-eyed #atsh% their di=erence% however striking% appears to be an

evolutionary red herring.

+1. According to the assage8 starry flounder differ from most other secies of

flatfish in that starry flounder

(A) are not basically bilaterally symmetric

(") do not become asymmetric until adulthood

(#) do not all share the same asymmetry

($) have both eyes on the same side of the head

(!) tend to cluster in only certain geograhic regions

++. The author ould be most likely to agree ith hich of the folloing statements

about left-eyedness and right-eyedness in the starry flounder*

:. They are adative variations by the starry flounder to environmental

differences.

::. They do not seem to give obvious selective advantages to the starry flounder.

:::. They occur in different roortions in different locations.

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) : and ::: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+3. According to the assage8 a ossible disadvantage associated ith eye migration

in flatfish is that the otic nerves can



GRE 137

(A) adhere to one another

(") detach from the eyes

(#) cross

($) stretch

(!) tist

+9. hich of the folloing best describes the organization of the assage as a hole*

(A) A henomenon is described and an interretation resented and reected.

(") A generalization is made and suorting evidence is sulied and eighed.

(#) A contradiction is noted and a resolution is suggested and then modified.

($) A series of observations is resented and e%lained in terms of the dominant

theory.

(!) A hyothesis is introduced and corroborated in the light of ne evidence.

+;. The assage sulies information for ansering hich of the folloing

questions*

(A) hy are 2aanese starry flounder mostly left-eyed*

(") hy should the eye-sidedness in starry flounder be considered selectively

neutral*

(#) hy have biologists recently become interested in hether a characteristic is

adative or selectively neutral*

($) 4o do the eyes in flatfish migrate*

(!) 4o did arker make his discoveries about the anatomy of otic nerves in

flatfish*

+<. hich of the folloing is most clearly similar to a cline as it is described in the

second aragrah of the assage*

(A) A vegetable market in hich the various items are groued according to lace

of origin

(") A heat field in hich different varieties of heat are lanted to yield a cro

that ill bring the ma%imum rofit

(#) A floer stall in hich the various secies of floers are arranged according

to their rice

($) A housing develoment in hich the length of the front struts suorting the

orch of each house increases as houses are built u the hill

(!) A national ark in hich the ranger stations are laced so as to be

inconsicuous8 and yet as easily accessible as ossible

+7. hich of the folloing hrases from the assage best e%resses the author's

conclusion about the meaning of the difference beteen left-eyed and right-eyed

flatfish*(A) E@ost strikingF (line 9)



GRE 13&

(") Evariation is adativeF (line 1)

(#) Emechanically disadvantageousF (lines 373&)

($) Eadatively significantF (lines 9&-9)

(!) Eevolutionary red herringF (line ;9)

SECTION B

f a supernova +the explosion of a massive star triggered star formation from

dense clouds of gas and dust% and if the most massive star to be formed from the

cloud evolved into a supernova and triggered a new round of star formation% and

so on% then a chain of star-forming regions would result. f many such chains were

created in a di=erentially rotating galaxy% the distribution of stars would resemble

the observed distribution in a spiral galaxy.

(his line of reasoning underlies an exciting new theory of spiral-galaxystructure. A computer simulation based on this theory has reproduced the

appearance of many spiral galaxies without assuming an underlying density wave%

the hallmark of the most widely accepted theory of the large-scale structure of

spiral galaxies. (hat theory maintains that a density wave of spiral form sweeps

through the central plane of a galaxy% compressing clouds of gas and dust% which

collapse into stars that form a spiral pattern.


(A) describe hat results hen a suernova triggers the creation of chains of star-

forming regions

(") roose a modification in the most idely acceted theory of siral-gala%y

structure

(#) comare and contrast the roles of clouds of gas and dust in to theories of

siral-gala%y structure

($) describe a ne theory of siral-gala%y structure and contrast it ith the most

idely acceted theory

(!) describe a ne theory of siral-gala%y structure and discuss a reason hy it is

inferior to the most idely acceted theory

1&. The assage imlies that8 according to the ne theory of siral-gala%y structure8 a

siral gala%y can be created by suernovas hen the suernovas are

(A) roducing an underlying density ave

(") affected by a density ave of siral form

(#) distributed in a siral attern

($) located in the central lane of a gala%y

(!) located in a differentially rotating gala%y

1. hich of the folloing8 if true8 ould most discredit the ne theory as described



GRE 13

in the assage*

(A) The e%act mechanism by hich a star becomes a suernova is not yet

comletely knon and may even differ for different stars.

(") #hains of star-forming regions like those ostulated in the ne theory have

been observed in the vicinity of dense clouds of gas and dust.

(#) The most massive stars formed from suernova e%losions are unlikely to

evolve into suernovas.

($) #omuter simulations of suernovas rovide a oor icture of hat occurs

ust before a suernova e%losion.

(!) A density ave cannot comress clouds of gas and dust to a density high

enough to create a star.

+. The author's attitude toard the ne theory of siral-gala%y structure can best be

described as(A) euhoric

(") enthusiastic

(#) concerned

($) critical

(!) disutatious

(he rst mention of slavery in the statutes of the English colonies of Borth

America does not occur until after 1OO30some forty years after the importation of

the rst "lack people. est we think that slavery existed in fact before it did inlaw% ?scar and >ary ,andlin assure us that the status of "lack people down to the

1OO3’s was that of servants. A criti'ue of the ,andlins’ interpretation of why legal

slavery did not appear until the 1OO3’s suggests that assumptions about the

relation between slavery and racial pre/udice should be reexamined% and that

explanations for the di=erent treatment of "lack slaves in Borth and 9outh

America should be expanded.

(he ,andlins explain the appearance of legal slavery by arguing that% during

the 1OO3’s% the position of !hite servants was improving relative to that of "lack

servants. (hus% the ,andlins contend% "lack and !hite servants% heretofore

treated alike% each attained a di=erent status. (here are% however% important

ob/ections to this argument. ;irst% the ,andlins cannot ade'uately demonstrate

that the !hite servant’s position was improving during and after the 1OO3’s4

several acts of the >aryland and Firginia legislatures indicate otherwise. Another

#aw in the ,andlins’ interpretation is their assumption that prior to the

establishment of legal slavery there was no discrimination against "lack people. t

is true that before the 1OO3’s "lack people were rarely called slaves. "ut this

should not overshadow evidence from the 1O:3’s on that points to racial

discrimination without using the term slavery. 9uch discrimination sometimes

stopped short of lifetime servitude or inherited status0the two attributes of trueslavery0yet in other cases it included both. (he ,andlins’ argument excludes the



GRE 19

real possibility that "lack people in the English colonies were never treated as the

e'uals of !hite people.

(his possibility has important ramications. f from the outset "lack people

were discriminated against% then legal slavery should be viewed as a re#ection

and an extension of racial pre/udice rather than% as many historians including the

,andlins have argued% the cause of pre/udice. n addition% the existence of

discrimination before the advent of legal slavery o=ers a further explanation for

the harsher treatment of "lack slaves in Borth than in 9outh America. ;reyre and

(annenbaum have rightly argued that the lack of certain traditions in Borth

America0such as a $oman conception of slavery and a $oman Catholic emphasis

on e'uality0explains why the treatment of "lack slaves was more severe there

than in the 9panish and 6ortuguese colonies of 9outh America. "ut this cannot be

the whole explanation since it is merely negative% based only on a lack of

something. A more compelling explanation is that the early and sometimesextreme racial discrimination in the English colonies helped determine the

particular nature of the slavery that followed.

+1. hich of the folloing statements best describes the organization of lines 1-& of

the assage*

(A) A historical trend is sketched and an e%cetion to that trend is cited.

(") !vidence for a historical irregularity is mentioned and a generalization from

that evidence is advanced.

(#) A arado% about the origins of an institution is ointed out and the author's

e%lanation of the arado% is e%ounded.

($) A statement about a historical henomenon is offered and a ossible

misinterretation of that statement is addressed.

(!) An interretation of the rise of an institution is stated and evidence for that

interretation is rovided.

++. hich of the folloing is the most logical inference to be dran from the

assage about the effects of Eseveral acts of the @aryland and ?irginia

legislaturesF (lines ++-+3) assed during and after the 1<<'s*

(A) The acts negatively affected the re-1<<'s osition of "lack as ell as ofhite servants.

(") The acts had the effect of imairing rather than imroving the osition of

hite servants relative to hat it had been before the 1<<'s.

(#) The acts had a different effect o n the osition of hite servants than did

many of the acts assed during this time by the legislatures of other colonies.

($) The acts8 at the very least8 caused the osition of hite servants to remain no

better than it had been before the 1<<'s.

(!) The acts8 at the very least8 tended to reflect the attitudes toard "lack

servants that already e%isted before the 1<<'s.



GRE 191

+3. ith hich of the folloing statements regarding the status of "lack eole in

the !nglish colonies of orth America before the 1<<'s ould the author be

D!A,T likely to agree*

(A) Although "lack eole ere not legally considered to be slaves8 they ere

often called slaves.

(") Although subect to some discrimination8 "lack eole had a higher legal

status than they did after the 1<<'s.

(#) Although sometimes subect to lifetime servitude8 "lack eole ere not

legally considered to be slaves.

($) Although often not treated the same as hite eole8 "lack eole8 like many

hite eole8 ossessed the legal status of servants.

(!) Although aarently subect to more discrimination after 1<3 than before

1<38 "lack eole from 1<+ to the 1<<'s ere legally considered to be

servants.

+9. According to the assage8 the 4andlins have argued hich of the folloing about

the relationshi beteen racial reudice and the institution of legal slavery in the

!nglish colonies of orth America*

(A) 5acial reudice and the institution of slavery arose simultaneously.

(") 5acial reudice most often took the form of the imosition of inherited

status8 one of the attributes of slavery.

(#) The source of racial reudice as the institution of slavery.

($) "ecause of the influence of the 5oman #atholic church8 racial reudice

sometimes did not result in slavery.

(!) Although e%isting in a lesser form before the 1<<'s8 racial reudice

increased sharly after slavery as legalized.

+;. The assage suggests that the e%istence of a 5oman concetion of slavery in

,anish and ortuguese colonies had the effect of

(A) e%tending rather than causing racial reudice in these colonies

(") hastening the legalization of slavery in these colonies

(#) mitigating some of the conditions of slavery for "lack eole in thesecolonies

($) delaying the introduction of slavery into the !nglish colonies

(!) bringing about an imrovement in the treatment of "lack slaves in the !nglish

colonies

+<. The author considers the e%lanation ut forard by >reyre and Tannenbaum for

the treatment accorded "lack slaves in the !nglish colonies of orth America to

be

(A) ambitious but misguided

(") valid but limited



GRE 19+

(#) oular but susect

($) anachronistic and controversial

(!) remature and illogical

+7. ith hich of the folloing statements regarding the reason for the introductionof legal slavery in the !nglish colonies of orth America ould the author be

most likely to agree*

(A) The introduction is artly to be e%lained by reference to the origins of

slavery8 before the 1<<'s8 in the ,anish and ortuguese colonies.

(") The introduction is to be e%lained by reference to a groing consensus

beginning in the 1<3's about hat ere the attributes of true slavery.

(#) The introduction is more likely to be e%lained by reference to a decline than

to an imrovement in the osition of hite servants in the colonies during

and after the 1<<'s.($) The introduction is more likely to be e%lained by reference to the osition of

"lack servants in the colonies in the 1<3's than by reference to their

osition in the 1<9's and 1<;'s.

(!) The introduction is more likely to be e%lained by reference to the history of

"lack eole in the colonies before 1<< than by reference to the imroving

osition of hite servants during and after the 1<<'s.

No. 8-1

SECTION A

7eologists have long known that the Earth’s mantle is heterogeneous% but its

spatial arrangement remains unresolved0is the mantle essentially layered or

irregularly heterogeneousP (he best evidence for the layered mantle thesis is the

well-established fact that volcanic rocks found on oceanic islands% islands believed

to result from mantle plumes arising from the lower mantle% are composed of

material fundamentally di=erent from that of the midocean ridge system% whose

source% most geologists contend% is the upper mantle.

9ome geologists% however% on the basis of observations concerning mantle

xenoliths% argue that the mantle is not layered% but that heterogeneity is created

by #uids rich in @incompatible elements +elements tending toward li'uid rather

than solid state percolating upward and transforming portions of the upper

mantle irregularly% according to the vagaries of the #uids’ pathways. !e believe%

perhaps unimaginatively% that this debate can be resolved through further study%

and that the underexplored midocean ridge system is the key.

17. hich of the folloing best e%resses the main idea of the assage*

(A) #urrent theories regarding the structure of the !arth's mantle cannot account



GRE 193

for ne discoveries regarding the comosition of mantle %enoliths.

(") There are conflicting hyotheses about the heterogeneity of the !arth's

mantle because fe mantle elements have been thoroughly studied.

(#) >urther research is needed to resolve the debate among geologists over the

comosition of the midocean ridge system.

($) There is clear-cut disagreement ithin the geological community over the

structure of the !arth's mantle.

(!) There has recently been a strong and e%citing challenge to geologists' long-

standing belief in the heterogeneity of the !arth's mantle.

1&. According to the assage8 it is believed that oceanic islands are formed from

(A) the same material as mantle %enoliths

(") the same material as the midocean ridge system

(#) volcanic rocks from the uer mantle

($) incomatible elements ercolating u from the loer mantle

(!) mantle lumes arising from the loer mantle

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that the suorters of the Elayered-mantleF

theory believe hich of the folloing*

:. The volcanic rocks on oceanic islands are comosed of material derived

from the loer art of the mantle.

::. The materials of hich volcanic rocks on oceanic islands and midocean

ridges are comosed are tyical of the layers from hich they are thought tooriginate.

:::. The differences in comosition beteen volcanic rocks on oceanic islands

and the midocean ridges are a result of different concentrations of

incomatible elements.

(A) : only

(") ::: only

(#) : and :: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+. The authors suggest that their roosal for determining the nature of the mantle's

heterogeneity might be considered by many to be

(A) edestrian

(") controversial

(#) unrealistic

($) novel

(!) arado%ical



GRE 199

>any literary detectives have pored over a great pu&&le concerning the writer

>arcel 6roust< what happened in 1I3IP ,ow did Contre Saint&eu-e% an essay

attacking the methods of the critic 9aint "euve% turn into the start of the novel

%e$e$(rance of Things Past P A recently published letter from 6roust to the editor

Fallette conrms that ;allois% the editor of the 1I2G edition of Contre Saint&eu-e%made an essentially correct guess about the relationship of the essay to the novel.

;allois proposed that 6roust had tried to begin a novel in 1I3N% abandoned it for

what was to be a long demonstration of 9aint-"euve’s blindness to the real nature

of great writing% found the essay giving rise to personal memories and ctional

developments% and allowed these to take over in a steadily developing novel.

raft passages in 6roust’s 1I3I notebooks indicate that the transition from

essay to novel began in Contre Saint&eu-e% when 6roust introduced several

examples to show the powerful in#uence that involuntary memory exerts over the

creative imagination. n e=ect% in trying to demonstrate that the imagination ismore profound and less submissive to the intellect than 9aint-"euve assumed%

6roust elicited vital memories of his own and% nding subtle connections between

them% began to amass the material for %e$e$(rance. "y August% 6roust was

writing to Fallette% informing him of his intention to develop the material as a

novel. >aurice "ardeche% in Marce! Proust, ro$ancier % has shown the importance

in the drafts of %e$e$(rance of spontaneous and apparently random

associations of 6roust’s subconscious. As incidents and re#ections occurred to

6roust% he continually inserted new passages altering and expanding his narrative.

"ut he found it di*cult to control the drift of his inspiration. (he very richness and

complexity of the meaningful relationships that kept presenting and rearranging

themselves on all levels% from abstract intelligence to profound dreamy feelings%

made it di*cult for 6roust to set them out coherently. (he beginning of control

came when he saw how to connect the beginning and the end of his novel.

ntrigued by 6roust’s claim that he had @begun and nished %e$e$(rance at

the same time% ,enri "onnet discovered that parts of %e$e$(rance#s last book

were actually started in 1I3I. Already in that year% 6roust had drafted

descriptions of his novel’s characters in their old age that would appear in the

nal book of %e$e$(rance% where the permanence of art is set against the

ravages of time. (he letter to Fallette% drafts of the essay and novel% and "onnet’sresearches establish in broad outline the process by which 6roust generated his

novel out of the ruins of his essay. "ut those of us who hoped% with Jolb% that

Jolb’s newly published complete edition of 6roust’s correspondence for 1I3I

would document the process in greater detail are disappointed. ;or until 6roust

was condent that he was at last in sight of a viable structure for %e$e$(rance%

he told few correspondents that he was producing anything more ambitious than

Contre Saint&eu-e.

+1. The assage is rimarily concerned ith

(A) the role of involuntary memory in roust's riting



GRE 19;

(") evidence concerning the genesis of roust's novel &e%e%brance of Things

Past

(#) conflicting scholarly oinions about the value of studying the drafts of

&e%e%brance of Things Past

($) roust's corresondence and hat it reveals about &e%e%brance of Things

Past

(!) the influence of ,aint-"euve's criticism on roust's novel &e%e%brance of

Things Past

++. :t can be inferred from the assage that all of the folloing are literary detectives

ho have tried8 by means of either scholarshi or criticism8 to hel solve the

Egreat uzzleF mentioned in lines 1-+ !C#!T=

(A) "ardeche

(") "onnet(#) >allois

($) Jolb

(!) ?allette

+3. According to the assage8 in drafts of $ontre *aint Beu+e roust set out to sho

that ,aint-"euve made hich of the folloing mistakes as a critic*

:. ,aint-"euve made no effort to study the develoment of a novel through its

drafts and revisions.

::. ,aint-"euve assigned too great a role in the creative rocess to a riter'sconscious intellect.

:::. ,aint-"euve concentrated too much on lots and not enough on imagery and

other elements of style.

(A) :: only

(") ::: only

(#) : and :: only

($) : and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+9. hich of the folloing best states the author's attitude toard the information

that scholars have gathered about roust's riting in 1*

(A) The author is disaointed that no ne documents have come to light since

>allois's seculations.

(") The author is dissatisfied because there are too many gas and inconsistencies

in the drafts.

(#) The author is confident that >allois's 1;9 guess has been roved largely

correct8 but regrets that still more detailed documentation concerning

roust's transition from the essay to the novel has not emerged.



GRE 19<

($) The author is satisfied that >allois's udgment as largely correct8 but feels

that roust's early ork in designing and riting the novel as robably far

more deliberate than >allois's descrition of the rocess ould suggest.

(!) The author is satisfied that the facts of roust's life in 1 have been

thoroughly established8 but believes such documents as drafts and

corresondence are only of limited value in a critical assessment of roust's

riting.

+;. The author of the assage imlies that hich of the folloing ould be the

D!A,T useful source of information about roust's transition from orking on

$ontre *aint#Beu+e to having a viable structure for &e%e%brance of Things Past *

(A) >allois's comments in the 1;9 edition of $ontre *aint#Beu+e

(") roust's 1 notebooks8 including the drafts of &e%e%brance of Things Past

(#) roust's 1 corresondence8 e%cluding the letter to ?allette($) "ardeche's @arcel roust8 romancier

(!) "onnet's researches concerning roust's drafts of the final book of

&e%e%brance of Things Past

+<. The assage offers information to anser hich of the folloing questions*

(A) recisely hen in 1 did roust decide to abandon $ontre *aint#Beu+e*

(") recisely hen in 1 did roust decide to connect the beginning and the

end of &e%e%brance of Things Past *

(#) hat as the subect of the novel that roust attemted in 1&*($) hat secific criticisms of ,aint-"euve aear8 in fictional form8 in

&e%e%brance of Things Past *

(!) hat is a theme concerning art that aears in the final book of

&e%e%brance of Things Past *

+7. hich of the folloing best describes the relationshi beteen $ontre *aint#

Beu+e and &e%e%brance of Things Past as it is e%lained in the assage*

(A) :mmediately after abandoning $ontre *aint#Beu+e8 at ?allette's suggestion8

roust started &e%e%brance as a fictional demonstration that ,aint-"euve

as rong about the imagination.

(") :mmediately after abandoning $ontre *aint#Beu+e8 at ?allette's suggestion8

roust turned his attention to &e%e%brance8 starting ith incidents that had

occurred to him hile lanning the essay.

(#) $esondent that he could not find a coherent structure for $ontre *aint#

Beu+e8 an essay about the role of memory in fiction8 roust began instead to

rite &e%e%brance8 a novel devoted to imortant early memories.

($) hile develoing his argument about the imagination in $ontre *aint#Beu+e8

roust described and began to link together ersonal memories that became

a foundation for &e%e%brance.



GRE 197

(!) hile develoing his argument about memory and imagination in $ontre

*aint#Beu+e, roust created fictional characters to embody the abstract

themes in his essay.

SECTION B

(raditional research has confronted only >exican and 8nited 9tates

interpretations of >exican-American culture. Bow we must also examine the

culture as we >exican Americans have experienced it% passing from a sovereign

people to compatriots with newly arriving settlers to% nally% a con'uered people0

a charter minority on our own land.

!hen the 9panish rst came to >exico% they intermarried with and absorbed

the culture of the indigenous ndians. (his policy of coloni&ation through

acculturation was continued when >exico ac'uired (exas in the early 1N33’s and

brought the indigenous ndians into >exican life and government. n the 1N53’s%

8nited 9tates citi&ens migrated to (exas% attracted by land suitable for cotton. As

their numbers became more substantial% their policy of ac'uiring land by subduing

native populations began to dominate. (he two ideologies clashed repeatedly%

culminating in a military con#ict that led to victory for the 8nited 9tates. (hus%

suddenly deprived of our parent culture% we had to evolve uni'uely >exican-

American modes of thought and action in order to survive.

17. The author's urose in riting this assage is rimarily to

(A) suggest the motives behind @e%ican and 6nited ,tates intervention in Te%as(") document certain early obectives of @e%ican-American society

(#) rovide a historical ersective for a ne analysis of @e%ican-American

culture

($) aeal to both @e%ican and 6nited ,tates scholars to give greater

consideration to economic interretations of history

(!) bring to light reviously overlooked research on @e%ican Americans

1&. The author most robably uses the hrase Echarter minorityF (lines <-7) to

reinforce the idea that @e%ican Americans

(A) are a native rather than an immigrant grou in the 6nited ,tates

(") layed an active olitical role hen Te%as first became art of the 6nited

,tates

(#) recognized very early in the nineteenth century the need for official

confirmation of their rights of citizenshi

($) have been misunderstood by scholars trying to interret their culture

(!) identify more closely ith their :ndian heritage than ith their ,anish

heritage

1. According to the assage8 a maor difference beteen the colonization olicy of



GRE 19&

the 6nited ,tates and that of @e%ico in Te%as in the 1&'s as the

(A) degree to hich olicies ere based on tradition

(") form of economic interdeendency beteen different cultural grous

(#) number of eole ho came to settle ne areas

($) treatment of the native inhabitants

(!) relationshi beteen the military and the settlers

+. hich of the folloing statements most clearly contradicts the information in this

assage*

(A) :n the early 1&'s8 the ,anish committed more resources to settling

#alifornia than to develoing Te%as.

(") hile Te%as as under @e%ican control8 the oulation of Te%as quadruled8

in site of the fact that @e%ico discouraged immigration from the 6nited

,tates.

(#) "y the time @e%ico acquired Te%as8 many :ndians had already married eole

of ,anish heritage.

($) @any @e%icans living in Te%as returned to @e%ico after Te%as as anne%ed

by the 6nited ,tates.

(!) @ost :ndians living in Te%as resisted ,anish acculturation and ere either

killed or enslaved.

(his passage was adapted from an article published in 1IN5.

8ntil about ve years ago% the very idea that peptide hormones might bemade anywhere in the brain besides the hypothalamus was astounding. 6eptide

hormones% scientists thought% were made by endocrine glands and the

hypothalamus was thought to be the brains’ only endocrine gland. !hat is more%

because peptide hormones cannot cross the blood-brain barrier% researchers

believed that they never got to any part of the brain other than the

hypothalamus% where they were simply produced and then released into the

bloodstream.

"ut these beliefs about peptide hormones were 'uestioned as laboratory after

laboratory found that antiserums to peptide hormones% when in/ected into the

brain% bind in places other than the hypothalamus% indicating that either the

hormones or substances that cross-react with the antiserums are present. (he

immunological method of detecting peptide hormones by means of antiserums%

however% is imprecise. Cross-reactions are possible and this method cannot

determine whether the substances detected by the antiserums really are the

hormones% or merely close relatives. ;urthermore% this method cannot be used to

determine the location in the body where the detected substances are actually

produced.

Bew techni'ues of molecular biology% however% provide a way to answer these

'uestions. t is possible to make specic complementary BA’s +cBA’s that can



GRE 19

serve as molecular probes to seek out the messenger $BA’s +m$BA’s of the

peptide hormones. f brain cells are making the hormones% the cells will contain

these m$BA’s. f the products the brain cells make resemble the hormones but

are not identical to them% then the cBA’s should still bind to these m$BA’s% but

should not bind as tightly as they would to m$BA’s for the true hormones. (hecells containing these m$BA’s can then be isolated and their m$BA’s decoded to

determine /ust what their protein products are and how closely the products

resemble the true peptide hormones.

(he molecular approach to detecting peptide hormones using cBA probes

should also be much faster than the immunological method because it can take

years of tedious purications to isolate peptide hormones and then develop

antiserums to them. $oberts% expressing the sentiment of many researchers%

states< @ was trained as an endocrinologist. "ut it became clear to me that the

eld of endocrinology needed molecular biology input. (he process of grinding outprotein purications is /ust too slow.

f% as the initial tests with cBA probes suggest% peptide hormones really are

made in the brain in areas other than the hypothalamus% a theory must be

developed that explains their function in the brain. 9ome have suggested that the

hormones are all growth regulators% but $osen’s work on rat brains indicates that

this cannot be true. A number of other researchers propose that they might be

used for intercellular communication in the brain.

+1. hich of the folloing titles best summarizes the assage*

(A) :s @olecular "iology the Jey to 6nderstanding :ntercellular #ommunicationin the "rain*

(") @olecular "iology= #an 5esearchers !%loit :ts Techniques to ,ynthesize

etide 4ormones*

(#) The Advantages and $isadvantages of the :mmunological Aroach to

$etecting etide 4ormones

($) etide 4ormones= 4o ,cientists Are Attemting to ,olve roblems of

Their $etection and to 6nderstand Their >unction

(!) etide 4ormones= The 5ole layed by @essenger 5A's in Their $etection

++. The assage suggests that a substance detected in the brain by use of antiserums

to etide hormones may

(A) have been stored in the brain for a long eriod of time

(") lay no role in the functioning of the brain

(#) have been roduced in some art of the body other than the brain

($) have escaed detection by molecular methods

(!) lay an imortant role in the functioning of the hyothalamus

+3. According to the assage8 confirmation of the belief that etide hormones aremade in the brain in areas other than the hyothalamus ould force scientists to



GRE 1;+

concerned with development of musical themes% the ragtime composer instead

sets a theme down intact% in nished form% and links it to various related themes.

(ension in ragtime compositions arises from a polarity between two basic

ingredients< a continuous bass0called by /a&& musicians a boom-chick bass0in

the pianist’s left hand% and its melodic% syncopated counterpart in the right hand.

$agtime remains distinct from /a&& both as an instrumental style and as a

genre. $agtime style stresses a pattern of repeated rhythms% not the constant

inventions and variations of /a&&. As a genre% ragtime re'uires strict attention to

structure% not inventiveness or virtuosity. t exists as a tradition% a set of

conventions% a body of written scores% separate from the individual players

associated with it. n this sense ragtime is more akin to folk music of the

nineteenth century than to /a&&.

17. hich of the folloing best describes the main urose of the assage*

(A) To contrast ragtime music and azz

(") To acknoledge and counter significant adverse criticisms of ragtime music

(#) To define ragtime music as an art form and describe its structural

characteristics

($) To revie the history of ragtime music and analyze ragtime's effect on

listeners

(!) To e%lore the similarities beteen ragtime music and certain !uroean

musical comositions

1&. According to the assage8 each of the folloing is a characteristic of ragtime

comositions that follo the classic ragtime formula !C#!T=

(A) syncoation

(") ell-defined melodic figures

(#) rising rhythmic-melodic intensity

($) full develoment of musical themes

(!) a bass line distinct from the melodic line

1. According to the assage8 5alh ?aughan illiams8 Anton $vorak8 and ,cott

2olin are similar in that they all

(A) conducted research into musicological history

(") rote original comositions based on folk tunes

(#) collected and recorded abbreviated iano suites

($) created intricate sonata-like musical structures

(!) e%lored the relations beteen "lack music and continental folk music

+. The author reects the argument that ragtime is a mechanical music because that

argument

(A) overlooks the recision required of the ragtime layer



GRE 1;3

(") does not accurately describe the sound of ragtime ianola music

(#) confuses the means of recording and the essential character of the music

($) e%aggerates the influence of the erformance style of rofessional ragtime

layers on the reutation of the genre

(!) imroerly identifies commercial ragtime music ith the subtler classic

ragtime style

+1. :t can be inferred that the author of the assage believes that the most imortant

feature of ragtime music is its

(A) commercial success

(") formal structure

(#) emotional range

($) imrovisational oortunities

(!) role as a forerunner of azz

++. :t can be inferred from the assage that the essential nature of ragtime has been

obscured by commentaries based on

(A) the ay ragtime music as first recorded

(") interretations of ragtime by azz musicians

(#) the dance fashions that ere contemorary ith ragtime

($) early revieers' accounts of characteristic structure

(!) the musical sources used by ,cott 2olin and 2ames ,cott

+3. hich of the folloing is most nearly analogous in source and artistic character

to a ragtime comosition as described in the assage*

(A) ,ymhonic music derived from comle% azz motifs

(") An e%erimental novel based on ell-knon cartoon characters

(#) A dramatic roduction in hich actors invent scenes and imrovise lines

($) A ballet hose discilined choreograhy is based on folk-dance stes

(!) A ainting hose abstract shaes evoke familiar obects in a natural landscae

Echolocating bats emit sounds in patterns0characteristic of each species0that contain both fre'uency-modulated +;> and constant-fre'uency +C; signals.

(he broadband ;> signals and the narrowband C; signals travel out to a target%

re#ect from it% and return to the hunting bat. n this process of transmission and

re#ection% the sounds are changed% and the changes in the echoes enable the bat

to perceive features of the target.

(he ;> signals report information about target characteristics that modify the

timing and the ne fre'uency structure% or spectrum% of echoes0for example% the

target’s si&e% shape% texture% surface structure% and direction in space. "ecause of

their narrow bandwidth% C; signals portray only the target’s presence and% in the

case of some bat species% its motion relative to the bat’s. $esponding to changes



GRE 1;9

in the C; echo’s fre'uency% bats of some species correct in #ight for the direction

and velocity of their moving prey.

+9. According to the assage8 the information rovided to the bat by #> echoes

differs from that rovided by >@ echoes in hich of the folloing ays*

(A) Bnly #> echoes alert the bat to moving targets.

(") Bnly #> echoes identify the range of idely saced targets.

(#) Bnly #> echoes reort the target's resence to the bat.

($) :n some secies8 #> echoes enable the bat to udge hether it is closing in on

its target.

(!) :n some secies8 #> echoes enable the bat to discriminate the size of its target

and the direction in hich the target is moving.

+;. According to the assage8 the configuration of the target is reorted to the

echolocating bat by changes in the

(A) echo sectrum of #> signals

(") echo sectrum of >@ signals

(#) direction and velocity of the >@ echoes

($) delay beteen transmission and reflection of the #> signals

(!) relative frequencies of the >@ and the #> echoes

+<. The author resents the information concerning bat sonar in a manner that could

be best described as

(A) argumentative

(") commendatory

(#) critical

($) disbelieving

(!) obective

+7. hich of the folloing best describes the organization of the assage*

(A) A fact is stated8 a rocess is outlined8 and secific details of the rocess are

described.

(") A fact is stated8 and e%amles suggesting that a distinction needs correction

are considered.

(#) A fact is stated8 a theory is resented to e%lain that fact8 and additional facts

are introduced to validate the theory.

($) A fact is stated8 and to theories are comared in light of their e%lanations

of this fact.

(!) A fact is stated8 a rocess is described8 and e%amles of still another rocess

are illustrated in detail.



GRE 1;;

SECTION B

(he social sciences are less likely than other intellectual enterprises to get

credit for their accomplishments. Arguably% this is so because the theories and

conceptual constructs of the social sciences are especially accessible< human

intelligence apprehends truths about human a=airs with particular facility. And

the discoveries of the social sciences% once isolated and labeled% are 'uickly

absorbed into conventional wisdom% whereupon they lose their distinctiveness as

scientic advances.

(his underappreciation of the social sciences contrasts oddly with what many

see as their overutili&ation. 7ame theory is pressed into service in studies of

shifting international alliances. Evaluation research is called upon to demonstrate

successes or failures of social programs. >odels from economics and demography

become the denitive tools for examining the nancial base of social security. Detthis rush into practical applications is itself 'uite understandable< public policy

must continually be made% and policymakers rightly feel that even tentative

ndings and untested theories are better guides to decision-making than no

ndings and no theories at all.


(A) advocating a more modest vie8 and less idesread utilization8 of the social

sciences

(") analyzing the mechanisms for translating discoveries into alications in the

social sciences

(#) dissolving the air of arado% inherent in human beings studying themselves

($) e%laining a eculiar dilemma that the social sciences are in

(!) maintaining a strict searation beteen ure and alied social science

1&. hich of the folloing is a social science disciline that the author mentions as

being ossibly overutilized*

(A) #onventional theories of social change

(") /ame theory

(#) $ecision-making theory

($) !conomic theories of international alliances

(!) ,ystems analysis

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that8 hen seaking of the EoverutilizationF

(line 11) of the social sciences8 the author is referring to the

(A) remature ractical alication of social science advances

(") habitual reliance on the social sciences even here common sense ould

serve equally ell

(#) ractice of bringing a greater variety of social science discilines to bear on a



GRE 1;<

roblem than the nature of the roblem arrants

($) use of social science constructs by eole ho do not fully understand them

(!) tendency on the art of social scientists to recast everyday truths in social

science argon

+. The author confronts the claim that the social sciences are being overutilized ith

(A) roof that overe%tensions of social science results are self-correcting

(") evidence that some ublic olicy is made ithout any recourse to social

science findings or theories

(#) a long list of social science alications that are erfectly aroriate and

e%tremely fruitful

($) the argument that overutilization is by and large the e%cetion rather than the

rule

(!) the observation that this ractice reresents the lesser of to evils under

e%isting circumstances

(he term @ce Age may give a wrong impression. (he epoch that geologists

know as the 6leistocene and that spanned the 1.2 to 5.3 million years prior to the

current geologic epoch was not one long continuous glaciation% but a period of

oscillating climate with ice advances punctuated by times of interglacial climate

not very di=erent from the climate experienced now. ce sheets that derived from

an ice cap centered on northern 9candinavia reached southward to Central

Europe. And "eyond the margins of the ice sheets% climatic oscillations a=ected

most of the rest of the world4 for example% in the deserts% periods of wetterconditions +pluvials contrasted with drier% interpluvial periods. Although the time

involved is so short% about 3.3G percent of the total age of the Earth% the amount

of attention devoted to the 6leistocene has been incredibly large% probably

because of its immediacy% and because the epoch largely coincides with the

appearance on Earth of humans and their immediate ancestors.

(here is no reliable way of dating much of the ce Age. 7eological dates are

usually obtained by using the rates of decay of various radioactive elements

found in minerals. 9ome of these rates are suitable for very old rocks but involve

increasing errors when used for young rocks4 others are suitable for very youngrocks and errors increase rapidly in older rocks. >ost of the ce Age spans a period

of time for which no element has an appropriate decay rate.

Bevertheless% researchers of the 6leistocene epoch have developed all sorts of

more or less fanciful model schemes of how they would have arranged the ce Age

had they been in charge of events. ;or example% an early classication of Alpine

glaciation suggested the existence there of four glaciations% named the 7un&%

>indel% $iss% and !urm. (his succession was based primarily on a series of

deposits and events not directly related to glacial and interglacial periods% rather

than on the more usual modern method of studying biological remains found in

interglacial beds themselves interstratied within glacial deposits. Det this



GRE 1;

No. 8-3

SECTION A

+(his passage is excerpted from an article that was published in 1IN1.

(he deep sea typically has a sparse fauna dominated by tiny worms and

crustaceans% with an even sparser distribution of larger animals. ,owever% near

hydrothermal vents% areas of the ocean where warm water emerges from

subterranean sources% live remarkable densities of huge clams% blind crabs% and

sh.

>ost deep-sea faunas rely for food on particulate matter% ultimately derived

from photosynthesis% falling from above. (he food supplies necessary to sustain

the large vent communities% however% must be many times the ordinary fallout. (he rst reports describing vent faunas proposed two possible sources of

nutrition< bacterial chemosynthesis% production of food by bacteria using energy

derived from chemical changes% and advection% the drifting of food materials from

surrounding regions. ater% evidence in support of the idea of intense local

chemosynthesis was accumulated< hydrogen sulde was found in vent water4

many vent-site bacteria were found to be capable of chemosynthesis4 and

extremely large concentrations of bacteria were found in samples of vent water

thought to be pure. (his nal observation seemed decisive. f such astonishing

concentrations of bacteria were typical of vent out#ow% then food within the vent

would dwarf any contribution from advection. ,ence% the widely 'uoted

conclusion was reached that bacterial chemosynthesis provides the foundation for

hydrothermal-vent food chains0an exciting prospect because no other

communities on Earth are independent of photosynthesis.

(here are% however% certain di*culties with this interpretation. ;or example%

some of the large sedentary organisms associated with vents are also found at

ordinary deep-sea temperatures many meters from the nearest hydrothermal

sources. (his suggests that bacterial chemosynthesis is not a su*cient source of

nutrition for these creatures. Another di*culty is that similarly dense populations

of large deep-sea animals have been found in the proximity of @smokers0ventswhere water emerges at temperatures up to :23℃. Bo bacteria can survive such

heat% and no bacteria were found there. 8nless smokers are consistently located

near more hospitable warm-water vents% chemosynthesis can account for only a

fraction of the vent faunas. t is conceivable% however% that these large% sedentary

organisms do in fact feed on bacteria that grow in warm-water vents% rise in the

vent water% and then rain in peripheral areas to nourish animals living some

distance from the warm-water vents.

Bonetheless advection is a more likely alternative food source. $esearch has

demonstrated that advective #ow% which originates near the surface of the ocean

where suspended particulate matter accumulates% transports some of that matter



GRE 1<

and water to the vents. Estimates suggest that for every cubic meter of vent

discharge% :23 milligrams of particulate organic material would be advected into

the vent area. (hus% for an average-si&ed vent% advection could provide more than

:3 kilograms of potential food per day. n addition% it is likely that small live

animals in the advected water might be killed or stunned by thermal and)orchemical shock% thereby contributing to the food supply of vents.

1<. The assage rovides information for ansering hich of the folloing

questions*

(A) hat causes arm-ater vents to form*

(") $o vent faunas consume more than do dee-sea faunas of similar size*

(#) $o bacteria live in the vent ater of smokers*

($) hat role does hydrogen sulfide lay in chemosynthesis*

(!) hat accounts for the locations of dee-sea smokers*

17. The information in the assage suggests that the maority of dee-sea faunas that

live in nonvent habitats have hich of the folloing characteristics*

(A) They do not normally feed on articles of food in the ater.

(") They are smaller than many vent faunas.

(#) They are redators.

($) They derive nutrition from a chemosynthetic food source.

(!) They congregate around a single main food source.

1&. The rimary urose of the assage is to

(A) describe a reviously unknon natural henomenon

(") reconstruct the evolution of a natural henomenon

(#) establish unequivocally the accuracy of a hyothesis

($) survey e%lanations for a natural henomenon and determine hich is best

suorted by evidence

(!) entertain criticism of the author's research and rovide an effective resonse

1. hich of the folloing does the author cite as a eakness in the argument that

bacterial chemosynthesis rovides the foundation for the food chains at dee-sea

vents*

(A) ?ents are colonized by some of the same animals found in other areas of the

ocean floor.

(") ?ent ater does not contain sufficient quantities of hydrogen sulfide.

(#) "acteria cannot roduce large quantities of food quickly enough.

($) Darge concentrations of minerals are found in vent ater.

(!) ,ome bacteria found in the vents are incaable of chemosynthesis.

+. hich of the folloing is information sulied in the assage that ould suort



GRE 1<1

the statement that the food sulies necessary to sustain vent communities must

be many times that of ordinary fallout*

:. Darge vent faunas move from vent to vent in search of food.

::. ?ent faunas are not able to consume food roduced by hotosynthesis.

:::. ?ents are more densely oulated than are other dee-sea areas.

(A) : only

(") ::: only

(#) : and :: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+1. The author refers to EsmokersF (line 3&) most robably in order to

(A) sho ho thermal shock can rovide food for some vent faunas by stunningsmall animals

(") rove that the habitat of most dee-sea animals is limited to arm-ater

vents

(#) e%lain ho bacteria carry out chemosynthesis

($) demonstrate ho advection comensates for the lack of food sources on the

seafloor

(!) resent evidence that bacterial chemosynthesis may be an inadequate source

of food for some vent faunas

++. hich of the folloing can be inferred from the assage about the articulate

matter that is carried don from the surface of the ocean*

(A) :t is the basis of bacterial chemosynthesis in the vents.

(") :t may rovide an imortant source of nutrition for vent faunas.

(#) :t may cause the internal temerature of the vents to change significantly.

($) :t is transorted as large aggregates of articles.

(!) :t contains hydrogen sulfide.

(hroughout human history there have been many stringent taboos concerning

watching other people eat or eating in the presence of others. (here have beenattempts to explain these taboos in terms of inappropriate social relationships

either between those who are involved and those who are not simultaneously

involved in the satisfaction of a bodily need% or between those already satiated

and those who appear to be shamelessly gorging. 8ndoubtedly such elements

exist in the taboos% but there is an additional element with a much more

fundamental importance. n prehistoric times% when food was so precious and the

on-lookers so hungry% not to o=er half of the little food one had was unthinkable%

since every glance was a plea for life. ;urther% during those times% people existed

in nuclear or extended family groups% and the sharing of food was 'uite literally

supporting one’s family or% by extension% preserving one’s self.



GRE 1<+

+3. :f the argument in the assage is valid8 taboos against eating in the resence of

others ho are not also eating ould be D!A,T likely in a society that

(A) had alays had a lentiful suly of food

(") emhasized the need to share orldly goods

(#) had a nomadic rather than an agricultural ay of life

($) emhasized the value of rivacy

(!) discouraged overindulgence

+9. The author's hyothesis concerning the origin of taboos against atching other

eole eat emhasizes the

(A) general alatability of food

(") religious significance of food

(#) limited availability of food

($) various sources of food

(!) nutritional value of food

+;. According to the assage8 the author believes that ast attemts to e%lain some

taboos concerning eating are

(A) unimaginative

(") imlausible

(#) inelegant

($) incomlete(!) unclear

+<. :n develoing the main idea of the assage8 the author does hich of the

folloing*

(A) $onlays earlier attemts to e%lain the origins of a social rohibition.

(") Adats a scientific theory and alies it to a siritual relationshi.

(#) ,imlifies a comle% biological henomenon by e%laining it in terms of

social needs.

($) 5eorganizes a system designed to guide ersonal behavior.(!) #odifies earlier8 unsystematized conectures about family life.

SECTION B

+(his passage is from a book published in 1IQ2.

(hat ouise Bevelson is believed by many critics to be the greatest twentieth-

century sculptor is all the more remarkable because the greatest resistance to

women artists has been% until recently% in the eld of sculpture. 9ince Beolithic

times% sculpture has been considered the prerogative of men% partly% perhaps% for

purely physical reasons< it was erroneously assumed that women were not suited



GRE 1<3

for the hard manual labor re'uired in sculpting stone% carving wood% or working in

metal. t has been only during the twentieth century that women sculptors have

been recogni&ed as ma/or artists% and it has been in the 8nited 9tates% especially

since the decades of the fties and sixties% that women sculptors have shown the

greatest originality and creative power. (heir rise to prominence parallels thedevelopment of sculpture itself in the 8nited 9tates< while there had been a few

talented sculptors in the 8nited 9tates before the 1IG3’s% it was only after 1IG20

when Bew Dork was rapidly becoming the art capital of the world0that ma/or

sculpture was produced in the 8nited 9tates. 9ome of the best was the work of

women.

"y far the most outstanding of these women is ouise Bevelson% who in the

eyes of many critics is the most original female artist alive today. ?ne famous and

in#uential critic% ,ilton Jramer% said of her work% @;or myself % think >s. Bevelson

succeeds where the painters often fail.,er works have been compared to the Cubist constructions of 6icasso% the

9urrealistic ob/ects of >iro% and the >er&bau of 9chwitters. Bevelson would be the

rst to admit that she has been in#uenced by all of these% as well as by African

sculpture% and by Bative American and pre-Columbian art% but she has absorbed

all these in#uences and still created a distinctive art that expresses the urban

landscape and the aesthetic sensibility of the twentieth century. Bevelson says% @

have always wanted to show the world that art is everywhere% except that it has

to pass through a creative mind.

8sing mostly discarded wooden ob/ects like packing crates% broken pieces offurniture% and abandoned architectural ornaments% all of which she has hoarded

for years% she assembles architectural constructions of great beauty and power.

Creating very freely with no sketches% she glues and nails ob/ects together% paints

them black% or more rarely white or gold% and places them in boxes. (hese

assemblages% walls% even entire environments create a mysterious% almost awe-

inspiring atmosphere. Although she has denied any symbolic or religious intent in

her works% their three-dimensional grandeur and even their titles% such as Sk"

Cathedra! and 0ight Cathedra!% suggest such connotations. n some ways% her

most ambitious works are closer to architecture than to traditional sculpture% but

then neither ouise Bevelson nor her art ts into any neat category.

17. The assage focuses rimarily on hich of the folloing*

(A) A general tendency in tentieth-century art

(") The ork of a articular artist

(#) The artistic influences on omen scultors

($) #ritical resonses to tentieth-century sculture

(!) @aterials used by tentieth-century scultors

1&. hich of the folloing statements is suorted by information given in the assage*



GRE 1<9

(A) ,ince 19; omen scultors in the 6nited ,tates have roduced more

sculture than have men scultors.

(") ,ince 1; sculture roduced in the 6nited ,tates has been the most original

and creative sculture roduced anyhere.

(#) >rom 1 to 1; omen scultors in !uroe enoyed more recognition for

their ork than did omen scultors in the 6nited ,tates.

($) rior to 19; there ere many omen scultors hose ork as ignored by

critics.

(!) rior to 19; there as little maor sculture roduced by men or omen

scultors orking in the 6nited ,tates.

1. The author quotes 4ilton Jramer in lines +;-+7 most robably in order to

illustrate hich of the folloing*

(A) The realism of evelson's ork (") The unique qualities of evelson's style

(#) The e%tent of critical aroval of evelson's ork

($) A distinction beteen sculture and ainting

(!) A reason for the rominence of omen scultors since the 1;'s

+. hich of the folloing is one ay in hich evelson's art illustrates her theory

as it is e%ressed in lines 3<-3&*

(A) ,he scults in ood rather than in metal or stone.

(") ,he aints her scultures and frames them in bo%es.

(#) ,he makes no reliminary sketches but rather allos the sculture to develo

as she orks.

($) ,he uts together ieces of ordinary obects once used for different uroses

to make her scultures.

(!) ,he does not deliberately attemt to convey symbolic or religious meanings

through her sculture.

+1. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author believes hich of the folloing

about evelson's scultures*(A) They suggest religious and symbolic meanings.

(") They do not have qualities characteristic of sculture.

(#) They are mysterious and ae-insiring8 but not beautiful.

($) They are uniquely American in style and sensibility.

(!) They sho the influence of tentieth-century architecture.

++. The author regards evelson's stature in the art orld as EremarkableF (line 3) in

art because of hich of the folloing*

(A) 4er ork is currently overrated.



GRE 1<;

(") omen scultors have found it esecially difficult to be acceted and

recognized as maor artists.

(#) evelson's scultures are difficult to understand.

($) @any art critics have favored ainting over sculture in riting about

develoments in the art orld.

(!) >e of the artists rominent in the tentieth century have been scultors.

+3. hich of the folloing statements about evelson's scultures can be inferred

from the assage*

(A) They are meant for dislay outdoors.

(") They are often ainted in several colors.

(#) They are sometimes very large.

($) They are hand carved by evelson.

(!) They are built around a central ooden obect.

Folcanic rock that forms as #uid lava chills rapidly is called pillow lava. (his

rapid chilling occurs when lava erupts directly into water +or beneath ice or when

it #ows across a shoreline and into a body of water. !hile the term @pillow lava

suggests a denite shape% in fact geologists disagree. 9ome geologists argue that

pillow lava is characteri&ed by discrete% ellipsoidal masses. ?thers describe pillow

lava as a tangled mass of cylindrical% interconnected #ow lobes. >uch of this

controversy probably results from unwarranted extrapolations of the original

conguration of pillow #ows from two-dimensional cross sections of eroded pillows

in land outcroppings. Firtually any cross section cut through a tangled mass of

interconnected #ow lobes would give the appearance of a pile of discrete

ellipsoidal masses. Ade'uate three-dimensional images of intact pillows are

essential for dening the true geometry of pillowed #ows and thus ascertaining

their mode of origin. ndeed% the term @pillow% itself suggestive of discrete

masses% is probably a misnomer.

+9. hich of the folloing is a fact resented in the assage*

(A) The shae of the connections beteen the searate8 sacklike masses in illo

lava is unknon.

(") @ore accurate cross sections of illo lava ould reveal the mode of origin.

(#) ater or ice is necessary for the formation of illo lava.

($) o three-dimensional e%amles of intact illos currently e%ist.

(!) The origin of illo lava is not yet knon.

+;. :n the assage8 the author is rimarily interested in

(A) analyzing the source of a scientific controversy

(") criticizing some geologists' methodology

(#) ointing out the flas in a geological study



GRE 1<<

($) roosing a ne theory to e%lain e%isting scientific evidence

(!) describing a hysical henomenon

+<. The author of the assage ould most robably agree that the geologists

mentioned in line < (E,ome geologistsF) have made hich of the folloing errorsin reasoning*

:. /eneralized unustifiably from available evidence.

::. $eliberately ignored e%isting counterevidence.

:::. 5eeatedly failed to take ne evidence into account.

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) ::: only

($) : and :: only

(!) :: and ::: only

+7. The author imlies that the EcontroversyF (line ) might be resolved if

(A) geologists did not ersist in using the term EilloF

(") geologists did not rely on otentially misleading information

(#) geologists ere more illing to confer directly ith one another

($) to-dimensional cross sections of eroded illos ere available

(!) e%isting illos in land outcroings ere not so badly eroded

No. 9-1

SECTION A

>any critics of Emily "ronte’s novel Wuthering Heights see its second part as

a counterpoint that comments on% if it does not reverse% the rst part% where a

@romantic reading receives more conrmation. 9eeing the two parts as a whole is

encouraged by the novel’s sophisticated structure% revealed in its complex use of

narrators and time shifts. 7ranted that the presence of these elements need not

argue an authorial awareness of novelistic construction comparable to that of

,enry ames% their presence does encourage attempts to unify the novel’s

heterogeneous parts. ,owever% any interpretation that seeks to unify all of the

novel’s diverse elements is bound to be somewhat unconvincing. (his is not

because such an interpretation necessarily sti=ens into a thesis +although rigidity

in any interpretation of this or of any novel is always a danger% but because

Wuthering Heights has recalcitrant elements of undeniable power that% ultimately%

resist inclusion in an all-encompassing interpretation. n this respect% Wuthering

Heights shares a feature of Ha$!et.

17. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing is a true statement about the



GRE 1<7

first and second arts of Wuthering Heights*

(A) The second art has received more attention from critics.

(") The second art has little relation to the first art.

(#) The second art annuls the force of the first art.

($) The second art rovides less substantiation for a EromanticF reading.

(!) The second art is better because it is more realistic.

1&. hich of the folloing inferences about 4enry 2ames's aareness of novelistic

construction is best suorted by the assage*

(A) 2ames8 more than any other novelist8 as aare of the difficulties of

novelistic construction.

(") 2ames as very aare of the details of novelistic construction.

(#) 2ames's aareness of novelistic construction derived from his reading of

"ronte.

($) 2ames's aareness of novelistic construction has led most commentators to

see unity in his individual novels.

(!) 2ames's aareness of novelistic construction recluded him from violating the

unity of his novels.

1. The author of the assage ould be most likely to agree that an interretation of a

novel should

(A) not try to unite heterogeneous elements in the novel

(") not be infle%ible in its treatment of the elements in the novel

(#) not argue that the comle% use of narrators or of time shifts indicates a

sohisticated structure

($) concentrate on those recalcitrant elements of the novel that are outside the

novel's main structure

(!) rimarily consider those elements of novelistic construction of hich the

author of the novel as aare

+. The author of the assage suggests hich of the folloing about Ha%let *

:. Ha%let has usually attracted critical interretations that tend to stiffen intotheses.

::. Ha%let has elements that are not amenable to an all-encomassing critical

interretation.

:::. Ha%let is less oen to an all-encomassing critical interretation than is

Wuthering Heights.

:?. Ha%let has not received a critical interretation that has been idely

acceted by readers.

(A) : only

(") :: only



GRE 1<&

(#) : and :? only

($) ::: and :? only

(!) :8 ::8 and ::: only

(he determination of the sources of copper ore used in the manufacture of

copper and bron&e artifacts of "ron&e Age civili&ations would add greatly to our

knowledge of cultural contacts and trade in that era. $esearchers have analy&ed

artifacts and ores for their concentrations of elements% but for a variety of

reasons% these studies have generally failed to provide evidence of the sources of

the copper used in the ob/ects. Elemental composition can vary within the same

copper-ore lode% usually because of varying admixtures of other elements%

especially iron% lead% &inc% and arsenic. And high concentrations of cobalt or &inc%

noticed in some artifacts% appear in a variety of copper-ore sources. >oreover% the

processing of ores introduced poorly controlled changes in the concentrations of

minor and trace elements in the resulting metal. 9ome elements evaporate duringsmelting and roasting4 di=erent temperatures and processes produce di=erent

degrees of loss. ;inally% #ux% which is sometimes added during smelting to remove

waste material from the ore% could add 'uantities of elements to the nal product.

An elemental property that is unchanged through these chemical processes is

the isotopic composition of each metallic element in the ore. sotopic composition%

the percentages of the di=erent isotopes of an element in a given sample of the

element% is therefore particularly suitable as an indicator of the sources of the ore.

?f course% for this purpose it is necessary to nd an element whose isotopic

composition is more or less constant throughout a given ore body% but varies fromone copper ore body to another or% at least% from one geographic region to

another.

(he ideal choice% when isotopic composition is used to investigate the source

of copper ore% would seem to be copper itself. t has been shown that small but

measurable variations occur naturally in the isotopic composition of copper.

,owever% the variations are large enough only in rare ores4 between samples of

the common ore minerals of copper% isotopic variations greater than the

measurement error have not been found. An alternative choice is lead% which

occurs in most copper and bron&e artifacts of the "ron&e Age in amounts

consistent with the lead being derived from the copper ores and possibly from the

#uxes. (he isotopic composition of lead often varies from one source of common

copper ore to another% with variations exceeding the measurement error4 and

preliminary studies indicate virtually uniform isotopic composition of the lead from

a single copper-ore source. !hile some of the lead found in an artifact may have

been introduced from #ux or when other metals were added to the copper ore%

lead so added in "ron&e Age processing would usually have the same isotopic

composition as the lead in the copper ore. ead isotope studies may thus prove

useful for interpreting the archaeological record of the "ron&e Age.




GRE 1<

(A) discuss the techniques of analyzing lead isotoe comosition

(") roose a ay to determine the origin of the coer in certain artifacts

(#) resolve a disute concerning the analysis of coer ore

($) describe the deficiencies of a currently used method of chemical analysis of

certain metals

(!) offer an interretation of the archaeological record of the "ronze Age

++. The author first mentions the addition of flu% during smelting (lines 1&-+1) in

order to

(A) give a reason for the failure of elemental comosition studies to determine

ore sources

(") illustrate differences beteen various "ronze Age civilizations

(#) sho the need for using high smelting temeratures

($) illustrate the uniformity of lead isotoe comosition

(!) e%lain the success of coer isotoe comosition analysis

+3. The author suggests hich of the folloing about a "ronze Age artifact

containing high concentrations of cobalt or zinc*

(A) :t could not be reliably tested for its elemental comosition.

(") :t could not be reliably tested for its coer isotoe comosition.

(#) :t could not be reliably tested for its lead isotoe comosition.

($) :t could have been manufactured from ore from any one of a variety of

sources.

(!) :t could have been roduced by the addition of other metals during the

rocessing of the coer ore.

+9. According to the assage8 ossible sources of the lead found in a coer or

bronze artifact include hich of the folloing*

:. The coer ore used to manufacture the artifact

::. >lu% added during rocessing of the coer ore

:::. Bther metal added during rocessing of the coer ore

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) ::: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+;. The author reects coer as the Eideal choiceF mentioned in line 33 because

(A) the concentration of coer in "ronze Age artifacts varies

(") elements other than coer may be introduced during smelting

(#) the isotoic comosition of coer changes during smelting



GRE 17

($) among common coer ores8 differences in coer isotoe comosition are

too small

(!) ithin a single source of coer ore8 coer isotoe comosition can vary

substantially

+<. The author makes hich of the folloing statements about lead isotoe

comosition*

(A) :t often varies from one coer-ore source to another.

(") :t sometimes varies over short distances in a single coer-ore source.

(#) :t can vary during the testing of artifacts8 roducing a measurement error.

($) :t frequently changes during smelting and roasting.

(!) :t may change hen artifacts are buried for thousands of years.

+7. :t can be inferred from the assage that the use of flu% in rocessing coer orecan alter the lead isotoe comosition of the resulting metal !C#!T hen

(A) there is a smaller concentration of lead in the flu% than in the coer ore

(") the concentration of lead in the flu% is equivalent to that of the lead in the ore

(#) some of the lead in the flu% evaorates during rocessing

($) any lead in the flu% has the same isotoic comosition as the lead in the ore

(!) other metals are added during rocessing

SECTION B

9ince the ,awaiian slands have never been connected to other land masses%

the great variety of plants in ,awaii must be a result of the long-distance

dispersal of seeds% a process that re'uires both a method of transport and an

e'uivalence between the ecology of the source area and that of the recipient

area.

(here is some dispute about the method of transport involved. 9ome

biologists argue that ocean and air currents are responsible for the transport of

plant seeds to ,awaii. Det the results of #otation experiments and the low

temperatures of air currents cast doubt on these hypotheses. >ore probable is

bird transport% either externally% by accidental attachment of the seeds to

feathers% or internally% by the swallowing of fruit and subse'uent excretion of the

seeds. !hile it is likely that fewer varieties of plant seeds have reached ,awaii

externally than internally% more varieties are known to be adapted to external

than to internal transport.

17. The author of the assage is rimarily concerned ith

(A) discussing different aroaches biologists have taken to testing theories about

the distribution of lants in 4aaii

(") discussing different theories about the transort of lant seeds to 4aaii



GRE 171

(#) discussing the e%tent to hich air currents are resonsible for the disersal of

lant seeds to 4aaii

($) resolving a disute about the adatability of lant seeds to bird transort

(!) resolving a disute about the ability of birds to carry lant seeds long

distances

1&. The author mentions the results of flotation e%eriments on lant seeds (lines 1-

1+) most robably in order to

(A) suort the claim that the distribution of lants in 4aaii is the result of the

long-distance disersal of seeds

(") lend credibility to the thesis that air currents rovide a method of transort for

lant seeds to 4aaii

(#) suggest that the long-distance disersal of seeds is a rocess that requires long

eriods of time($) challenge the claim that ocean currents are resonsible for the transort of

lant seeds to 4aaii

(!) refute the claim that 4aaiian flora evolved indeendently from flora in other

arts of the orld

1. :t can be inferred from information in the assage that the e%istence in aline

regions of 4aaii of a lant secies that also gros in the southestern 6nited

,tates ould ustify hich of the folloing conclusions*

(A) The ecology of the southestern 6nited ,tates is similar in imortant resects

to the ecology of aline regions of 4aaii.

(") There are ocean currents that flo from the southestern 6nited ,tates to

4aaii.

(#) The lant secies discovered in 4aaii must have traveled from the

southestern 6nited ,tates only very recently.

($) The lant secies discovered in 4aaii reached there by attaching to the

feathers of birds migrating from the southestern 6nited ,tates.

(!) The lant secies discovered in 4aaii is esecially ell adated to transort

over long distances.

+. The assage sulies information for ansering hich of the folloing

questions*

(A) hy does successful long-distance disersal of lant seeds require an

equivalence beteen the ecology of the source area and that of the reciient

area*

(") hy are more varieties of lant seeds adated to e%ternal rather than to

internal bird transort*

(#) hat varieties of lant seeds are birds that fly long distances most likely to

sallo*



GRE 17+

($) hat is a reason for acceting the long-distance disersal of lant seeds as an

e%lanation for the origin of 4aaiian flora*

(!) hat evidence do biologists cite to argue that ocean and air currents are

resonsible for the transort of lant seeds to 4aaii*

A long-held view of the history of the English colonies that became the 8nited

9tates has been that England’s policy toward these colonies before 1QO: was

dictated by commercial interests and that a change to a more imperial policy%

dominated by expansionist militarist ob/ectives% generated the tensions that

ultimately led to the American $evolution. n a recent study% 9tephen 9aunders

!ebb has presented a formidable challenge to this view. According to !ebb%

England already had a military imperial policy for more than a century before the

American $evolution. ,e sees Charles % the English monarch between 1OO3 and

1ON2% as the proper successor of the (udor monarchs of the sixteenth century and

of ?liver Cromwell% all of whom were bent on extending centrali&ed executivepower over England’s possessions through the use of what !ebb calls @garrison

government. 7arrison government allowed the colonists a legislative assembly%

but real authority% in !ebb’s view% belonged to the colonial governor% who was

appointed by the king and supported by the @garrison% that is% by the local

contingent of English troops under the colonial governor’s command.

According to !ebb% the purpose of garrison government was to provide

military support for a royal policy designed to limit the power of the upper classes

in the American colonies. !ebb argues that the colonial legislative assemblies

represented the interests not of the common people but of the colonial upper

classes% a coalition of merchants and nobility who favored self-rule and sought to

elevate legislative authority at the expense of the executive. t was% according to

!ebb% the colonial governors who favored the small farmer% opposed the

plantation system% and tried through taxation to break up large holdings of land.

"acked by the military presence of the garrison% these governors tried to prevent

the gentry and merchants% allied in the colonial assemblies% from transforming

colonial America into a capitalistic oligarchy.

!ebb’s study illuminates the political alignments that existed in the colonies

in the century prior to the American $evolution% but his view of the crown’s use of

the military as an instrument of colonial policy is not entirely convincing. England

during the seventeenth century was not noted for its military achievements.

Cromwell did mount England’s most ambitious overseas military expedition in

more than a century% but it proved to be an utter failure. 8nder Charles % the

English army was too small to be a ma/or instrument of government. Bot until the

war with ;rance in 1OIQ did !illiam persuade 6arliament to create a

professional standing army% and 6arliaments price for doing so was to keep the

army under tight legislative control. !hile it may be true that the crown

attempted to curtail the power of the colonial upper classes% it is hard to imagine

how the English army during the seventeenth century could have providedsignicant military support for such a policy.



GRE 173

+1. The assage can best be described as a

(A) survey of the inadequacies of a conventional vieoint

(") reconciliation of oosing oints of vie

(#) summary and evaluation of a recent study

($) defense of a ne thesis from anticiated obections

(!) revie of the subtle distinctions beteen aarently similar vies

++. The assage suggests that the vie referred to in lines 1-7 argued that

(A) the colonial governors ere symathetic to the demands of the common

eole

(") #harles :: as a ivotal figure in the shift of !nglish monarchs toard a more

imerial olicy in their governorshi of the American colonies

(#) the American 5evolution as generated largely out of a conflict beteen the

colonial uer classes and an alliance of merchants and small farmers

($) the military did not lay a maor role as an instrument of colonial olicy until

17<3

(!) the colonial legislative assemblies in the colonies had little influence over the

colonial governors

+3. :t can be inferred from the assage that ebb ould be most likely to agree ith

hich of the folloing statements regarding garrison government*

(A) /arrison government gave legislative assemblies in the colonies relatively

little authority8 comared to the authority that it gave the colonial governors.

(") /arrison government roved relatively ineffective until it as used by

#harles :: to curb the oer of colonial legislatures.

(#) /arrison government became a less viable colonial olicy as the !nglish

arliament began to e%ert tighter legislative control over the !nglish

military.

($) Bliver #romell as the first !nglish ruler to make use of garrison

government on a large scale.

(!) The creation of a rofessional standing army in !ngland in 1<7 actually

eakened garrison government by diverting troos from the garrisons

stationed in the American colonies.

+9. According to the assage8 ebb vies #harles :: as the Eroer successorF (line

13) of the Tudor monarchs and #romell because #harles ::

(A) used colonial ta% revenues to fund overseas military e%editions

(") used the military to e%tend e%ecutive oer over the !nglish colonies

(#) ished to transform the American colonies into caitalistic oligarchies

($) resisted the !nglish arliament's efforts to e%ert control over the military

(!) alloed the American colonists to use legislative assemblies as a forum for



GRE 179

resolving grievances against the cron

+;. hich of the folloing8 if true8 ould most seriously eaken the author's

assertion in lines ;9-;&*

(A) "ecause they ere oorly administered8 #romell's overseas militarye%editions ere doomed to failure.

(") "ecause it relied rimarily on the symbolic resence of the military8 garrison

government could be effectively administered ith a relatively small number

of troos.

(#) 6ntil early in the seventeenth century8 no rofessional standing army in

!uroe had erformed effectively in overseas military e%editions.

($) @any of the colonial governors aointed by the cron ere also

commissioned army officers.

(!) @any of the !nglish troos stationed in the American colonies ere veteransof other overseas military e%editions.

+<. According to ebb's vie of colonial history8 hich of the folloing as (ere)

true of the merchants and nobility mentioned in line 3*

:. They ere oosed to olicies formulated by #harles :: that ould have

transformed the colonies into caitalistic oligarchies.

::. They ere oosed to attemts by the !nglish cron to limit the oer of

the legislative assemblies.

:::. They ere united ith small farmers in their oosition to the stationing of

!nglish troos in the colonies.

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) : and :: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+7. The author suggests that if illiam ::: had anted to make use of the standing

army mentioned in line ;+ to administer garrison government in the American

colonies8 he ould have had to.

(A) make eace ith >rance

(") abolish the colonial legislative assemblies

(#) seek aroval from the !nglish arliament

($) aoint colonial governors ho ere more symathetic to royal olicy

(!) raise additional revenues by increasing ta%ation of large landholdings in the

colonies

No. 9-2



GRE 17;

SECTION A

A serious critic has to comprehend the particular content% uni'ue structure%

and special meaning of a work of art. And here she faces a dilemma. (he critic

must recogni&e the artistic element of uni'ueness that re'uires sub/ective

reaction4 yet she must not be unduly pre/udiced by such reactions. ,er likes and

dislikes are less important than what the work itself communicates% and her

preferences may blind her to certain 'ualities of the work and thereby prevent an

ade'uate understanding of it. ,ence% it is necessary that a critic develop a

sensibility informed by familiarity with the history of art and aesthetic theory. ?n

the other hand% it is insu*cient to treat the artwork solely historically% in relation

to a xed set of ideas or values. (he critic’s knowledge and training are% rather% a

preparation of the cognitive and emotional abilities needed for an ade'uate

personal response to an artwork’s own particular 'ualities.

17. According to the author8 a serious art critic may avoid being reudiced by her

subective reactions if she

(A) treats an artork in relation to a fi%ed set of ideas and values

(") brings to her observation a knoledge of art history and aesthetic theory

(#) allos more time for the observation of each artork

($) takes into account the references of other art critics

(!) limits herself to that art ith hich she has adequate familiarity

1&. The author imlies that it is insufficient to treat a ork of art solely historically

because

(A) doing so ould lead the critic into a dilemma

(") doing so can blind the critic to some of the artork's unique qualities

(#) doing so can insulate the critic from ersonally held beliefs

($) subective reactions can roduce a biased resonse

(!) critics are not sufficiently familiar ith art history

1. The assage suggests that the author ould be most likely to agree ith hich of

the folloing statements*

(A) Art seaks to the assions as ell as to the intellect.

(") @ost orks of art e%ress unconscious ishes or desires.

(#) The best art is accessible to the greatest number of eole.

($) The art roduced in the last fe decades is of inferior quality.

(!) The meaning of art is a function of the social conditions in hich it as

roduced.

+. The author's argument is develoed rimarily by the use of

(A) an attack on sentimentality



GRE 17<

(") an e%amle of successful art criticism

(#) a critique of artists training

($) a arning against e%tremes in art criticism

(!) an analogy beteen art criticism and art roduction

Firuses% infectious particles consisting of nucleic acid packaged in a protein

coat +the capsid% are di*cult to resist. 8nable to reproduce outside a living cell%

viruses reproduce only by subverting the genetic mechanisms of a host cell. n

one kind of viral life cycle% the virus rst binds to the cell’s surface% then

penetrates the cell and sheds its capsid. (he exposed viral nucleic acid produces

new viruses from the contents of the cell. ;inally% the cell releases the viral

progeny% and a new cell cycle of infection begins. (he human body responds to a

viral infection by producing antibodies< complex% highly specic proteins that

selectively bind to foreign molecules such as viruses. An antibody can either

interfere with a virus’s ability to bind to a cell% or can prevent it from releasing its

nucleic acid.

8nfortunately% the common cold% produced most often by rhinoviruses% is

intractable to antiviral defense. ,umans have di*culty resisting colds because

rhinoviruses are so diverse% including at least 133 strains. (he strains di=er most

in the molecular structure of the proteins in their capsids. 9ince disease-ghting

antibodies bind to the capsid% an antibody developed to protect against one

rhinovirus strain is useless against other strains. i=erent antibodies must be

produced for each strain.

A defense against rhinoviruses might nonetheless succeed by exploiting

hidden similarities among the rhinovirus strains. ;or example% most rhinovirus

strains bind to the same kind of molecule +delta-receptors on a cell’s surface

when they attack human cells. Colonno% taking advantage of these common

receptors% devised a strategy for blocking the attachment of rhinoviruses to their

appropriate receptors. $ather than fruitlessly searching for an antibody that would

bind to all rhinoviruses% Colonno reali&ed that an antibody binding to the common

receptors of a human cell would prevent rhinoviruses from initiating an infection.

"ecause human cells normally do not develop antibodies to components of their

own cells% Colonno in/ected human cells into mice% which did produce an antibodyto the common receptor. n isolated human cells% this antibody proved to be

extraordinarily e=ective at thwarting the rhinovirus. >oreover% when the antibody

was given to chimpan&ees% it inhibited rhinoviral growth% and in humans it

lessened both the severity and duration of cold symptoms.

Another possible defense against rhinoviruses was proposed by $ossman% who

described rhinoviruses’ detailed molecular structure. $ossman showed that

protein se'uences common to all rhinovirus strains lie at the base of a deep

@canyon scoring each face of the capsid. (he narrow opening of this canyon

possibly prevents the relatively large antibody molecules from binding to the

common se'uence% but smaller molecules might reach it. Among these smaller%



GRE 177

nonantibody molecules% some might bind to the common se'uence% lock the

nucleic acid in its coat% and thereby prevent the virus from reproducing.


(A) discuss viral mechanisms and ossible ays of circumventing certain kindsof those mechanisms

(") challenge recent research on ho rhinoviruses bind to recetors on the

surfaces of cells

(#) suggest future research on rhinoviral groth in chimanzees

($) defend a controversial research rogram hose urose is to discover the

molecular structure of rhinovirus casids

(!) evaluate a disute beteen advocates of to theories about the rhinovirus life

cycle

++. :t can be inferred from the assage that the rotein sequences of the casid that

vary most among strains of rhinovirus are those

(A) at the base of the EcanyonF

(") outside of the EcanyonF

(#) resonsible for roducing nucleic acid

($) resonsible for reventing the formation of delta-recetors

(!) reventing the casid from releasing its nucleic acid

+3. :t can be inferred from the assage that a cell lacking delta-recetors ill be

(A) unable to revent the rhinoviral nucleic acid from shedding its casid

(") defenseless against most strains of rhinovirus

(#) unable to release the viral rogeny it develos after infection

($) rotected from ne infections by antibodies to the rhinovirus

(!) resistant to infection by most strains of rhinovirus

+9. hich of the folloing research strategies for develoing a defense against the

common cold ould the author be likely to find most romising*

(A) #ontinuing to look for a general antirhinoviral antibody

(") ,earching for common cell-surface recetors in humans and mice

(#) #ontinuing to look for similarities among the various strains of rhinovirus

($) $iscovering ho the human body roduces antibodies in resonse to a

rhinoviral infection

(!) $etermining the detailed molecular structure of the nucleic acid of a

rhinovirus

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that the urose of #olonno's e%eriments

as to determine hether

(A) chimanzees and humans can both be infected by rhinoviruses



GRE 17&

(") chimanzees can roduce antibodies to human cell-surface recetors

(#) a rhinovirus' nucleic acid might be locked in its rotein coat

($) binding antibodies to common recetors could roduce a ossible defense

against rhinoviruses

(!) rhinoviruses are vulnerable to human antibodies

+<. According to the assage8 5ossman's research suggests that

(A) a defense against rhinoviruses might e%loit structural similarities among the

strains of rhinovirus

(") human cells normally do not develo antibodies to comonents of their on

cells

(#) the various strains of rhinovirus differ in their ability to bind to the surface of

a host cell

($) rhinovirus versatility can ork to the benefit of researchers trying to find a

useful antibody

(!) #olonno's research findings are robably invalid

+7. According to the assage8 in order for a given antibody to bind to a given

rhinoviral casid8 hich of the folloing must be true*

(A) The casid must have a dee EcanyonF on each of its faces.

(") The antibody must be secific to the molecular structure of the articular

casid.

(#) The casid must searate from its nucleic acid before binding to an antibody.

($) The antibody must bind to a articular cell-surface recetor before it can bind

to a rhinovirus.

(!) The antibody must first enter a cell containing the articular rhinovirus.

SECTION B

iamonds% an occasional component of rare igneous rocks called lamproites

and kimberlites% have never been dated satisfactorily. ,owever% some diamonds

contain minute inclusions of silicate minerals% commonly olivine% pyroxene% andgarnet. (hese minerals can be dated by radioactive decay techni'ues because of

the very small 'uantities of radioactive trace elements they% in turn% contain.

8sually% it is possible to conclude that the inclusions are older than their diamond

hosts% but with little indication of the time interval involved. 9ometimes% however%

the crystal form of the silicate inclusions is observed to resemble more closely the

internal structure of diamond than that of other silicate minerals. t is not known

how rare this resemblance is% or whether it is most often seen in inclusions of

silicates such as garnet% whose crystallography is generally somewhat similar to

that of diamond4 but when present% the resemblance is regarded as compelling

evidence that the diamonds and inclusions are truly cogenetic.



GRE 17

17. The author imlies that silicate inclusions ere most often formed

(A) ith small diamonds inside of them

(") ith trace elements derived from their host minerals

(#) by the radioactive decay of rare igneous rocks

($) at an earlier eriod than ere their host minerals

(!) from the crystallization of rare igneous material

1&. According to the assage8 the age of silicate minerals included in diamonds can

be determined due to a feature of the

(A) trace elements in the diamond hosts

(") trace elements in the rock surrounding the diamonds

(#) trace elements in the silicate minerals

($) silicate minerals' crystal structure(!) host diamonds' crystal structure

1. The author states that hich of the folloing generally has a crystal structure

similar to that of diamond*

(A) Damroite

(") Jimberlite

(#) Blivine

($) yro%ene

(!) /arnet

+. The main urose of the assage is to

(A) e%lain hy it has not been ossible to determine the age of diamonds

(") e%lain ho it might be ossible to date some diamonds

(#) comare to alternative aroaches to determining the age of diamonds

($) comare a method of dating diamonds ith a method used to date certain

silicate minerals

(!) comare the age of diamonds ith that of certain silicate minerals contained

ithin themiscussion of the assimilation of 6uerto $icans in the 8nited 9tates has

focused on two factors< social standing and the loss of national culture. n general%

excessive stress is placed on one factor or the other% depending on whether the

commentator is Borth American or 6uerto $ican. >any Borth American social

scientists% such as ?scar ,andlin% oseph ;it&patrick% and ?scar ewis% consider

6uerto $icans as the most recent in a long line of ethnic entrants to occupy the

lowest rung on the social ladder. 9uch a @sociodemographic approach tends to

regard assimilation as a benign process% taking for granted increased economic

advantage and inevitable cultural integration% in a supposedly egalitarian context.

,owever% this approach fails to take into account the colonial nature of the 6uerto



GRE 1&

$ican case% with this group% unlike their European predecessors% coming from a

nation politically subordinated to the 8nited 9tates. Even the @radical criti'ues of

this mainstream research model% such as the criti'ue developed in i-ided

Societ" % attach the issue of ethnic assimilation too mechanically to factors of

economic and social mobility and are thus unable to illuminate the culturalsubordination of 6uerto $icans as a colonial minority.

n contrast% the @colonialist approach of island-based writers such as Eduardo

9eda-"onilla% >anuel >aldonado-enis% and uis Bieves-;alcon tends to view

assimilation as the forced loss of national culture in an une'ual contest with

imposed foreign values. (here is% of course% a strong tradition of cultural

accommodation among other 6uerto $ican thinkers. (he writings of Eugenio

;ernande& >ende& clearly exemplify this tradition% and many supporters of 6uerto

$ico’s commonwealth status share the same universali&ing orientation. "ut the

6uerto $ican intellectuals who have written most about the assimilation process inthe 8nited 9tates all advance cultural nationalist views% advocating the

preservation of minority cultural distinctions and re/ecting what they see as the

sub/ugation of colonial nationalities.

(his cultural and political emphasis is appropriate% but the colonialist thinkers

misdirect it% overlooking the class relations at work in both 6uerto $ican and Borth

American history. (hey pose the clash of national cultures as an absolute polarity%

with each culture understood as static and undi=erentiated. Det both the 6uerto

$ican and Borth American traditions have been sub/ect to constant challenge

from cultural forces within their own societies% forces that may move toward each

other in ways that cannot be written o= as mere @assimilation. Consider% for

example% the indigenous and Afro-Caribbean traditions in 6uerto $ican culture and

how they in#uence and are in#uenced by other Caribbean cultures and "lack

cultures in the 8nited 9tates. (he elements of coercion and ine'uality% so central

to cultural contact according to the colonialist framework play no role in this kind

of convergence of racially and ethnically di=erent elements of the same social

class.

+1. The author's main urose is to

(A) criticize the emhasis on social standing in discussions of the assimilation ofuerto 5icans in the 6nited ,tates

(") suort the thesis that assimilation has not been a benign rocess for uerto

5icans

(#) defend a vie of the assimilation of uerto 5icans that emhasizes the

reservation of national culture

($) indicate deficiencies in to schools of thought on the assimilation of uerto

5icans in the 6nited ,tates

(!) reect the attemt to formulate a general frameork for discussion of the

assimilation of uerto 5icans in the 6nited ,tates



GRE 1&1

++. According to the assage8 cultural accommodation is romoted by

(A) !duardo ,eda-"onilla

(") @anuel @aldonado-$enis

(#) the author of -i+ided *ociet

($) the maority of social scientists riting on immigration

(!) many suorters of uerto 5ico's commonealth status

+3. :t can be inferred from the assage that a riter such as !ugenio >ernandez

@endez ould most likely agree ith hich of the folloing statements

concerning members of minority ethnic grous*

(A) :t is necessary for the members of such grous to adat to the culture of the

maority.

(") The members of such grous generally encounter a culture that is static and

undifferentiated.

(#) ,ocial mobility is the most imortant feature of the e%erience of members of

such grous.

($) ,ocial scientists should emhasize the cultural and olitical asects of the

e%erience of members of such grous.

(!) The assimilation of members of such grous requires the forced abandonment

of their authentic national roots.

+9. The author imlies that the uerto 5ican riters ho have ritten most about

assimilation do BT do hich of the folloing*(A) 5egard assimilation as benign.

(") 5esist cultural integration.

(#) $escribe in detail the rocess of assimilation.

($) Take into account the colonial nature of the uerto 5ican case.

(!) #riticize suorters of uerto 5ico's commonealth status.

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that the EcolonialistF aroach is so called

because its ractitioners

(A) suort uerto 5ico's commonealth status

(") have a strong tradition of cultural accommodation

(#) emhasize the class relations at ork in both uerto 5ican and orth

American history

($) ose the clash of national cultures as an absolute olarity in hich each

culture is understood as static and undifferentiated

(!) regard the olitical relation of uerto 5ico to the 6nited ,tates as a significant

factor in the e%erience of uerto 5icans

+<. The author regards the emhasis by island-based riters on the cultural and olitical dimensions of assimilation as



GRE 1&+

(A) ironic

(") dangerous

(#) fitting but misdirected

($) illuminating but easily misunderstood

(!) eculiar but benign

+7. The e%amle discussed in lines ;1-;9 is intended by the author to illustrate a

(A) strength of the sociodemograhic aroach

(") strength of the EcolonialistF aroach

(#) eakness of the sociodemograhic aroach

($) eakness of the EcolonialistF aroach

(!) eakness of the cultural-accommodationist aroach

No. 9-3

SECTION A

Classical physics denes the vacuum as a state of absence< a vacuum is said

to exist in a region of space if there is nothing in it. n the 'uantum eld theories

that describe the physics of elementary particles% the vacuum becomes somewhat

more complicated. Even in empty space% particles can appear spontaneously as a

result of #uctuations of the vacuum. ;or example% an electron and a positron% or

antielectron% can be created out of the void. 6articles created in this way have

only a #eeting existence4 they are annihilated almost as soon as they appear% and

their presence can never be detected directly. (hey are called virtual particles in

order to distinguish them from real particles% whose lifetimes are not constrained

in the same way% and which can be detected. (hus it is still possible to dene that

vacuum as a space that has no real particles in it.

?ne might expect that the vacuum would always be the state of lowest

possible energy for a given region of space. f an area is initially empty and a real

particle is put into it% the total energy% it seems% should be raised by at least the

energy e'uivalent of the mass of the added particle. A surprising result of some

recent theoretical investigations is that this assumption is not invariably true.

(here are conditions under which the introduction of a real particle of nite mass

into an empty region of space can reduce the total energy. f the reduction in

energy is great enough% an electron and a positron will be spontaneously created.

8nder these conditions the electron and positron are not a result of vacuum

#uctuations but are real particles% which exist indenitely and can be detected. n

other words% under these conditions the vacuum is an unstable state and can

decay into a state of lower energy4 i.e.% one in which real particles are created.

(he essential condition for the decay of the vacuum is the presence of an



GRE 1&3

intense electric eld. As a result of the decay of the vacuum% the space permeated

by such a eld can be said to ac'uire an electric charge% and it can be called a

charged vacuum. (he particles that materiali&e in the space make the charge

manifest. An electric eld of su*cient intensity to create a charged vacuum is

likely to be found in only one place< in the immediate vicinity of a superheavyatomic nucleus% one with about twice as many protons as the heaviest natural

nuclei known. A nucleus that large cannot be stable% but it might be possible to

assemble one next to a vacuum for long enough to observe the decay of the

vacuum. Experiments attempting to achieve this are now under way.

17. hich of the folloing titles best describes the assage as a hole*

(A) The ?acuum= :ts >luctuations and $ecay

(") The ?acuum= :ts #reation and :nstability

(#) The ?acuum= A ,tate of Absence

($) articles That @aterialize in the ?acuum

(!) #lassical hysics and the ?acuum

1&. According to the assage8 the assumtion that the introduction of a real article

into a vacuum raises the total energy of that region of sace has been cast into

doubt by hich of the folloing*

(A) >indings from laboratory e%eriments

(") >indings from observational field e%eriments

(#) Accidental observations made during other e%eriments

($) $iscovery of several erroneous roositions in acceted theories

(!) redictions based on theoretical ork

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that scientists are currently making efforts to

observe hich of the folloing events*

(A) The decay of a vacuum in the resence of virtual articles

(") The decay of a vacuum ne%t to a suerheavy atomic nucleus

(#) The creation of a suerheavy atomic nucleus ne%t to an intense electric field

($) The creation of a virtual electron and a virtual ositron as a result offluctuations of a vacuum

(!) The creation of a charged vacuum in hich only real electrons can be created

in the vacuum's region of sace

+. hysicists' recent investigations of the decay of the vacuum8 as described in the

assage8 most closely resemble hich of the folloing hyothetical events in

other discilines*

(A) Bn the basis of data gathered in a carefully controlled laboratory e%eriment8

a chemist redicts and then demonstrates the hysical roerties of a nely

synthesized olymer.



GRE 1&9

(") Bn the basis of maniulations of macroeconomic theory8 an economist

redicts that8 contrary to acceted economic theory8 inflation and

unemloyment ill both decline under conditions of raid economic groth.

(#) Bn the basis of a rereading of the te%ts of 2ane Austen's novels8 a literary

critic suggests that8 contrary to acceted literary interretations. Austen's

lots ere actually metahors for olitical events in early nineteenth-century

!ngland.

($) Bn the basis of data gathered in carefully lanned observations of several

secies of birds8 a biologist rooses a modification in the acceted theory

of intersecies cometition.

(!) Bn the basis of a study of observations incidentally recorded in

ethnograhers' descritions of non-estern societies8 an anthroologist

rooses a ne theory of kinshi relations.

+1. According to the assage8 the author considers the reduction of energy in an

emty region of sace to hich a real article has been added to be

(A) a ell-knon rocess

(") a frequent occurrence

(#) a fleeting aberration

($) an unimortant event

(!) an une%ected outcome

++. According to the assage8 virtual articles differ from real articles in hich of

the folloing ays*

:. ?irtual articles have e%tremely short lifetimes.

::. ?irtual articles are created in an intense electric field.

:::. ?irtual articles cannot be detected directly.

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) ::: only

($) : and :: only

(!) : and ::: only

+3. The author's assertions concerning the conditions that lead to the decay of the

vacuum ould be most eakened if hich of the folloing occurred*

(A) ,cientists created an electric field ne%t to a vacuum8 but found that the

electric field as not intense enough to create a charged vacuum.

(") ,cientists assembled a suerheavy atomic nucleus ne%t to a vacuum8 but

found that no virtual articles ere created in the vacuum's region of sace.

(#) ,cientists assembled a suerheavy atomic nucleus ne%t to a vacuum8 but

found that they could not then detect any real articles in the vacuum's



GRE 1&;

region of sace.

($) ,cientists introduced a virtual electron and a virtual ositron into a vacuum's

region of sace8 but found that the vacuum did not then fluctuate.

(!) ,cientists introduced a real electron and a real ositron into a vacuum's region

of sace8 but found that the total energy of the sace increased by the energy

equivalent of the mass of the articles.

9imone de "eauvoir’s work greatly in#uenced "etty ;riedan’s0ndeed% made

it possible. !hy% then% was it ;riedan who became the prophet of women’s

emancipation in the 8nited 9tatesP 6olitical conditions% as well as a certain anti-

intellectual bias% prepared Americans and the American media to better receive

;riedan’s deradicali&ed and highly pragmatic The Fe$inine M"sti1ue% published in

1IO:% than "eauvoir’s theoretical reading of women’s situation in The Second

Se+. n 1I2: when The Second Se+ rst appeared in translation in the 8nited

9tates% the country had entered the silent% fearful fortress of the anticommunist>cCarthy years +1I23-1I2G% and "eauvoir was suspected of >arxist sympathies.

Even The 0ation% a generally liberal maga&ine% warned its readers against @certain

political leanings of the author. ?pen acknowledgement of the existence of

women’s oppression was too radical for the 8nited 9tates in the fties% and

"eauvoir’s conclusion% that change in women’s economic condition% though

insu*cient by itself% @remains the basic factor in improving women’s situation%

was particularly unacceptable.

+9. According to the assage8 one difference beteen The Fe%inine Msti.ue and

The *econd *e" is that >riedan's book

(A) reects the idea that omen are oressed

(") rovides a rimarily theoretical analysis of omen's lives

(#) does not reflect the olitical beliefs of its author

($) suggests that omen's economic condition has no imact on their status

(!) concentrates on the ractical asects of the questions of omen's

emanciation

+;. The author quotes from The /ation most robably in order to

(A) modify an earlier assertion

(") oint out a ossible e%cetion to her argument

(#) illustrate her central oint

($) clarify the meaning of a term

(!) cite an e%ert oinion

+<. :t can be inferred from the assage that hich of the folloing is not a factor in

the e%lanation of hy The Fe%inine Msti.ue as received more ositively in

the 6nited ,tates than as The *econd *e"*

(A) "y 1<3 olitical conditions in the 6nited ,tates had changed.



GRE 1&<

(") >riedan's book as less intellectual and abstract than "eauvoir's.

(#) 5eaders did not recognize the oerful influence of "eauvoir's book on

>riedan's ideas.

($) >riedan's aroach to the issue of omen's emanciation as less radical

than "eauvoir's.

(!) American readers ere more illing to consider the roblem of the

oression of omen in the si%ties than they had been in the fifties.

+7. According to the assage8 "eauvoir's book asserted that the status of omen

(A) is the outcome of olitical oression

(") is inherently tied to their economic condition

(#) can be best imroved under a communist government

($) is a theoretical8 rather than a ragmatic8 issue

(!) is a critical area of discussion in @ar%ist economic theory

SECTION B

?ne of the 'uestions of interest in the study of the evolution of spiders is

whether the weaving of orb webs evolved only once or several times. About half

the :2%333 known kinds of spiders make webs4 a third of the web weavers make

orb webs. 9ince most orb weavers belong either to the Araneidae or the

8loboridae families% the origin of the orb web can be determined only by

ascertaining whether the families are related.$ecent taxonomic analysis of individuals from both families indicates that the

families evolved from di=erent ancestors% thereby contradicting !iehle’s theory.

(his theory postulates that the families must be related% based on the assumption

that complex behavior% such as web building% could evolve only once. According to

Jullman% web structure is the only characteristic that suggests a relationship

between families. (he families di=er in appearance% structure of body hair% and

arrangement of eyes. ?nly 8loborids lack venom glands. ;urther identication and

study of characteristic features will undoubtedly answer the 'uestion of the

evolution of the orb web.


(A) settle the question of hether orb ebs evolved once or more than once

(") describe scientific seculation concerning an issue related to the evolution of

orb ebs

(#) analyze the differences beteen the characteristic features of siders in the

Araneidae and 6loboridae families

($) question the methods used by earlier investigators of the habits of siders

(!) demonstrate that Araneidae siders are not related to 6loboridae siders



GRE 1&7

1&. :t can be inferred from the assage that all orb-eaving siders belong to tyes of

siders that

(A) lack venom glands

(") are included either in the 6loboridae or Araneidae families

(#) share fe characteristic features ith other sider tyes

($) comrise less than a third of all knon tyes of siders

(!) are more recently evolved than other tyes of siders

1. According to the assage8 members of the Araneidae family can be distinguished

from members of the 6loboridae family by all of the folloing !C#!T=

(A) the resence of venom glands

(") the tye of eb they sin

(#) the structure of their body hair

($) the arrangement of their eyes

(!) their aearance

+. hich of the folloing statements8 if true8 most eakens iehle's theory that

comle% behavior could evolve only once*

(A) 4orses8 introduced to the e orld by the ,aniards8 thrived under diverse

climatic conditions.

(") lants of the almaceae family8 descendants of a common ancestor8 evolved

unique seed forms even though the lants occuy similar habitats throughout

the orld.

(#) All mammals are descended from a small8 rodentlike animal hose hysical

characteristics in some form are found in all its descendants.

($) lants in the #actaceae and !uhorbiaceae families8 although they often look

alike and have develoed similar mechanisms to meet the rigors of the

desert8 evolved indeendently.

(!) The #uban anole8 hich as recently introduced in the >lorida ilds8 is

quickly relacing the native >lorida chameleon because the anole has no

cometitors.

@6opular art has a number of meanings% impossible to dene with any

precision% which range from folklore to /unk. (he poles are clear enough% but the

middle tends to blur. (he ,ollywood !estern of the 1I:3’s% for example% has

elements of folklore% but is closer to /unk than to high art or folk art. (here can be

great trash% /ust as there is bad high art. (he musicals of 7eorge 7ershwin are

great popular art% never aspiring to high art. 9chubert and "rahms% however% used

elements of popular music0folk themes0in works clearly intended as high art.

(he case of Ferdi is a di=erent one< he took a popular genre0bourgeois

melodrama set to music +an accurate denition of nineteenth-century opera0

and% without altering its fundamental nature% transmuted it into high art. (his



GRE 1&&

remains one of the greatest achievements in music% and one that cannot be fully

appreciated without recogni&ing the essential trashiness of the genre.

As an example of such a transmutation% consider what Ferdi made of the

typical political elements of nineteenth-century opera. 7enerally in the plots of

these operas% a hero or heroine0usually portrayed only as an individual%

unfettered by class0is caught between the immoral corruption of the aristocracy

and the doctrinaire rigidity or secret greed of the leaders of the proletariat. Ferdi

transforms this naive and unlikely formulation with music of extraordinary energy

and rhythmic vitality% music more subtle than it seems at rst hearing. (here are

scenes and arias that still sound like calls to arms and were clearly understood as

such when they were rst performed. 9uch pieces lend an immediacy to the

otherwise veiled political message of these operas and call up feelings beyond

those of the opera itself.

?r consider Ferdi’s treatment of character. "efore Ferdi% there were rarely anycharacters at all in musical drama% only a series of situations which allowed the

singers to express a series of emotional states. Any attempt to nd coherent

psychological portrayal in these operas is misplaced ingenuity. (he only coherence

was the singer’s vocal techni'ue< when the cast changed% new arias were almost

always substituted% generally adapted from other operas. Ferdi’s characters% on

the other hand% have genuine consistency and integrity% even if% in many cases%

the consistency is that of pasteboard melodrama. (he integrity of the character is

achieved through the music< once he had become established% Ferdi did not

rewrite his music for di=erent singers or countenance alterations or substitutions

of somebody else’s arias in one of his operas% as every eighteenth-century

composer had done. !hen he revised an opera% it was only for dramatic economy

and e=ectiveness.

+1. The author refers to ,chubert and "rahms in order to suggest

(A) that their achievements are no less substantial than those of ?erdi

(") that their orks are e%amles of great trash

(#) the e%tent to hich ,chubert and "rahms influenced the later comositions of

?erdi

($) a contrast beteen the conventions of nineteenth-century oera and those of

other musical forms

(!) that oular music could be emloyed in comositions intended as high art

++. According to the assage8 the immediacy of the olitical message in ?erdi's

oeras stems from the

(A) vitality and subtlety of the music

(") audience's familiarity ith earlier oeras

(#) ortrayal of heightened emotional states

($) individual talents of the singers



GRE 1&

(!) verisimilitude of the characters

+3. According to the assage8 all of the folloing characterize musical drama before

?erdi !C#!T=

(A) arias tailored to a articular singer's ability(") adatation of music from other oeras

(#) sychological inconsistency in the ortrayal of characters

($) e%ression of emotional states in a series of dramatic situations

(!) music used for the urose of defining a character

+9. :t can be inferred that the author regards ?erdi's revisions to his oeras ith

(A) regret that the original music and te%ts ere altered

(") concern that many of the revisions altered the lots of the original ork

(#) aroval for the intentions that motivated the revisions

($) uzzlement8 since the revisions seem largely insignificant

(!) enthusiasm8 since the revisions ere aimed at reducing the conventionality of

the oeras' lots

+;. According to the assage8 one of ?erdi's achievements ithin the frameork of

nineteenth-century oera and its conventions as to

(A) limit the e%tent to hich singers influenced the musical comositions and

erformance of his oeras

(") use his oeras rimarily as forums to rotest both the moral corrution anddogmatic rigidity of the olitical leaders of his time

(#) ortray sychologically comle% characters shaed by the olitical

environment surrounding them

($) incororate elements of folklore into both the music and lots of his oeras

(!) introduce olitical elements into an art form that had traditionally avoided

olitical content

+<. hich of the folloing best describes the relationshi of the first aragrah of the

assage to the assage as a hole*

(A) :t rovides a grou of secific e%amles from hich generalizations are

dran later in the assage.

(") :t leads to an assertion that is suorted by e%amles later in the assage.

(#) :t defines terms and relationshis that are challenged in an argument later in

the assage.

($) :t briefly comares and contrasts several achievements that are e%amined in

detail later in the assage.

(!) :t e%lains a method of udging a ork of art8 a method that is used later in

the assage.



GRE 1

+7. :t can be inferred that the author regards the indeendence from social class of the

heroes and heroines of nineteenth-century oera as

(A) an idealized but fundamentally accurate ortrayal of bourgeois life

(") a lot convention ith no real connection to olitical reality

(#) a lot refinement unique to ?erdi

($) a symbolic reresentation of the osition of the bourgeoisie relative to the

aristocracy and the roletariat

(!) a convention largely seen as irrelevant by audiences

No. 9-4

SECTION A

+(he article from which the passage was taken appeared in 1IN5.

(heorists are divided concerning the origin of the >oon. 9ome hypothesi&e

that the >oon was formed in the same way as were the planets in the inner solar

system +>ercury% Fenus% >ars% and Earth0from planet-forming materials in the

presolar nebula. "ut% unlike the cores of the inner planets% the >oon’s core

contains little or no iron% while the typical planet-forming materials were 'uite rich

in iron. ?ther theorists propose that the >oon was ripped out of the Earth’s rocky

mantle by the Earth’s collision with another large celestial body after much of the

Earth’s iron fell to its core. ?ne problem with the collision hypothesis is the

'uestion of how a satellite formed in this way could have settled into the nearly

circular orbit that the >oon has today. ;ortunately% the collision hypothesis is

testable. f it is true% the mantlerocks of the >oon and the Earth should be the

same geochemically.


(A) resent to hyotheses concerning the origin of the @oon

(") discuss the strengths and eaknesses of the collision hyothesis concerning

the origin of the @oon

(#) roose that hyotheses concerning the @oon's origin be tested

($) argue that the @oon could not have been formed out of the tyical lanet-

forming materials of the resolar nebula

(!) describe one reason hy the @oon's geochemical makeu should resemble

that of the !arth

1&. According to the assage8 @ars and the !arth are similar in hich of the

folloing ays*

:. Their satellites ere formed by collisions ith other celestial bodies.

::. Their cores contain iron.



GRE 11

:::. They ere formed from the resolar nebula.

(A) ::: only

(") : and :: only

(#) : and ::: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

1. The author imlies that a nearly circular orbit is unlikely for a satellite that

(A) circles one of the inner lanets

(") is deficient in iron

(#) is different from its lanet geochemically

($) as formed by a collision beteen to celestial bodies

(!) as formed out of the lanet-forming materials in the resolar nebula

+. hich of the folloing8 if true8 ould be most likely to make it difficult to verify

the collision hyothesis in the manner suggested by the author*

(A) The @oon's core and mantlerock are almost inactive geologically.

(") The mantlerock of the !arth has changed in comosition since the formation

of the @oon8 hile the mantlerock of the @oon has remained chemically

inert.

(#) @uch of the !arth's iron fell to the !arth's core long before the formation of

the @oon8 after hich the !arth's mantlerock remained unchanged.

($) #ertain of the !arth's elements8 such as latinum8 gold8 and iridium8 folloed

iron to the !arth's core.

(!) The mantlerock of the @oon contains elements such as latinum8 gold8 and

iridium.

9urprisingly enough% modern historians have rarely interested themselves in

the history of the American 9outh in the period before the 9outh began to become

self-consciously and distinctively @9outhern0the decades after 1N12.

Conse'uently% the cultural history of "ritain’s Borth American empire in the

seventeenth and eighteenth centuries has been written almost as if the 9outhern

colonies had never existed. (he American culture that emerged during the

Colonial and $evolutionary eras has been depicted as having been simply an

extension of Bew England 6uritan culture. ,owever% 6rofessor avis has recently

argued that the 9outh stood apart from the rest of American society during this

early period% following its own uni'ue pattern of cultural development. (he case

for 9outhern distinctiveness rests upon two related premises< rst% that the

cultural similarities among the ve 9outhern colonies were far more impressive

than the di=erences% and second% that what made those colonies alike also made

them di=erent from the other colonies. (he rst% for which avis o=ers an

enormous amount of evidence% can be accepted without ma/or reservations4 the



GRE 1+

second is far more problematic.

!hat makes the second premise problematic is the use of the 6uritan colonies

as a basis for comparison. Ruite properly% avis decries the excessive in#uence

ascribed by historians to the 6uritans in the formation of American culture. Det

avis inadvertently adds weight to such ascriptions by using the 6uritans as the

standard against which to assess the achievements and contributions of 9outhern

colonials. (hroughout% avis focuses on the important% and undeniable%

di=erences between the 9outhern and 6uritan colonies in motives for and patterns

of early settlement% in attitudes toward nature and Bative Americans% and in the

degree of receptivity to metropolitan cultural in#uences.

,owever% recent scholarship has strongly suggested that those aspects of

early Bew England culture that seem to have been most distinctly 6uritan% such as

the strong religious orientation and the communal impulse% were not even typical

of Bew England as a whole% but were largely conned to the two colonies of>assachusetts and Connecticut. (hus% what in contrast to the 6uritan colonies

appears to avis to be peculiarly 9outhern0ac'uisitiveness% a strong interest in

politics and the law% and a tendency to cultivate metropolitan cultural models0

was not only more typically English than the cultural patterns exhibited by 6uritan

>assachusetts and Connecticut% but also almost certainly characteristic of most

other early modern "ritish colonies from "arbados north to $hode sland and Bew

,ampshire. !ithin the larger framework of American colonial life% then% not the

9outhern but the 6uritan colonies appear to have been distinctive% and even they

seem to have been rapidly assimilating to the dominant cultural patterns by the

late Colonial period.

+1. The author is rimarily concerned ith

(A) refuting a claim about the influence of uritan culture on the early American

,outh

(") refuting a thesis about the distinctiveness of the culture of the early American

,outh

(#) refuting the to remises that underlie $avis' discussion of the culture of the

American ,outh in the eriod before 1&1;

($) challenging the hyothesis that early American culture as homogeneous in

nature

(!) challenging the contention that the American ,outh made greater

contributions to early American culture than uritan e !ngland did

++. The assage imlies that the attitudes toard ative Americans that revailed in

the ,outhern colonies

(A) ere in conflict ith the cosmoolitan outlook of the ,outh

(") derived from ,outherners' strong interest in the la

(#) ere modeled after those that revailed in the orth



GRE 13

($) differed from those that revailed in the uritan colonies

(!) develoed as a resonse to attitudes that revailed in @assachusetts and

#onnecticut

+3. According to the author8 the deiction of American culture during the #olonialand 5evolutionary eras as an e%tension of e !ngland uritan culture reflects

the

(A) fact that historians have overestimated the imortance of the uritans in the

develoment of American culture

(") fact that early American culture as deely influenced by the strong religious

orientation of the colonists

(#) failure to recognize imortant and undeniable cultural differences beteen

e 4amshire and 5hode :sland on the one hand and the ,outhern

colonies on the other ($) e%tent to hich @assachusetts and #onnecticut served as cultural models for

the other American colonies

(!) e%tent to hich colonial America resisted assimilating cultural atterns that

ere tyically !nglish

+9. The author of the assage is in agreement ith hich of the folloing elements

of $avis' book*

:. $avis' claim that acquisitiveness as a characteristic unique to the ,outh

during the #olonial eriod

::. $avis' argument that there ere significant differences beteen uritan and

,outhern culture during the #olonial eriod

:::. $avis' thesis that the ,outhern colonies shared a common culture

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) ::: only

($) : and :: only

(!) :: and ::: only

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author ould find $avis' second

remise (lines 1&-+) more lausible if it ere true that

(A) uritan culture had dislayed the tendency characteristic of the ,outh to

cultivate metroolitan cultural models

(") uritan culture had been dominant in all the non-,outhern colonies during the

seventeenth and eighteen centuries

(#) the communal imulse and a strong religious orientation had been more

revalent in the ,outh

($) the various cultural atterns of the ,outhern colonies had more closelyresembled each other



GRE 19

(!) the cultural atterns characteristic of most early modern "ritish colonies had

also been characteristic of the uritan colonies

+<. The assage suggests that by the late #olonial eriod the tendency to cultivate

metroolitan cultural models as a cultural attern that as

(A) dying out as uritan influence began to gro

(") self-consciously and distinctively ,outhern

(#) sreading to @assachusetts and #onnecticut

($) more characteristic of the ,outhern colonies than of !ngland

(!) beginning to sread to 5hode :sland and e 4amshire

+7. hich of the folloing statements could most logically follo the last sentence

of the assage*

(A) Thus8 had more attention been aid to the evidence8 $avis ould not have been temted to argue that the culture of the ,outh diverged greatly from

uritan culture in the seventeenth century.

(") Thus8 convergence8 not divergence8 seems to have characterized the cultural

develoment of the American colonies in the eighteenth century.

(#) Thus8 ithout the cultural diversity reresented by the America ,outh8 the

culture of colonial America ould certainly have been homogeneous in

nature.

($) Thus8 the contribution of ,outhern colonials to American culture as

certainly overshadoed by that of the uritans.(!) Thus8 the culture of America during the #olonial eriod as far more

sensitive to outside influences than historians are accustomed to

acknoledge.

SECTION B

;or some time scientists have believed that cholesterol plays a ma/or role in

heart disease because people with familial hypercholesterolemia% a genetic

defect% have six to eight times the normal level of cholesterol in their blood and

they invariably develop heart disease. (hese people lack cell-surface receptors for

low-density lipoproteins +’s% which are the fundamental carriers of blood

cholesterol to the body cells that use cholesterol. !ithout an ade'uate number of

cell-surface receptors to remove ’s from the blood% the cholesterol-carrying

’s remain in the blood% increasing blood cholesterol levels. 9cientists also

noticed that people with familial hypercholesterolemia appear to produce more

’s than normal individuals. ,ow% scientists wondered% could a genetic mutation

that causes a slowdown in the removal of ’s from the blood also result in an

increase in the synthesis of this cholesterol-carrying proteinP

9ince scientists could not experiment on human body tissue% their knowledgeof familial hypercholesterolemia was severely limited. ,owever% a breakthrough



GRE 1;

came in the laboratories of Doshio !atanabe of Jobe 8niversity in apan in 1IN3.

!atanabe noticed that a male rabbit in his colony had ten times the normal

concentration of cholesterol in its blood. "y appropriate breeding% !atanabe

obtained a strain of rabbits that had very high cholesterol levels. (hese rabbits

spontaneously developed heart disease. (o his surprise% !atanabe further foundthat the rabbits% like humans with familial hypercholesterolemia% lacked

receptors. (hus% scientists could study these !atanabe rabbits to gain a better

understanding of familial hypercholesterolemia in humans.

6rior to the breakthrough at Jobe 8niversity% it was known that ’s are

secreted from the liver in the form of a precursor% called very low-density

lipoproteins +F’s% which carry triglycerides as well as relatively small amounts

of cholesterol. (he triglycerides are removed from the F’s by fatty and other

tissues. !hat remains is a remnant particle that must be removed from the blood.

!hat scientists learned by studying the !atanabe rabbits is that the removal ofthe F remnant re'uires the receptor. Bormally% the ma/ority of the F

remnants go to the liver where they bind to receptors and are degraded. n

the !atanabe rabbit% due to a lack of receptors on liver cells% the F

remnants remain in the blood and are eventually converted to ’s. (he

receptors thus have a dual e=ect in controlling levels. (hey are necessary to

prevent oversynthesis of ’s from F remnants and they are necessary for

the normal removal of ’s from the blood. !ith this knowledge% scientists are

now well on the way toward developing drugs that dramatically lower cholesterol

levels in people aTicted with certain forms of familial hypercholesterolemia.

17. :n the assage8 the author is rimarily concerned ith

(A) resenting a hyothesis and describing comelling evidence in suort of it

(") raising a question and describing an imortant discovery that led to an anser

(#) shoing that a certain genetically caused disease can be treated effectively

ith drugs

($) e%laining hat causes the genetic mutation that leads to heart disease

(!) discussing the imortance of research on animals for the study of human

disease

1&. hich of the folloing drugs8 if develoed8 ould most likely be an e%amle of

the kind of drug mentioned in line ;3*

(A) A drug that stimulates the roduction of ?D$D remnants

(") A drug that stimulates the roduction of D$D recetors on the liver

(#) A drug that stimulates the roduction of an enzyme needed for cholesterol

roduction

($) A drug that suresses the roduction of body cells that use cholesterol

(!) A drug that revents triglycerides from attaching to ?D$D's

1. The assage sulies information to anser hich of the folloing questions*



GRE 1<

(A) hich body cells are the rimary users of cholesterol*

(") 4o did scientists discover that D$D's are secreted from the liver in the form

of a recursor*

(#) here in the body are ?D$D remnants degraded*

($) hich body tissues roduce triglycerides*

(!) hat techniques are used to determine the resence or absence of cell-surface

recetors*

+. According to the assage8 by studying the atanabe rabbits scientists learned that

(A) ?D$D remnants are removed from the blood by D$D recetors in the liver

(") D$D's are secreted from the liver in the form of recursors called ?D$D's

(#) ?D$D remnant articles contain small amounts of cholesterol

($) triglycerides are removed from ?D$D's by fatty tissues

(!) D$D recetors remove D$D's from the blood

+1. The develoment of drug treatments for some forms of familial

hyercholesterolemia is regarded by the author as

(A) ossible8 but not very imortant

(") interesting8 but too costly to be ractical

(#) romising8 but many years off

($) e%tremely unlikely

(!) highly robable

++. The assage imlies that if the atanabe rabbits had had as many D$D recetors

on their livers as do normal rabbits8 the atanabe rabbits ould have been

(A) less likely than normal rabbits to develo heart disease

(") less likely than normal rabbits to develo high concentrations of cholesterol

in their blood

(#) less useful than they actually ere to scientists in the study of familial

hyercholesterolemia in humans

($) unable to secrete ?D$D's from their livers

(!) immune to drugs that loer cholesterol levels in eole ith certain forms of

familial hyercholesterolemia

+3. The assage imlies that atanabe rabbits differ from normal rabbits in hich of

the folloing ays*

(A) atanabe rabbits have more D$D recetors than do normal rabbits.

(") The blood of atanabe rabbits contains more ?D$D remnants than does the

blood of normal rabbits.

(#) atanabe rabbits have feer fatty tissues than do normal rabbits.

($) atanabe rabbits secrete loer levels of ?D$D's than do normal rabbits.



GRE 17

(!) The blood of atanabe rabbits contains feer D$D's than does the blood of

normal rabbits.

+(he article from which this passage was taken appeared in 1IN1.

!hen speaking of $omare "earden% one is tempted to say% @A great "lack

American artist. (he sub/ect matter of "earden’s collages is certainly "lack.

6ortrayals of the folk of >ecklenburg County% Borth Carolina% whom he remembers

from early childhood% of the /a&& musicians and tenement roofs of his ,arlem

days% of 6ittsburgh steelworkers% and his reconstruction of classical 7reek myths

in the guise of the ancient "lack kingdom of "enin% attest to this. n natural

harmony with this choice of sub/ect matter are the social sensibilities of the artist%

who remains active today with the Cin'ue 7allery in >anhattan% which he helped

found and which is devoted to showing the work of minority artists.

(hen why not call "earden a "lack American artistP "ecause ultimately this

categori&ation is too narrow. @!hat stands up in the end is structure% "earden

says. @!hat try to do is amplify. f were /ust creating a picture of a farm woman

from back home% it would have meaning to her and people there. "ut art amplies

itself to something universal.

+9. According to the assage8 all of the folloing are deicted in "earden's collages

!C#!T=

(A) orkers in ittsburgh's steel mills

(") scenes set in the ancient kingdom of "enin

(#) eole "earden kne as a child($) traditional reresentations of the classical heroes of /reek mythology

(!) the azz musicians of the 4arlem "earden used to kno

+;. The author suggests that "earden should not be called a "lack American artist

because

(A) there are many collages by "earden in hich the subect matter is not "lack

(") "earden's ork reflects the "lack American e%erience in a highly individual

style

(#) through the structure of "earden's art his "lack subects come to reresent allof humankind

($) "earden's true significance lies not so much in his on ork as in his efforts

to hel other minority artists

(!) much of "earden's ork uses the ancient "lack kingdom of "enin for its

setting

+<. "earden's social sensibilities and the subect matter of his collages are mentioned

by the author in order to e%lain

(A) hy one might be temted to call "earden a "lack American artist

(") hy "earden cannot be readily categorized



GRE 1&

(#) hy "earden's aeal is thought by many to be ultimately universal

($) ho deely an artist's artistic creations are influenced by he artist's social

conscience

(!) hat makes "earden unique among contemorary "lack American artists

+7. The author of the assage is chiefly concerned ith

(A) discussing "earden's hilosohy of art

(") assessing the significance of the ethnic element in "earden's ork

(#) acknoledging "earden's success in giving artistic e%ression to the "lack

American e%erience

($) ointing out "earden's helfulness to other minority artists

(!) tracing "earden's rogress toard artistic maturity

No. 9-5

SECTION A

Uooplankton% tiny animals adapted to an existence in the ocean% have evolved

clever mechanisms for obtaining their food% miniscule phytoplankton +plant

plankton. A very speciali&ed feeding adaptation in &ooplankton is that of the

tadpolelike appendicularian who lives in a walnut-si&ed +or smaller balloon of

mucus e'uipped with lters that capture and concentrate phytoplankton. (he

balloon% a transparent structure that varies in design according to the type ofappendicularian in habiting it% also protects the animal and helps to keep it a#oat.

!ater containing phytoplankton is pumped by the appendicularian’s muscular tail

into the balloon’s incurrent lters% passes through the feeding lter where the

appendicularian sucks the food into its mouth% and then goes through an exit

passage. ;ound in all the oceans of the world% including the Arctic ?cean%

appendicularians tend to remain near the water’s surface where the density of

phytoplankton is greatest.

17. :t can be inferred from the assage that hich of the folloing is true of

aendicularians*

(A) They are e%clusively carnivorous.

(") They have more than one method of obtaining food.

(#) They can tolerate frigid ater.

($) They can disguise themselves by secreting mucus.

(!) They are more sensitive to light than are other zoolankton.

1&. The author is rimarily concerned ith

(A) e%laining ho aendicularians obtain food

(") e%amining the flotation methods of aendicularians



GRE 1

(#) maing the distribution of aendicularians around the orld

($) describing ho aendicularians differ from other zoolankton

(!) comaring the various tyes of balloons formed by aendicularians

1. According to the assage8 all of the folloing are descritive of aendicularians!C#!T=

(A) tailed

(") vegetarian

(#) small-sized

($) single-celled

(!) ocean-delling

+. The assage suggests that aendicularians tend to remain in surface aters

because they(A) refer the armer ater near the surface

(") are unable to secrete mucus at the loer levels of the ocean

(#) use the contrast of light and shado at the surface to hide from redators

($) live in balloons that cannot ithstand he ater ressure deeer in the ocean

(!) eat food that gros more rofusely near the surface

9tudents of 8nited 9tates history% seeking to identify the circumstances that

encouraged the emergence of feminist movements% have thoroughly investigated

the mid-nineteenth-century American economic and social conditions that

a=ected the status of women. (hese historians% however% have analy&ed less fully

the development of specically feminist ideas and activities during the same

period. ;urthermore% the ideological origins of feminism in the 8nited 9tates have

been obscured because% even when historians did take into account those feminist

ideas and activities occurring within the 8nited 9tates% they failed to recogni&e

that feminism was then a truly international movement actually centered in

Europe. American feminist activists who have been described as @solitary and

@individual theorists were in reality connected to a movement0utopian socialism

0which was already populari&ing feminist ideas in Europe during the two decades

that culminated in the rst women’s rights conference held at 9eneca ;alls% Bew Dork% in 1NGN. (hus% a complete understanding of the origins and development of

nineteenth-century feminism in the 8nited 9tates re'uires that the geographical

focus be widened to include Europe and that the detailed study already made of

social conditions be expanded to include the ideological development of feminism.

(he earliest and most popular of the utopian socialists were the 9aint-

9imonians. (he specically feminist part of 9aint-9imonianism has% however% been

less studied than the group’s contribution to early socialism. (his is regrettable on

two counts. "y 1N:5 feminism was the central concern of 9aint-9imonianism and

entirely absorbed its adherents’ energy4 hence% by ignoring its feminism%European historians have misunderstood 9aint-9imonianism. >oreover% since



GRE +

many feminist ideas can be traced to 9aint-9imonianism% European historians’

appreciation of later feminism in ;rance and the 8nited 9tates remained limited.

9aint-9imon’s followers% many of whom were women% based their feminism on

an interpretation of his pro/ect to reorgani&e the globe by replacing brute force

with the rule of spiritual powers. (he new world order would be ruled together by

a male% to represent re#ection% and a female% to represent sentiment. (his

complementarity re#ects the fact that% while the 9aint-9imonians did not re/ect

the belief that there were innate di=erences between men and women% they

nevertheless foresaw an e'ually important social and political role for both sexes

in their utopia.

?nly a few 9aint-9imonians opposed a denition of sexual e'uality based on

gender distinction. (his minority believed that individuals of both sexes were born

similar in capacity and character% and they ascribed male-female di=erences to

sociali&ation and education. (he envisioned result of both currents of thought%however% was that women would enter public life in the new age and that sexual

e'uality would reward men as well as women with an improved way of life.

+1. :t can be inferred that the author considers those historians ho describe early

feminists in the 6nited ,tates as EsolitaryF to be

(A) insufficiently familiar ith the international origins of nineteenth-century

American feminist thought

(") overly concerned ith the regional diversity of feminist ideas in the eriod

before 1&9&

(#) not focused narroly enough in their geograhical scoe

($) insufficiently aare of the ideological consequences of the ,eneca >alls

conference

(!) insufficiently concerned ith the social conditions out of hich feminism

develoed

++. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing is true of the ,eneca >alls

conference on omen's rights*

(A) :t as rimarily a roduct of nineteenth-century ,aint-,imonian feminist

thought.

(") :t as the ork of American activists ho ere indeendent of feminists

abroad.

(#) :t as the culminating achievement of the utoian socialist movement.

($) :t as a manifestation of an international movement for social change and

feminism.

(!) :t as the final manifestation of the omen's rights movement in the 6nited

,tates in the nineteenth century.

+3. The author's attitude toard most !uroean historians ho have studied the,aint-,imonians is rimarily one of



GRE ++

(A) A society in hich omen ere highly regarded for their e%tensive education

(") A society in hich the to genders layed comlementary roles and had

equal status

(#) A society in hich omen did not enter ublic life

($) A social order in hich a body of men and omen ould rule together on the

basis of their siritual oer

(!) A social order in hich distinctions beteen male and female ould not e%ist

and all ould share equally in olitical oer

SECTION B

,istorically% a cornerstone of classical empiricism has been the notion that

every true generali&ation must be conrmable by specic observations. n

classical empiricism% the truth of @All balls are red% for example% is assessed byinspecting balls4 any observation of a non red ball refutes une'uivocally the

proposed generali&ation.

;or !. F. ?. Ruine% however% this constitutes an overly @narrow conception of

empiricism. @All balls are red% he maintains% forms one strand within an entire

web of statements +our knowledge4 individual observations can be referred only

to this web as a whole. As new observations are collected% he explains% they must

be integrated into the web. 6roblems occur only if a contradiction develops

between a new observation% say% @(hat ball is blue% and the preexisting

statements. n that case% he argues% an" statement or combination of statements+not merely the @o=ending generali&ation% as in classical empiricism can be

altered to achieve the fundamental re'uirement% a system free of contradictions%

even if% in some cases% the alteration consists of labeling the new observation a

@hallucination.

17. The author of the assage is rimarily concerned ith resenting

(A) criticisms of Kuine's vies on the roer concetualization of emiricism

(") evidence to suort Kuine's claims about the roblems inherent in classical

emiricism

(#) an account of Kuine's counterroosal to one of the traditional assumtions

of classical emiricism

($) an overvie of classical emiricism and its contributions to Kuine's alternate

understanding of emiricism

(!) a history of classical emiricism and Kuine's reservations about it

1&. According to Kuine's concetion of emiricism8 if a ne observation ere to

contradict some statement already ithin our system of knoledge8 hich of the

folloing ould be true*

(A) The ne observation ould be reected as untrue.



GRE +3

(") "oth the observation and the statement in our system that it contradicted

ould be discarded.

(#) e observations ould be added to our eb of statements in order to

e%and our system of knoledge.

($) The observation or some art of our eb of statements ould need to be

adusted to resolve the contradiction.

(!) An entirely ne field of knoledge ould be created.

1. As described in the assage8 Kuine's secific argument against classical

emiricism ould be most strengthened if he did hich of the folloing*

(A) rovided evidence that many observations are actually hallucinations.

(") !%lained hy ne observations often invalidate ree%isting generalizations.

(#) #hallenged the mechanism by hich secific generalizations are derived

from collections of articular observations.

($) @entioned other critics of classical emiricism and the substance of their

aroaches.

(!) /ave an e%amle of a secific generalization that has not been invalidated

desite a contrary observation.

+. :t can be inferred from the assage that Kuine considers classical emiricism to

be Eoverly Mnarro' F (lines 7-&) for hich of the folloing reasons*

:. #lassical emiricism requires that our system of generalizations be free of

contradictions.::. #lassical emiricism demands that in the case of a contradiction beteen an

individual observation and a generalization8 the generalization must be

abandoned.

:::. #lassical emiricism asserts that every observation ill either confirm an

e%isting generalization or initiate a ne generalization.

(A) :: only

(") : and :: only

(#) : and ::: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

8ntil recently astronomers have been pu&&led by the fate of red giant and

supergiant stars. !hen the core of a giant star whose mass surpasses 1.G times

the present mass of our 9un +>⊙ exhausts its nuclear fuel% it is unable to support

its own weight and collapses into a tiny neutron star. (he gravitational energy

released during this implosion of the core blows o= the remainder of the star in a

gigantic explosion% or a supernova. 9ince around 23 percent of all stars are

believed to begin their lives with masses greater than 1.G>⊙% we might expect

that one out of every two stars would die as a supernova. "ut in fact% only one



GRE +9

star in thirty dies such a violent death. (he rest expire much more peacefully as

planetary nebulas. Apparently most massive stars manage to lose su*cient

material that their masses drop below the critical value of 1.G >⊙ before they

exhaust their nuclear fuel.

Evidence supporting this view comes from observations of $CV1351O% a

pulsating giant star located Q33 light-years away from Earth. A huge rate of mass

loss +1 >⊙ every 13%333 years has been deduced from infrared observations of

ammonia +B,: molecules located in the circumstellar cloud around $CV1351O.

$ecent microwave observations of carbon monoxide +C? molecules indicate a

similar rate of mass loss and demonstrate that the escaping material extends

outward from the star for a distance of at least one light-year. "ecause we know

the si&e of the cloud around $CV1351O and can use our observations of either

B,: or C? to measure the out#ow velocity% we can calculate an age for the

circumstellar cloud. $CV1351O has apparently expelled% in the form of moleculesand dust grains% a mass e'ual to that of our entire 9un within the past ten

thousand years. (his implies that some stars can shed huge amounts of matter

very 'uickly and thus may never expire as supernovas. (heoretical models as well

as statistics on supernovas and planetary nebulas suggest that stars that begin

their lives with masses around O >⊙ shed su*cient material to drop below the

critical value of 1.G >⊙. $CV1351O% for example% should do this in a mere 23%333

years from its birth% only an instant in the life of a star.

"ut what place does $CV1351O have in stellar evolutionP Astronomers

suggest that stars like $CV1351O are actually @protoplanetary nebulas0old

giant stars whose dense cores have almost but not 'uite rid themselves of the

#u=y envelopes of gas around them. ?nce the star has lost the entire envelope%

its exposed core becomes the central star of the planetary nebula and heats and

ioni&es the last vestiges of the envelope as it #ows away into space. (his

conguration is a full-#edged planetary nebula% long familiar to optical

astronomers.


(A) offer a method of calculating the age of circumstellar clouds

(") describe the conditions that result in a star's e%iring as a suernova(#) discuss ne evidence concerning the comosition of lanetary nebulas

($) e%lain hy feer stars than redicted e%ire as suernovas

(!) survey conflicting theories concerning the comosition of circumstellar

clouds

++. The assage imlies that at the beginning of the life of :5#N1+1<8 its mass as

aro%imately

(A) 7. @⊙

(") <. @⊙



GRE +;

(#) ;. @⊙

($) 1.9 @⊙

(!) 1. @⊙

+3. The vie to hich line 1& refers serves to(A) reconcile seemingly contradictory facts

(") undermine a reviously held theory

(#) take into account data reviously held to be insignificant

($) resolve a controversy

(!) question ne methods of gathering data

+9. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author assumes hich of the

folloing in the discussion of the rate at hich :5#N1+1< loses mass*

(A) The circumstellar cloud surrounding :5#N1+1< consists only of #B and 43 molecules.

(") The circumstellar cloud surrounding :5#N1+1< consists of material e%elled

from that star.

(#) The age of a star is equal to that of its circumstellar cloud.

($) The rate at hich :5#N1+1< loses mass varies significantly from year to

year.

(!) ,tars ith a mass greater than < @⊙ lose mass at a rate faster than stars ith a

mass less than < @⊙ do.

+;. According to information rovided by the assage8 hich of the folloing stars

ould astronomers most likely describe as a lanetary nebula*

(A) A star that began its life ith a mass of ;.; @⊙8 has e%hausted its nuclear

fuel8 and has a core that is visible to astronomers

(") A star that began its life ith a mass of < @⊙8 lost mass at a rate of 1 @⊙ er

18 years8 and e%hausted its nuclear fuel in 98 years

(#) A star that has e%hausted its nuclear fuel8 has a mass of 1.+ @⊙8 and is

surrounded by a circumstellar cloud that obscures its core from vie

($) A star that began its life ith a mass greater than < @⊙8 has ust recentlye%hausted its nuclear fuel8 and is in the rocess of releasing massive amounts

of gravitational energy

(!) A star that began its life ith a mass of ;.; @⊙8 has yet to e%haust its nuclear

fuel8 and e%hibits a rate of mass loss similar to that of :5#N1+1<

+<. hich of the folloing statements ould be most likely to follo the last


(A) ,uernovas are not necessarily the most sectacular events that astronomers

have occasion to observe.

(") Aarently8 stars that have a mass of greater than < @⊙ are somehat rare.



GRE +<

(#) 5ecent studies of #B and 43 in the circumstellar clouds of stars similar to

:5#N1+1< have led astronomers to believe that the formation of lanetary

nebulas recedes the develoment of suernovas.

($) :t aears8 then8 that :5#N1+1< actually reresents an intermediate ste in

the evolution of a giant star into a lanetary nebula.

(!) Astronomers have yet to develo a consistently accurate method for

measuring the rate at hich a star e%hausts its nuclear fuel.

+7. hich of the folloing titles best summarizes the content of the assage*

(A) e @ethods of #alculating the Age of #ircumstellar #louds

(") e !vidence #oncerning the #omosition of lanetary ebulas

(#) rotolanetary ebula= A 5arely Bbserved henomenon

($) lanetary ebulas= An !nigma to Astronomers

(!) The $iminution of a ,tar's @ass= A #rucial >actor in ,tellar !volution

No. 9-6

SECTION A

+(his passage is from an article published in 1IQ:

(he recent change to all-volunteer armed forces in the 8nited 9tates will

eventually produce a gradual increase in the proportion of women in the armed

forces and in the variety of women’s assignments% but probably not the dramatic

gains for women that might have been expected. (his is so even though the

armed forces operate in an ethos of institutional change oriented toward

occupational e'uality and under the federal sanction of e'ual pay for e'ual work.

(he di*culty is that women are unlikely to be trained for any direct combat

operations. A signicant portion of the larger society remains uncomfortable as

yet with extending e'uality in this direction. (herefore% for women in the military%

the search for e'uality will still be based on functional e'uivalence% not identity or

even similarity of task. ?pportunities seem certain to arise. (he growing emphasis

on deterrence is bound to o=er increasing scope for women to become involved innovel types of noncombat military assignments.


(A) resent an overvie of the different tyes of assignments available to omen

in the ne 6nited ,tates all-volunteer armed forces

(") resent a reasoned rognosis of the status of omen in the ne 6nited ,tates

all-volunteer armed forces

(#) resent the ne 6nited ,tates all-volunteer armed forces as a model case of

equal emloyment olicies in action

($) analyze reforms in the ne 6nited ,tates all-volunteer armed forces



GRE +7

necessitated by the increasing number of omen in the military

(!) analyze the use of functional equivalence as a substitute for occuational

equality in the ne 6nited ,tates all-volunteer armed forces

1&. According to the assage8 desite the 6nited ,tates armed forces' commitment tooccuational equality for omen in the military8 certain other factors reclude

omen's

(A) receiving equal ay for equal ork

(") having access to ositions of resonsibility at most levels

(#) draing assignments from a ider range of assignments than before

($) benefiting from oortunities arising from ne noncombat functions

(!) being assigned all of the military tasks that are assigned to men

1. The assage imlies that hich of the folloing is a factor conducive to a moreequitable reresentation of omen in the 6nited ,tates armed forces than has

e%isted in the ast*

(A) The all-volunteer character of the resent armed forces

(") The ast service records of omen ho had assignments functionally

equivalent to men's assignments

(#) The level of aareness on the art of the larger society of military issues

($) A decline in the roortion of deterrence oriented noncombat assignments

(!) 5estrictive ast olicies governing the military assignments oen to omen

+. The Edramatic gains for omenF (line ;) and the attitude8 as described in lines

11-1+8 of a Esignificant ortion of the larger societyF are logically related to each

other inasmuch as the author uts forard the latter as

(A) a ublic resonse to achievement of the former

(") the maor reason for absence of the former

(#) a recondition for any rosect of achieving the former

($) a catalyst for a further e%tension of the former

(!) a reason for some of the former being lost again

?f the thousands of specimens of meteorites found on Earth and known to

science% only about 133 are igneous4 that is% they have undergone melting by

volcanic action at some time since the planets were rst formed. (hese igneous

meteorites are known as achondrites because they lack chondrules0small stony

spherules found in the thousands of meteorites +called @chondrites composed

primarily of unaltered minerals that condensed from dust and gas at the origin of

the solar system. Achondrites are the only known samples of volcanic rocks

originating outside the Earth->oon system. >ost are thought to have been

dislodged by interbody impact from asteroids% with diameters of from 13 to 233

kilometers% in solar orbit between >ars and upiter.



GRE +&

9hergottites% the name given to three anomalous achondrites so far

discovered on Earth% present scientists with a genuine enigma. 9hergottites

crystalli&ed from molten rock less than 1.1 billion years ago +some :.2 billion

years later than typical achondrites and were presumably e/ected into space

when an ob/ect impacted on a body similar in chemical composition to Earth.

!hile most meteorites appear to derive from comparatively small bodies%

shergottites exhibit properties that indicate that their source was a large planet%

conceivably >ars. n order to account for such an unlikely source% some unusual

factor must be invoked% because the impact needed to accelerate a fragment of

rock to escape the gravitational eld of a body even as small as the >oon is so

great that no meteorites of lunar origin have been discovered.

!hile some scientists speculate that shergottites derive from o +a volcanically

active moon of upiter% recent measurements suggest that since o’s surface is

rich in sulfur and sodium% the chemical composition of its volcanic products wouldprobably be unlike that of the shergottites. >oreover% any fragments dislodged

from o by interbody impact would be unlikely to escape the gravitational pull of

upiter.

(he only other logical source of shergottites is >ars. 9pace-probe photographs

indicate the existence of giant volcanoes on the >artian surface. ;rom the small

number of impact craters that appear on >artian lava #ows% one can estimate

that the planet was volcanically active as recently as a half-billion years ago0and

may be active today. (he great ob/ection to the >artian origin of shergottites is

the absence of lunar meteorites on Earth. An impact capable of e/ecting afragment of the >artian surface into an Earth-intersecting orbit is even less

probable than such an event on the >oon% in view of the >oon’s smaller si&e and

closer proximity to Earth. A recent study suggests% however% that permafrost ices

below the surface of >ars may have altered the e=ects of impact on it. f the ices

had been rapidly vapori&ed by an impacting ob/ect% the expanding gases might

have helped the e/ected fragments reach escape velocity. ;inally% analyses

performed by space probes show a remarkable chemical similarity between

>artian soil and the shergottites.

+1. The assage imlies hich of the folloing about shergottites*:. They are roducts of volcanic activity.

::. They derive from a lanet larger than !arth.

:::. They come from a lanetary body ith a chemical comosition similar to

that of :o.

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) : and :: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::



GRE +

++. According to the assage8 a meteorite discovered on !arth is unlikely to have

come from a large lanet for hich of the folloing reasons*

(A) There are feer large lanets in the solar system than there are asteroids.

(") @ost large lanets have been volcanically inactive for more than a billion

years.

(#) The gravitational ull of a large lanet ould robably rohibit fragments

from escaing its orbit.

($) There are no chondrites occurring naturally on !arth and robably none on

other large lanets.

(!) :nterbody imact is much rarer on large than on small lanets because of the

density of the atmoshere on large lanets.

+3. The assage suggests that the age of shergottites is robably

(A) still entirely undetermined

(") less than that of most other achondrites

(#) about 3.; billion years

($) the same as that of tyical achondrites

(!) greater than that of the !arth

+9. According to the assage8 the resence of chondrules in a meteorite indicates that

the meteorite

(A) has robably come from @ars

(") is older than the solar system itself

(#) has not been melted since the solar system formed

($) is certainly less than 9 billion years old

(!) is a small fragment of an asteroid

+;. The assage rovides information to anser hich of the folloing questions*

(A) hat is the recise age of the solar system*

(") 4o did shergottites get their name*

(#) hat are the chemical roerties shared by shergottites and @artian soils*

($) 4o volcanically active is the lanet 2uiter*

(!) hat is a maor feature of the @artian surface*

+<. :t can be inferred from the assage that each of the folloing is a consideration in

determining hether a articular lanet is a ossible source of shergottites that

have been discovered on !arth !C#!T the

(A) lanet's size

(") lanet's distance from !arth

(#) strength of the lanet's field of gravity

($) ro%imity of the lanet to its moons



GRE +1

(!) chemical comosition of the lanet's surface

+7. :t can be inferred from the assage that most meteorites found on !arth contain


(A) #rystals(") #hondrules

(#) @etals

($) ,odium

(!) ,ulfur

SECTION B

(he transplantation of organs from one individual to another normally involves

two ma/or problems< +1 organ re/ection is likely unless the transplantationantigens of both individuals are nearly identical% and +5 the introduction of any

unmatched transplantation antigens induces the development by the recipient of

donor-specic lymphocytes that will produce violent re/ection of further

transplantations from that donor. ,owever% we have found that among many

strains of rats these @normal rules of transplantation are not obeyed by liver

transplants. Bot only are liver transplants never re/ected% but they even induce a

state of donor-specic unresponsiveness in which subse'uent transplants of other

organs% such as skin% from that donor are accepted permanently. ?ur hypothesis is

that +1 many strains of rats simply cannot mount a su*ciently vigorous

destructive immune-response +using lymphocytes to outstrip the liver’s relatively

great capacity to protect itself from immune-response damage and that +5 the

systemic unresponsiveness observed is due to concentration of the recipient’s

donor-specic lymphocytes at the site of the liver transplant.

17. The rimary urose of the assage is to treat the acceted generalizations about

organ translantation in hich of the folloing ays*

(A) !%licate their main features

(") ,uggest an alternative to them

(#) !%amine their virtues and limitations($) #riticize the maor evidence used to suort them

(!) resent findings that qualify them

1&. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author believes that an imortant

difference among strains of rats is the

(A) size of their livers

(") constitution of their skin

(#) strength of their immune-resonse reactions

($) sensitivity of their antigens



GRE +1+

7ri*th also achieved dramatic e=ects by means of creative editing. "y

/uxtaposing images and varying the speed and rhythm of their presentation% he

could control the dramatic intensity of the events as the story progressed. espite

the reluctance of his producers% who feared that the public would not be able to

follow a plot that was made up of such /uxtaposed images% 7ri*th persisted% andexperimented as well with other elements of cinematic syntax that have become

standard ever since. (hese included the #ashback% permitting broad psychological

and emotional exploration as well as narrative that was not chronological% and the

crosscut between two parallel actions to heighten suspense and excitement. n

thus exploiting fully the possibilities of editing% 7ri*th transposed devices of the

Fictorian novel to lm and gave lm mastery of time as well as space.

"esides developing the cinema’s language% 7ri*th immensely broadened its

range and treatment of sub/ects. ,is early output was remarkably eclectic< it

included not only the standard comedies% melodramas% westerns% and thrillers% butalso such novelties as adaptations from "rowning and (ennyson% and treatments

of social issues. As his successes mounted% his ambitions grew% and with them the

whole of American cinema. !hen he remade *noch 'rden in 1I11% he insisted

that a sub/ect of such importance could not be treated in the then conventional

length of one reel. 7ri*th’s introduction of the American-made multireel picture

began an immense revolution. (wo years later% 2udith of &ethu!ia% an elaborate

historicophilosophical spectacle% reached the unprecedented length of four reels%

or one hour’s running time. ;rom our contemporary viewpoint% the pretensions of

this lm may seem a tri#e ludicrous% but at the time it provoked endless debate

and discussion and gave a new intellectual respectability to the cinema.


(A) discuss the imortance of /riffith to the develoment of the cinema

(") describe the imact on cinema of the flashback and other editing innovations

(#) delore the state of American cinema before the advent of /riffith

($) analyze the changes in the cinema rought by the introduction of the

multireel film

(!) document /riffith's imact on the choice of subect matter in American films

++. The author suggests that /riffith's film innovations had a direct effect on all of

the folloing !C#!T=

(A) film editing

(") camera ork

(#) scene comosing

($) sound editing

(!) directing

+3. :t can be inferred from the assage that before 11 the normal running time of afilm as



GRE +13

(A) 1; minutes or less

(") beteen 1; and 3 minutes

(#) beteen 3 and 9; minutes

($) beteen 9; minutes and 1 hour

(!) 1 hour or more

+9. The author asserts that /riffith introduced all of the folloing into American

cinema !C#!T=

(A) consideration of social issues

(") adatations from Tennyson

(#) the flashback and other editing techniques

($) hotograhic aroaches insired by ?ictorian ainting

(!) dramatic lots suggested by ?ictorian theater

+;. The author suggests that /riffith's contributions to the cinema had hich of the

folloing results*

:. Diterary orks8 esecially ?ictorian novels8 became oular sources for film

subects.

::. Audience areciation of other film directors' e%erimentations ith

cinematic synta% as increased.

:::. @any of the artistic limitations thought to be inherent in filmmaking ere

shon to be really none%istent.

(A) :: only

(") ::: only

(#) : and :: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+<. :t can be inferred from the assage that /riffith ould be most likely to agree

ith hich of the folloing statements*

(A) The good director ill attemt to e%lore ne ideas as quickly as ossible.

(") The most imortant element contributing to a film's success is the ability of

the actors.

(#) The camera must be considered an integral and active element in the creation

of a film.

($) The cinema should emhasize serious and sober e%aminations of fundamental

human roblems.

(!) The roer comosition of scenes in a film is more imortant than the details

of their editing.

+7. The author's attitude toard hotograhy in the cinema before /riffith can best



GRE +19

be described as

(A) symathetic

(") nostalgic

(#) amused

($) condescending

(!) hostile

GRE 内题全部

RC

1990 04

SECTION A

"ecause of its accuracy in outlining the Earth’s subsurface% the seismic-

re#ection method remains the most important tool in the search for petroleum

reserves. n eld practice% a subsurface is mapped by arranging a series of wave-

train sources% such as small dynamite explosions% in a grid pattern. As each source

is activated% it generates a wave train that moves downward at a speed

determined uni'uely by the rock’s elastic characteristics. As rock interfaces are

crossed% the elastic characteristics encountered generally change abruptly% which

causes part of the energy to be re#ected back to the surface% where it is recorded

by seismic instruments. (he seismic records must be processed to correct forpositional di=erences between the source and the receiver% for unrelated wave

trains% and for multiple re#ections from the rock interfaces. (hen the data

ac'uired at each of the specic source locations are combined to generate a

physical prole of the subsurface% which can eventually be used to select targets

for drilling.


(A) describing an imortant technique

(") discussing a ne method

(#) investigating a controversial rocedure

($) announcing a significant discovery

(!) romoting a novel alication

1&. According to the assage8 in the seismic-reflection method all of the folloing

have a significant effect on the signal detected by the seismic instruments

!C#!T the

(A) resence of unrelated ave trains

(") lacement of the seismic instruments

(#) number of sources in the grid attern



GRE +1;

($) nature of the reflectivity of the rock interfaces

(!) roerties of rocks through hich the ave train has traveled

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that the seismic-reflection method ould be

likely to yield an inaccurate hysical rofile of the subsurface in hich of thefolloing circumstances*

(A) :f the seed at hich the ave train moved donard changed

(") :f the receiver ere not ositioned directly at the ave-train source

(#) :f the rock on one side of a rock interface had similar elastic characteristics to

those of the rock on the other side

($) :f the seismic records obtained for the different sources in a grid ere highly

similar to each other

(!) :f there ere no etroleum deosits beneath the area defined by the grid of

ave-train sources

+. hich of the folloing best describes the organization of the assage*

(A) A method is criticized8 and an alternative is suggested.

(") An illustration is e%amined8 and some errors are e%osed.

(#) An assertion is made8 and a rocedure is outlined.

($) A series of e%amles is resented8 and a conclusion is dran.

(!) A hyothesis is advanced8 and suorting evidence is sulied.

>odern archaeological nds can still contribute much to the study of ancient

literature. ;or example% forty years ago a survey of the early 7reek dramatist

Aeschylus’ plays would have started with The Su))!iant Wo$en. >any factors

internal to the play% but perhaps most especially the prominence of the chorus

+which in this play has the main role% led scholars to consider it one of Aeschylus’

earlier works. (he consensus was that here was a drama truly re#ecting an early

stage in the evolution of tragedy out of choral lyric. (he play was dated as early

as the GI3’s ".C.% in any event% well before Aeschylus’ play The Persians of GQ5

".C. (hen% in 1I25% a fragment of papyrus found at ?xyrhynchus was published

stating the o*cial circumstances and results of a dramatic contest. (he fragment

announced that Aeschylus won rst pri&e with his anaid tetralogy% of which TheSu))!iant Wo$en is the opening play% and defeated 9ophocles in the process.

9ophocles did not compete in any dramatic contest before GON ".C.% when he won

his rst victory. ,ence% except by special pleading +e. g.% that the tetralogy was

composed early in Aeschylus’ career but not produced until the GO3’s ".C.% the

anaid tetralogy must be put after GON ".C. n addition% a few letters in the

fragment suggest the name Archedemides% archon in GO: ".C.% thus perhaps tying

the plays to that precise date% almost exactly halfway between Aeschylus’ Se-en

'gainst The(es of GOQ ".C. and his resteia.

(he implication of the papyrus administered a severe shock to the vast

ma/ority of classical scholars% who had condently asserted that not only the role



GRE +1<

of the chorus but also language% metrics% and characteri&ation all pointed to an

early date. (he discovery has resulted in no less than a total reevaluation of every

chronological criterion that has been applied to or derived from Aeschylus’ plays.

(he activity has been brisk% and a new creed has now spread. (he prominence of

the chorus in The Su))!iant Wo$en now is seen not as a sign of primitivism but asanalogous to the massive choral songs of the resteia. 9tatistics have been

formulated% or reformulated% to show that stylistically The Su))!iant Wo$en does

actually occupy a position after The Persians and Se-en 'gainst The(es, which

now become the @primitive plays% and before the resteia. !hile the new

doctrine seems almost certainly correct% the one papyrus fragment raises the

specter that another may be unearthed% showing% for instance% that it was a

posthumous production of the anaid tetralogy which bested 9ophocles% and

throwing the date once more into utter confusion. (his is unlikely to happen% but it

warns us that perhaps the most salutary feature of the papyrus scrap is its

message of the extreme di*culty of classifying and categori&ing rigidly the

development of a creative artist.

+1. The author of the assage focuses rimarily on

(A) discussing a series of modern archaeological finds and their imact on the

study of /reek literature

(") recounting the effect of one archaeological find on modern ideas concerning a

articular author's ork

(#) giving a definitive and coherent account of the chronology of a articular

author's ork

($) illustrating the many varieties of difficulties involved in establishing facts

concerning ancient literature

(!) determining the e%act value of archaeological finds in relation to the history

of ancient literature

++. ith resect to the study of ancient literature8 hich of the folloing statements

best e%resses the author's main oint concerning modern archaeological finds*

(A) They can rofoundly alter acceted vies of ancient literary orks8 and can

encourage fle%ibility in the ay scholars look at the creative develoment ofany artist.

(") They can be severely shocking and can have a revivifying effect on the study

of ancient literature8 hich has recently suffered from a lack of interest on

the art of scholars.

(#) They can raise more questions than they anser and can be unreliable sources

of information.

($) They generally confirm scholars' ideas about ancient literary orks and allo

them to disense ith inferences dran from the orks' internal structure.

(!) They often undermine scholarly consensus in certain areas and create utterconfusion concerning an author's ork.



GRE +1&

($) angry disaroval

(!) unrestrained enthusiasm

+7. The allusion to the hyothetical ayrus fragment in line 9;-9 does hich of the

folloing*(A) ,uorts an argument concerning the date of The *uppliant Wo%en.

(") 5efutes the vies of the maority of scholars concerning the B%yrhynchus

ayrus find.

(#) redicts the future results of archaeological research roosed in the assage.

($) 6ndermines the validity of the currently acceted chronology of Aeschylus'

orks.

(!) Kualifies the author's agreement ith the Ene creedF develoed since the

B%yrhynchus ayrus find.

SECTION B

9cholars often fail to see that music played an important role in the

preservation of African culture in the 8nited 9tates. (hey correctly note that

slavery stripped some cultural elements from "lack people0their political and

economic systems0but they underestimate the signicance of music in

sustaining other African cultural values. African music% unlike the music of some

other cultures% was based on a total vision of life in which music was not an

isolated social domain. n African culture music was pervasive% serving not only

religion% but all phases of life% including birth% death% work% and play. (he methods

that a community devises to perpetuate itself come into being to preserve

aspects of the cultural legacy that that community perceives as essential. >usic%

like art in general% was so inextricably a part of African culture that it became a

crucial means of preserving the culture during and after the dislocations of

slavery.


(A) analyze the imact that slavery had on African olitical and economic

systems

(") revie the attemt of recent scholarshi to study the influence of African

music on other music

(#) correct the failure of some scholars to areciate the significance of music in

African culture

($) survey the ays by hich eole attemt to reserve their culture against the

effects of oression

(!) comare the relative imortance of music ith that of other art forms in

culture

1&. :n line 8 the hrase Eisolated social domainF refers to



GRE +1

(A) African music in relation to contemorary culture as a hole

(") music as it may be erceived in non-African cultures

(#) a feature of African music that aided in transmitting African cultural values

($) an asect of the African cultural legacy

(!) the influence of music on contemorary culture

1. hich of the folloing statements concerning the function of African music can

be inferred from the assage*

(A) :t reserved cultural values because it as thoroughly integrated into the lives

of the eole.

(") :t as more imortant in the develoment of African religious life than in

other areas of culture.

(#) :t as develoed in resonse to the loss of olitical and economic systems.

($) :ts ervasiveness in African culture hindered its effectiveness in minimizing

the imact of slavery.

(!) :ts isolation from the economic domains of life enabled it to survive the

destructive imact of slavery.

+. According to the author8 scholars ould err in draing hich of the folloing

conclusions*

:. ,lavery stried the slaves of their olitical and economic systems.

::. African music as similar to all other traditions of music in that it originated

in a total vision of life.

:::. @usic as a crucial art of the African cultural legacy.

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) : and :: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

(raditionally% pollination by wind has been viewed as a reproductive process

marked by random events in which the vagaries of the wind are compensated forby the generation of vast 'uantities of pollen% so that the ultimate production of

new seeds is assured at the expense of producing much more pollen than is

actually used. "ecause the potential ha&ards pollen grains are sub/ect to as they

are transported over long distances are enormous% wind-pollinated plants have% in

the view above% compensated for the ensuing loss of pollen through happenstance

by virtue of producing an amount of pollen that is one to three orders of

magnitude greater than the amount produced by species pollinated by insects.

,owever% a number of features that are characteristic of wind-pollinated

plants reduce pollen waste. ;or example% many wind-pollinated species fail to

release pollen when wind speeds are low or when humid conditions prevail.



GRE ++

$ecent studies suggest another way in which species compensate for the

ine*ciency of wind pollination. (hese studies suggest that species fre'uently take

advantage of the physics of pollen motion by generating specic aerodynamic

environments within the immediate vicinity of their female reproductive organs. t

is the morphology of these organs that dictates the pattern of air#ow disturbancesthrough which pollen must travel. (he speed and direction of the air#ow

disturbances can combine with the physical properties of a species’ pollen to

produce a species-specic pattern of pollen collision on the surfaces of female

reproductive organs. 6rovided that these surfaces are strategically located% the

conse'uences of this combination can signicantly increase the pollen-capture

e*ciency of a female reproductive organ.

A critical 'uestion that remains to be answered is whether the morphological

attributes of the female reproductive organs of wind-pollinated species are

evolutionary adaptations to wind pollination or are merely fortuitous. A completeresolution of the 'uestion is as yet impossible since adaptation must be evaluated

for each species within its own uni'ue functional context. ,owever% it must be

said that% while evidence of such evolutionary adaptations does exist in some

species% one must be careful about attributing morphology to adaptation. ;or

example% the spiral arrangement of scale-bract complexes on ovule-bearing pine

cones% where the female reproductive organs of conifers are located% is important

to the production of air#ow patterns that spiral over the cone’s surfaces% thereby

passing airborne pollen from one scale to the next. ,owever% these patterns

cannot be viewed as an adaptation to wind pollination because the spiral

arrangement occurs in a number of non-wind-pollinated plant lineages and is

regarded as a characteristic of vascular plants% of which conifers are only one

kind% as a whole. (herefore% the spiral arrangement is not likely to be the result of

a direct adaptation to wind pollination.

+1. The author of the assage is rimarily concerned ith discussing

(A) the current debate on hether the morhological attributes of ind-ollinated

lants are evolutionary adatations

(") the kinds of airflo atterns that ermit ind-ollinated lants to cature

ollen most efficiently

(#) the ays in hich the reroductive rocesses of ind-ollinated lants are

controlled by random events

($) a recently roosed e%lanation of a ay in hich ind-ollinated lants

reduce ollen aste

(!) a secific morhological attribute that ermits one secies of ind-ollinated

lant to cature ollen

++. The author suggests that e%lanations of ind ollination that emhasize the

roduction of vast quantities of ollen to comensate for the randomness of the

ollination rocess are



GRE ++1

(A) debatable and misleading

(") ingenious and convincing

(#) accurate but incomlete

($) intriguing but controversial

(!) lausible but unverifiable

+3. According to the assage8 the Eaerodynamic environmentsF mentioned in line +38

hen they are roduced8 are rimarily determined by the

(A) resence of insects near the lant

(") hysical roerties of the lant's ollen

(#) shae of the lant's female reroductive organs

($) amount of ollen generated by the lant

(!) number of seeds roduced by the lant

+9. According to the assage8 true statements about the release of ollen by ind-

ollinated lants include hich of the folloing*

:. The release can be affected by certain environmental factors.

::. The amount of ollen released increases on a rainy day.

:::. ollen is sometimes not released by lants hen there is little ind.

(A) :: only

(") ::: only

(#) : and :: only($) : and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+;. The assage suggests that the recent studies cited in lines 1-+1 have not done


(A) @ade any distinctions beteen different secies of ind-ollinated lants.

(") #onsidered the hysical roerties of the ollen that is roduced by ind-

ollinated lants.

(#) :ndicated the general range ithin hich lant-generated airflo disturbancesare at to occur.

($) :ncluded investigations of the hysics of ollen motion and its relationshi to

the efficient cature of ollen by the female reroductive organs of ind-

ollinated lants.

(!) $emonstrated that the morhological attributes of the female reroductive

organs of ind-ollinated lants are usually evolutionary adatations to

ind ollination.

+<. :t can be inferred from the assage that the claim that the siral arrangement of

scale-bract comle%es on an ovule-bearing ine cone is an adatation to ind



GRE +++

ollination ould be more convincing if hich of the folloing ere true*

(A) ,uch an arrangement occurred only in ind-ollinated lants.

(") ,uch an arrangement occurred in vascular lants as a hole.

(#) ,uch an arrangement could be shon to be beneficial to ollen release.

($) The number of bracts could be shon to have increased over time.

(!) The airflo atterns over the cone's surfaces could be shon to be roduced

by such arrangements.

+7. hich of the folloing8 if knon8 is likely to have been the kind of evidence

used to suort the vie described in the first aragrah*

(A) ind seeds need not be very lo for ind-ollinated lants to fail to release

ollen.

(") The female reroductive organs of lants often have a sticky surface that

allos them to tra airborne ollen systematically.

(#) /rasses8 as ell as conifers8 generate secific aerodynamic environments

ithin the immediate vicinity of their reroductive organs.

($) 5ain shoers often ash airborne ollen out of the air before it ever reaches

an aroriate lant.

(!) The density and size of an airborne ollen grain are of equal imortance in

determining hether that grain ill be catured by a lant.

1990 10

SECTION A

t has been known for many decades that the appearance of sunspots is

roughly periodic% with an average cycle of eleven years. >oreover% the incidence

of solar #ares and the #ux of solar cosmic rays% ultraviolet radiation% and x-

radiation all vary directly with the sunspot cycle. "ut after more than a century of

investigation% the relation of these and other phenomena% known collectively as

the solar-activity cycle% to terrestrial weather and climate remains unclear. ;or

example% the sunspot cycle and the allied magnetic-polarity cycle have been

linked to periodicities discerned in records of such variables as rainfall%

temperature% and winds. nvariably% however% the relation is weak% and commonly

of dubious statistical signicance.

E=ects of solar variability over longer terms have also been sought. (he

absence of recorded sunspot activity in the notes kept by European observers in

the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries has led some scholars to

postulate a brief cessation of sunspot activity at that time +a period called the

>aunder minimum. (he >aunder minimum has been linked to a span of unusual

cold in Europe extending from the sixteenth to the early nineteenth centuries. (hereality of the >aunder minimum has yet to be established% however% especially



GRE ++3

since the records that Chinese naked-eye observers of solar activity made at that

time appear to contradict it. 9cientists have also sought evidence of long-term

solar periodicities by examining indirect climatological data% such as fossil records

of the thickness of ancient tree rings. (hese studies% however% failed to link

une'uivocally terrestrial climate and the solar-activity cycle% or even to conrmthe cycle’s past existence.

f consistent and reliable geological or archaeological evidence tracing the

solar-activity cycle in the distant past could be found% it might also resolve an

important issue in solar physics< how to model solar activity. Currently% there are

two models of solar activity. (he rst supposes that the 9un’s internal motions

+caused by rotation and convection interact with its large-scale magnetic eld to

produce a dynamo% a device in which mechanical energy is converted into the

energy of a magnetic eld. n short% the 9un’s large-scale magnetic eld is taken

to be self-sustaining% so that the solar-activity cycle it drives would be maintainedwith little overall change for perhaps billions of years. (he alternative explanation

supposes that the 9un’s large-scale magnetic eld is a remnant of the eld the

9un ac'uired when it formed% and is not sustained against decay. n this model%

the solar mechanism dependent on the 9un’s magnetic eld runs down more

'uickly. (hus% the characteristics of the solar-activity cycle could be expected to

change over a long period of time. >odern solar observations span too short a

time to reveal whether present cyclical solar activity is a long-lived feature of the

9un% or merely a transient phenomenon.

17. The author focuses rimarily on(A) resenting to cometing scientific theories concerning solar activity and

evaluating geological evidence often cited to suort them

(") giving a brief overvie of some recent scientific develoments in solar

hysics and assessing their imact on future climatological research

(#) discussing the difficulties involved in linking terrestrial henomena ith solar

activity and indicating ho resolving that issue could have an imact on our

understanding of solar hysics

($) ointing out the futility of a certain line of scientific inquiry into the

terrestrial effects of solar activity and recommending its abandonment infavor of urely hysics-oriented research

(!) outlining the secific reasons hy a roblem in solar hysics has not yet been

solved and faulting the overly theoretical aroach of modern hysicists

1&. hich of the folloing statements about the to models of solar activity8 as they

are described in lines 37-;;8 is accurate*

(A) :n both models cyclical solar activity is regarded as a long-lived feature of the

,un8 ersisting ith little change over billions of years.

(") :n both models the solar-activity cycle is hyothesized as being deendent on

the large-scale solar magnetic field.



GRE ++;

(!) 4undreds of millions of years ago8 solar-activity cycles dislayed the same

eriodicities as do resent-day solar-activity cycles.

++. :t can be inferred from the assage that #hinese observations of the ,un during

the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries

(A) are ambiguous because most sunsots cannot be seen ith the naked eye

(") robably ere made under the same eather conditions as those made in

!uroe

(#) are more reliable than !uroean observations made during this eriod

($) record some sunsot activity during this eriod

(!) have been emloyed by scientists seeking to argue that a change in solar

activity occurred during this eriod

+3. :t can be inferred from the assage that studies attemting to use tree-ring

thickness to locate ossible links beteen solar eriodicity and terrestrial climate

are based on hich of the folloing assumtions*

(A) The solar-activity cycle e%isted in its resent form during the time eriod in

hich the tree rings gre.

(") The biological mechanisms causing tree groth are unaffected by short-term

eather atterns.

(#) Average tree-ring thickness varies from secies to secies.

($) Tree-ring thicknesses reflect changes in terrestrial climate.

(!) "oth terrestrial climate and the solar-activity cycle randomly affect tree-ringthickness.

(he common belief of some linguists that each language is a perfect vehicle

for the thoughts of the nation speaking it is in some ways the exact counterpart of

the conviction of the >anchester school of economics that supply and demand will

regulate everything for the best. ust as economists were blind to the numerous

cases in which the law of supply and demand left actual wants unsatised% so also

many linguists are deaf to those instances in which the very nature of a language

calls forth misunderstandings in everyday conversation% and in which%

conse'uently% a word has to be modied or dened in order to present the idea

intended by the speaker< @,e took his stick0no% not ohn’s% but his own. Bo

language is perfect% and if we admit this truth% we must also admit that it is not

unreasonable to investigate the relative merits of di=erent languages or of

di=erent details in languages.


(A) analyze an interesting feature of the !nglish language

(") refute a belief held by some linguists

(#) sho that economic theory is relevant to linguistic study

($) illustrate the confusion that can result from the imroer use of language



GRE ++<

(!) suggest a ay in hich languages can be made more nearly erfect

+;. The misunderstanding resented by the author in lines 13-19 is similar to hich

of the folloing*

:. C uses the ord EyouF to refer to a grou8 but O thinks that C is referring toone erson only.

::. C mistakenly uses the ord EanomalyF to refer to a tyical e%amle8 but O

knos that EanomalyF means Ee%cetion.F

:::. C uses the ord EbachelorF to mean Eunmarried man8F but O mistakenly

thinks that bachelor means Eunmarried oman.F

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) ::: only

($) : and :: only

(!) :: and ::: only

+<. :n resenting the argument8 the author does all of the folloing !C#!T=

(A) give an e%amle

(") dra a conclusion

(#) make a generalization

($) make a comarison

(!) resent a arado%

+7. hich of the folloing contributes to the misunderstanding described by the

author in lines 13-19*

(A) :t is unclear hom the seaker of the sentence is addressing.

(") :t is unclear to hom the ord EhisF refers the first time it is used.

(#) :t is unclear to hom the ord EhisF refers the second time it is used.

($) The meaning of EtookF is ambiguous.

(!) :t is unclear to hom E4eF refers.

SECTION B

t is fre'uently assumed that the mechani&ation of work has a revolutionary

e=ect on the lives of the people who operate the new machines and on the

society into which the machines have been introduced. ;or example% it has been

suggested that the employment of women in industry took them out of the

household% their traditional sphere% and fundamentally altered their position in

society. n the nineteenth century% when women began to enter factories% ules

9imon% a ;rench politician% warned that by doing so% women would give up their

femininity. ;riedrich Engels% however% predicted that women would be liberated

from the @social% legal% and economic subordination of the family by technological



GRE ++7

developments that made possible the recruitment of @the whole female sex into

public industry. ?bservers thus di=ered concerning the social desirability of

mechani&ation’s e=ects% but they agreed that it would transform women’s lives.

,istorians% particularly those investigating the history of women% now

seriously 'uestion this assumption of transforming power. (hey conclude that

such dramatic technological innovations as the spinning /enny% the sewing

machine% the typewriter% and the vacuum cleaner have not resulted in e'ually

dramatic social changes in women’s economic position or in the prevailing

evaluation of women’s work. (he employment of young women in textile mills

during the ndustrial $evolution was largely an extension of an older pattern of

employment of young% single women as domestics. t was not the change in o*ce

technology% but rather the separation of secretarial work% previously seen as an

apprenticeship for beginning managers% from administrative work that in the

1NN3’s created a new class of @dead-end /obs% thenceforth considered @women’swork. (he increase in the numbers of married women employed outside the

home in the twentieth century had less to do with the mechani&ation of

housework and an increase in leisure time for these women than it did with their

own economic necessity and with high marriage rates that shrank the available

pool of single women workers% previously% in many cases% the only women

employers would hire.

!omen’s work has changed considerably in the past 533 years% moving from

the household to the o*ce or the factory% and later becoming mostly white-collar

instead of blue-collar work. ;undamentally% however% the conditions under which

women work have changed little since before the ndustrial $evolution< the

segregation of occupations by gender% lower pay for women as a group% /obs that

re'uire relatively low levels of skill and o=er women little opportunity for

advancement all persist% while women’s household labor remains demanding.

$ecent historical investigation has led to a ma/or revision of the notion that

technology is always inherently revolutionary in its e=ects on society.

>echani&ation may even have slowed any change in the traditional position of

women both in the labor market and in the home.

17. hich of the folloing statements best summarizes the main idea of the assage*

(A) The effects of the mechanization of omen's ork have not borne out the

frequently held assumtion that ne technology is inherently revolutionary.

(") 5ecent studies have shon that mechanization revolutionizes a society's

traditional values and the customary roles of its members.

(#) @echanization has caused the nature of omen's ork to change since the

:ndustrial 5evolution.

($) The mechanization of ork creates hole ne classes of obs that did not

reviously e%ist.

(!) The mechanization of omen's ork8 hile e%tremely revolutionary it itseffects8 has not8 on the hole8 had the deleterious effects that some critics



GRE ++&

had feared.

1&. The author mentions all of the folloing inventions as e%amles of dramatic

technological innovations !C#!T the

(A) seing machine(") vacuum cleaner

(#) tyeriter

($) telehone

(!) sinning enny

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that8 before the :ndustrial 5evolution8 the

maority of omen's ork as done in hich of the folloing settings*

(A) Te%tile mills

(") rivate households(#) Bffices

($) >actories

(!) ,mall shos

+. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author ould consider hich of the

folloing to be an indication of a fundamental alteration in the conditions of

omen's ork*

(A) ,tatistics shoing that the maority of omen no occuy hite-collar

ositions(") :ntervies ith married men indicating that they are no doing some

household tasks

(#) ,urveys of the labor market documenting the recent creation of a ne class of

obs in electronics in hich omen orkers outnumber men four to one

($) #ensus results shoing that orking omen's ages and salaries are8 on the

average8 as high as those of orking men

(!) !nrollment figures from universities demonstrating that increasing numbers

of young omen are choosing to continue their education beyond the

undergraduate level

+1. The assage states that8 before the tentieth century8 hich of the folloing as

true of many emloyers*

(A) They did not emloy omen in factories.

(") They tended to emloy single rather than married omen.

(#) They emloyed omen in only those obs that ere related to omen's

traditional household ork.

($) They resisted technological innovations that ould radically change omen's

roles in the family.(!) They hired omen only hen qualified men ere not available to fill the



GRE ++

oen ositions.

++. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author most robably believes hich

of the folloing to be true concerning those historians ho study the history of

omen*

(A) Their ork rovides insights imortant to those e%amining social henomena

affecting the lives of both se%es.

(") Their ork can only be used cautiously by scholars in other discilines.

(#) "ecause they concentrate only on the role of omen in the orklace8 they

dra more reliable conclusions than do other historians.

($) hile highly interesting8 their ork has not had an imact on most historians'

current assumtions concerning the revolutionary effect of technology in the

orklace.

(!) They oose the further mechanization of ork8 hich8 according to theirfindings8 tends to eretuate e%isting inequalities in society.

+3. hich of the folloing best describes the function of the concluding sentence of

the assage*

(A) :t sums u the general oints concerning the mechanization of ork made in

the assage as a hole.

(") :t dras a conclusion concerning the effects of the mechanization of ork

hich goes beyond the evidence resented in the assage as a hole.

(#) :t restates the oint concerning technology made in the sentence immediately

receding it.

($) :t qualifies the author's agreement ith scholars ho argue for a maor

revision in the assessment of the imact of mechanization on society.

(!) :t suggests a comromise beteen to seemingly contradictory vies

concerning the effects of mechanization on society.

+(his passage is excerpted from an article that was published in 1IN5.

!arm-blooded animals have elaborate physiological controls to maintain

constant body temperature +in humans% :Q℃. !hy then during sickness should

temperature rise% apparently increasing stress on the infected organismP t haslong been known that the level of serum iron in animals falls during infection.

7aribaldi rst suggested a relationship between fever and iron. ,e found that

microbial synthesis of siderophores0substances that bind iron0in bacteria of the

genus Sa!$one!!a declined at environmental temperatures above :Q℃ and

stopped at G3.:℃. (hus% fever would make it more di*cult for an infecting

bacterium to ac'uire iron and thus to multiply. Cold-blooded animals were used to

test this hypothesis because their body temperature can be controlled in the

laboratory. Jluger reported that of iguanas infected with the potentially lethal

bacterium '. h"dro)hi!ia% more survived at temperatures of G5℃ than at :Q℃%

even though healthy animals prefer the lower temperature. !hen animals at G5℃



GRE +3

were in/ected with an iron solution% however% mortality rates increased

signicantly. $esearch to determine whether similar phenomena occur in warm-

blooded animals is sorely needed.

+9. The assage is rimarily concerned ith attemts to determine

(A) the role of siderohores in the synthesis of serum iron

(") ne treatments for infections that are caused by A0 hdrophilia

(#) the function of fever in arm-blooded animals

($) the mechanisms that ensure constant body temerature

(!) iron utilization in cold-blooded animals

+;. According to the assage8 /aribaldi determined hich of the folloing*

(A) That serum iron is roduced through microbial synthesis.

(") That microbial synthesis of siderohores in arm-blooded animals is moreefficient at higher temeratures.

(#) That only iron bound to other substances can be used by bacteria.

($) That there is a relationshi beteen the synthesis of siderohores in bacteria

of the genus *al%onella and environmental temerature.

(!) That bacteria of the genus *al%onella require iron as a nutrient.

+<. hich of the folloing can be inferred about arm-blooded animals solely on

the basis of information in the assage*

(A) The body temeratures of arm-blooded animals cannot be easily controlledin the laboratory.

(") arm-blooded animals require more iron in eriods of stress than they do at

other times.

(#) arm-blooded animals are more comfortable at an environmental

temerature of 37℃ than they are at a temerature of 9+℃.

($) :n arm-blooded animals8 bacteria are resonsible for the roduction of

siderohores8 hich8 in turn8 make iron available to the animal.

(!) :n arm-blooded animals8 infections that lead to fever are usually traceable to

bacteria.

+7. :f it ere to be determined that Esimilar henomena occur in arm-blooded

animalsF (lines +1-++)8 hich of the folloing8 assuming each is ossible8 is

likely to be the most effective treatment for arm-blooded animals ith bacterial

infections*

(A) Administering a medication that loers the animals' body temerature

(") :necting the animals ith an iron solution

(#) Administering a medication that makes serum iron unavailable to bacteria

($) roviding the animals ith reduced-iron diets(!) Jeeing the animals in an environment ith temeratures higher than 37℃



GRE +31

1991 02

SECTION A

As 7ilbert !hite% arwin% and others observed long ago% all species appear to

have the innate capacity to increase their numbers from generation to generation.

(he task for ecologists is to untangle the environmental and biological factors that

hold this intrinsic capacity for population growth in check over the long run. (he

great variety of dynamic behaviors exhibited by di=erent populations makes this

task more di*cult< some populations remain roughly constant from year to year4

others exhibit regular cycles of abundance and scarcity4 still others vary wildly%

with outbreaks and crashes that are in some cases plainly correlated with the

weather% and in other cases not.

(o impose some order on this kaleidoscope of patterns% one school of thought

proposes dividing populations into two groups. (hese ecologists posit that the

relatively steady populations have @density-dependent growth parameters4 that

is% rates of birth% death% and migration which depend strongly on population

density. (he highly varying populations have @density-independent growth

parameters% with vital rates bu=eted by environmental events4 these rates

#uctuate in a way that is wholly independent of population density.

(his dichotomy has its uses% but it can cause problems if taken too literally.

;or one thing% no population can be driven entirely by density-independent factors

all the time. Bo matter how severely or unpredictably birth% death and migration

rates may be #uctuating around their long-term averages% if there were no

density-dependent e=ects% the population would% in the long run% either increase

or decrease without bound +barring a miracle by which gains and losses canceled

exactly. 6ut another way% it may be that on average II percent of all deaths in a

population arise from density-independent causes% and only one percent from

factors varying with density. (he factors making up the one percent may seem

unimportant% and their cause may be correspondingly hard to determine. Det%

whether recogni&ed or not% they will usually determine the long-term average

population density.

n order to understand the nature of the ecologist’s investigation% we may

think of the density-dependent e=ects on growth parameters as the @signal

ecologists are trying to isolate and interpret% one that tends to make the

population increase from relatively low values or decrease from relatively high

ones% while the density-independent e=ects act to produce @noise in the

population dynamics. ;or populations that remain relatively constant% or that

oscillate around repeated cycles% the signal can be fairly easily characteri&ed and

its e=ects described% even though the causative biological mechanism may

remain unknown. ;or irregularly #uctuating populations% we are likely to have too

few observations to have any hope of extracting the signal from the overwhelming



GRE +3+

noise. "ut it now seems clear that all populations are regulated by a mixture of

density-dependent and density-independent e=ects in varying proportions.


(A) discussing to categories of factors that control oulation groth andassessing their relative imortance

(") describing ho groth rates in natural oulations fluctuate over time and

e%laining hy these changes occur

(#) roosing a hyothesis concerning oulation sizes and suggesting ays to

test it

($) osing a fundamental question about environmental factors in oulation

groth and resenting some currently acceted ansers

(!) refuting a commonly acceted theory about oulation density and offering a

ne alternative

1&. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author considers the dichotomy

discussed in the second aragrah to be

(A) alicable only to erratically fluctuating oulations

(") useful8 but only if its limitations are recognized

(#) dangerously misleading in most circumstances

($) a comlete and sufficient ay to account for observed henomena

(!) concetually valid8 but too confusing to aly on a ractical basis

1. hich of the folloing statements can be inferred from the last aragrah*

(A) >or irregularly fluctuating oulations8 doubling the number of observations

made ill robably result in the isolation of density-deendent effects.

(") $ensity-deendent effects on oulation dynamics do not occur as frequently

as do density-indeendent effects.

(#) At resent8 ecologists do not understand any of the underlying causes of the

density-deendent effects they observe in oulation dynamics.

($) $ensity-deendent effects on groth arameters are thought to be caused by

some sort of biochemical EsignalingF that ecologists hoe eventually tounderstand.

(!) :t is sometimes ossible to infer the e%istence of a density-deendent factor

controlling oulation groth ithout understanding its causative

mechanism.

+. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing is a true statement about

density-deendent factors in oulation groth*

(A) They ultimately account for long-term oulation levels.

(") They have little to do ith long-term oulation dynamics.

(#) They are alays more easily isolated and described than those that are



GRE +33

density-indeendent.

($) They include random environmental events.

(!) They contradict current ecological assumtions about oulation dynamics.

+1. According to the assage8 all of the folloing behaviors have been e%hibited bydifferent oulations !C#!T=

(A) roughly constant oulation levels from year to year

(") regular cycles of increases and decreases in numbers

(#) erratic increases in numbers correlated ith the eather

($) unchecked increases in numbers over many generations

(!) sudden declines in numbers from time to time

++. The discussion concerning oulation in lines +9-9 serves rimarily to

(A) demonstrate the difficulties ecologists face in studying density-deendentfactors limiting oulation groth

(") advocate more rigorous study of density-deendent factors in oulation

groth

(#) rove that the death rates of any oulation are never entirely density-

indeendent

($) give an e%amle of ho death rates function to limit oulation densities in

tyical oulations

(!) underline the imortance of even small density-deendent factors in

regulating long-term oulation densities

+3. :n the assage8 the author does all of the folloing !C#!T=

(A) cite the vies of other biologists

(") define a basic roblem that the assage addresses

(#) resent concetual categories used by other biologists

($) describe the results of a articular study

(!) dra a conclusion

n %aisin in the Sun% orraine ,ansberry does not re/ect integration or the

economic and moral promise of the American dream4 rather% she remains loyal to

this dream while looking% realistically% at its incomplete reali&ation. ?nce we

recogni&e this dual vision% we can accept the play’s ironic nuances as deliberate

social commentaries by ,ansberry rather than as the @unintentional irony that

"igsby attributes to the work. ndeed a curiously persistent refusal to credit

,ansberry with a capacity for intentional irony has led some critics to interpret the

play’s thematic con#icts as mere confusion% contradiction% or eclecticism. saacs%

for example% cannot easily reconcile ,ansberry’s intense concern for her race with

her ideal of human reconciliation. "ut the play’s complex view of "lack self-

esteem and human solidarity as compatible is no more @contradictory than u



GRE +39

"ois’ famous% well-considered ideal of ethnic self-awareness coexisting with

human unity% or ;anon’s emphasis on an ideal internationalism that also

accommodates national identities and roles.

+9. The author's rimary urose in this assage is to

(A) e%lain some critics' refusal to consider &aisin in the *un a deliberately ironic

lay

(") suggest that ironic nuances ally &aisin in the *un ith $u "ois' and >anon's

ritings

(#) analyze the fundamental dramatic conflicts in &aisin in the *un

($) ustify the inclusion of contradictory elements in &aisin in the *un

(!) affirm the thematic coherence underlying &aisin in the *un

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author believes hich of the folloing

about 4ansberry's use of irony in &aisin in the *un*

(A) :t derives from 4ansberry's eclectic aroach to dramatic structure.

(") :t is ustified by 4ansberry's loyalty to a favorable deiction of American life.

(#) :t is influenced by the themes of orks by $u "ois and >anon.

($) :t is more consistent ith 4ansberry's concern for "lack Americans than ith

her ideal of human reconciliation.

(!) :t reflects 4ansberry's reservations about the e%tent to hich the American

dream has been realized.

+<. :n hich of the folloing does the author of the assage reinforce his criticism of

resonses such as :saacs' to &aisin in the *un*

(A) The statement that 4ansberry is EloyalF (line 3) to the American dream

(") The descrition of 4ansberry's concern for "lack Americans as EintenseF

(line 13)

(#) The assertion that 4ansberry is concerned ith Ehuman solidarityF (line 1;)

($) The descrition of $u "ois' ideal as Eell-consideredF (line 17)

(!) The descrition of >anon's internationalism as EidealF (line 1)

+7. The author of the assage ould robably consider hich of the folloing

udgments to be most similar to the reasoning of critics described in lines &-1+*

(A) The orld is certainly flatG therefore8 the erson roosing to sail around it is

unquestionably foolhardy.

(") 5adioactivity cannot be directly erceivedG therefore8 a scientist could not

ossibly control it in a laboratory.

(#) The ainter of this icture could not intend it to be funny8 therefore8 its humor

must result from a lack of skill.

($) Traditional social mores are beneficial to cultureG therefore8 anyone hodeviates from them acts destructively.



GRE +3;

(!) >ilmmakers ho roduce documentaries deal e%clusively ith factsG

therefore8 a filmmaker ho reinterrets articular events is misleading us.

SECTION B

9ome recent historians have argued that life in the "ritish colonies in America

from approximately 1QO: to 1QNI was marked by internal con#icts among

colonists. nheritors of some of the viewpoints of early twentieth-century

6rogressive historians such as "eard and "ecker% these recent historians have put

forward arguments that deserve evaluation.

(he kind of con#ict most emphasi&ed by these historians is class con#ict. Det

with the $evolutionary !ar dominating these years% how does one distinguish

class con#ict within that larger con#ictP Certainly not by the side a person

supported. Although many of these historians have accepted the earlier

assumption that oyalists represented an upper class% new evidence indicates that

oyalists% like rebels% were drawn from all socioeconomic classes. +t is nonetheless

probably true that a larger percentage of the well-to-do /oined the oyalists than

/oined the rebels. ooking at the rebel side% we nd little evidence for the

contention that lower-class rebels were in con#ict with upper-class rebels. ndeed%

the war e=ort against "ritain tended to suppress class con#icts. !here it did not%

the disputing rebels of one or another class usually became oyalists. oyalism

thus operated as a safety valve to remove socioeconomic discontent that existed

among the rebels. isputes occurred% of course% among those who remained on

the rebel side% but the extraordinary social mobility of eighteenth-centuryAmerican society +with the obvious exception of slaves usually prevented such

disputes from hardening along class lines. 9ocial structure was in fact so #uid0

though recent statistics suggest a narrowing of economic opportunity as the latter

half of the century progressed0that to talk about social classes at all re'uires the

use of loose economic categories such as rich% poor% and middle class% or

eighteenth-century designations like @the better sort. espite these vague

categories% one should not claim une'uivocally that hostility between

recogni&able classes cannot be legitimately observed. ?utside of Bew Dork%

however% there were very few instances of openly expressed class antagonism.

,aving said this% however% one must add that there is much evidence to

support the further claim of recent historians that sectional con#icts were

common between 1QO: and 1QNI. (he @6axton "oys incident and the $egulator

movement are representative examples of the widespread% and /ustied%

discontent of western settlers against colonial or state governments dominated by

eastern interests. Although undertones of class con#ict existed beneath such

hostility% the opposition was primarily geographical. 9ectional con#ict0which also

existed between Borth and 9outh0deserves further investigation.

n summary% historians must be careful about the kind of con#ict they

emphasi&e in eighteenth-century America. Det those who stress the achievement



GRE +37

:. :t alloed greater economic oortunity than it did social mobility.

::. :t ermitted greater economic oortunity rior to 17; than after 17;.

:::. :t did not contain rigidly defined socioeconomic divisions.

:?. :t revented economic disutes from arising among members of the society.

(A) : and :? only

(") :: and ::: only

(#) ::: and :? only

($) :8 ::8 and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 :::8 and :?

+1. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author ould be most likely to agree

ith hich of the folloing statements regarding socioeconomic class and

suort for the rebel and Doyalist causes during the American 5evolutionary

ar*

(A) :dentifying a erson's socioeconomic class is the least accurate method of

ascertaining hich side that erson suorted.

(") :dentifying a erson as a member of the rebel or of the Doyalist side does not

necessarily reveal that erson's articular socioeconomic class.

(#) "oth the rebel and the Doyalist sides contained members of all socioeconomic

classes8 although there ere feer disutes among socioeconomic classes on

the Doyalist side.

($) "oth the rebel and the Doyalist sides contained members of all socioeconomicclasses8 although the Doyalist side as made u rimarily of members of the

uer classes.

(!) "oth the rebel and the Doyalist sides contained members of all socioeconomic

classes8 although many uer-class rebels eventually oined the Doyalists.

++. The author suggests hich of the folloing about the reresentativeness of

colonial or state governments in America from 17<3 to 17&*

(A) The governments inadequately reresented the interests of eole in estern

regions.

(") The governments more often reresented class interests than sectional

interests.

(#) The governments ere less reresentative than they had been before 17<3.

($) The governments ere dominated by the interests of eole of an uer

socioeconomic class.

(!) The governments of the northern colonies ere less reresentative than ere

the governments of the southern colonies.

+3. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing is a true statement about

sectional conflicts in America beteen 17<3 and 17&*



GRE +3&

(A) These conflicts ere instigated by eastern interests against estern settlers.

(") These conflicts ere the most serious kind of conflict in America.

(#) The conflicts eventually led to oenly e%ressed class antagonism.

($) These conflicts contained an element of class hostility.

(!) These conflicts ere motivated by class conflicts.

9ince 1I2:% many experimental attempts to synthesi&e the chemical

constituents of life under @primitive Earth conditions have been performed% but

none of these experiments has produced anything approaching the complexity of

the simplest organism. (hey have demonstrated% however% that a variety of the

complex molecules currently making up living organisms could have been present

in the early ocean and atmosphere% with only one limitation< such molecules are

synthesi&ed far less readily when oxygen-containing compounds dominate the

atmosphere. (herefore some scientists postulate that the Earth’s earliest

atmosphere% unlike that of today% was dominated by hydrogen% methane% and

ammonia.

;rom these studies% scientists have concluded that the surface of the primitive

Earth was covered with oceans containing the molecules fundamental to life.

Although% at present% scientists cannot explain how these relatively small

molecules combined to produce larger% more complex molecules% some scientists

have precipitously ventured hypotheses that attempt to explain the development%

from lager molecules% of the earliest self-duplicating organisms.

+9. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing can be inferred about the rocess by hich the chemical constituents of life ere synthesized under

rimitive !arth conditions*

(A) The synthesis is unlikely to occur under current atmosheric conditions.

(") The synthesis is common in modern laboratories.

(#) The synthesis occurs more readily in the atmoshere than in the ocean.

($) The synthesis easily roduces the most comle% organic molecules.

(!) The synthesis is accelerated by the resence of o%ygen-containing

comounds.

+;. The rimary urose of the assage is to

(A) oint out that theories about ho life develoed on !arth have changed little

since 1;3

(") arn of increasing levels of hydrogen8 methane8 and ammonia in the !arth's

atmoshere

(#) describe the develoment since 1;3 of some scientists' understanding of

ho life began on !arth

($) demonstrate that the synthesis of life in the laboratory is too difficult for

modern technology



GRE +3

(!) describe ho rimitive atmosheric conditions roduced the comle%

molecules of living organisms

+<. :t can be inferred from the assage that Esome scientistsF assume hich of the

folloing concerning Elarger8 more comle% moleculesF (line +)*

(A) The earliest atmoshere as formed rimarily of these molecules.

(") #hemical rocesses involving these molecules roceeded much more sloly

under rimitive !arth conditions.

(#) The resence of these molecules ould necessarily recede the e%istence of

simle organisms.

($) !%erimental techniques ill never be sufficiently sohisticated to roduce in

the laboratory simle organisms from these chemical constituents.

(!) !%lanations could easily be develoed to e%lain ho simle molecules

combined to form these more comle% ones.

+7. The author's reaction to the attemts that have been made to e%lain the

develoment of the first self-dulication organisms can best be described as one

of

(A) enthusiasm

(") e%ectation

(#) dismay

($) sketicism

(!) antiathy

1991 04

SECTION A

sadora uncan’s masterly writings on the dance reveal the depth of her

determination to create a lyric form of the art which was free of characteri&ation%

storytelling% and the theatrical exhibition of skills. 9he wished to discard the

traditional methods and established vocabularies of such dance forms as ballet

and to explore the internal sources of human expressiveness. 9he shunned bodily

ornamentation and strove to use only the natural movements of her body%

undistorted by acrobatic exaggeration and stimulated only by internal compulsion.

n her recitals uncan danced to the music of "eethoven% !agner% and 7luck%

among others% but% contrary to popular belief% she made no attempt to visuali&e or

to interpret the music4 rather% she simply relied on it to provide the inspiration for

expressing inner feelings through movement. 9he did not regard this use of music

as ideal% however% believing that she would someday dispense with music entirely.

(hat day never came.

17. The author is rimarily concerned ith $uncan's



GRE +9

(A) masterful lyricism as e%ressed in her ritings on the dance

(") concerted efforts to subdue the natural movements of the dance

(#) belated recognition that she could not actually fulfill all of her ideals for the

dance

($) basic standards for the dance form that she ished to create and erform

(!) continuous resonsiveness to a oular misconcetion about the nature of her

ne art form

1&. The author imlies that $uncan relied on music in her recitals in order to

(A) interret musical orks solely by means of natural body movements

(") foster the illusion that music serves as an insiration for the dance

(#) insire the e%ression of inner feeling hen she danced

($) validate the ublic belief that music insires the e%ression of feeling through

movement

(!) counter the ublic belief that she made no attemt to visualize music

1. According to the assage8 $uncan intended to develo an art form that ould do

all of the folloing !C#!T

(A) avoid the use of standard ballet techniques

(") revitalize an earlier established vocabulary

(#) dra on internal sources of human e%ressiveness

($) create intended effects ithout the use of acrobatic e%aggeration

(!) derive insiration solely from inner feelings

+. :t can be inferred from the assage that hich of the folloing endeavors is

D!A,T comatible ith $uncan's ideals for the dance*

(A) 6sing music to stimulate the insiration to dance

(") Attemting to free an art form of both characterization and storytelling

(#) @inimizing the theatrical e%hibition of skills

($) "eing insired to e%ress inner feeling through movement

(!) #reating a lyric art form by draing on inner ersonal resources (he recent% apparently successful% prediction by mathematical models of an

appearance of El Bino0the warm ocean current that periodically develops along

the 6acic coast of 9outh America0has excited researchers. acob "/erknes

pointed out over 53 years ago how winds might create either abnormally warm or

abnormally cold water in the eastern e'uatorial 6acic. Bonetheless% until the

development of the models no one could explain why conditions should regularly

shift from one to the other% as happens in the periodic oscillations between

appearances of the warm El Bino and the cold so-called anti-El Bino. (he answer%

at least if the current model that links the behavior of the ocean to that of the

atmosphere is correct% is to be found in the ocean.



GRE +91

t has long been known that during an El Bino% two conditions exist< +1

unusually warm water extends along the eastern 6acic% principally along the

coasts of Ecuador and 6eru% and +5 winds blow from the west into the warmer air

rising over the warm water in the east. (hese winds tend to create a feedback

mechanism by driving the warmer surface water into a @pile that blocks thenormal upwelling of deeper% cold water in the east and further warms the eastern

water% thus strengthening the wind still more. (he contribution of the model is to

show that the winds of an El Bino% which raise sea level in the east%

simultaneously send a signal to the west lowering sea level. According to the

model% that signal is generated as a negative $ossby wave% a wave of depressed%

or negative% sea level% that moves westward parallel to the e'uator at 52 to N2

kilometers per day. (aking months to traverse the 6acic% $ossby waves march to

the western boundary of the 6acic basin% which is modeled as a smooth wall but

in reality consists of 'uite irregular island chains% such as the 6hilippines and

ndonesia.

!hen the waves meet the western boundary% they are re#ected% and the

model predicts that $ossby waves will be broken into numerous coastal Jelvin

waves carrying the same negative sea-level signal. (hese eventually shoot toward

the e'uator% and then head eastward along the e'uator propelled by the rotation

of the Earth at a speed of about 523 kilometers per day. !hen enough Jelvin

waves of su*cient amplitude arrive from the western 6acic% their negative sea-

level signal overcomes the feedback mechanism tending to raise the sea level%

and they begin to drive the system into the opposite cold mode. (his produces a

gradual shift in winds% one that will eventually send positive sea-level $ossby

waves westward% waves that will eventually return as cold cycle-ending positive

Jelvin waves% beginning another warming cycle.

+1. The rimary function of the assage as a hole is to

(A) introduce a ne e%lanation of a hysical henomenon

(") e%lain the difference beteen to related hysical henomena

(#) illustrate the limitations of alying mathematics to comlicated hysical

henomena

($) indicate the direction that research into a articular hysical henomenonshould take

(!) clarify the differences beteen an old e%lanation of a hysical henomenon

and a ne model of it

++. hich of the folloing best describes the organization of the first aragrah*

(A) A theory is resented and criticized.

(") A model is described and evaluated.

(#) A result is reorted and its imortance e%lained.

($) A henomenon is noted and its significance debated.



GRE +9+

(!) A hyothesis is introduced and contrary evidence resented.

+3. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing features is characteristic of an

!l ino*

(A) #old coastal ater near eru(") inds bloing from the est

(#) 5andom occurrence

($) orldide effects

(!) ,hort duration

+9. According to the model resented in the assage8 hich of the folloing

normally signals the disaearance of an !l ino*

(A) The arrival in the eastern acific of negative sea-level Jelvin aves.

(") A shift in the direction of the inds roduced by the start of an anti-!l inoelsehere in the acific.

(#) The reflection of Jelvin aves after they reach the eastern boundary of the

acific8 along !cuador and eru.

($) An increase in the seed at hich negative 5ossby aves cross the acific.

(!) The creation of a reservoir of colder8 dee ocean ater traed under the ile

of armer8 surface ocean ater.

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that hich of the folloing ould result fairly

immediately from the cessation of the inds of an !l ino*

:. egative 5ossby aves ould cease to be generated in the eastern acific.

::. The sea level in the eastern acific ould fall.

:::. The surface ater in the eastern acific ould again be cooled by being

mi%ed ith dee ater.

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) : and :: only

($) : and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+<. hich of the folloing8 if true8 ould most seriously undermine the validity of

the model of !l ino that is resented in the assage*

(A) $uring some years !l ino e%tends significantly farther along the coasts of

!cuador and eru than during other years.

(") $uring eriods of unusually cool temeratures along the eastern acific8 an !l

ino is much colder than normal.

(#) The normal uelling of cold ater in the eastern acific deends much

more on the local characteristics of the ocean than on atmosheric



GRE +93

conditions.

($) The variations in the time it takes 5ossby aves to cross the acific deend

on the oer of the inds that the aves encounter.

(!) The estern boundary of the acific basin is so irregular that it imedes most

coastal Jelvin aves from heading eastard.

+7. The assage best suorts the conclusion that during an anti-!l ino the fastest-

moving signal aves are

(A) negative 5ossby aves moving east along the equator

(") ositive 5ossby aves moving est along the equator

(#) negative Jelvin aves moving est along the equator

($) ositive Jelvin aves moving est along the equator

(!) ositive Jelvin aves moving east along the equator

SECTION B

,istorians have only recently begun to note the increase in demand for luxury

goods and services that took place in eighteenth-century England. >cJendrick has

explored the !edgwood rm’s remarkable success in marketing luxury pottery4

6lumb has written about the proliferation of provincial theaters% musical festivals%

and children’s toys and books. !hile the fact of this consumer revolution is hardly

in doubt% three key 'uestions remain< !ho were the consumersP !hat were their

motivesP And what were the e=ects of the new demand for luxuriesP

An answer to the rst of these has been di*cult to obtain. Although it has

been possible to infer from the goods and services actually produced what

manufactures and servicing trades thought their customers wanted% only a study

of relevant personal documents written by actual consumers will provide a precise

picture of who wanted what. !e still need to know how large this consumer

market was and how far down the social scale the consumer demand for luxury

goods penetrated. !ith regard to this last 'uestion% we might note in passing that

(hompson% while rightly restoring laboring people to the stage of eighteenth-

century English history% has probably exaggerated the opposition of these people

to the inroads of capitalist consumerism in general4 for example% laboring people

in eighteenth-century England readily shifted from home-brewed beer to

standardi&ed beer produced by huge% heavily capitali&ed urban breweries.

(o answer the 'uestion of why consumers became so eager to buy% some

historians have pointed to the ability of manufacturers to advertise in a relatively

uncensored press. (his% however% hardly seems a su*cient answer. >cJendrick

favors a Feblen model of conspicuous consumption stimulated by competition for

status. (he @middling sort bought goods and services because they wanted to

follow fashions set by the rich. Again% we may wonder whether this explanation is

su*cient. o not people en/oy buying things as a form of self-graticationP f so%



GRE +99

consumerism could be seen as a product of the rise of new concepts of

individualism and materialism% but not necessarily of the fren&y for conspicuous

competition.

;inally% what were the conse'uences of this consumer demand for luxuriesP

>cJendrick claims that it goes a long way toward explaining the coming of the

ndustrial $evolution. "ut does itP !hat% for example% does the production of high-

'uality pottery and toys have to do with the development of iron manufacture or

textile millsP t is perfectly possible to have the psychology and reality of a

consumer society without a heavy industrial sector.

(hat future exploration of these key 'uestions is undoubtedly necessary

should not% however% diminish the force of the conclusion of recent studies< the

insatiable demand in eighteenth-century England for frivolous as well as useful

goods and services foreshadows our own world.

17. :n the first aragrah8 the author mentions @cJendrick and lumb most robably

in order to

(A) contrast their vies on the subect of lu%ury consumerism in eighteenth-

century !ngland

(") indicate the inadequacy of historiograhical aroaches to eighteenth-century

!nglish history

(#) give e%amles of historians ho have heled to establish the fact of groing

consumerism in eighteenth-century !ngland

($) suort the contention that key questions about eighteenth-centuryconsumerism remain to be ansered

(!) comare one historian's interest in lu%ury goods such as ottery to another

historian's interest in lu%ury services such as musical festivals

1&. hich of the folloing items8 if reserved from eighteenth-century !ngland8

ould rovide an e%amle of the kind of documents mentioned in lines 1<-17*

(A) A ritten agreement beteen a sulier of ra materials and a sulier of

lu%ury goods

(") A diary that mentions lu%ury goods and services urchased by its author

(#) A theater ticket stamed ith the date and name of a articular lay

($) A ayroll record from a comany that roduced lu%ury goods such as ottery

(!) A nesaer advertisement describing lu%ury goods and services available at

a seaside resort

1. According to the assage8 Thomson attributes to laboring eole in eighteenth-

century !ngland hich of the folloing attitudes toard caitalist consumerism*

(A) !nthusiasm

(") #uriosity

(#) Ambivalence



GRE +9;

($) ,tubbornness

(!) 4ostility

+. :n the third aragrah8 the author is rimarily concerned ith

(A) contrasting to theses and offering a comromise(") questioning to e%lanations and roosing a ossible alternative to them

(#) arahrasing the ork of to historians and questioning their assumtions

($) e%amining to theories and endorsing one over the other

(!) raising several questions but imlying that they cannot be ansered

+1. According to the assage8 a ?eblen model of consicuous consumtion has been

used to

(A) investigate the e%tent of the demand for lu%ury goods among social classes in

eighteenth-century !ngland(") classify the kinds of lu%ury goods desired by eighteenth-century consumers

(#) e%lain the motivation of eighteenth-century consumers to buy lu%ury goods

($) establish the e%tent to hich the tastes of rich consumers ere shaed by the

middle classes in eighteenth-century !ngland

(!) comare lu%ury consumerism in eighteenth-century !ngland ith such

consumerism in the tentieth century

++. According to the assage8 eighteenth-century !ngland and the contemorary

orld of the assage's readers are(A) dissimilar in the e%tent to hich lu%ury consumerism could be said to be

idesread among the social classes

(") dissimilar in their definitions of lu%ury goods and services

(#) dissimilar in the e%tent to hich lu%ury goods could be said to be a stimulant

of industrial develoment

($) similar in their strong demand for a variety of goods and services

(!) similar in the e%tent to hich a middle class could be identified as imitating

the habits of a ealthier class

+3. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author ould most robably agree

ith hich of the folloing statements about the relationshi beteen the

:ndustrial 5evolution and the demand for lu%ury goods and services in

eighteenth-century !ngland*

(A) The groing demand for lu%ury goods and services as a maor factor in the

coming of the :ndustrial 5evolution.

(") The :ndustrial 5evolution e%loited the already e%isting demand for lu%ury

goods and services.

(#) Although the demand for lu%ury goods may have heled bring about the:ndustrial 5evolution8 the demand for lu%ury services did not.



GRE +9<

($) There is no reason to believe that the :ndustrial 5evolution as directly

driven by a groing demand for lu%ury goods and services.

(!) The increasing demand for lu%ury goods and services as a cultural

henomenon that has been conclusively demonstrated to have been searate

from the coming of the :ndustrial 5evolution.

$esearchers are nding that in many ways an individual bacterium is more

analogous to a component cell of a multicellular organism than it is to a free-

living% autonomous organism. 'na(aena% a freshwater bacteria% is a case in point.

Among photosynthetic bacteria% 'na(aena is unusual< it is capable of both

photosynthesis and nitrogen xation. !ithin a single cell% these two biochemical

processes are incompatible< oxygen produced during photosynthesis% inactivates

the nitrogenase re'uired for nitrogen xation. n 'na(aena communities%

however% these processes can coexist. !hen xed nitrogen compounds are

abundant% 'na(aena is strictly photosynthetic and its cells are all alike. !hennitrogen levels are low% however% speciali&ed cells called heterocysts are produced

which lack chlorophyll +necessary for photosynthesis but which can x nitrogen

by converting nitrogen gas into a usable form. 9ubmicroscopic channels develop

which connect the heterocyst cells with the photosynthetic ones and which are

used for transferring cellular products between the two kinds of 'na(aena cells.

+9. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing statements is true of bacteria

that engage in hotosynthesis*

(A) They eventually become to autonomous cells.

(") They cannot normally also engage in nitrogen fi%ation.

(#) B%ygen normally inactivates them.

($) #ellular roducts are constantly transferred beteen such bacteria.

(!) They normally lack chlorohyll.

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that cell differentiation ithin Anabaena is

regulated by the

(A) amount of o%ygen Anabaena cells roduce

(") season of the year

(#) amount of fi%ed nitrogen comounds available

($) number of microscoic channels uniting Anabaena cells

(!) amount of chlorohyll in Anabaena cells

+<. The assage suorts hich of the folloing inferences about heterocysts*

(A) 4eterocysts do not roduce o%ygen.

(") itrogen gas inactivates heterocysts.

(#) #hlorohyll increases the roductivity of heterocysts.

($) 4eterocysts allo nitrogen fi%ation and hotosynthesis to occur in the samecell.



GRE +97

(!) 4eterocysts are more imortant for Anabaena1s functioning than are

hotosynthetic cells.

+7. The author uses the e%amle of Anabaena to illustrate the

(A) uniqueness of bacteria among unicellular organisms(") inadequacy of an e%isting vie of bacteria

(#) ability of unicellular organisms to engage in hotosynthesis

($) variability of a freshater bacteria

(!) difficulty of investigating even the simlest unicellular organisms

1991 10

SECTION A

Aided by the recent ability to analy&e samples of air trapped in glaciers%

scientists now have a clearer idea of the relationship between atmospheric

composition and global temperature change over the past 1O3%333 years. n

particular% determination of atmospheric composition during periods of glacial

expansion and retreat +cooling and warming is possible using data from the 5%333

meter Fostok ice core drilled in Antarctica. (he techni'ue involved is similar to

that used in analy&ing cores of marine sediments% where the ratio of the two

common isotopes of oxygen% 1N? and 1O?% accurately re#ects past temperature

changes. sotopic analysis of oxygen in the Fostok core suggests mean globaltemperature #uctuations of up to 13 degrees centigrade over the past 1O3%333

years.

ata from the Fostok core also indicate that the amount of carbon dioxide has

#uctuated with temperature over the same period< the higher the temperature%

the higher the concentration of carbon dioxide and the lower the temperature% the

lower the concentration. Although change in carbon dioxide content closely

follows change in temperature during periods of deglaciation% it apparently lags

behind temperature during periods of cooling. (he correlation of carbon dioxide

with temperature% of course% does not establish whether changes in atmospheric

composition caused the warming and cooling trends or were caused by their.

(he correlation between carbon dioxide and temperature throughout the

Fostok record is consistent and predictable. (he absolute temperature changes%

however% are from 2 to 1G times greater than would be expected on the basis of

carbon dioxide’s own ability to absorb infrared radiation% or radiant heat. (his

reaction suggests that% 'uite aside from changes in heat-trapping gases%

commonly known as greenhouse gases% certain positive feedbacks are also

amplifying the temperature change. 9uch feedbacks might involve ice on land and

sea% clouds% or water vapor% which also absorb radiant heat.

?ther data from the Fostok core show that methane gas also correlates



GRE +9&

closely with temperature and carbon dioxide. (he methane concentration nearly

doubled% for example% between the peak of the penultimate glacial period and the

following interglacial period. !ithin the present interglacial period it has more

than doubled in /ust the past :33 years and is rising rapidly. Although the

concentration of atmospheric methane is more than two orders of magnitudelower than that of carbon dioxide% it cannot be ignored< the radiative properties of

methane make it 53 times more e=ective% molecule for molecule% than carbon

dioxide in absorbing radiant heat. ?n the basis of a simulation model that

climatological researchers have developed% methane appears to have been about

52 percent as important as carbon dioxide in the warming that took place during

the most recent glacial retreat N%333 to 13%333 years ago.


(A) interret data

(") e%lain research methodology

(#) evaluate a conclusion

($) suggest a ne technique

(!) attack a theory

1&. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing statements about methane is

true*

(A) @ethane is found in marine sediments.

(") @ethane is more effective than carbon dio%ide in absorbing radiant heat.

(#) The !arth's atmoshere no contains more than tice as much methane as it

does carbon dio%ide.

($) The higher the concentration of carbon dio%ide in the !arth's atmoshere8 the

loer the concentration of methane.

(!) @ost of the global arming that has occurred during the ast 1 years has

been associated ith increased methane concentration.

1. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing statements best describes the

relationshi beteen carbon dio%ide and global temerature*

(A) #arbon dio%ide levels change immediately in resonse to changes intemerature.

(") #arbon dio%ide levels correlate ith global temerature during cooling

eriods only.

(#) Bnce carbon dio%ide levels increase8 they remain high regardless of changes

in global temerature.

($) #arbon dio%ide levels increase more quickly than global temerature does.

(!) $uring cooling eriods8 carbon dio%ide levels initially remain high and then

decline.

+. The author mentions Ecertain ositive feedbacksF (lines 3;-3<) in order to



GRE +9

indicate that

(A) increased concentration of carbon dio%ide in the !arth's atmoshere is

resonsible for global temerature increase

(") some climate simulation models have roduced useful information

(#) greenhouse gases alone do not account for global temerature increase

($) variables that benefit life are causing global temerature to increase

(!) beneficial substances that are not heat-traing gases and that contribute to

global temerature increase have been found in the ?ostok ice core

+1. :t can be inferred from the assage that a long-term decrease in the concentration

of carbon dio%ide in the !arth's atmoshere ould

(A) increase methane concentration in the !arth's atmoshere

(") accomany a eriod of glaciation

(#) encourage the formation of more o%ygen isotoes in the !arth's atmoshere

($) romote the formation of more ater in the !arth's global environment

(!) increase the amount of infrared radiation absorbed by the !arth's atmoshere

++. The assage suggests that hen the methane concentration in the !arth's

atmoshere decreases8 hich of the folloing also haens*

(A) /laciers melt faster.

(") The concentration of carbon dio%ide increases.

(#) The mean global temerature decreases.

($) #arbon dio%ide absorbs more radiant beat.

(!) @ore clouds form in the !arth's atmoshere.

+3. :n the fourth aragrah8 the author is rimarily concerned ith

(A) restating the main idea of the assage

(") using research findings to develo a simulation model

(#) outlining the direction of future reserves

($) roviding an additional e%amle of a henomenon

(!) introducing a conflicting hyothesisn The Wo$en of Me+ico Cit", 34563784% 9ylvia >arina Arrom argues that the

status of women in >exico City improved during the nineteenth century. According

to Arrom% households headed by females and instances of women working outside

the home were much more common than scholars have estimated4 e=orts by the

>exican government to encourage female education resulted in increased female

literacy4 and in#uential male writers wrote pieces advocating education%

employment% and increased family responsibilities for women% while deploring

women’s political and marital ine'uality. >ention of the fact that the civil codes of

1NQ3 and 1NNG signicantly advanced women’s rights would have further

strengthened Arrom’s argument.



GRE +;

Arrom does not discuss whether women’s improved status counteracted the

e=ects on women of instability in the >exican economy during the nineteenth

century. ,owever% this is not so much a weakness in her work as it is the

inevitable result of scholars’ neglect of this period. ndeed% such gaps in >exican

history are precisely what make Arrom’s pioneering study an important addition toatin American women’s history.

+9. The assage is rimarily concerned ith doing hich of the folloing*

(A) 5evieing a historical study of the status of omen in @e%ico #ity during

the nineteenth century

(") Analyzing the effects of economic instability on the status of omen in

@e%ico during the nineteenth century

(#) Advancing a thesis e%laining hy omen's status in @e%ico #ity imroved

during the nineteenth century

($) 5eecting the thesis that the status of omen in @e%ico #ity during the

nineteenth century actually imroved

(!) raising an author for a ioneering attemt to bridge significant gas in

@e%ico's economic history rior to 17

+;. According to the author of the assage8 Arrom's study can be characterized as Ean

imortant addition to Datin American omen's historyF (lines +1-++) because it

(A) offers a radical thesis concerning the status of omen's civil rights in

@e%ican society during the nineteenth century

(") relies on a ne method of historical analysis that has not reviously been

alied to Datin American history

(#) focuses only on the status of omen in @e%ican society

($) addresses a eriod in @e%ican history that scholars have to some e%tent

neglected

(!) is the first study to recognize the role of the @e%ican government in

encouraging omen's education

+<. :t can be inferred from the assage that Arrom ould agree ith hich of the

folloing assertions*(A) !fforts by the @e%ican government to encourage education for omen

during the nineteenth century ere hamered by the economic instability of

that eriod.

(") The most significant advances in the rights of @e%ican omen during the

nineteenth century occurred rior to 1&;7.

(#) :mrovements in the status of omen in @e%ico #ity during the nineteenth

century ere accomanied by similar imrovements in the status of omen

in other large Datin American cities.

($) ,cholars have in the ast accorded the most significance to nineteenth-



GRE +;1

century @e%ican literature that suorted the status quo in omen's olitical

and marital rights.

(!) ,cholars have in the ast underestimated the number of households headed by

females in @e%ico #ity.

+7. hich of the folloing best describes the author's attitude toard Arrom's ork*

(A) 6ncritical aroval

(") !nthusiasm temered by minor reservations

(#) raise for her thesis8 desite sketicism regarding the sources of her evidence

($) 5eluctant accetance8 desite lingering doubts regarding the accuracy of her

thesis

(!) 5eection8 desite admiration for her attemt to break ne ground in a

hitherto neglected field

SECTION B

6resent-day philosophers usually envision their discipline as an endeavor that

has been% since anti'uity% distinct from and superior to any particular intellectual

discipline% such as theology or science. 9uch philosophical concerns as the mind-

body problem or% more generally% the nature of human knowledge% they believe%

are basic human 'uestions whose tentative philosophical solutions have served as

the necessary foundations on which all other intellectual speculation has rested.

(he basis for this view% however% lies in a serious misinterpretation of the past%

a pro/ection of modern concerns onto past events. (he idea of an autonomous

discipline called @philosophy% distinct from and sitting in /udgment on such

pursuits as theology and science turns out% on close examination% to be of 'uite

recent origin. !hen% in the seventeenth century% escartes and ,obbes re/ected

medieval philosophy% they did not think of themselves% as modern philosophers

do% as proposing a new and better philosophy% but rather as furthering @the

warfare between science and theology. (hey were ghting% albeit discreetly% to

open the intellectual world to the new science and to liberate intellectual life from

ecclesiastical philosophy and envisioned their work as contributing to the growth%

not of philosophy% but of research in mathematics and physics. (his link betweenphilosophical interests and scientic practice persisted until the nineteenth

century% when decline in ecclesiastical power over scholarship and changes in the

nature of science provoked the nal separation of philosophy from both.

(he demarcation of philosophy from science was facilitated by the

development in the early nineteenth century of a new notion% that philosophy’s

core interest should be epistemology% the general explanation of what it means to

know something. >odern philosophers now trace that notion back at least to

escartes and 9pino&a% but it was not explicitly articulated until the late

eighteenth century% by Jant% and did not become built into the structure ofacademic institutions and the standard self-descriptions of philosophy professors



GRE +;+

until the late nineteenth century. !ithout the idea of epistemology% the survival of

philosophy in an age of modern science is hard to imagine. >etaphysics%

philosophy’s traditional core0considered as the most general description of how

the heavens and the earth are put together0had been rendered almost

completely meaningless by the spectacular progress of physics. Jant% however% byfocusing philosophy on the problem of knowledge% managed to replace

metaphysics with epistemology% and thus to transform the notion of philosophy as

@'ueen of sciences into the new notion of philosophy as a separate% foundational

discipline. 6hilosophy became @primary no longer in the sense of @highest but in

the sense of @underlying. After Jant% philosophers were able to reinterpret

seventeenth-and eighteenth-century thinkers as attempting to discover @,ow is

our knowledge possibleP and to pro/ect this 'uestion back even on the ancients.

17. hich of the folloing best e%resses the author's main oint*

(A) hilosohy's overriding interest in basic human questions is a legacy rimarily of the ork of Jant.

(") hilosohy as deely involved in the seventeenth-century arfare beteen

science and religion.

(#) The set of roblems of rimary imortance to hilosohers has remained

relatively constant since antiquity.

($) The status of hilosohy as an indeendent intellectual ursuit is a relatively

recent develoment.

(!) The role of hilosohy in guiding intellectual seculation has gradually been

usured by science.

1&. According to the assage8 resent-day hilosohers believe that the mind-body

roblem is an issue that

(A) has imlications rimarily for hilosohers

(") may be affected by recent advances in science

(#) has shaed recent ork in eistemology

($) has little relevance to resent-day hilosohy

(!) has served as a basis for intellectual seculation since antiquity

1. According to the author8 hilosohy became distinct from science and theology

during the

(A) ancient eriod

(") medieval eriod

(#) seventeenth century

($) nineteenth century

(!) tentieth century

+. The author suggests that $escartes' suort for the ne science of theseventeenth century can be characterized as



GRE +;3

(A) ragmatic and hyocritical

(") cautious and inconsistent

(#) daring and oortunistic

($) intense but fleeting

(!) strong but rudent

+1. The author of the assage imlies hich of the folloing in discussing the

develoment of hilosohy during the nineteenth century*

(A) ineteenth-century hilosohy took science as its model for understanding

the bases of knoledge.

(") The role of academic institutions in shaing metahysical hilosohy gre

enormously during the nineteenth century.

(#) ineteenth-century hilosohers carried out a rogram of investigation

e%licitly laid out by $escartes and ,inoza.

($) Jant had an overhelming imact on the direction of nineteenth-century

hilosohy.

(!) ineteenth-century hilosohy made maor advances in understanding the

nature of knoledge.

++. ith hich of the folloing statements concerning the riting of history ould

the author of the assage be most likely to agree*

(A) 4istory should not emhasize the role layed by ideas over the role layed by

individuals.(") 4istory should not be distorted by attributing resent-day consciousness to

historical figures.

(#) 4istory should not be focused rimarily on those ast events most relevant to

the resent.

($) 4istory should be concerned ith describing those asects of the ast that

differ most from those of the resent.

(!) 4istory should be e%amined for the lessons it can rovide in understanding

current roblems.

+3. The rimary function of the assage as a hole is to

(A) comare to cometing models

(") analyze a difficult theory

(#) resent ne evidence for a theory

($) correct an erroneous belief by describing its origins

(!) resolve a long-standing theoretical controversy

"iologists have long maintained that two groups of pinnipeds% sea lions and

walruses% are descended from a terrestrial bearlike animal% whereas the remaining

group% seals% shares an ancestor with weasels. "ut the recent discovery of



GRE +;9

detailed similarities in the skeletal structure of the #ippers in all three groups

undermines the attempt to explain away supercial resemblance as due to

convergent evolution0the independent development of similarities between

unrelated groups in response to similar environmental pressures. ;lippers may

indeed be a necessary response to a'uatic life4 turtles% whales% and dugongs alsohave them. "ut the common detailed design found among the pinnipeds probably

indicates a common ancestor. >oreover% walruses and seals drive themselves

through the water with thrusts of their hind #ippers% but sea lions use their front

#ippers. f anatomical similarity in the #ippers resulted from similar environmental

pressures% as posited by the convergent evolution theory% one would expect

walruses and seals% but not seals and sea lions% to have similar #ippers.

+9. According to the assage8 it has been recently discovered that

(A) there are detailed skeletal similarities in the fliers of innieds

(") sea lions8 seals8 and alruses are all innieds

(#) innieds are descended from animals that once lived on land

($) animals ithout common ancestors sometimes evolve in similar ays

(!) animals that have fliers do not all use them in the same ay

+;. The author imlies that hich of the folloing as art of the long-standing vie

concerning innieds*

(A) innieds are all descended from a terrestrial bearlike animal.

(") innieds share a common ancestor ith turtles8 hales8 and dugongs.

(#) ,imilarities among innieds are due to their all having had to adat to

aquatic life.

($) There are detailed similarities in the skeletal structure of the fliers in all

innieds.

(!) #onvergent evolution cannot account for the similarities among innieds.

+<. The author imlies hich of the folloing about the fact that turtles8 hales8 and

dugongs all have fliers*

(A) :t can be e%lained by the hyothesis that turtles8 hales8 and dugongs are

very closely related.

(") :t can be e%lained by the idea of convergent evolution.

(#) :t suggests that turtles8 hales8 and dugongs evolved in searate arts of the

orld.

($) :t undermines the vie that turtles8 hales8 and dugongs are all descended

from terrestrial ancestors.

(!) :t is the rimary difference beteen turtles8 hales8 and dugongs8 on the one

hand8 and innieds8 on the other.

+7. :n resenting the argument in the assage8 the author does hich of thefolloing*



GRE +;;

(A) #ontends that key terms in an oosing vie have been imroerly used.

(") #ontends that oonents have urosely obscured imortant evidence.

(#) ,hos that to theories thought to be in conflict are actually comlementary.

($) ,hos that advocates of a theory have not alays stated their vie in the

same manner.

(!) ,hos that an imlication of a theory is contradicted by the facts.

1992 02

SECTION A

(he more that is discovered about the intricate organi&ation of the nervous

system% the more it seems remarkable that genes can successfully specify the

development of that system. ,uman genes contain too little information even to

specify which hemisphere of the brain each of a human’s 1311 neurons should

occupy% let alone the hundreds of connections that each neuron makes. ;or such

reasons% we can assume that there must be an important random factor in neural

development% and in particular% that errors must and do occur in the development

of all normal brains.

(he most vivid expression of such errors occurs in genetically identical

+isogenic organisms. Even when reared under the same conditions% isogenic

organisms are rarely exact copies of one another% and their di=erences have

revealed much about the random variations that result from an organism’s limited

supply of genetic information. n isogenic aphniae% for example% even though the

position% si&e% and branching pattern of each optic neuron are remarkably

constant% there is some variability in connectivity% and the number of synapses

varies greatly. (his variability is probably the result of random scatter beyond the

resolution of genetic control and is best termed @imprecision% since its converse%

the degree of clustering about a mean% is conventionally% called @precision.

mprecision should be distinguished from developmental mistakes< wrongly

migrated neurons% incorrect connections% and the like. (o use a computer analogy%

minor rounding-o= errors occur universally and are analogous to imprecision% butoccasionally a binary digit is incorrectly transmitted% perhaps ruining a calculation%

and this incorrect transmission is analogous to a developmental mistake. (hus%

imprecision is a form of inaccuracy inherent within the limits of design% but

mistakes are forms of gross fallibility.

"oth imprecision and gross fallibility can plausibly be blamed on the

insu*ciency of genetic information% since either could be reduced by adding more

information. t is universally accepted among information theorists that codes and

languages can be made mistake-resistant by incorporating redundancy. ,owever%

since the amount of space available in any information system is limited%increased redundancy results in decreased precision. ;or example% W when written



GRE +;<

incorrectly in English% @three point oen four two% @can be understood correctly

even though a typographical error has occurred. >ore precision could be gained%

however% if those 5G spaces were lled with Arabic numerals4 then W could be

expressed to 5: signicant digits% although any error would signicantly change

the meaning. (here exists a trade-o= % the more precisely a system is specied%using a given limited amount of information% the greater the danger of gross

mistakes. (he overall scheme by which genetic information is rationed out in

organisms% therefore% must involve a compromise between two con#icting

priorities< precision and the avoidance of gross mistakes.


(A) Although studies of isogenic organisms have shon that all organisms are

subect to develomental variations8 there is still scientific debate over the

e%act causes of these variations.

(") "ecause of limitations on the amount of information contained in the genes of

organisms8 develoing nervous systems are subect to to basic kinds of

error8 the likelihood of one of hich is reduced only hen the likelihood of

the other is increased.

(#) The comle%ity of an organism's genetic information means that much of the

unusual variation that occurs among organisms can best be e%lained as the

result of develomental mistakes.

($) e findings about the nature of the genetic control of neural develoment

suort the ork of some scientists ho argue that the comuter is an

e%tremely useful model for understanding the nervous system.

(!) The maor discovery made by scientists studying the genetic control of neural

develoment is that both imrecision and gross develomental error can be

traced to secific tyes of mutations in secific genes.

1&. According to the assage8 one of the reasons it has been assumed that there is an

imortant random element in human neural develoment is that

(A) genes cannot secify certain tyes of develomental rocesses as ell as they

can others

(") the intricacy of the nervous system allos small develomental errors tooccur ithout harmful effects

(#) the amount of information contained in the genes is less than the amount

necessary to secify the location of the neurons

($) the number of neurons in the human brain varies greatly from individual to

individual

(!) it is theoretically imossible for an organism to rotect itself comletely from

gross develomental mistakes

1. The author suggests hich of the folloing about the findings of information

theorists*



GRE +;7

(A) Their findings rovocatively challenge the standard e%lanation of

redundancy in genes.

(") Their findings rovide useful insights into understanding the rationing of

genetic information.

(#) Their findings hel to e%lain hy imrecision can occur in neural

develoment but not hy gross mistakes can occur.

($) Their findings suggest that genes may be able to secify neural develoment

more accurately than had reviously been thought.

(!) Their findings suort the ork of those ho use comuter oerations as

models for understanding genetic control.

+. According to the assage8 of the folloing asects of the otic neurons of

isogenic $ahniae8 hich varies the most*

(A) ,ize(") #onnectivity

(#) osition

($) "ranching attern

(!) umber of synases

+1. hich of the folloing best describes the organization of the first aragrah*

(A) A secific case is resented8 its details are analyzed8 and a conclusion is

dran from it.

(") A discovery is announced8 its most significant alication is discussed8 and ossibilities for the future are suggested.

(#) A generalization is made8 secific situations in hich it is alicable are

noted8 and roblems ith it are suggested.

($) An observation is made8 secifics are rovided to suort it8 and a

generalization is derived.

(!) A hyothesis is resented8 its imlications are clarified8 and alications of it

are discussed.

++. The author uses all of the folloing to clarify the distinction beteen imrecisionand gross mistake in neural develoment !C#!T

(A) classification of borderline henomena

(") a descrition of the relationshi beteen the henomena denoted by each

term

(#) secific e%amles of the henomena denoted by each term

($) an e%lanation of at least one of the key terms involved

(!) analogies to other tyes of henomena

+3. hich of the folloing can be inferred from the assage about the geneticinformation of $ahniae*



GRE +;&

:. There is robably some degree of redundancy in the information controlling

neural develoment.

::. @ost of the information for neural develoment stored in the genes is used

to secify the ositions of the otic neurons.

:::. There is sufficient information to reclude the occurrence of gross mistakes

during neural develoment.

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) ::: only

($) : and :: only

(!) :: and ::: only

n a recent study% avid Cressy examines two central 'uestions concerning

English immigration to Bew England in the 1O:3’s< what kinds of peopleimmigrated and whyP 8sing contemporary literary evidence% shipping lists% and

customs records% Cressy nds that most adult immigrants were skilled in farming

or crafts% were literate% and were organi&ed in families. Each of these

characteristics sharply distinguishes the 51%333 people who left for Bew England

in the 1O:3’s from most of the approximately :QQ%333 English people who had

immigrating to America by 1Q33.

!ith respect to their reasons for immigrating% Cressy does not deny the

fre'uently noted fact that some of the immigrants of the 1O:3’s% most notably the

organi&ers and clergy% advanced religious explanations for departure% but he ndsthat such explanations usually assumed primacy only in retrospect. !hen he

moves beyond the principal actors% he nds that religious explanations were less

fre'uently o=ered and he concludes that most people immigrated because they

were recruited by promises of material improvement.

+9. :n the assage8 the author is rimarily concerned ith

(A) summarizing the findings of an investigation

(") analyzing a method of argument

(#) evaluating a oint of vie

($) hyothesizing about a set of circumstances

(!) establishing categories

+;. According to the assage8 #ressy ould agree ith hich of the folloing

statements about the organizers among the !nglish immigrants to e !ngland

in the 1<3's*

:. @ost of them ere clergy.

::. ,ome of them offered a religious e%lanation for their immigration.

:::. They did not offer any reasons for their immigration until some time after

they had immigrated.



GRE +;

:?. They ere more likely than the average immigrant to be motivated by

material considerations.

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) :: and ::: only

($) :8 :::8 and :? only

(!) ::8 :::8 and :? only

+<. According to the assage8 #ressy has made hich of the folloing claims about

hat motivated !nglish immigrants to go to e !ngland in the 1<3's*

(A) They ere motivated by religious considerations alone.

(") They ere motivated by economic considerations alone.

(#) They ere motivated by religious and economic considerations equally.

($) They ere motivated more often by economic than by religious

considerations.

(!) They ere motivated more often by religious than by economic

considerations.

+7. The assage suggests that the maority of those !nglish eole ho had

immigrated to America by the late seventeenth century ere

(A) clergy

(") young children

(#) organized in families

($) skilled in crafts

(!) illiterate

SECTION B

s the literary critic like the poet% responding creatively% intuitively%

sub/ectively to the written word as the poet responds to human experienceP ?r is

the critic more like a scientist% following a series of demonstrable% veriable steps%

using an ob/ective method of analysisP

;or the woman who is a practitioner of feminist literary criticism% the

sub/ectivity versus ob/ectivity% or critic-as-artist-or-scientist% debate has special

signicance4 for her% the 'uestion is not only academic% but political as well% and

her denition will court special risks whichever side of the issue it favors. f she

denes feminist criticism as ob/ective and scientic0a valid% veriable%

intellectual method that anyone% whether man or woman% can perform—the

denition not only precludes the critic-as-artist approach% but may also impede

accomplishment of the utilitarian political ob/ectives of those who seek to change

the academic establishment and its thinking% especially about sex roles. f shedenes feminist criticism as creative and intuitive% privileged as art% then her work



GRE +<

becomes vulnerable to the pre/udices of stereotypic ideas about the ways in which

women think% and will be dismissed by much of the academic establishment.

"ecause of these pre/udices% women who use an intuitive approach in their

criticism may nd themselves charged with inability to be analytical% to be

ob/ective% or to think critically. !hereas men may be free to claim the role ofcritic-as-artist% women run di=erent professional risks when they choose intuition

and private experience as critical method and defense.

(hese 'uestions are political in the sense that the debate over them will

inevitably be less an exploration of abstract matters in a spirit of disinterested

in'uiry than an academic power struggle in which the careers and professional

fortunes of many women scholars0only now entering the academic profession in

substantial numbers0will be at stake% and with them the chances for a distinctive

contribution to humanistic understanding% a contribution that might be an

important in#uence against sexism in our society.As long as the academic establishment continues to regard ob/ective analysis

as @masculine and an intuitive approach as @feminine% the theoretician must

steer a delicate philosophical course between the two. f she wishes to construct a

theory of feminist criticism% she would be well advised to place it within the

framework of a general theory of the critical process that is neither purely

ob/ective nor purely intuitive. ,er theory is then more likely to be compared and

contrasted with other theories of criticism with some degree of dispassionate

distance.

17. hich of the folloing titles best summarizes the content of the assage*(A) 4o Theories of Diterary #riticism #an "est "e 6sed

(") roblems #onfronting omen ho Are >eminist Diterary #ritics

(#) A 4istorical overvie of >eminist literary #riticism

($) A e Theory of Diterary #riticism

(!) Diterary #riticism= Art or ,cience*

1&. :t can be inferred that the author believes hich of the folloing about omen

ho are literary critics*

:. They can make a unique contribution to society.

::. They must develo a ne theory of the critical rocess.

:::. Their criticisms of literature should be entirely obective.

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) : and ::: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

1. The author secifically mentions all of the folloing as difficulties that



GRE +<1

articularly affect omen ho are theoreticians of feminist literary criticism

!C#!T the

(A) tendency of a redominantly male academic establishment to form

reconcetions about omen

(") limitations that are imosed hen criticism is defined as obective and

scientific

(#) likelihood that the ork of a oman theoretician ho claims the rivilege of

art ill be vieed ith reudice by some academics

($) inescaability of oer struggles beteen omen in the academic rofession

and the academic establishment

(!) tendency of members of the academic establishment to treat all forms of

feminist literary theory ith hostility

+. According to the author8 the debate mentioned in the assage has secialsignificance for the oman ho is a theoretician of feminist literary criticism for

hich of the folloing reasons*

(A) There are large numbers of caable omen orking ithin the academic

establishment.

(") There are a fe oerful feminist critics ho have been recognized by the

academic establishment.

(#) Dike other critics8 most omen ho are literary critics define criticism as

either scientific or artistic.

($) omen ho are literary critics face rofessional risks different from those

faced by men ho are literary critics.

(!) omen ho are literary critics are more likely to articiate in the debate

than are men ho are literary critics.

+1. hich of the folloing is resented by the author in suort of the suggestion

that there is stereotyic thinking among members of the academic establishment*

(A) A distinctively feminist contribution to humanistic understanding could ork

against the influence of se%ism among members of the academic

establishment.

(") omen ho define criticism as artistic may be seen by the academic

establishment as being incaable of critical thinking.

(#) The debate over the role of the literary critic is often seen as a olitical one.

($) omen scholars are only no entering academia in substantial numbers.

(!) The oman ho is a critic is forced to construct a theory of literary criticism.

++. hich of the folloing is most likely to be one of the Eutilitarian olitical

obectivesF mentioned by the author in line 1<*

(A) To forge a ne theory of literary criticism

(") To ursue truth in a disinterested manner



GRE +<+

(#) To demonstrate that omen are interested in literary criticism that can be

vieed either subectively or obectively

($) To convince the academic establishment to revise the ays in hich it

assesses omen scholars' rofessional qualities

(!) To dissuade omen ho are literary critics from taking a subective aroach

to literary criticism

+3. :t can be inferred that the author ould define as EoliticalF (line 3) questions

that

(A) are contested largely through contentions over oer

(") are rimarily academic in nature and oen to abstract analysis

(#) are not in themselves imortant

($) cannot be resolved ithout e%tensive debate

(!) ill be debated by both men and omen

K(his passage was excerpted from an article published in 1IQI.L

Ruantum mechanics is a highly successful theory< it supplies methods for

accurately calculating the results of diverse experiments% especially with minute

particles. (he predictions of 'uantum mechanics% however% give only the

probability of an event% not a deterministic statement of whether or not the event

will occur. "ecause of this probabilism% Einstein remained strongly dissatised with

the theory throughout his life% though he did not maintain that 'uantum

mechanics is wrong. $ather% he held that it is incomplete< in 'uantum mechanics

the motion of a particle must be described in terms of probabilities% he argued%

only because some parameters that determine the motion have not been

specied. f these hypothetical @hidden parameters were known% a fully

deterministic tra/ectory could be dened. 9ignicantly% this hidden-parameter

'uantum theory leads to experimental predictions di=erent from those of

traditional 'uantum mechanics. Einstein’s ideas have been tested by experiments

performed since his death% and as most of these experiments support traditional

'uantum mechanics% Einstein’s approach is almost certainly erroneous.

+9. The author regards the idea that traditional quantum mechanics is incomlete

ith

(A) aroval

(") surrise

(#) indifference

($) arehension

(!) sketicism

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author's conclusion that !instein's

aroach is EerroneousF (line ++) might have to be modified because

(A) it is theoretically ossible to generate lausible theories ith hidden



GRE +<3

arameters ithin them

(") some e%erimental tests of !instein's theory do not disconfirm the hidden-

arameter theory of quantum mechanics

(#) it is ossible for a theory to have hidden arameters and yet be robabilistic

($) traditional quantum mechanics has not yet been used to analyze all of the

henomena to hich it could be alied

(!) there are too many ossible hidden arameters to develo meaningful tests of

hidden-arameter theories

+<. According to the assage8 !instein osed obections to the

(A) e%istence of hidden arameters in quantum theory

(") robabilistic nature of quantum mechanics

(#) idea that quantum mechanics is incomlete

($) results of e%eriments testing quantum theory

(!) imortance accorded quantum mechanics in hysics

+7. The assage suggests that hich of the folloing ould have resulted if the

e%eriments mentioned in lines 1&-+ had not suorted the redictions of

traditional quantum mechanics*

(A) !instein8 had he been alive8 ould have revised his aroach to quantum

mechanics.

(") 4idden-arameter theories ould have been considered inaccurate

descritions of real-orld henomena.

(#) A deterministic descrition of the motion of a article might still be

considered ossible.

($) Kuantum mechanics ould have ceased to attract the attention of hysicists.

(!) !instein8 had he been alive8 ould have abandoned attemts to secify the

hidden arameters that describe motion.

1992 04

SECTION A

(he 1IO3’s witnessed two profound social movements< the civil rights

movement and the movement protesting the war in Fietnam. Although they

overlapped in time% they were largely distinct. ;or a brief moment in 1IOQ%

however% it appeared that the two movements might unite under the leadership of

>artin uther Jing% r.

Jing’s role in the antiwar movement appears to re'uire little explanation%

since he was the foremost advocate of nonviolence of his time. "ut Jing’s stance

on the Fietnam !ar cannot be explained in terms of pacism alone. After all% he



GRE +<9

was something of a latecomer to the antiwar movement% even though by 1IO2 he

was convinced that the role of the 8nited 9tates in the war was indefensible. !hy

then the two years that passed before he translated his private misgivings into

public dissentP 6erhaps he believed that he could not critici&e American foreign

policy without endangering the support for civil rights that he had won from thefederal government.

17. According to the assage8 the delay referred to in lines 1+-1; is erhas

attributable to hich of the folloing*

(A) Jing's ambivalence concerning the role of the 6nited ,tates in the ar in

?ietnam

(") Jing's attemts to consolidate suort for his leadershi ithin the civil

rights movement

(#) Jing's desire to kee the leadershi of the civil rights movement distinct from

that of the antiar movement

($) Jing's desire to dra suort for the civil rights movement from the

leadershi of the antiar movement

(!) Jing's reluctance to eoardize federal suort for the civil rights movement

1&. The author suorts the claim that EJing's stance on the ?ietnam ar cannot be

e%lained in terms of acifism aloneF (lines 1-1+) by imlying hich of the

folloing*

(A) There is little evidence that Jing as ever a student of acifist doctrine.

(") Jing8 desite acifist symathies8 as not convinced that the olicy of the

federal government in ?ietnam as rong.

(#) Jing's belief in nonviolence as formulated in terms of domestic olicy

rather than in terms of international issues.

($) 4ad Jing's actions been based on acifism alone8 he ould have oined the

antiar movement earlier than he actually did.

(!) Bonents of 6nited ,tates foreign olicy ithin the federal government

convinced Jing of their need for suort.

1. hich of the folloing can be inferred from the assage about the movementoosing the ar in ?ietnam*

(A) :t receded the civil rights movement.

(") :t began in 1<;.

(#) :t as suorted by many ho otherise oosed ublic dissent.

($) :t dre suort from most civil rights leaders.

(!) :t as ell underay by 1<7.

+. hich of the folloing best describes the assage*

(A) :t discusses an aarent inconsistency and suggests a reason for it.



GRE +<;

(") :t outlines a sequence of historical events.

(#) :t shos hy a commonly held vie is inaccurate.

($) :t evaluates an e%lanation and finally accets that e%lanation.

(!) :t contrasts to vies of an issue.

!hat causes a helix in nature to appear with either a dextral +@right-handed%

or clockwise twist or a sinistral +@left-handed% or counterclockwise twist is one of

the most intriguing pu&&les in the science of form. >ost spiral-shaped snail

species are predominantly dextral. "ut at one time% handedness +twist direction of

the shell was e'ually distributed within some snail species that have become

predominantly dextral or% in a few species% predominantly sinistral. !hat

mechanisms% control handedness and keep left-handedness rareP

t would seem unlikely that evolution should discriminate against sinistral

snails if sinistral and dextral snails are exact mirror images% for any disadvantage

that a sinistral twist in itself could confer on its possessor is almost inconceivable.

"ut left- and right-handed snails are not actually true mirror images of one

another. (heir shapes are noticeably di=erent. 9inistral rarity might% then% be a

conse'uence of possible disadvantages conferred by these other concomitant

structural features. n addition% perhaps left- and right-handed snails cannot mate

with each other% having incompatible twist directions. 6resumably an individual of

the rarer form would have relative di*culty in nding a mate of the same hand%

thus keeping the rare form rare or creating geographically separated right-and

left-handed populations.

"ut this evolutionary mechanism combining dissymmetry% anatomy% and

chance does not provide an ade'uate explanation of why right-handedness should

have become predominant. t does not explain% for example% why the infre'uent

unions between snails of opposing hands produce fewer o=spring of the rarer than

the commoner form in species where each parent contributes e'ually to

handedness. Bor does it explain why% in a species where one parent determines

handedness% a brood is not exclusively right- or left-handed when the o=spring

would have the same genetic predisposition. n the European pond snail 9"$naea

)eregra% a predominantly dextral species whose handedness is maternally

determined% a brood might be expected to be exclusively right or left-handed0and this often occurs. ,owever% some broods possess a few snails of the opposing

hand% and in predominantly sinistral broods% the incidence of dextrality is

surprisingly high.

,ere% the evolutionary theory must defer to a theory based on an explicit

developmental mechanism that can favor either right or left-handedness. n the

case of 9"$naea )eregra% studies indicate that a dextral gene is expressed during

egg formation4 i.e.% before egg fertili&ation% the gene produces a protein% found in

the cytoplasm of the egg% that controls the pattern of cell division and thus

handedness. n experiments% an in/ection of cytoplasm from dextral eggs changes

the pattern of sinistral eggs% but an in/ection from sinistral eggs does not in#uence



GRE +<<

dextral eggs. ?ne explanation for the di=ering e=ects is that all 9"$naea )eregra

eggs begin left-handed but most switch to being right-handed. (hus% the path to a

solution to the pu&&le of handedness in all snails appears to be as twisted as the

helix itself.

+1. hich of the folloing ould serve as an e%amle of Econcomitant structural

featuresF (line 1) that might disadvantage a snail of the rarer form*

(A) A shell and body that are an e%act mirror image of a snail of the commoner

form

(") A smaller oulation of the snails of the rarer form

(#) A chi or fracture in the shell caused by an obect falling on it

($) A attern on the shell that better camouflages it

(!) A smaller shell oening that restricts mobility and ingestion relative to that of

a snail of the commoner form

++. The second aragrah of the assage is rimarily concerned ith offering

ossible reasons hy

(A) it is unlikely that evolutionary mechanisms could discriminate against

sinistral snails

(") sinistrality is relatively uncommon among snail secies

(#) de%tral and sinistral oulations of a snail secies tend to intermingle

($) a theory based on a develomental mechanism inadequately accounts for the

redominance of de%trality across snail secies(!) de%tral snails breed more readily than sinistral snails8 even ithin

redominantly sinistral oulations

+3. :n describing the Eevolutionary mechanismF (line +7)8 the author mentions hich

of the folloing*

(A) The favorable conditions for nurturing ne offsring

(") The variable environmental conditions that affect survival of adult snails

(#) The availability of otential mates for breeding

($) The structural identity of offsring to arents of the same hand(!) The frequency of unions beteen snails of different secies

+9. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing is true of 2%naea peregra*

(A) 4andedness ithin the secies as at one time equally distributed beteen

left and right.

(") 6nder laboratory conditions8 de%tral eggs from 2%naea peregra can be

artificially induced to develo into sinistral snails.

(#) "roods of 2%naea peregra are8 ithout variation8 e%clusively sinistral or

de%tral.

($) 4andedness in 2%naea peregra offsring is determined by only one of the



GRE +<7

arents.

(!) /eograhic factors have layed a larger role than has genetics in the

evolution of the secies.

+;. The assage imlies that in 2%naea peregra8 there ill generally be(A) more offsring of the nondominant hand in broods here handedness is

determined after8 rather than before8 fertilization

(") a sinistral gene that roduces a rotein in the cytolasm of the egg cell

(#) feer sinistral offsring in de%tral broods than de%tral offsring in sinistral

broods

($) equal numbers of e%clusively left-and right-handed broods

(!) an increasing occurrence of left-handedness in successive broods

+<. :t can be inferred from the assage that a redominantly sinistral snail seciesmight stay redominantly sinistral for each of the folloing reasons !C#!T for

(A) a develomental mechanism that affects the cell-division attern of snails

(") structural features that advantage de%tral snails of the secies

(#) a relatively small number of snails of the same hand for de%tral snails of the

secies to mate ith

($) anatomical incomatibility that revents mating beteen snails of oosing

hands ithin the secies

(!) geograhic searation of sinistral and de%tral oulations

+7. hich of the folloing accurately describes the relationshi beteen the

evolutionary and develomental theories discussed in the assage*

(A) Although the to theories reach the same conclusion8 each is based on

different assumtions.

(") They resent contradictory e%lanations of the same henomenon.

(#) The second theory accounts for certain henomena that the first cannot

e%lain.

($) The second theory demonstrates hy the first is valid only for very unusual8

secial cases.(!) They are identical and interchangeable in that the second theory merely

restates the first in less technical terms.

SECTION B

$ecently some scientists have concluded that meteorites found on Earth and

long believed to have a >artian origin might actually have been blasted free of

>ars’s gravity by the impact on >ars of other meteorites. (his conclusion has led

to another 'uestion< whether meteorite impacts on Earth have similarly driven

rocks from this planet to >ars.



GRE +<&

According to astronomer 9. A. 6hinney% kicking a rock hard enough to free it

from Earth’s gravity would re'uire a meteorite capable of making a crater more

than O3 miles across. >oreover% even if Earth rocks were freed by meteorite

impact% >ars’s orbit is much larger than Earth’s% so 6hinney estimates that the

probability of these rocks hitting >ars is about one-tenth as great as that of >ars’srocks hitting Earth. (o demonstrate this estimate% 6hinney used a computer to

calculate where 1%333 hypothetical particles would go if e/ected from Earth in

random directions. ,e found that 1Q of the 1%333 particles would hit >ars.


(A) resenting an argument to suort a articular hyothesis

(") suggesting an anser to a theoretical question

(#) questioning the assumtions of a research roect

($) criticizing e%erimental results(!) e%laining the origin of certain scientific data

1&. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing events may have initiated the

rocess that led to the resence on !arth of meteorites from @ars*

(A) A meteorite struck the !arth ith tremendous velocity.

(") A meteorite collided ith @ars.

(#) Aro%imately 18 rocks ere eected from @ars.

($) The orbits of !arth and @ars brought the lanets to their closest oints.

(!) 5ocks from a meteorite imact broke free of !arth's gravity.

1. The assage suggests that hich of the folloing is true concerning the

robability that a rock8 if eected from @ars8 ill hit the !arth*

(A) The robability is increased hen articles are eected from @ars in random

directions.

(") The robability is increased by the resence of large craters on the surface of

@ars.

(#) The robability is decreased hen @ars's orbit brings the lanet close to

!arth.

($) The robability is greater than the robability that a rock from !arth ill hit

@ars.

(!) The robability is less than the robability that a rock from !arth ill escae

!arth's gravity.

+. hich of the folloing8 if true8 ould cast most doubt on hinney's estimate of

the robability of !arth rocks hitting @ars*

(A) 5ather than going in random directions8 about +; ercent of all articles

eected from !arth go in the same direction into sace.

(") Aro%imately 1 meteorites large enough to make a noticeable crater hit



GRE +<

the !arth each year.

(#) o rocks of !arth origin have been detected on @ars.

($) The velocity of rocks escaing from !arth's gravity is loer than the velocity

of meteorites hitting the !arth.

(!) o craters more than < miles across have been found on @ars.

A @scientistic view of language was dominant among philosophers and

linguists who a=ected to develop a scientic analysis of human thought and

behavior in the early part of this century. 8nder the force of this view% it was

perhaps inevitable that the art of rhetoric should pass from the status of being

regarded as of 'uestionable worth +because although it might be both a source of

pleasure and a means to urge people to right action% it might also be a means to

distort truth and a source of misguided action to the status of being wholly

condemned. f people are regarded only as machines guided by logic% as they

were by these @scientistic thinkers% rhetoric is likely to be held in low regard4 for

the most obvious truth about rhetoric is that it speaks to the whole person. t

presents its arguments rst to the person as a rational being% because persuasive

discourse% if honestly conceived% always has a basis in reasoning. ogical

argument is the plot% as it were% of any speech or essay that is respectfully

intended to persuade people. Det it is a characteri&ing feature of rhetoric that it

goes beyond this and appeals to the parts of our nature that are involved in

feeling% desiring% acting% and su=ering. t recalls relevant instances of the

emotional reactions of people to circumstances0real or ctional0that are similar

to our own circumstances. 9uch is the purpose of both historical accounts andfables in persuasive discourse< they indicate literally or symbolically how people

may react emotionally% with hope or fear% to particular circumstances. A speech

attempting to persuade people can achieve little unless it takes into account the

aspect of their being related to such hopes and fears.

$hetoric% then% is addressed to human beings living at particular times and in

particular places. ;rom the point of view of rhetoric% we are not merely logical

thinking machines% creatures abstracted from time and space. (he study of

rhetoric should therefore be considered the most humanistic of the humanities%

since rhetoric is not directed only to our rational selves. t takes into account what

the @scientistic view leaves out. f it is a weakness to harbor feelings% then

rhetoric may be thought of as dealing in weakness. "ut those who re/ect the idea

of rhetoric because they believe it deals in lies and who at the same time hope to

move people to action% must either be liars themselves or be very naive4 pure

logic has never been a motivating force unless it has been subordinated to human

purposes% feelings% and desires% and thereby ceased to be pure logic.

+1. According to the assage8 to reect rhetoric and still hoe to ersuade eole is

(A) an aim of most seakers and riters

(") an indication either of dishonesty or of credulity



GRE +7

(#) a ay of dislaying distrust of the audience's motives

($) a characteristic of most humanistic discourse

(!) a ay of avoiding e%cessively abstract reasoning

++. :t can be inferred from the assage that in the late nineteenth century rhetoric asregarded as

(A) the only necessary element of ersuasive discourse

(") a dubious art in at least to ays

(#) an outmoded and tedious amlification of logic

($) an oen offense to the rational mind

(!) the most imortant of the humanistic studies

+3. The assage suggests that the disaragement of rhetoric by some eole can be

traced to their (A) reaction against science

(") lack of training in logic

(#) desire to ersuade eole as comletely as ossible

($) misunderstanding of the use of the term EscientisticF

(!) vie of human motivation

+9. The assage suggests that a seech that attemts to ersuade eole to act is

likely to fail if it does BT

(A) distort the truth a little to make it more accetable to the audience

(") aeal to the self-interest as ell as the humanitarianism of the audience

(#) address listeners' emotions as ell as their intellects

($) concede the logic of other oints of vie

(!) sho ho an immediately desirable action is consistent ith timeless

rinciles

+;. The assage suggests that to consider eole as Ethinking machinesF (line 37) is

to consider them as

(A) beings searated from a historical conte%t

(") relaceable arts of a larger social machine

(#) more comle% than other animals

($) liars rather than honest eole

(!) infallible in their reasoning

+<. hich of the folloing ersuasive devices is BT used in the assage*

(A) A samle of an actual seech delivered by an orator

(") The contrast of different oints of vie

(#) The reetition of key ideas and e%ressions



GRE +71

($) An analogy that seeks to e%lain logical argument

(!) !valuative or udgmental ords

+7. hich of the folloing best states the author's main oint about logical

argument*(A) :t is a sterile8 abstract disciline8 of little use in real life.

(") :t is an essential element of ersuasive discourse8 but only one such element.

(#) :t is an imortant means of ersuading eole to act against their desires.

($) :t is the loest order of discourse because it is the least imaginative.

(!) :t is essential to ersuasive discourse because it deals ith universal truths.

1992 10

SECTION A

,ank >organ% the hero of >ark (wain’s ' Connecticut :ankee in King 'rthur#s

Court, is a nineteenth-century master mechanic who mysteriously awakening in

sixth-century "ritain% launches what he hopes will be a peaceful revolution to

transform Arthurian "ritain into an industriali&ed modern democracy. (he novel%

written as a spoof of (homas >alory’s Morte d# 'rthur % a popular collection of

fteenth-century legends about sixth-century "ritain% has been made into three

upbeat movies and two musical comedies. Bone of these translations to screen

and stage% however% dramati&e the anarchy at the conclusion of ' Connecticut:ankee% which ends with the violent overthrow of >organ’s three-year-old

progressive order and his return to the nineteenth century% where he apparently

commits suicide after being labeled a lunatic for his incoherent babblings about

drawbridges and battlements. (he American public% although en/oying (wain’s

humor% evidently re/ected his cynicism about technological advancement and

change through peaceful revolution as antithetical to the 8nited 9tates doctrine of

progress.

17. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing is a true statement about the

recetion of A $onnecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthur1s $ourt by the American ublic*

(A) The ublic had too strong a belief in the doctrine of rogress to accet the

cynicism demonstrated at the conclusion of Tain's novel.

(") Tain's novel received little ublic recognition until the ork as adated

for motion ictures and lays.

(#) Although the ublic enoyed Tain's humor8 his use of both si%th-century and

nineteenth-century characters confused many eole.

($) The ublic has continued to enoy Tain's story8 but the last art of the novel

seems too violent to American minds.



GRE +7+

(!) "ecause of the cynicism at the end of the book8 the ublic reected Tain's

ork in favor of the ork of Thomas @alory.

1&. The author uses the e%amles of Ethree ubeat movies and to musical

comediesF (lines -1) rimarily in order to demonstrate that

(A) ell-ritten novels like A $onnecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthur1s $ourt 8

regardless of their tone or theme8 can be translated to the stage and screen

(") the American ublic has traditionally been more interested in atching lays

and movies than in reading novels like A $onnecticut 3ankee in 4ing

Arthur1s $ourt

(#) Tain's overall message in A $onnecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthur1s $ourt is

one that had a rofound imact on the American ublic

($) Tain's A $onnecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthur1s $ourt has been a more

oular version of the Arthurian legends than has @alory's Morte d1 Arthur (!) A $onnecticut 3ankee in 4ing Arthur1s $ourt has been acceted as an

enoyable and humorous tale in versions that have omitted the anarchy at the

novel's conclusion

1. The author of the assage characterizes Thomas @alory's Morte d1 Arthur as


(A) The best-knon and most authoritative collection of Arthurian tales ritten in

the !nglish language

(") A collection of legends that have been used as the basis for three movies and

to musical comedies

(#) A historical account of Jing Arthur8 the si%th-century king of "ritain

($) A collection of legends about si%th-century "ritain that have e%isted since at

least the fifteenth century

(!) The novel about the life of Jing Arthur that insired Tain's cynicism about

nineteenth-century notions of rogress

+. :t can be inferred from the assage that @ark Tain ould most robably have

believed in hich of the folloing statements about societal change*

(A) 5evolutions8 in order to be successful in changing society8 have to be carriedout ithout violence.

(") Technological advancements are limited in their ability to change society and

ill likely bring liabilities along ith any otential benefits.

(#) The belief in the unmitigated benefits of societal change is antithetical to the

American doctrine of rogress.

($) The olitical system of si%th-century "ritain as more conducive to societal

change than as the olitical system of nineteenth-century America.

(!) Technological advances and eaceful revolutions8 although sometimes

accomanied by unintended violence and resistance to societal change8



GRE +73

eventually lead to a more rogressive order.

(he intensive work of materials scientists and solid-state physicists has given

rise to a class of solids known as amorphous metallic alloys% or glassy metals.

(here is a growing interest among theoretical and applied researchers alike in the

structural properties of these materials.

!hen a molten metal or metallic alloy is cooled to a solid% a crystalline

structure is formed that depends on the particular alloy composition. n contrast%

molten nonmetallic glass-forming materials% when cooled% do not assume a

crystalline structure% but instead retain a structure somewhat like that of the li'uid

—an amorphous structure. At room temperature% the natural long-term tendency

for both types of materials is to assume the crystalline structure. (he di=erence

between the two is in the kinetics or rate of formation of the crystalline structure%

which is controlled by factors such as the nature of the chemical bonding and the

ease with which atoms move relative to each other. (hus% in metals% the kineticsfavors rapid formation of a crystalline structure% whereas in nonmetallic glasses

the rate of formation is so slow that almost any cooling rate is su*cient to result

in an amorphous structure. ;or glassy metals to be formed% the molten metal

must be cooled extremely rapidly so that crystalli&ation is suppressed.

(he structure of glassy metals is thought to be similar to that of li'uid metals.

?ne of the rst attempts to model the structure of a li'uid was that by the late .

. "ernal of the 8niversity of ondon% who packed hard spheres into a rubber

vessel in such a way as to obtain the maximum possible density. (he resulting

dense% random-packed structure was the basis for many attempts to model thestructure of glassy metals. Calculations of the density of alloys based on "ernal-

type models of the alloys metal component agreed fairly well with the

experimentally determined values from measurements on alloys consisting of a

noble metal together with a metalloid% such as alloys of palladium and silicon% or

alloys consisting of iron% phosphorus% and carbon% although small discrepancies

remained. ?ne di=erence between real alloys and the hard spheres used in "ernal

models is that the components of an alloy have di=erent si&es% so that models

based on two si&es of spheres are more appropriate for a binary alloy% for

example. (he smaller metalloid atoms of the alloy might t into holes in the

dense% random-packed structure of the larger metal atoms.

?ne of the most promising properties of glassy metals is their high strength

combined with high malleability. n usual crystalline materials% one nds an

inverse relation between the two properties% whereas for many practical

applications simultaneous presence of both properties is desirable. ?ne residual

obstacle to practical applications that is likely to be overcome is the fact that

glassy metals will crystalli&e at relatively low temperatures when heated slightly.

+1. The author is rimarily concerned ith discussing

(A) crystalline solids and their behavior at different temeratures

(") molten materials and the kinetics of the formation of their crystalline structure



GRE +79

(#) glassy metals and their structural characteristics

($) metallic alloys and roblems in determining their density

(!) amorhous materials and their ractical utilization

++. The author imlies that the rate at hich the molten materials discussed in the assage are cooled is a determinant of the

(A) chemical comosition of the resulting solids

(") strength of the chemical bonds that are formed

(#) kinetics of the materials' crystalline structure

($) structure the materials assume

(!) stability of the materials' crystalline structure

+3. The author's seculation about the aroriateness of models using sheres of

to sizes for binary alloys ould be strongly suorted if models using sheresof to sizes yielded

(A) values for density identical to values yielded by one-shere models using the

smaller sheres only

(") values for density agreeing nearly erfectly ith e%erimentally determined

values

(#) values for density agreeing nearly erfectly ith values yielded by models

using sheres of three sizes

($) significantly different values for density deending on the size ratio beteen

the to kinds of sheres used

(!) the same values for density as the values for aroriately chosen models that

use only medium-sized sheres

+9. The author's attitude toard the rosects for the economic utilization of glassy

metals is one of

(A) disinterest

(") imatience

(#) otimism

($) arehension

(!) sketicism

+;. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing determines the crystalline

structure of a metallic alloy*

(A) At hat rate the molten alloy is cooled

(") 4o raid the rate of formation of the crystalline hase is

(#) 4o the different-sized atoms fit into a dense8 random-acked structure

($) hat the alloy consists of and in hat ratios

(!) At hat temerature the molten alloy becomes solid



GRE +7;

+<. hich of the folloing best describes the relationshi beteen the structure of

liquid metals and the structure of glassy metals8 as it is resented in the assage*

(A) The latter is an illustrative e%amle of the former.

(") The latter is a large-scale version of the former.

(#) The former is a structural elaboration of the latter.

($) The former rovides an instructive contrast to the latter.

(!) The former is a fair aro%imation of the latter.

+7. :t can be inferred from the assage that8 theoretically8 molten nonmetallic glasses

assume a crystalline structure rather than an amorhous structure only if they are

cooled

(A) very evenly8 regardless of the rate

(") raidly8 folloed by gentle heating

(#) e%tremely sloly

($) to room temerature

(!) to e%tremely lo temeratures

SECTION B

n a perfectly free and open market economy% the type of employer—

government or private—should have little or no impact on the earnings

di=erentials between women and men. ,owever% if there is discrimination against

one sex% it is unlikely that the degree of discrimination by government and private

employers will be the same. i=erences in the degree of discrimination would

result in earnings di=erentials associated with the type of employer. 7iven the

nature of government and private employers% it seems most likely that

discrimination by private employers would be greater. (hus% one would expect

that% if women are being discriminated against% government employment would

have a positive e=ect on women’s earnings as compared with their earnings from

private employment. (he results of a study by ;uchs support this assumption.

;uchs’s results suggest that the earnings of women in an industry composed

entirely of government employers would be 1G. O percent greater than the

earnings of women in an industry composed exclusively of private employees%

other things being e'ual.

n addition% both ;uchs and 9anborn have suggested that the e=ect of

discrimination by consumers on the earnings of self-employed women may be

greater than the e=ect of either government or private employer discrimination

on the earnings of women employees. (o test this hypothesis% "rown selected a

large sample of !hite male and female workers from the 1IQ3 Census and

divided them into three categories< private employees% government employees%

and self-employed. +"lack workers were excluded from the sample to avoid

picking up earnings di=erentials that were the result of racial disparities. "rown’s



GRE +7<

research design controlled for education% labor-force participation% mobility%

motivation% and age in order to eliminate these factors as explanations of the

study’s results. "rown’s results suggest that men and women are not treated the

same by employers and consumers. ;or men% self-employment is the highest

earnings category% with private employment next% and government lowest. ;orwomen% this order is reversed.

?ne can infer from "rown’s results that consumers discriminate against self-

employed women. n addition% self-employed women may have more di*culty

than men in getting good employees and may encounter discrimination from

suppliers and from nancial institutions.

"rown’s results are clearly consistent with ;uch’s argument that

discrimination by consumers has a greater impact on the earnings of women than

does discrimination by either government or private employers. Also% the fact that

women do better working for government than for private employers implies thatprivate employers are discriminating against women. (he results do not prove

that government does not discriminate against women. (hey do% however%

demonstrate that if government is discriminating against women% its

discrimination is not having as much e=ect on women’s earnings as is

discrimination in the private sector.

17. The assage mentions all of the folloing as difficulties that self-emloyed

omen may encounter !C#!T=

(A) discrimination from suliers

(") discrimination from consumers

(#) discrimination from financial institutions

($) roblems in obtaining good emloyees

(!) roblems in obtaining government assistance

1&. The author ould be most likely to agree ith hich of the folloing conclusions

about discrimination against omen by rivate emloyers and by government

emloyers*

(A) "oth rivate emloyers and government emloyers discriminate8 ith equal

effects on omen's earnings.

(") "oth rivate emloyers and government emloyers discriminate8 but the

discrimination by rivate emloyers has a greater effect on omen's

earnings.

(#) "oth rivate emloyers and government emloyers discriminate8 but the

discrimination by government emloyers has a greater effect on omen's

earnings.

($) rivate emloyers discriminateG it is ossible that government emloyers

discriminate.

(!) rivate emloyers discriminateG government emloyers do not discriminate.



GRE +77

1. A study of the ractices of financial institutions that revealed no discrimination

against self-emloyed omen ould tend to contradict hich of the folloing*

(A) ,ome tentative results of >uchs's study

(") ,ome e%licit results of "ron's study

(#) A suggestion made by the author

($) >uchs's hyothesis

(!) ,anborn's hyothesis

+. According to "ron's study8 omen's earnings categories occur in hich or the

folloing orders8 from highest earnings to loest earnings*

(A) /overnment emloyment8 self-emloyment8 rivate emloyment

(") /overnment emloyment8 rivate emloyment8 self-emloyment

(#) rivate emloyment8 self-emloyment8 government emloyment

($) rivate emloyment8 government emloyment8 self-emloyment

(!) ,elf-emloyment8 rivate emloyment8 government emloyment

+1. The assage e%licitly ansers hich of the folloing questions*

(A) hy ere "lack orkers e%cluded from the samle used in "ron's study*

(") hy do rivate emloyers illuminate more against omen than do

government emloyers*

(#) hy do self-emloyed omen have more difficulty than men in hiring high-

quality emloyees*

($) hy do suliers discriminate against self-emloyed omen*

(!) Are "lack omen and "lack men treated similarly by emloyers and

consumers*

++. :t can be inferred from the assage that the statements in the last aragrah are

most robably hich of the folloing*

(A) "ron's elaboration of his research results

(") "ron's tentative inference from his data

(#) "ron's conclusions8 based on common-sense reasoning

($) The author's conclusions8 based on >uchs's and "ron's results

(!) The author's criticisms of >uchs's argument8 based on "ron's results

+3. hich of the folloing titles best describes the content of the assage as a

hole*

(A) The ecessity for !arnings $ifferentials in a >ree @arket !conomy

(") hy $iscrimination Against !mloyed omen by /overnment !mloyers

and rivate !mloyers $iffers from $iscrimination Against ,elf-!mloyed

omen by #onsumers

(#) 4o $iscrimination Affects omen's #hoice of Tye of !mloyment



GRE +7&

($) The 5elative !ffect of rivate !mloyer $iscrimination on @en's !arnings

as #omared to omen's !arnings

(!) The 5elative !ffect of $iscrimination by /overnment !mloyers8 rivate

!mloyers8 and #onsumers on omen's !arnings

(he success of #uoride in combating dental decay is well established and%

without a doubt% socially benecial. ,owever% #uoride’s toxic properties have been

known for a century. n humans excessive intake +for adults% over G milligrams per

day over many years can lead to skeletal #uorosis% a well-dened skeletal

disorder% and in some plant species% #uoride is more toxic than o&one% sulfur

dioxide% or pesticides.

9ome important 'uestions remain. ;or example% the precise lower limit at

which the #uoride content of bone becomes toxic is still undetermined. And while

#uoride intake from water and air can be evaluated relatively easily% it is much

harder to estimate how much a given population ingests from foodstu=s because

of the wide variations in individual eating habits and in #uoride concentrations in

foodstu=s. (hese di*culties suggest that we should by wary of indiscriminately

using #uoride% even in the form of #uoride-containing dental products.


(A) analyzing and categorizing

(") comaring and contrasting

(#) synthesizing and redicting

($) describing and cautioning(!) summarizing and reinterreting

+;. The assage suggests that it ould be easier to calculate fluoride intake from food

if

(A) adequate diets ere available for most eole.

(") individual eating habits ere more uniform

(#) the fluoride content of food as more varied

($) more eole ere aare of the fluoride content of food

(!) methods for measuring the fluoride content of food ere more generallyagreed on

+<. Bne function of the second aragrah of the assage is to

(A) raise doubts about fluoride's to%icity

(") introduce the issue of fluoride's to%icity

(#) differentiate a to%ic from a nonto%ic amount of fluoride

($) indicate that necessary knoledge of fluoride remains incomlete

(!) discuss the foodstuffs that are most likely to contain significant

concentrations of fluoride



GRE +7

+7. The assage suggests hich of the folloing about the effect of fluoride on

humans*

(A) The effect is more easily measured than is the effect of e%osure to esticides.

(") The effect of fluoride intake from ater and air is relatively difficult to

monitor.

(#) :n general the effect is not likely to be as harmful as the effect of e%osure to

sulfur dio%ide.

($) An intake of 9 milligrams over a long eriod of time usually leads to a

skeletal disorder in humans.

(!) An intake of slightly more than 9 milligrams for only a fe months is not

likely to be life-threatening.

1993 02

SECTION A

t is now established that the >ilky !ay is far more extended and of much

greater mass than was hitherto thought. ,owever% all that is visible of the

constituents of the >ilky !ay’s corona +outer edge% where much of the galaxy’s

mass must be located% is a tiny fraction of the corona’s mass. (hus% most of the

>ilky !ay’s outlying matter must be dark.

!hyP (hree facts are salient. ;irst% dwarf galaxies and globular clusters% into

which most of the stars of the >ilky !ay’s corona are probably bound% consist

mainly of old stars. 9econd% old stars are not highly luminous. (hird% no one has

detected in the corona the clouds of gaseous matter such as hydrogen and carbon

monoxide that are characteristic of the bright parts of a galaxy. At present%

therefore% the best explanation0though still 'uite tentative—for the darkness of

the corona is that the corona is composed mainly of old% burned-out stars.

17. The assage as a hole is rimarily concerned ith

(A) analyzing a current debate

(") criticizing a ell-established theory(#) shoing ho ne facts suort a reviously dismissed hyothesis

($) stating a conclusion and adducing evidence that may ustify it

(!) contrasting to tyes of henomena and shoing ho they are related

1&. According to the assage8 a bright art of a gala%y tyically includes

(A) darf gala%ies and clusters of stars

(") a balanced mi%ture of old and ne stars

(#) a large ortion of the gala%y's mass

($) art of the corona of the gala%y



GRE +&1

characteri&es capitalism as the tyranny of money +or of the ability to make it. And

!al&er advocates as the means of eliminating this tyranny and of restoring

genuine e'uality @the abolition of the power of money outside its sphere. !hat

!al&er envisions is a society in which wealth is no longer convertible into social

goods with which it has no intrinsic connection.

!al&er’s argument is a pu&&ling one. After all% why should those 'ualities

unrelated to the production of material goods be rewarded with material goodsP s

it not tyrannical% in 6ascal’s sense% to insist that those who excel in @sensitivity or

@the ability to express compassion merit e'ual wealth with those who excel in

'ualities +such as @the capacity for hard work essential in producing wealthP Det

!al&er’s argument% however decient% does point to one of the most serious

weaknesses of capitalism—namely% that it brings to predominant positions in a

society people who% no matter how legitimately they have earned their material

rewards% often lack those other 'ualities that evoke a=ection or admiration. 9omeeven argue plausibly that this weakness may be irremediable< in any society that%

like a capitalist society% seeks to become ever wealthier in material terms

disproportionate rewards are bound to #ow to the people who are instrumental in

producing the increase in its wealth.


(A) argue that alzer's critique of liberal caitalism is the cornerstone of

alzer's thinking

(") identify and to derecate the origins of the intellectual tradition chamioned

by alzer

(#) resent more clearly than does the essay E:n $efense of !qualityF the

distinctive features of alzer's olitico-economic theories

($) demonstrate that alzer's critique of liberal caitalism is neither original nor

ersuasive

(!) outline and to e%amine critically alzer's osition on economic equality

++. The author mentions all of the folloing as issues addressed by alzer !C#!T=

(A) roer recomense for individual e%cellence

(") roer interretation of Eeconomic equalityF

(#) roer level of a society's ealth

($) grounds for calling caitalism Ethe tyranny of moneyF

(!) e%changeability of money for social goods

+3. The argumentation in the assage turns imortantly on the question of hat

should be the roer relation beteen

(A) Eliberal caitalismF (line +) and Ebourgeois societyF (lines +-+1)

(") EreardF (line &) and ErecomenseF (line 17)

(#) EsensitivityF (line 1;) and Ethe ability to e%ress comassionF (lines 1;-1<)



GRE +&+

($) Edistribution of material goodsF (lines 17-1&) and Eredistribution of ealthF

(lines 9-;)

(!) Esocial goodsF (line 37) and Ematerial goodsF (line 91)

+9. The assage rovides sufficient information to anser hich of the folloingquestions*

(A) hat eight in relation to other qualities should a quality like sensitivity

have8 according to alzer8 in determining the roer distribution of goods*

(") hich quality does alzer deem too highly valued under liberal caitalism*

(#) hich are the social goods that are8 according to alzer8 outside the reach of

the oer of money*

($) hat ractical stes does alzer suggest be taken to relieve the economic

inequality generated by caitalism*

(!) hat deficiencies in alzer's on argument does alzer acknoledge*

+;. The author imlies that alzer's interretation of the rincile of reard

according to merit is distinctive for its

(A) insistence on ma%imizing everyone's reards

(") emhasis on equality

(#) roven validity

($) broad concetion of hat constitutes merit

(!) broad concetion of hat constitutes a reard

+<. The author's interretation of the rincile that Ee oe different duties to

different qualitiesF (lines +&-+) suggests that hich of the folloing ould most

robably be the duty aired ith the quality of veracity*

(A) $ignity

(") Trust

(#) Affection

($) Bbedience

(!) :ntegrity

+7. The author imlies that sensitivity is not a quality that

(A) is essential in roducing ealth

(") ealthy eole lack

(#) can be sensibly measured on a scale

($) characterizes tyrannical eole

(!) is oed a duty in ascal's sense

SECTION B

(he outpouring of contemporary American ndian literature in the last two



GRE +&3

decades% often called the Bative American $enaissance% represents for many the

rst opportunity to experience Bative American poetry. (he appreciation of

traditional oral American ndian literature has been limited% hampered by poor

translations and by the di*culty% even in the rare culturally sensitive and

aesthetically satisfying translation% of completely conveying the original’s versestructure% tone% and syntax.

"y writing in English and experimenting with European literary forms%

contemporary American ndian writers have broadened their potential audience%

while clearly retaining many essential characteristics of their ancestral oral

traditions. ;or example% 6ulit&er-pri&ewinning author B. 9cott >omaday’s poetry

often treats art and mortality in a manner that recalls "ritish romantic poetry%

while his poetic response to the power of natural forces recalls Cherokee oral

literature. n the same way% his novels% an art form European in origin% display an

elo'uence that echoes the oratorical grandeur of the great nineteenth-centuryAmerican ndian chiefs.

17. According to the assage8 @omaday's oetry shares hich of the folloing ith

"ritish romantic oetry*

(A) ?erse structure

(") Bratorical techniques

(#) @anner of treating certain themes

($) 6se of certain syntactical constructions

(!) atterns of rhythm and rhyme

1&. hich of the folloing is most likely one of the reasons that the author mentions

the ork of . ,cott @omaday*

(A) To illustrate ho the author believes that members of the ative American

5enaissance have broadened their otential audience

(") To emhasize the similarities beteen @omaday's ritings and their

!uroean literary models

(#) To demonstrate the contemorary aeal of traditional ative American oral

literature

($) To suggest that contemorary American :ndian riters have sacrificed

traditional values for oular literary success

(!) To imly the continuing oularity of translations of oral American :ndian

literature

1. hich of the folloing can be inferred from the assage about ritten

translations of oral ative American oetry*

(A) They ere less idely read than are the orks of contemorary ative

American oets riting in !nglish.

(") They ere often made by riters ho ere intimately familiar ith both



GRE +&9

!nglish and ative American languages.

(#) They often gave their readers aesthetic satisfaction8 desite their inaccuracies.

($) They usually lacked comle% verse structure.

(!) They ere overly deendent on !uroean literary models.

+. The assage suggests hich of the folloing about American :ndian oets before

the ative American 5enaissance*

(A) Art and mortality ere rarely the subects of their oetry.

(") Their oratorical grandeur reached its eak in the nineteenth century.

(#) They occasionally translated their on oetry.

($) They seldom rote oetry in !nglish.

(!) They emhasized structure8 tone8 and synta% rather than literary form.

$ecent ndings suggest that visual signals are fed into at least three separateprocessing systems in the brain% each with its own distinct function. ?ne system

appears to process information about shape perception4 a second% information

about color4 a third% information about movement% location% and spatial

organi&ation. An understanding of the functions and capabilities of these three

systems can shed light on how artists manipulate materials to create surprising

visual e=ects.

t is possible to summari&e the functions of the three subsystems of the visual

system as follows. (he parvo system carries highly detailed information about

stationary ob/ects and about borders that are formed by contrasting colors. t does

not% however% carry information about specic colors. "ecause much of the

information about the shape of ob/ects can be represented by their borders% we

suspect that this system is important in shape perception. (he blob system

processes information about colors% but not about movement% shape

discrimination% or depth. (he magno system carries information about movement

and depth. t is good at detecting motion but poor at scrutini&ing stationary

images. n addition it appears to be colorblind4 it is unable to perceive borders

that are visible only on the basis of color contrast.

Cells in the parvo system can distinguish between two colors at any relative

brightness of the two. Cells in the color-blind magno system% on the other hand%

are analogous to a black-and-white photograph in the way they function< they

signal information about the brightness of surfaces but not about their colors. ;or

any pair of colors there is a particular brightness ratio at which two colors% for

example red and green% will appear as the same shade of gray in a black-and-

white photograph% hence any border between them will vanish. 9imilarly at some

relative red-to-green brightness level% the red and green will appear identical to

the magno system. (he red and green are then called e'uiluminant. A border

between two e'uiluminant colors has color contrast but no luminance contrast.

>any artists have seemed to be empirically aware of these underlying



GRE +&;

principles and have used them to maximi&e particular e=ects. 9ome of the

peculiar e=ects of ?p Art% for example% probably arise from color combinations

that are strong activators of the parvo system but are weak stimuli for the magno

system. An ob/ect that is e'uiluminant with its background looks vibrant and

unstable. (he reason is that the parvo system can signal the ob/ect’s shape butthe magno system cannot see its borders and therefore cannot signal either the

movement or the position of the ob/ect. ,ence it seems to /ump around% drift% or

vibrate on the canvas.


(A) describing subsystems of the visual system and shoing their relevance to art

(") comaring three theories on ho the visual system analyzes images in a ork

of art

(#) e%laining ho artists use color contrasts to create articular visual effects

($) e%laining ho the visual system distinguishes among different colors

(!) describing functions of the first three hases of the visual system

++. hich of the folloing ould create visual effects most similar to those

discussed in lines 93-9&*

(A) A atercolor in hich colors are alied imrecisely to outlined shaes

(") A ainting in hich different shades of the same color are used to obscure the

boundaries beteen obects

(#) A black-and-hite sketch in hich shading is used to convey a sense of deth

($) An advertisement in hich key ords are at the same level of brightness as a

background of contrasting color

(!) A design in hich to different shades of gray are u%taosed to heighten the

contrast beteen them

+3. The assage rovides information about hich of the folloing*

(A) hy the same system can rocess information about movement and location

(") hy the arvo system is considered to be resonsible for shae ercetion

(#) hy the blob system can rocess information about colors but not movement

($) The mechanism that enables the blob system to distinguish beteen

stationary obects

(!) The mechanism that enables the magno system to carry information about

shae discrimination

+9. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing is true of the visual system*

(A) :t rocesses visual signals in three consecutive stages.

(") :t rocesses visual signals through searate rocessing systems in the brain.

(#) :t consists of only three searate systems.

($) :t consists of a single hierarchical system rather than a multiartite system.



GRE +&<

(!) :t consists of searate system ith high overla in rocessing functions.

+;. The author mentions a Eblack-and-hite hotograhF (line +) most robably in

order to e%lain

(A) ho the arvo system distinguishes beteen different shaes and colors(") ho the magno system uses luminosity to identify borders beteen obects

(#) the mechanism that makes the magno system color-blind

($) hy the magno system is caable of erceiving moving images

(!) the brightness ratio at hich colors become indistinguishable to the arvo

system

+<. The author uses all of the folloing in the discussion in the third aragrah

!C#!T=

(A) an e%amle(") definition of terms

(#) contrast

($) a rhetorical question

(!) analogy

+7. The assage suggests hich of the folloing about the magno system*

(A) :t erceives borders on the basis of luminance contrast.

(") :t erceives shaes on the basis of color contrast.

(#) :t is better at erceiving stationary obects than it is at detecting movement.

($) :t can detect motion but it cannot signal the osition of an obect.

(!) :t is better at rocessing information about movement than it is at rocessing

information about deth.

1993 04

SECTION A

Although% recent years have seen substantial reductions in noxious pollutants

from individual motor vehicles% the number of such vehicles has been steadily

increasing conse'uently% more than 133 cities in the 8nited 9tates still have levels

of carbon monoxide% particulate matter% and o&one +generated by photochemical

reactions with hydrocarbons from vehicle exhaust that exceed legally established

limits. (here is a growing reali&ation that the only e=ective way to achieve further

reductions in vehicle emissions—short of a massive shift away from the private

automobile—is to replace conventional diesel fuel and gasoline with cleaner-

burning fuels such as compressed natural gas% li'ueed petroleum gas% ethanol%

or methanol.

All of these alternatives are carbon-based fuels whose molecules are smaller



GRE +&7

and simpler than those of gasoline. (hese molecules burn more cleanly than

gasoline% in part because they have fewer% if and% carbon-carbon bonds% and the

hydrocarbons they do emit are less likely to generate o&one. (he combustion of

larger molecules% which have multiple carbon-carbon bonds% involves a more

complex series of reactions. (hese reactions increase the probability ofincomplete combustion and are more likely to release uncombusted and

photochemically active hydrocarbon compounds into the atmosphere. ?n the

other hand% alternative fuels do have drawbacks. Compressed natural gas would

re'uire that vehicles have a set of heavy fuel tanks—a serious liability in terms of

performance and fuel e*ciency0and li'ueed petroleum gas faces fundamental

limits on supply.

Ethanol and methanol% on the other hand% have important advantages over

other carbon-based alternative fuels< they have a higher energy content per

volume and would re'uire minimal changes in the existing network for distributingmotor fuel. Ethanol is commonly used as a gasoline supplement% but it is currently

about twice as expensive as methanol% the low cost of which is one of its

attractive features. >ethanol’s most attractive feature% however% is that it can

reduce by about I3 percent the vehicle emissions that form o&one% the most

serious urban air pollutant.

ike any alternative fuel% methanol has its critics. Det much of the criticism is

based on the use of @gasoline clone vehicles that do not incorporate even the

simplest design improvements that are made possible with the use of methanol. t

is true% for example% that a given volume of methanol provides only about one-half

of the energy that gasoline and diesel fuel do4 other things being e'ual% the fuel

tank would have to be somewhat larger and heavier. ,owever% since methanol-

fueled vehicles could be designed to be much more e*cient than @gasoline clone

vehicles fueled with methanol% they would need comparatively less fuel. Fehicles

incorporating only the simplest of the engine improvements that methanol makes

feasible would still contribute to an immediate lessening of urban air pollution.


(A) countering a flaed argument that dismisses a ossible solution to a roblem

(") reconciling contradictory oints of vie about the nature of a roblem(#) identifying the strengths of ossible solutions to a roblem

($) discussing a roblem and arguing in favor of one solution to it

(!) outlining a lan of action to solve a roblem and discussing the obstacles

blocking that lan

1&. According to the assage8 incomlete combustion is more likely to occur ith

gasoline than ith an alternative fuel because

(A) the combustion of gasoline releases hotochemically active hydrocarbons

(") the combustion of gasoline involves an intricate series of reactions



GRE +&&

(#) gasoline molecules have a simle molecular structure

($) gasoline is comosed of small molecules.

(!) gasoline is a carbon-based fuel

1. The assage suggests hich of the folloing about air ollution*(A) >urther attemts to reduce emissions from gasoline-fueled vehicles ill not

hel loer urban air-ollution levels.

(") Attemts to reduce the ollutants that an individual gasoline-fueled vehicle

emits have been largely unsuccessful.

(#) >e serious attemts have been made to reduce the amount of ollutants

emitted by gasoline-fueled vehicles.

($) ollutants emitted by gasoline-fueled vehicles are not the most critical source

of urban air ollution.

(!) 5eductions in ollutants emitted by individual vehicles have been offset by

increases in ollution from sources other than gasoline-fueled vehicles.

+. hich of the folloing most closely arallels the situation described in the first


(A) Although a ton reduces its ublic services in order to avoid a ta% increase8

the ton's ta% rate e%ceeds that of other tons in the surrounding area.

(") Although a state asses strict las to limit the tye of to%ic material that can

be disosed of in ublic landfills8 illegal duming continues to increase.

(#) Although a ton's citizens reduce their individual use of ater8 the ton'sater sulies continue to dindle because of a steady increase in the total

oulation of the ton.

($) Although a country attemts to increase the sale of domestic goods by adding

a ta% to the rice of imorted goods8 the sale of imorted goods ithin the

country continues to increase.

(!) Although a country reduces the seed limit on its national highays8 the

number of fatalities caused by automobile accidents continues to increase.

+1. The author describes hich of the folloing as the most aealing feature of

methanol*

(A) :t is substantially less e%ensive than ethanol.

(") :t could be rovided to consumers through the e%isting motor fuel distribution

system.

(#) :t has a higher energy content than other alternative fuels.

($) :ts use ould make design imrovements in individual vehicles feasible.

(!) :ts use ould substantially reduce ozone levels.

++. :t can be inferred from the assage that a vehicle secifically designed to use

methanol for fuel ould



GRE +&

(A) be somehat lighter in total body eight than a conventional vehicle fueled

ith gasoline

(") be more e%ensive to oerate than a conventional vehicle fueled ith gasoline

(#) have a larger and more oerful engine than a conventional vehicle fueled

ith gasoline

($) have a larger and heavier fuel tank than a Egasoline cloneF vehicle fueled

ith methanol

(!) average more miles er gallon than a Egasoline cloneF vehicle fueled ith

methanol

+3. :t can be inferred that the author of the assage most likely regards the criticism

of methanol in the last aragrah as

(A) flaed because of the assumtions on hich it is based

(") inalicable because of an inconsistency in the critics' arguments

(#) misguided because of its e%clusively technological focus

($) inaccurate because it ignores consumers' concerns

(!) invalid because it reflects the ersonal bias of the critics

6aule >arshall’s &rown Gir!, &rownstones +1I2I was a landmark in the

depiction of female characters in "lack American literature. >arshall avoided the

oppressed and tragic heroine in con#ict with !hite society that had been typical

of the protest novels of the early twentieth century. ike her immediate

predecessors% Uora Beale ,urston and 7wendolyn "rooks% she focused her novel

on an ordinary "lack woman’s search for identity within the context of a "lack

community. "ut >arshall extended the analysis of "lack female characters begun

by ,urston and "rooks by depicting her heroine’s development in terms of the

relationship between her "arbadian American parents% and by exploring how male

and female roles were dened by their immigrant culture% which in turn was

in#uenced by the materialism of !hite America. "y placing characters within a

wider cultural context% >arshall attacked racial and sexual stereotypes and paved

the way for explorations of race% class% and gender in the novels of the 1IQ3’s.


(A) comaring the orks of three "lack American authors

(") describing common themes in "lack American literature

(#) discussing an imortant ork in "lack American literature

($) roviding insights about "lack American literature in the early tentieth

century

(!) roviding historical information about the riting of "lack American novels

in the second half the tentieth century

+;. According to the assage8 4urston8 "rooks8 and @arshall are alike in that they

(A) did not e%amine the effects of hite culture on their characters' lives



GRE +

(") ere heavily influenced by the rotest novels of the early tentieth century

(#) used "lack communities as the settings for their novels

($) rote rimarily about the difficulties their characters encountered in hite

culture

(!) rote e%clusively about female characters and the e%eriences of omen

+<. The author's descrition of the ay in hich @arshall deicts her heroine's

develoment is most robably intended to

(A) continue the discussion of similarities in the orks of "rooks8 4urston8 and

@arshall

(") describe the secific racial and se%ual stereotyes that @arshall attacked

(#) contrast the characters in @arshall's novels ith those in later orks

($) sho ho @arshall e%tends the ortrayal of character initiated by her

redecessors

(!) comare themes in @arshall's early ork ith themes in her later novels

+7. :t can be inferred that the author of the assage ould describe Brown Girl,

Brownstones as being

(A) comletely different from novels ritten before 1;

(") highly influenced by novels ritten in the early tentieth century

(#) similar to the rotest novels that receded it

($) imortant in the late 1;'s but dated today

(!) an imortant influence on novels ritten in the 17's

SECTION B

>any philosophers disagree over the denition of morality% but most

disputants fall into one of two categories< egocentrics% who dene morality as the

pursuit of self-fulllment% and sociocentrics% who dene morality as an individual’s

obligations to society. !here does the truth lieP ;ortunately% the stem of the word

@morality provides some clues. (he word @mores originally referred to the

customs of preliterate cultures. >ores% which embodied each culture’s idealprinciples for governing every citi&en% were developed in the belief that the

foundation of a community lies in the cultivation of individual powers to be placed

in service to the community. (hese mores were concerned with such skills as food-

gathering and warfare as well as an individual’s relationships with others. (hus%

submit% @morality must be concerned with what is honored by the community at

large. ,owever% self-fulllment is important to morality because unfullled

citi&ens% no matter how virtuous% cannot perform the duties morality assigns

them.

17. The rimary urose of this assage is to



GRE +1

(A) summarize an argument

(") resolve a disute

(#) trace a ord's origin

($) rove a hyothesis

(!) initiate a debate

1&. According to the assage8 mores in reliterate cultures concerned such skills as

arfare and food-gathering because these skills ere

(A) characteristic of an individual's self-fulfillment

(") e%amles of a culture's traditions

(#) manifestations of an individual's ideals

($) demonstrations of an individual's contributions to the community

(!) e%amles of a community's governing rinciles

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author ould be most likely to agree

ith hich of the folloing statements regarding sociocentrics and egocentrics*

(A) The osition of the sociocentrics is stronger than that of the egocentrics.

(") The ositions of the egocentrics and sociocentrics are of equal merit.

(#) There is no merit in the osition of the egocentrics.

($) either osition contributes very much to an understanding of the definition

of morality.

(!) The disute beteen the egocentrics and sociocentrics is based on trivialissues.

+. ith hich of the folloing statements regarding the relationshi beteen the

individual and morality ould the author be most likely to agree*

(A) >ailure in social obligations is the rice of success in individual endeavors.

(") The unfulfilled citizen cannot fulfill his moral obligations to the community.

(#) @orality is unconcerned ith conflicts among citizens.

($) The unfulfilled citizen is ithout virtue.

(!) ealth harms a citizen's moral standing in the community.+(his passage was written in 1IQ2.

(he complications fre'uently accompanying diabetes% such as impairment of

vision and of kidney function% are now thought to result from the lack of

continuous control of blood glucose concentrations. (he healthy pancreas% in

response to increases in blood glucose concentration% releases small 'uantities of

insulin throughout the day and thereby maintains the concentration within

physiological limits +normoglycemia. "ut the diabetic generally receives only one

large dose daily. (he diabetic’s blood glucose concentration can thus #uctuate

greatly during the interval between doses% and it has been suggested that the

complications result from the periods of high concentrations of blood glucose



GRE ++

+hyperglycemia. >any investigators thus believe that restoration of

normoglycemia might halt the progression of such complications and perhaps

even reverse them.

(here are three primary techni'ues that have been investigated for

restoration of normoglycemia. (hey are< transplantation of whole% healthy

pancreases4 transplantation of islets of angerhans% that portion of the pancreas

that actually secretes insulin4 and implantation of articial pancreases. (here has%

in fact% been a great deal of success in the development of these techni'ues and

each seems% on the whole% promising. Bonetheless% it will undoubtedly be many

years before any one of them is accepted as a treatment for diabetes.

(o many people% the obvious approach would seem to be simply to transplant

pancreases from cadavers in the same manner that kidneys and other organs are

routinely transplanted. (hat was the rationale in 1IOO when the rst recorded

pancreas transplant was performed. "etween 1IOO and 1IQ2% there were forty-sixpancreas transplants in forty-ve other patients in the 8nited 9tates and ve

other countries. "ut only one of these patients is still alive with a functioning

graft% and surgeons have found that the procedure is not as simple as they once

thought.

(he surviving patient has re'uired no insulin since the operation. Another

patient survived O:N days without re'uiring insulin. And one patient survived a

transplantation for more than a year% but died when he chose not to take the

immunosuppressive drugs. (hese results% though meager% suggest that the

procedure has the potential for success. (he rest of the patients% however% either re/ected the transplant or died within

a short period. (here does not appear to be any technical problem with the

procedure. $ather% most of the patients were already so severely debilitated by

the complications of diabetes that they could not withstand the surgery and the

immunosuppressive regimen re'uired to prevent re/ection. >ore than half of the

patients% furthermore% also re'uired a kidney transplant. >ost investigators now

agree that the simultaneous transplantation of both organs is too great a shock to

the patient and greatly increases the total risk.

+1. hich of the folloing best states one of the main conclusions of the assage*(A) Although the techniques for ancreas translants aear to be theoretically

correct8 there are roblems that must be solved before the oeration can be

used as a treatment for diabetes.

(") Although the techniques for ancreas translants are still being develoed8 the

e%erimental results sho that the oeration ill be a successful treatment

for diabetes in the near future.

(#) Although ancreas translants are reliable8 many diabetics are reluctant to

undergo the oeration because of the side effects of immunosuressive

drugs.



GRE +3

($) Although ancreas translants alone are not generally successful8 the

oeration can be used in conunction ith other rocedures to treat diabetes.

(!) Although ancreas translants have not been successful in treating diabetes8

research indicates that other rocedures may soon be develoed.

++. According to the assage8 idely saced doses of insulin can cause.

(A) reversal of normal kidney function

(") delay in the onset of diabetes

(#) radical changes in the concentration of blood glucose

($) restoration of normoglycemia

(!) marked variations in the islets of Dangerhans

+3. According to the assage8 a eriodic high concentration of blood glucose in

diabetics is a ossible cause of (A) deterioration of the ancreas

(") damage to the eyes and kidneys

(#) reection of translanted organs

($) inadequate secretion of insulin

(!) increased roduction of blood cells

+9. :t can be inferred from the assage that one of the imortant contributing causes

of the failure of most ancreas translants has been the

(A) reluctance of atients to cooerate ith hysicians(") imerfect techniques used in the oerations

(#) scarcity of immunosuressive drugs

($) unavailability or healthy ancreases

(!) eakened condition of the atients

+;. The author rovides information that ould anser hich of the folloing

questions*

:. hat is hyerglycemia*

::. hat is one cause of hyerglycemia*:::. hat are some of the organs that can be adversely affected by

hyerglycemia*

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) : and ::: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+<. Bn the basis of the information in the assage8 hich of the folloing can be



GRE +9

inferred about the islets of Dangerhans*

:. They are imortant for the normal control of blood glucose concentration.

::. They can be translanted indeendently of other ancreatic cells.

:::. They regulate immunosuressive reactions.

(A) : only

(") ::: only

(#) : and :: only

($) : and ::: only

(!) :8 ::8 and :::

+7. The assage suggests that the author considers the data concerning the success of

ancreas translants to be

(A) invalid(") indirect

(#) inaccurate

($) insufficient

(!) inaroriate

SECTION C

n ;ebruary 1NGN the people of 6aris rose in revolt against the constitutional

monarchy of ouis-6hilippe. espite the existence of excellent narrative accounts%

the ;ebruary ays% as this revolt is called% have been largely ignored by social

historians of the past two decades. ;or each of the three other ma/or insurrections

in nineteenth-century 6aris— uly 1N:3% une 1NGN% and >ay 1NQ10there exists at

least a sketch of participants’ backgrounds and an analysis% more or less rigorous%

of the reasons for the occurrence of the uprisings. ?nly in the case of the ;ebruary

$evolution do we lack a useful description of participants that might characteri&e

it in the light of what social history has taught us about the process of

revolutionary mobili&ation.

(wo reasons for this relative neglect seem obvious. ;irst% the insurrection of

;ebruary has been overshadowed by that of une. (he ;ebruary $evolution

overthrew a regime% to be sure% but met with so little resistance that it failed to

generate any real sense of historical drama. ts successor% on the other hand%

appeared to pit key socioeconomic groups in a life-or-death struggle and was

widely seen by contemporary observers as marking a historical departure.

(hrough their interpretations% which exert a continuing in#uence on our

understanding of the revolutionary process% the impact of the events of une has

been magnied% while% as an unintended conse'uence% the signicance of the

;ebruary insurrection has been diminished. 9econd% like other @successful

insurrections% the events of ;ebruary failed to generate the most desirable kindsof historical records. Although the une insurrection of 1NGN and the 6aris



GRE +;

Commune of 1NQ1 would be considered watersheds of nineteenth-century ;rench

history by any standard% they also present the social historian with a signal

advantage< these failed insurrections created a mass of invaluable documentation

as a by-product of authorities’ e=orts to search out and punish the rebels.

Ruite di=erent is the outcome of successful insurrections like those of uly

1N:3 and ;ebruary 1NGN. Experiences are retold% but participants typically resume

their daily routines without ever recording their activities. (hose who played

salient roles may become the ob/ects of highly embellished verbal accounts or in

rare cases% of celebratory articles in contemporary periodicals. And it is true that

the publicly acknowledged leaders of an uprising fre'uently write memoirs.

,owever% such documents are likely to be highly unreliable% unrepresentative% and

unsystematically preserved% especially when compared to the detailed /udicial

dossiers prepared for everyone arrested following a failed insurrection. As a

conse'uence% it may prove di*cult or impossible to establish for a successfulrevolution a comprehensive and trustworthy picture of those who participated% or

to answer even the most basic 'uestions one might pose concerning the social

origins of the insurgents.

17. According to the assage8 Ea useful descrition of articiantsF (lines 11-1+)

e%ists for hich of the folloing insurrections of nineteenth-century >rance*

:. The 2uly :nsurrection of 1&3

::. The >ebruary 5evolution of 1&9&

:::. The 2une insurrection of 1&9&

:?. The @ay insurrection of 1&71

(A) : and ::: only

(") :: and :? only

(#) :8 ::8 and ::: only

($) :8 :::8 and :? only

(!) ::8 :::8 and :? only

1&. :t can be inferred from the assage that suort for the obectives of the >ebruary

5evolution as

(A) negligible

(") misguided

(#) fanatical

($) sontaneous

(!) idesread

1. hich of the folloing8 best describes the organization of the second aragrah*

(A) The thesis of the assage is stated and suorting evidence systematically

resented.

(") To vies regarding the thesis resented in the first aragrah are comared



GRE +<

and contrasted.

(#) !vidence refuting the thesis resented in the first aragrah is systematically

resented.

($) The thesis resented in the first aragrah is systematically suorted.

(!) The thesis resented in the first aragrah is further defined and a conclusion

dran.

+. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author considers hich of the

folloing essential for understanding a revolutionary mobilization*

(A) A comrehensive theory of revolution that can be alied to the maor

insurrections of the nineteenth century

(") Aareness of the events necessary for a revolution to be successful

(#) Access to narratives and memoirs ritten by eyeitnesses of a given

revolution

($) The historical ersective rovided by the assage of a considerable amount

of time

(!) Jnoledge of the socioeconomic backgrounds of a revolution's articiants

+1. hich of the folloing can be inferred about the Edetailed udicial dossiersF

referred to in line 9*

(A) :nformation contained in the dossiers sheds light on the social origins of a

revolution's articiants.

(") The dossiers closely resemble the narratives ritten by the revolution'sleaders in their ersonal memoirs.

(#) The information that such dossiers contain is untrustorthy and

unreresentative of a revolution's articiants.

($) ,ocial historians refer to avoid such dossiers henever ossible because

they are e%cessively detailed.

(!) The >ebruary 5evolution of 1&9& roduced more of these dossiers than did

the 2une insurrection.

++. hich of the folloing is the most logical obection to the claim made in lines

3&-3*

(A) The >ebruary 5evolution of 1&9& is much less significant than the 2uly

insurrection of 1&3.

(") The backgrounds and motivations of articiants in the 2uly insurrection of

1&3 have been identified8 hoever cursorily.

(#) !ven less is knon about the 2uly insurrection of 1&3 than about the

>ebruary 5evolution of 1&9&.

($) 4istorical records made during the 2uly insurrection of 1&3 are less reliable

than those made during the @ay insurrection of 1&71.



GRE +7

(!) The imortance of the 2uly insurrection of 1&3 has been magnified at the

e%ense of the significance of the >ebruary 5evolution of 1&9&.

+3. ith hich of the folloing statements regarding revolution ould the author

most likely agree*

(A) 5evolutionary mobilization requires a great deal of lanning by eole

reresenting disaffected grous.

(") The obectives of the >ebruary 5evolution ere more radical than those of

the 2une insurrection.

(#) The rocess of revolutionary mobilization varies greatly from one revolution

to the ne%t.

($) 5evolutions vary greatly in the usefulness of the historical records that they

roduce.

(!) As knoledge of the >ebruary 5evolution increases8 chances are good that itsimortance ill eventually eclise that of the 2une insurrection.

?ne advantage of breeding African bees with other bee types +Africani&ation

may be resistance to the parasitic mite ;arroa <aco(soni, a ma/or threat to

modern beekeeping. n parts of Europe% this mite is devastating honeybees and

killing many colonies despite preventive measures by beekeepers. "ut in "ra&il

;arroa <aco(soni has been present in Africani&ed bees since 1IQ5 without the loss

of a single colony% even though beekeepers there undertook no preventive

measures. (he mites lay eggs within the brood cells of immature bees% and

developing mites feed on the hemolymph +blood of bee pupae. "ut fewer mitesreproduce in Africani&ed bees than in European bees. 9ome researchers point out

that this resistance may be related to the Africani&ed worker bee’s shorter

development period% which prevents some mites from reaching maturity. $ecently

the mite has become a serious problem in colonies of European bees in Borth

America. Africani&ation of these bees may be the best safeguard against this

parasite.

+9. The assage suggests that hich of the folloing as true of the honeybee

colonies described in line 9-<*

(A) Their life e%ectancy8 hen free of disease8 as shorter than that of !uroean bee colonies in orth America.

(") They ere not Africanized.

(#) Their life cycle did not accommodate the feeding habits of Varroa 5acobsoni0

($) They resonded ell to measures to control Varroa 5acobsoni.

(!) They ere managed using methods that ere more modern than those

emloyed in "razil.

+;. The author cites all of the folloing as evidence that Africanized bees' resistance

to Varroa 5acobsoni is suerior to that of !uroean bees !C#!T=(A) >eer Varroa 5acobsoni mites reroduce in Africanized bees.



GRE +&

(") Varroa 5acobsoni is killing many bee colonies in !uroe.

(#) "eekeeers in "razil have not used reventive measures to rotect their

colonies.

($) "razilian bee colonies have endured Varroa 5acobsoni since 17+.

(!) At least some !uroean bee colonies have been saved by reventive

measures.

+<. According to the assage8 research suggests that one ossible reason the

Africanized bees in "razil have successfully resisted Varroa 5acobsoni is that

(A) the life cycle of the Africanized bee may limit the Varroa 5acobsoni mite's

oortunity to reach full develoment

(") the Africanized bees may have had an oortunity to develo a chemical

resistance to Varroa 5acobsoni

(#) the location of bee colonies in "razil may rovide a natural deterrent toVarroa 5acobsoni

($) Varroa 5acobsoni may be relatively ne to "razil and may not have had time

to become idesread

(!) beekeeers may have develoed effective control techniques for Varroa

5acobsoni

+7. The author's argument regarding the resistance of Africanized bees to Varroa

5acobsoni ould be most eakened if hich of the folloing ere true*

(A) The bees in "razil ere resistant before being Africanized.(") The number of bee colonies in orth American increased dramatically

hereas the number in "razil remained unchanged.

(#) @ites found in !uroean bees reroduce at a faster rate than mites of identical

secies found in the bees in "razil.

($) Africanized bees retain many of the characteristics of !uroean bees.

(!) "ee colonies in !uroe continue to roduce greater quantities of honey than

do those in "razil.

1993 10

SECTION A

Bational character is not formally considered by social scientists in discussing

economic and social development today. (hey believe that people di=er and that

these di=erences should be taken into account somehow% but they have as yet

discovered no way to include such variables in their formal models of economic

and social development. (he di*culty lies in the nature of the data that

supposedly dene di=erent national characters. Anthropologists and others are onmuch rmer ground when they attempt to describe the cultural norms for a small



GRE +

homogeneous tribe or village than when they undertake the formidable task of

discovering the norms that exist in a complex modern nation-state composed of

many disparate groups. (he situation is further complicated by the nature of

/udgments about character% since such /udgments are overly dependent on

impressions and since% furthermore% impressions are usually stated in 'ualitativeterms% it is impossible to make a reliable comparison between the national

characters of two countries.

17. The author's main oint in the assage is that national character

(A) is too elusive to merit attention by anthroologists and other social scientists

(") is of greater interest to social scientists today than it has been in the ast

(#) is still too difficult to describe ith the recision required by many social

scientists

($) has become increasingly irrelevant because of the comle%ity of modern life(!) can be described more accurately by anthroologists than by other social

scientists

1&. /iven the information in the assage8 hich of the folloing is BT true of

modern nation-states*

(A) They are comle%.

(") They are heterogeneous.

(#) They are of interest to social scientists.

($) They lack cultural norms.(!) They differ from one another in terms of national character.

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that the social scientists mentioned in lines 1-7

ould agree ith hich of the folloing statements*

:. :t is e%tremely difficult to create models that account for both economic and

social develoment.

::. @odels of economic and social develoment ould be imroved by the

inclusion of adequate descritions of national character.

:::. :t is imortant to sulement formal models of economic and social

develoment ith qualitative imressions of national character.

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) ::: only

($) : and ::: only

(!) :: and ::: only

+. hich of the folloing best describes the organization of the assage*

(A) A roblem is resented and reasons for its e%istence are sulied.

(") A controversial vie is resented and evidence for its validity is sulied.



GRE 3

(#) A hyothesis is resented and ossible means of verifying it are suggested.

($) A recent develoment is described and then analyzed.

(!) A disute is summarized and one side defended.

?ne of the simplest and best known kinds of crystal is the ionic salt% of which

a typical example is sodium chloride or ordinary table salt. (he fundamental

components of an ionic salt are ions< atoms or molecules that have become

electrically charged by gaining or losing one or more electrons. n forming sodium

chloride% for example% sodium atoms give up an electron +thereby becoming

positively charged and chlorine atoms gain an electron +thereby becoming

negatively charged. (he ions are attracted to one another by their opposite

charges% and they stack together compactly% like tightly packed spheres.

$ecently% scientists at >ichigan 9tate 8niversity created a new kind of crystal

called an electride. n electrides% the anions +negative ions are completely

replaced by electrons% which are trapped in naturally formed cavities within a

framework of regularly stacked cations +positive ions. Electrides are the rst

examples of ionic salts in which all these anionic sites are occupied solely by

electrons.

8nlike other types of anions% anionic electrons do not behave as if they were

simple charged spheres. n particular% because of their low mass and their

tendency to interact with one another over great distances% they cannot be

@pinned down to any one location. nstead% they wander close to and among the

atoms lining the cavity and interact with electrons in nearby cavities% perhaps

changing places with them.

(he properties of an electride depend largely on the distance between the

cavities that hold trapped electrons. !hen the trapped electrons are far apart%

they do not interact strongly% and so behave somewhat like an array of isolated

negative charges. !hen they are closer together% they begin to display properties

associated with large ensembles of identical particles. !hen they are still closer%

the ensemble properties dominate and the electrons @delocali&e< they are no

longer tightly bound within individual cavities but are more or less free to pass

through the spaces within the frame-work of positive ions.

"y synthesi&ing electrides from a variety of materials% one can vary thegeometry of the anionic cavities and their relation to the surrounding cations. (he

resulting properties may make it possible for electrides to become a basis for

economically useful new materials and devices. ;or instance% because the

electrons in some electrides are very weakly bound% these crystals could be

e=ective as photosensitive detectors% in which an impinging photon liberates an

electron% resulting in a small electric current. (he same weak binding could also

make electrides useful in solar-energy converters and as cathodes in batteries.

?ne obstacle is the tendency of electrides to decompose through reaction with air

and water. $esearchers are seeking ways to increase their stability.



GRE 31

+1. The assage is rimarily concerned ith discussing

(A) a ay to isolate electrons

(") the characteristics of a ne kind of crystal

(#) the structure of an ionic salt

($) commercial uses for electrides

(!) the roerties of ions

++. :n the first aragrah8 the author is rimarily concerned ith

(A) introducing a variant on the standard atomic theory

(") describing ho chlorine atoms can become negatively charged

(#) describing some early research at @ichigan ,tate 6niversity

($) resenting the identifying roerties of an electride

(!) roviding background for the technical discussion to follo

+3. :t can be inferred from the assage that the differences beteen the behavior of

anionic electrons and normal anions result from hich of the folloing features

of electrons8 as comared to normal anions*

:. The much loer mass of electrons

::. The much greater tendency of electrons to interact ith one another over

large distances

:::. The much greater likelihood of electrons to remain traed in naturally

formed anionic cavities

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) : and :: only

($) : and ::: only

(!) :: and ::: only

+9. According to the assage8 the defining characteristic of an electride is hich of

the folloing*

(A) :ts ositive ions are of articularly lo mass.

(") :ts ions ossess identical electrical charges.

(#) :t contains a frameork of regularly stacked ions.

($) :ts ions demonstrate strong mutual attraction.

(!) :ts negative ions consist solely of electrons.

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that anions behaving as Esimle charged

sheresF (line ++) could be e%ected to

(A) readily lose electrons and become ositively charged

(") move freely in and out of their cavities



GRE 3+

(#) resond to hotons by liberating electrons

($) stack ith other anions to create a regular frameork

(!) remain fi%ed relative to their cations

+<. :t can be inferred from the assage that an electride behaves most like a normalionic crystal hen the electride has hich of the folloing features*

(A) The anionic cavities are idely searated.

(") All of the traed electrons are able to delocalize.

(#) The traed electrons are liberated by iminging hotons.

($) The ions are tightly acked together.

(!) @ost of the cations have lost their electrical charge.

+7. ith hich of the folloing statements regarding electrides ould the author

most likely agree*(A) They have roven themselves to be of great commercial value.

(") Their future commercial value is romising but uncertain.

(#) They are interesting but of no ractical value.

($) They have commercial value mainly in solar-energy alications.

(!) Their rincial imortance ill lie in scientific research.

SECTION B

(ypically the 'ueen honeybee is mother to all the bees in a hive4 after matingwith several male drones from other colonies% she lays fertili&ed eggs that develop

into all-female worker bees and lays unfertili&ed eggs that become all-male

drones. !hen a 'ueen dies% workers often lay unfertili&ed eggs that hatch into

drones. Det workers rarely reproduce while a 'ueen reigns.

According to natural selection theory% a worker would enhance her tness0or

ability to propagate her genes0by hatching her own eggs in addition to or in

place of the 'ueen’s. "ut a typical worker’s tness would be diminished if other

workers’ sons% who have less genetic material in common with the worker%

supplanted the 'ueen’s sons +the worker’s brothers. $esearchers% testing thehypothesis that workers usually somehow block each other’s attempts to

reproduce% put unfertili&ed eggs laid by workers and by the 'ueen into a hive.

?ther workers 'uickly devoured the workers’ eggs while leaving the 'ueen’s eggs

alone.

17. The author refers to the e%eriment described in lines 1<-1 in order to

(A) e%lain ho orker bees are revented from mating ith drones

(") e%lain ho orker bees hatch and nurture the queen's young

(#) demonstrate the universality of natural selection

($) sho that orker bees are caable of tharting each other's attemts to



GRE 33

reroduce

(!) rovide a model of daily life in a tyical honeybee hive

1&. The inner orkings in a honeybee hive that regulate reroduction8 as they are

described in the assage8 are most similar to hich of the folloing tyes ofhuman societies*

(A) A totalitarian society in hich citizens' EolicingF of each other's actions

hels to maintain the status quo.

(") A acifist state in hich the individuals are strongly oosed to the use of

violence or aggression to settle disutes.

(#) A democratic society in hich the voice of the maority rules.

($) A arliamentary society in hich a fe members8 organized as a cabinet

ield e%ecutive oer.

(!) An anarchic state in hich order and stable social structures are lacking.

1. The assage best suorts hich of the folloing inferences about the fitness of

honeybees*

(A) 5eroduction diminishes any individual honeybee's fitness.

(") An individual orker's fitness can be maintained ithout the individual

herself reroducing.

(#) A hierarchy of stronger and eaker individuals among the orker bees

determines hich individuals ill reroduce hen a queen dies.

($) hile a queen reigns8 the fitness of the orker bees is increased and that ofthe drones is diminished.

(!) >itness encourages orker bees to hatch honeybee eggs ithout regard for the

relatedness of the young to the Earent.F

+. The assage suggests hich of the folloing about the eggs laid by orker bees*

(A) Bne of the eggs hatches into the ne%t queen.

(") The eggs are invariably destroyed by other orker bees.

(#) !ach orker tries to hide her eggs from the other orker bees.

($) The eggs hatch only if the orker has mated ith a drone from another hive.(!) The eggs are less likely to be harmed by other orkers if the queen is dead.

n the elds of elano% California% in 1IO2% uis Falde& started the (eatro

Campesino +;armworker’s (heater% and with it initiated the renaissance of

>exican American theater. (he (eatro Campesino had an avowedly political

purpose< to rally ca$)esinos +farmworkers in support of the farm workers’ strike

then being organi&ed by Cesar Chave&. Falde&’ dramatic presentations% called

actos, spoke to a ca$)esino audience and addressed topics and themes directly

related to the strike. Falde&’ early actos were composed of a series of scenes

about the strike experience acted by ca$)esino volunteers. ,is later actos werepresented by a newly constituted professional company% still called the (eatro



GRE 39

Campesino% and addressed such themes as the impact of the Fietnam !ar on

>exican Americans and the dangers of assimilation% themes relevant to urban

>exican Americans as well as to ca$)esinos. All Falde&’ actos contained elements

of song and dance% relied little on stage e=ects or props% and featured the use of

masks. (hese dramatic elements% along with an intensely social or politicalpurpose and the use of a mixture of 9panish% English% and >exican American

dialects in the dialogues% which realistically capture the #avor of >exican

American conversation% are still characteristic both of the acto and of most other

forms of >exican American theater today.

nnovative as it is% the acto owes much to the theater traditions of other

periods and regions. ike early 9panish American religious dramas% secular folk

dramas% and the >exican car)as of a somewhat later period% actos are usually

performed outdoors by traveling groups of players or by local theater groups. (he

improvised comic satire of the actos is often attributed to Falde&’ study of thetalian co$$edia de!!# arte of the sixteenth century% although some critics see it

as a direct re#ection of the comic and improvisational 'ualities of the more

contemporary and local car)as of >exican theater. (he talian in#uence is likely%

whatever Falde& immediate source< the >exican car)as themselves are said to

have originated from the theater pieces of a sixteenth-century 9panish writer

inspired by encounters with talian co$$edia de!!# arte troupes on tour in 9pain.

(he English-language theater has provided elements as well< Falde& himself has

acknowledged his debt to the agitprop socialist theater that appeared in the

8nited 9tates during the 1I53’s and 1I:3’s. n particular% his actos contain the

same assortment of semiallegorical characters and the same blend of music%

chorus% and dialogue found in some of the agitprop pieces% as well as the same

erce spirit of social and political criti'ue. ;inally% many of Falde&’ later theater

pieces freely incorporate characters% plots and symbols drawn from the

indigenous myths and rituals of the pre-,ispanic peoples of atin America. n fact%

no other art form illustrates more clearly the depth and complexity of the >exican

American heritage itself than does the acto of uis Falde& and the (eatro

Campesino.

+1. According to the assage8 the original imetus behind the establishment of the

Teatro #amesino as hich of the folloing*

(A) To hel urban @e%ican Americans understand the roblems confronting

striking ca%pesinos in #alifornia

(") To romote an attitude of ride in the deth and richness of the @e%ican

American heritage among striking ca%pesinos

(#) To rovide striking camesinos an oortunity to use their creative talents to

e%ress their olitical oinions

($) To allo its founder to e%ress his ersonal suort of the ca%pesinos1 strike

effort

(!) To mobilize ca%pesinos to suort the farm orkers' strike in #alifornia



GRE 3;

++. The author cites all of the folloing as robable influences on ?aldez'

develoment of the acto !C#!T the

(A) theater of si%teenth-century :taly

(") carpas of @e%ico

(#) drama of classical /reece

($) !nglish-language theater of the 6nited ,tates

(!) myths and rituals of re-4isanic America

+3. The assage suggests that hich of the folloing as true of the later actos of the

Teatro #amesino*

(A) They ere more olitically effective than ere earlier actos.

(") They ere resented rimarily outdoors8 hereas earlier actos ere resented

inside theaters.

(#) They used a greater mi%ture of dialects than did the earlier actos.

($) They addressed a broader audience than did the earlier actos.

(!) They differed from earlier actos in that they contained feer imrovisational

elements.

+9. hich of the folloing best describes the author's evaluation of the vies of the

critics cited in lines 3<-3*

(A) Their vies8 if correct8 do not reclude the e%istence of an :talian influence

on the acto.

(") Their vies are unlikely to be correct8 given the differences e%isting beteen

@e%ican and @e%ican American theater.

(#) Their vies concerning the @e%ican carpas are essentially correct8 but they

lack familiarity ith the acto0

($) Their vies are robably more correct than the vies of those ho have

attributed the comic and imrovisational elements of the acto to earlier

sources.

(!) Their vies betray a lack of familiarity ith the co%%edia dell1 arte.

+;. The assage suggests that hich of the folloing e%lains the characteristic useof a mi%ture of ,anish8 !nglish8 and @e%ican American dialects in the orks of

@e%ican American layrights*

(A) @e%ican American layrights ish to include in their orks elements

dran from the traditions and history of re-4isanic America.

(") @e%ican American layrights try to guarantee that their orks are fully

understood by the broadest ossible audience8 including those ho may

seak only one language.

(#) ,uch a linguistic mi% faithfully reflects the linguistic diversity of @e%ican

American culture8 and is easily understood by most @e%ican Americans.



GRE 3<

($) @any @e%ican American layrights are quite familiar ith both the

,anish-language and the !nglish-language theater traditions.

(!) @any different languages are still soken ithin the confines of the 6nited

,tates8 although !nglish is still the most common first language of its

citizens.

+<. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing elements characteristic of the

acto are also found in some agitro theater ieces*

(A) The use of masks

(") #omic imrovisation

(#) An outdoor setting

($) @inimal use of comle% stage effects or ros

(!) An assortment of semiallegorical characters

+7. hich of the folloing8 if true8 most strengthens the author's argument

concerning the debt of the acto to the theater traditions of other eriods and

regions*

(A) @any oular forms of theater rely heavily on imrovisation.

(") lays resembling the acto in structure ere ritten in the 17's by est

African layrights ho are interested in dramatizing the richness of their

on cultures.

(#) The use of masks has8 at one time or another 8 been characteristic of the theater

traditions of almost all cultures8 even those most isolated from outsideinfluences.

($) $uring a strike8 it is common for union members to resent musical skits

dramatizing the values of solidarity and resistance.

(!) "efore 1<; Duis ?aldez had attended many erformances of traditional

@e%ican theater grous touring the estern 6nited ,tates.

1994 02

SECTION A

Analy&ing the physics of dance can add fundamentally to a dancer’s skill.

Although dancers seldom see themselves totally in physical terms0as body mass

moving through space under the in#uence of well-known forces and obeying

physical laws—neither can they a=ord to ignore the physics of movement. ;or

example% no matter how much a dancer wishes to leap o= the #oor and then start

turning% the law of conservation of angular momentum absolutely prevents such a

movement.

9ome movements involving primarily vertical or hori&ontal motions of the

body as a whole% in which rotations can be ignored% can be studied using simple



GRE 37

e'uations of linear motion in three dimensions. ,owever% rotational motions

re'uire more complex approaches that involve analyses of the way the body’s

mass is distributed% the axes of rotation involved in di=erent types of movement%

and the sources of the forces that produce the rotational movement.


(A) initiate a debate over to aroaches to analyzing a field of study

(") describe ho one field of knoledge can be alied to another field

(#) oint out the contradictions beteen to distinct theories

($) define and elaborate on an acceted scientific rincile

(!) discuss the alication of a ne theory ithin a ne setting

1&. The author mentions all of the folloing as contributing to an understanding of

the hysics of dance !C#!T=

(A) the la of conservation of angular momentum

(") analyses of the ay in hich the body's mass is distributed

(#) equations of linear motion in three dimensions

($) analyses of the sources that roduce rotational motions

(!) the technical terms for movements such as leas and turns

1. The author imlies that dancers can become more skilled by doing hich of the

folloing*

(A) :gnoring rotational movements(") 6nderstanding the forces that ermit various movements

(#) ,olving simle linear equations

($) Dearning the technical terms utilized by choreograhers

(!) #ircumventing the la of conservation of angular momentum

+. Analysis of hich of the folloing ould require the kind of comle% aroach

described in lines 19-1*

(A) A long lea across sace

(") A short um uard ith a return to the same lace(#) A sustained and controlled turn in lace

($) ,hort8 raid stes forard and then backard ithout turning

(!) Kuick sidestes in a diagonal line

,uman relations have commanded people’s attention from early times. (he

ways of people have been recorded in innumerable myths% folktales% novels%

poems% plays% and popular or philosophical essays. Although the full signicance

of a human relationship may not be directly evident% the complexity of feelings

and actions that can be understood at a glance is surprisingly great. ;or this

reason psychology holds a uni'ue position among the sciences. @ntuitive



GRE 3&

knowledge may be remarkably penetrating and can signicantly help us

understand human behavior% whereas in the physical sciences such commonsense

knowledge is relatively primitive. f we erased all knowledge of scientic physics

from our modem word% not only would we not have cars and television sets% we

might even nd that the ordinary person was unable to cope with thefundamental mechanical problems of pulleys and levers. ?n the other hand if we

removed all knowledge of scientic psychology from our world% problems in

interpersonal relations might easily be coped with and solved much as before. !e

would still @know how to avoid doing something asked of us and how to get

someone to agree with us4 we would still @know when someone was angry and

when someone was pleased. ?ne could even o=er sensible explanations for the

@whys of much of the self’s behavior and feelings. n other words% the ordinary

person has a great and profound understanding of the self and of other people

which% though unformulated or only vaguely conceived% enables one to interact

with others in more or less adaptive ways. Johler% in referring to the lack of great

discoveries in psychology as compared with physics% accounts for this by saying

that @people were ac'uainted with practically all territories of mental life a long

time before the founding of scientic psychology.

6aradoxically% with all this natural% intuitive% commonsense capacity to grasp

human relations% the science of human relations has been one of the last to

develop. i=erent explanations of this paradox have been suggested. ?ne is that

science would destroy the vain and pleasing illusions people have about

themselves4 but we might ask why people have always loved to read pessimistic%

debunking writings% from Ecclesiastes to ;reud. t has also been proposed that /ust

because we know so much about people intuitively% there has been less incentive

for studying them scientically4 why should one develop a theory% carry out

systematic observations% or make predictions about the obviousP n any case% the

eld of human relations% with its vast literary documentation but meager scientic

treatment% is in great contrast to the eld of physic in which there are relatively

few nonscientic books.

+1. According to the assage8 it has been suggested that the science of human

relations as slo to develo because

(A) intuitive knoledge of human relations is derived from hilosohy

(") early scientists ere more interested in the hysical orld

(#) scientific studies of human relations aear to investigate the obvious

($) the scientific method is difficult to aly to the study of human relations

(!) eole generally seem to be more attracted to literary than to scientific

ritings about human relations

++. The author's statement that Esychology holds a unique osition among the

sciencesF (lines &-) is suorted by hich of the folloing claims in the

assage*



GRE 3

(A) The full meaning of a human relationshi may not be obvious.

(") #ommonsense understanding of human relations can be incisive.

(#) :ntuitive knoledge in the hysical sciences is relatively advanced.

($) ,ubective bias is difficult to control in sychological research.

(!) sychological facts are too imrecise to lead to great discoveries.

+3. According to the assage8 an understanding of the self can be

(A) highly biased due to unconscious factors

(") rofound even hen vaguely conceived

(#) imroved by secialized training

($) irrelevant for understanding human relations

(!) more reliable than knoledge about other eole

+9. :t can be inferred that the author ould most likely agree ith hich of the

folloing statements regarding eole ho lived before the advent of scientific

sychology*

(A) Their understanding of human relations as quite limited.

(") They ere uninterested in acquiring knoledge of the hysical orld.

(#) They misunderstood others more frequently than do eole today.

($) Their intuitions about human relations ere reasonably sohisticated.

(!) They ere more likely to hold leasing illusions about themselves than are

eole today.

+;. The author imlies that attemts to treat human relations scientifically have thus

far been relatively

(A) unilluminating

(") arado%ical

(#) essimistic

($) encouraging

(!) uninterretable

+<. The author refers to eole ho are attracted to Eessimistic8 debunking ritingsF

(line 99) in order to suort hich of the folloing ideas*

(A) :nteresting books about human relations are tyically essimistic.

(") eole tend to ignore scientific e%lanations of human relations.

(#) eole rarely hold leasing illusions about themselves.

($) A scientific aroach human relations ould undermine the leasing illusions

eole hold of themselves.

(!) :t is doubtful that the science of human relations develoed sloly because of

a desire to maintain leasing illusions.



GRE 31

+7. :t can be inferred that the author assumes that commonsense knoledge of human

relations is

(A) equally ell develoed among all adults ithin a given society

(") considerably more accurate in some societies than in others

(#) biased insofar as it is based on myths and folktales

($) tyically unrelated to an individual's interactions ith other eole

(!) usually sufficiently accurate to facilitate interactions ith others

SECTION B

Although a historical lack of access to formal 9panish-language education

initially limited the opportunities of some Chicanos to hone their skills as writers of

9panish% their bilingual culture clearly fostered an exuberant and compelling oral

tradition. t has thus generally been by way of the emphasis on oral literary

creativity that these Chicano writers% whose English-language works are

sometimes uninspired% developed the powerful and arresting language that

characteri&ed their 9panish-language works. (his 9panish-English di=erence is not

surprising. !hen writing in 9panish% these authors stayed close to the spoken

traditions of their communities where publication% support% and instructive

response would come 'uickly in local or regional newspapers. !orks in English%

however% often re'uired the elimination of nuance or collo'uialism% the adoption

of a formal tone% and the ad/ustment of themes or ideas to satisfy the di=erent

demands of national publications.

17. The assage is rimarily concerned ith doing hich of the folloing*

(A) $ebating the historical value of a literary movement

(") $escribing and accounting for a difference in literary styles

(#) !%laining a ublishing decision and evaluating its results

($) Analyzing the e%ectations of a articular grou of readers

(!) #lassifying several kinds of literary roduction

1&. According to the author8 the #hicano oral e%erience contributed directly to

hich of the folloing characteristics in the ork of some #hicano riters*

(A) A sensitivity to and adetness in using the soken language

(") A tendency to aear in national rather than regional ublications

(#) A style reflecting the influence of ,anish language education

($) A reliance on a rather formal style

(!) A caacity to aeal to a broad range of audiences

1. hich of the folloing best describes the function of the last to sentences of the

assage (lines 11-1)*

(A) They e%and on an advantage mentioned in the first sentence of the



GRE 311

assage(lines 1-;).

(") They outline the consequences of a limitation discussed in the first sentence

of the assage (lines 1-;).

(#) They rovide e%licit e%amles dran from the oral and the ritten orks

mentioned in the second sentence of the assage (lines ;-1).

($) They e%lain the causes of a henomenon mentioned in the third sentence of

the assage(lines 1-11).

(!) They limit the alicability of a generalization made in the third sentence of

the assage (lines 1-11).

+. The assage suggests that hich of the folloing as robably characteristic of

the Enational ublicationsF mentioned in line 1*

(A) They rimarily resented scholarly material of little interest to a general

audience.(") They sometimes ublished articles treating controversial themes.

(#) They encouraged authors to feature local issues in articles in order to increase

circulation.

($) They included a significant number of articles by minority authors.

(!) They took a stylistically formal aroach to material of interest to a general

audience.

(he two claws of the mature American lobster are decidedly di=erent from

each other. (he crusher claw is short and stout4 the cutter claw is long and

slender. 9uch bilateral asymmetry% in which the right side of the body is% in all

other respects% a mirror image of the left side% is not unlike handedness in

humans. "ut where the ma/ority of humans are right-handed% in lobsters the

crusher claw appears with e'ual probability on either the right or left side of the

body.

"ilateral asymmetry of the claws comes about gradually. n the /uvenile fourth

and fth stages of development% the paired claws are symmetrical and cutterlike.

Asymmetry begins to appear in the /uvenile sixth stage of development% and the

paired claws further diverge toward well-dened cutter and crusher claws during

succeeding stages. An intriguing aspect of this development was discovered by

Fictor Emmel. ,e found that if one of the paired claws is removed during the

fourth or fth stage% the intact claw invariably becomes a crusher% while the

regenerated claw becomes a cutter. $emoval of a claw during a later /uvenile

stage or during adulthood% when asymmetry is present% does not alter the

asymmetry4 the intact and the regenerate claws retain their original structures.

(hese observations indicate that the conditions that trigger di=erentiation

must operate in a random manner when the paired claws are intact but in a

nonrandom manner when one of the claws is lost. ?ne possible explanation is that

di=erential use of the claws determines their asymmetry. 6erhaps the claw that is



GRE 31+

used more becomes the crusher. (his would explain why% when one of the claws is

missing during the fourth or fth stage% the intact claw always becomes a crusher.

!ith two intact claws% initial use of one claw might prompt the animal to use it

more than the other throughout the /uvenile fourth and fth stages% causing it to

become a crusher.

(o test this hypothesis% researchers raised lobsters in the /uvenile fourth and

fth stages of development in a laboratory environment in which the lobsters

could manipulate oyster chips. +Bot coincidentally% at this stage of development

lobsters typically change from a habitat where they drift passively% to the ocean

#oor where they have the opportunity to be more active by burrowing in the

substrate. 8nder these conditions% the lobsters developed asymmetric claws% half

with crusher claws on the left% and half with crusher claws on the right. n

contrast% when /uvenile lobsters were reared in a smooth tank without the oyster

chips% the ma/ority developed two cutter claws. (his unusual conguration ofsymmetrical cutter claws did not change when the lobsters were subse'uently

placed in a manipulatable environment or when they lost and regenerated one or

both claws.


(A) draing an analogy beteen asymmetry in lobsters and handedness in

humans

(") develoing a method for redicting hether crusher clas in lobsters ill

aear on the left or right side

(#) e%laining differences beteen lobsters' crusher clas and cutter clas

($) discussing a ossible e%lanation for the ay bilateral asymmetry is

determined in lobsters

(!) summarizing the stages of develoment of the lobster

++. !ach of the folloing statements about the develoment of a lobster's crusher

cla is suorted by information in the assage !C#!T=

(A) :t can be stoed on one side and begun on the other after the uvenile si%th

stage.

(") :t occurs gradually over a number of stages.

(#) :t is initially aarent in the uvenile si%th stage.

($) :t can occur even hen a rosective crusher cla is removed in the uvenile

si%th stage.

(!) :t is less likely in the absence of a maniulatable environment.

+3. hich of the folloing e%erimental results8 if observed8 ould most clearly

contradict the findings of ?ictor !mmel*

(A) A left cutterlike cla is removed in the fifth stage and a crusher cla

develos on the right side.



GRE 313

(") A left cutterlike cla is removed in the fourth stage and a crusher cla

develos on the left side.

(#) A left cutterlike cla is removed in the si%th stage and a crusher cla


($) "oth cutterlike clas are removed in the fifth stage and a crusher cla

develos on the left side.

(!) "oth cutterlike clas are removed in the fourth stage and a crusher cla


+9. :t can be inferred that of the to laboratory environments mentioned in the

assage8 the one ith oyster chis as designed to

(A) rove that the resence of oyster chis as not necessary for the develoment

of a crusher cla

(") rove that the relative length of time that the lobsters ere e%osed to theoyster-chi environment had little imact on the develoment of a crusher

cla

(#) eliminate the environment as a ossible influence in the develoment of a

crusher cla

($) control on hich side the crusher cla develos

(!) simulate the conditions that lobsters encounter in their natural environment

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that one difference beteen lobsters in the

earlier stages of develoment and those in the uvenile fourth and fifth stages is

that lobsters in the early stages are

(A) likely to be less active

(") likely to be less symmetrical

(#) more likely to lose a cla

($) more likely to relace a crusher cla ith a cutter cla

(!) more likely to regenerate a lost cla

+<. hich of the folloing conditions does the assage suggest is a ossible cause

for the failure of a lobster to develo a crusher cla*

(A) The loss of a cla during the third or earlier stage of develoment

(") The loss of a cla during the fourth or fifth stage of develoment

(#) The loss of a cla during the si%th stage of develoment

($) $eveloment in an environment devoid of material that can be maniulated

(!) $eveloment in an environment that changes frequently throughout the stages

of develoment

+7. The author regards the idea that differentiation is triggered randomly hen aired

clas remain intact as

(A) irrefutable considering the authoritative nature of !mmel's observations



GRE 319

(") likely in vie of resent evidence

(#) contradictory to conventional thinking on lobster-cla differentiation

($) urely seculative because it is based on scattered research and

e%erimentation

(!) unlikely because of aarent inconsistencies ith theories on handedness in

humans

1994 04

SECTION A

efenders of special protective labor legislation for women often maintain

that eliminating such laws would destroy the fruits of a century-long struggle for

the protection of women workers. Even a brief examination of the historic practice

of courts and employers would show that the fruit of such laws has been bitter<

they are% in practice% more of a curse than a blessing.

9ex-dened protective laws have often been based on stereotypical

assumptions concerning women’s needs and abilities% and employers have

fre'uently used them as legal excuses for discriminating against women. After the

9econd !orld !ar% for example% businesses and government sought to persuade

women to vacate /obs in factories% thus making room in the labor force for

returning veterans. (he revival or passage of state laws limiting the daily or

weekly work hours of women conveniently accomplished this. Employers had onlyto declare that overtime hours were a necessary condition of employment or

promotion in their factory% and women could be 'uite legally red% refused /obs% or

kept at low wage levels% all in the name of @protecting their health. "y validating

such laws when they are challenged by lawsuits% the courts have colluded over

the years in establishing di=erent% less advantageous employment terms for

women than for men% thus reducing women’s competitiveness on the /ob market.

At the same time% even the most well-intentioned lawmakers% courts% and

employers have often been blind to the real needs of women. (he lawmakers and

the courts continue to permit employers to o=er employee health insurance plans

that cover all known human medical disabilities except those relating to

pregnancy and childbirth.

;inally% labor laws protecting only special groups are often ine=ective at

protecting the workers who are actually in the workplace. 9ome chemicals% for

example% pose reproductive risks for women of childbearing years4 manufacturers

using the chemicals comply with laws protecting women against these ha&ards by

refusing to hire them. (hus the sex-dened legislation protects the hypothetical

female worker% but has no e=ect whatever on the safety of any actual employee.

(he health risks to male employees in such industries cannot be negligible% since

chemicals toxic enough to cause birth defects in fetuses or sterility in women are



GRE 31;

presumably harmful to the human metabolism. 6rotective laws aimed at changing

production materials or techni'ues in order to reduce such ha&ards would benet

all employees without discriminating against any.

n sum% protective labor laws for women are discriminatory and do not meet

their intended purpose. egislators should recogni&e that women are in the work

force to stay% and that their needs—good health care% a decent wage% and a safe

workplace—are the needs of all workers. aws that ignore these facts violate

women’s rights for e'ual protection in employment.

17. According to the author8 hich of the folloing resulted from the assage or

revival of state las limiting the ork hours of omen orkers*

(A) omen orkers ere comelled to leave their obs in factories.

(") @any emloyers had difficulty in roviding obs for returning veterans.

(#) @any emloyers found it hard to attract omen orkers.($) The health of most omen factory orkers imroved.

(!) !mloyment ractices that addressed the real needs of omen orkers

became common.

1&. The author laces the ord ErotectingF in quotation marks in line +1 most likely

in order to suggest that

(A) she is quoting the actual ording of the las in question

(") the rotective nature of the las in question should not be overlooked

(#) rotecting the health of orkers is imortant to those ho suort rotectivelabor las

($) the las in question ere really used to the detriment of omen orkers8

desite being overtly rotective in intent

(!) the health of orkers is not in need of rotection8 even in obs here many

hours of overtime ork are required

1. The assage suggests that hich of the folloing is a shortcoming of rotective

labor las that single out a articular grou of orkers for rotection*

(A) ,uch las are often too eak to be effective at rotecting the grou in

question.

(") ,uch las are usually drafted by legislators ho8 do not have the best

interests of orkers at heart.

(#) ,uch las e%ert no ressure on emloyers to eliminate hazards in the

orklace.

($) #omliance ith such las is often costly for emloyers and rovokes

lasuits by emloyees claiming discrimination.

(!) !mloyer comliance ith such las results in increased tension among

orkers on the ob8 because such las unfairly rivilege one grou ofemloyees over another.



GRE 31<

+. According to the first aragrah of the assage8 the author considers hich of the

folloing to be most helful in determining the value of secial rotective labor

legislation for omen*

(A) A comarative study of atterns of ork-related illnesses in states that had

such las and in states that did not

(") An estimate of ho many omen orkers are in favor of such las

(#) An analysis of the cost to emloyers of comlying ith such las

($) A consideration of hat intentions the advocates of such las really had

concerning omen orkers

(!) An e%amination of the actual effects that such las have had in the ast on

omen orkers

+1. The main oint of the assage is that secial rotective labor las for omen

orkers are(A) unnecessary because most orkers are ell rotected by e%isting labor las

(") harmful to the economic interests of omen orkers hile offering them

little or no actual rotection

(#) not orth reserving even though they do reresent a hard-on legacy of the

labor movement

($) controversial because male orkers receive less rotection than they require

(!) inadequate in that they often do not revent emloyers from e%osing omen

orkers to many health hazards

++. The author imlies that hich of the folloing is characteristic of many

emloyee health insurance lans*

(A) They cover all the common medical conditions affecting men8 but only some

of those affecting omen.

(") They lack the secial rovisions for omen orkers that roosed secial

labor las for omen ould rovide.

(#) They ay the medical costs associated ith regnancy and childbirth only for

the souses of male emloyees8 not for female emloyees.

($) They meet minimum legal requirements8 but do not adequately safeguard the

health of either male or female emloyees.

(!) They have recently been imroved as a result of the assage of ne labor

las8 but continue to e%clude coverage of certain uncommon medical

conditions affecting omen.

+3. According to the assage8 secial labor las rotecting omen orkers tend

generally to have hich of the folloing effects*

(A) They tend to modify the stereotyes emloyees often hold concerning

omen.

(") They increase the advantage to emloyers of hiring men instead of omen8



GRE 317

making it less likely that omen ill be hired.

(#) They decrease the likelihood that emloyers ill offer more rotection to

omen orkers than that hich is absolutely required by la.

($) They increase the tendency of emloyers to deny health insurance and

disability lans to omen orkers.

(!) They have little imact of any kind on omen orkers8 since tyically very

fe omen are emloyed in those classes of obs covered by the las.

!hile it is true that living organisms are profoundly a=ected by their

environment% it is e'ually important to remember that many organisms are also

capable of altering their habitat signicantly% sometimes limiting their own

growth. (he in#uence of the biological component of an ecosystem is often

greater in fresh waters that in marine or terrestrial systems% because of the small

si&e of many freshwater bodies. >any of the important e=ects of organisms are

related to their physiology% especially growth and respiration. "y their growth

many species can deplete essential nutrients within the system% thus limiting their

own growth or that of other species. und has demonstrated that in ake

!indermere the alga 'sterione!!a is unable to grow in conditions that it itself has

created. ?nce a year% in the spring% this plant starts to grow rapidly in the lake%

using up so much silica from the water that by late spring there is no longer

enough to maintain its own growth. (he population decreases dramatically as a

result.

+9. hich of the folloing is an e%amle of the tye of organism described in lines

+-;*

(A) A kind of ant that feeds on the seet uice e%uded by the tigs of a secies of

thorn tree that gros in dry areas.

(") A kind of fish that8 after groing to maturity in the ocean8 returns to fresh

ater.

(#) A kind of floer that has markings distinctly ercetible in ultraviolet light to

the secies of bee that ollinates the floer.

($) A kind of tree ith seeds that germinate readily only in a sunny sot and then

develo into mature trees that shade the area belo them.

(!) A kind of butterfly8 itself nonoisonous8 ith the same markings as a kind of

butterfly that birds refuse to eat because it is oisonous.

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that hich of the folloings is true about

Asterionella lants in Dake indermere*

(A) They are not resent e%cet in early sring.

(") They contribute silica to the aters as they gro.

(#) They are food for other organisms.

($) They form a silica-rich layer on the lake bottom.

(!) Their groth eaks in the sring.



GRE 31&

+<. The assage indicates that organisms frequently have the strongest effects on

their environment in

(A) oceans8 since oceans contain the largest organisms living on !arth

(") oceans8 since oceans rovide habitats for many different kinds of secies

(#) freshater bodies8 since such effects become ronounced in relatively small

saces

($) freshater lakes8 since nutrients in freshater lakes are resent only in small

amounts

(!) land areas8 since there e%ist maor influences of climate on the kinds of small

organisms suorted in land areas

+7. The rimary toic of the assage is the ay in hich

(A) organisms are affected by the amount of nutrients available

(") organisms can change their on surroundings

(#) elements of freshater habitats imede the groth of small organisms

($) the reroduction of organisms is controlled by factors in the environment

(!) lant matter in a given locale can increase u to a limit

SECTION B

t is their sensitive response to human circumstance that accounts for the

persistence of certain universal ideas. $abbi >eir% a second-century scholar%

admonished his disciples to look not at the pitcher but at its contents because% he

stated% @>any a new pitcher has been found to be full of old wine. (his was his

way of emphasi&ing the importance of the distinction between form and idea% and

of stressing that the integrity of an idea is more important than the form of its

expression.

Creative ideas not only produce their own instruments of survival as time and

circumstances demand% but permit the substitution of new forms for old under the

pressure of changed circumstances. ;or example democracy% as an idea%

originated in ancient 7reece and was carried from there to !estern Europe and

the Americas. "ut it did not retain the ancient 7reek form< it passed throughseveral reforming processes and exists today in many countries. emocratic

governments di=er in form because democracy is in principle dynamic and has

therefore responded to local needs.


(A) illustrating the imortance of a historical figure

(") discussing an imortant characteristic of human ideas

(#) describing the history of the groth of democracy

($) contrasting ancient and modern vies of the imortance of creative ideas(!) evaluating the contribution of ancient /reece to modern government



GRE 31

1&. According to the assage8 democracy is an e%amle of

(A) a human circumstance that has molded creative ideas

(") an instrument of survival that has altered its original form

(#) an attribute of a creative idea that has alloed that idea to ersist

($) a creative idea that has ersisted because of its adatability

(!) a reforming rocess that has culminated in the creation of modern

governments

1. The Ene itcherF mentioned in line < is the equivalent of hich of the folloing

elements in the author's discussion of democracy (lines 1;-++)*

(A) Ancient /reece

(") The idea of democracy

(#) A modern democratic government

($) A dynamic rincile

(!) The /reek form of democracy

+. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author ould disagree most ith

hich of the folloing assertions*

(A) #hanging circumstances sometimes give rise to original ideas.

(") #reative ideas have universal alications.

(#) #hanging human needs influence universal ideas.

($) $emocratic institutions are aroriate in the modern orld.(!) An idea must be e%ressed in a traditional ay.

"efore 1IO2 many scientists pictured the circulation of the ocean’s water

mass as consisting of large% slow-moving currents% such as the 7ulf 9tream. (hat

view% based on 133 years of observations made around the globe% produced only

a rough approximation of the true circulation. "ut in the 1I23’s and the 1IO3’s%

researchers began to employ newly developed techni'ues and e'uipment%

including subsurface #oats that move with ocean currents and emit identication

signals% and ocean-current meters that record data for months at xed locations in

the ocean. (hese instruments disclosed an unexpected level of variability in the

deep ocean. $ather than being characteri&ed by smooth% large-scale currents that

change seasonally +if at all% the seas are dominated by what oceanographers call

mesoscale elds< #uctuating% energetic #ows whose velocity can reach ten times

the mean velocity of the ma/or currents.

>esoscale phenomena—the oceanic analogue of weather systems—often

extend to distances of 133 kilometers and persist for 133 days +weather systems

generally extend about 1%333 kilometers and last : to 2 days in any given area.

>ore than I3 percent of the kinetic energy of the entire ocean may be accounted

for by mesoscale variability rather than by large-scale currents. >esoscale

phenomena may% in fact% play a signicant role in oceanic mixing% air-sea



GRE 3+

interactions% and occasional—but far-reaching—climatic events such as El Bino%

the atmospheric-oceanic disturbance in the e'uatorial 6acic that a=ects global

weather patterns.

8nfortunately% it is not feasible to use conventional techni'ues to measure

mesoscale elds. (o measure them properly% monitoring e'uipment would have to

be laid out on a grid at intervals of at most 23 kilometers% with sensors at each

grid point lowered deep in the ocean and kept there for many months. "ecause

using these techni'ues would be prohibitively expensive and time-consuming% it

was proposed in 1IQI that tomography be adapted to measuring the physical

properties of the ocean. n medical tomography x-rays map the human body’s

density variations +and hence internal organs4 the information from the x-rays%

transmitted through the body along many di=erent paths% is recombined to form

three-dimensional images of the body’s interior. t is primarily this multiplicative

increase in data obtained from the multipath transmission of signals that accountsfor oceanographers’ attraction to tomography< it allows the measurement of vast

areas with relatively few instruments. $esearchers reasoned that low-fre'uency

sound waves% because they are so well described mathematically and because

even small perturbations in emitted sound waves can be detected% could be

transmitted through the ocean over many di=erent paths and that the properties

of the ocean’s interior—its temperature% salinity% density% and speed of currents—

could be deduced on the basis of how the ocean altered the signals. (heir initial

trials were highly successful% and ocean acoustic tomography was born.

+1. According to the assage8 scientists are able to use ocean acoustic tomograhy todeduce the roerties of the ocean's interior in art because

(A) lo-frequency sound aves are ell described mathematically

(") mesoscale henomena are so large as to be easily detectable

(#) information from sound aves can be recombined more easily than

information from %-rays

($) tomograhy is better suited to measuring mesoscale henomena than to

measuring small-scale systems

(!) density variations in the ocean are mathematically redictable

++. The assage suggests that medical tomograhy oerates on the rincile that

(A) %-rays are suerior to sound aves for roducing three-dimensional images

(") sound aves are altered as they ass through regions of varying density

(#) images of the body's interior can be roduced by analyzing a single %-ray

transmission through the body

($) the varying densities ithin the human body allo %-rays to ma the internal

organs

(!) information from %-rays and sound aves can be combined to roduce a

highly detailed image of the body's interior



GRE 3+1

+3. hich of the folloing is most similar to medical tomograhy as it is described

in the assage*

(A) The use of ocean-current meters to determine the direction and velocity of the

ocean's mesoscale fields

(") The use of earthquake shockave data collected at several different locations

and combined to create a three-dimensional image of the !arth's interior

(#) The use of a grid-oint sensory system to ma global eather atterns

($) The use of subsurface floats to ma large-scale circulation in the ocean

(!) The use of comuter technology to halt the rogress of a articular disease

ithin the human body's internal organs

+9. The author mentions !l ino (line +7) rimarily in order to emhasize hich of

the folloing oints*

(A) The brief duration of eather atterns

(") The variability of mesoscale henomena

(#) The difficulty of measuring the ocean's large-scale currents

($) The effectiveness of lo-frequency sound aves in maing the ocean

(!) The ossible imact of mesoscale fields on eather conditions

+;. hich of the folloing best describes the organization of the third aragrah of

the assage*

(A) A theory is roosed8 considered8 and then attended.

(") Bosing vies are resented8 elaborated8 and then reconciled.

(#) A roblem is described8 then a solution is discussed and its effectiveness is

affirmed.

($) An argument is advanced8 then refuted8 and an alternative is suggested.

(!) A hyothesis is resented8 qualified8 and then reaffirmed.

+<. The assage suggests that hich of the folloing ould be true if the ocean's

circulation consisted rimarily of large8 slo-moving currents*

(A) The influence of mesoscale fields on global eather atterns ould remain

the same.

(") Darge-scale currents ould e%hibit more variability than is actually observed.

(#) The maority of the ocean's kinetic energy ould be derived from mesoscale

fields.

($) Atmosheric-oceanic disturbances such as !l ino ould occur more often.

(!) #onventional measuring techniques ould be a feasible method of studying

the hysical roerties of the ocean.

+7. hich of the folloing8 if resented as the first sentence of a succeeding

aragrah8 ould most logically continue the discussion resented in the assage*



GRE 3++

(A) Timekeeing in medical tomograhy must be recise because the changes in

travel time caused by density fluctuations are slight.

(") To understand ho ocean acoustic tomograhy orks8 it is necessary to kno

ho sound travels in the ocean.

(#) ,his are another ossibility8 but they ould need to sto every ; kilometers

to loer measuring instruments.

($) These variations amount to only about + to 3 ercent of the average seed of

sound in ater8 hich is about 18 ; meters er second.

(!) The device used in medical tomograhy emits a secially coded signal8 easily

distinguishable from background noise.

1994 10

SECTION A

(he ;ourteenth Amendment to the 8nited 9tates Constitution% ratied in 1NON%

prohibits state governments from denying citi&ens the @e'ual protection of the

laws. Although precisely what the framers of the amendment meant by this

e'ual protection clause remains unclear% all interpreters agree that the framers’

immediate ob/ective was to provide a constitutional warrant for the Civil $ights

Act of 1NOO% which guaranteed the citi&enship of all persons born in the 8nited

9tates and sub/ect to 8nited 9tates /urisdiction. (his declaration% which was

echoed in the text of the ;ourteenth Amendment% was designed primarily tocounter the 9upreme Court’s ruling in red Scott -. Sandford that "lack people in

the 8nited 9tates could be denied citi&enship. (he act was vetoed by 6resident

Andrew ohnson% who argued that the (hirteenth Amendment% which abolished

slavery% did not provide Congress with the authority to extend citi&enship and

e'ual protection to the freed slaves. Although Congress promptly overrode

ohnson’s veto% supporters of the act sought to ensure its constitutional

foundations with the passage of the ;ourteenth Amendment.

(he broad language of the amendment strongly suggests that its framers

were proposing to write into the Constitution not a laundry list of specic civilrights but a principle of e'ual citi&enship that forbids organi&ed society from

treating any individual as a member of an inferior class. Det for the rst eight

decades of the amendment’s existence% the 9upreme Court’s interpretation of the

amendment betrayed this ideal of e'uality. n the Ci-i! %ights Cases of 1NN:% for

example% the Court invented the @state action limitation% which asserts that

@private decisions by owners of public accommodations and other commercial

businesses to segregate their facilities are insulated from the reach of the

;ourteenth Amendment’s guarantee of e'ual protection under the law.

After the 9econd !orld !ar% a /udicial climate more hospitable to e'ual

protection claims culminated in the 9upreme Court’s ruling in &rown -. &oard of



GRE 3+3

*ducation that racially segregated schools violated the e'ual protection clause of

the ;ourteenth Amendment. (wo doctrines embraced by the 9upreme Court

during this period extended the amendment’s reach. ;irst% the Court re'uired

especially strict scrutiny of legislation that employed a @suspect classication%

meaning discrimination against a group on grounds that could be construed asracial. (his doctrine has broadened the application of the ;ourteenth Amendment

to other% nonracial forms of discrimination% for while some /ustices have refused to

nd any legislative classication other than race to be constitutionally disfavored%

most have been receptive to arguments that at least some nonracial

discriminations% sexual discrimination in particular% are @suspect and deserve this

heightened scrutiny by the courts. 9econd% the Court relaxed the state action

limitation on the ;ourteenth Amendment% bringing new forms of private conduct

within the amendment’s reach.

17. hich of the folloing best describes the main idea of the assage*(A) "y resenting a list of secific rights8 framers of the >ourteenth Amendment

ere attemting to rovide a constitutional basis for broad udicial

rotection of the rincile of equal citizenshi.

(") Bnly after the ,ureme #ourt adoted the susect classification aroach to

revieing otentially discriminatory legislation as the alicability of the

>ourteenth Amendment e%tended to include se%ual discrimination.

(#) ot until after the ,econd orld ar did the ,ureme #ourt begin to

interret the >ourteenth Amendment in a manner consistent ith the

rincile of equal citizenshi that it e%resses.

($) :nterreters of the >ourteenth Amendment have yet to reach consensus ith

regard to hat its framers meant by the equal rotection clause.

(!) Although the reluctance of udges to e%tend the reach of the >ourteenth

Amendment to nonracial discrimination has betrayed the rincile of equal

citizenshi8 the ,ureme #ourt's use of the state action limitation to insulate

rivate activity from the amendment's reach has been more harmful.

1&. The assage suggests that the rincial effect of the state action limitation as to

(A) allo some discriminatory ractices to continue unimeded by the >ourteenthAmendment

(") influence the ,ureme #ourt's ruling in Brown +, Board of !ducation

(#) rovide e%anded guidelines describing rohibited actions

($) rohibit states from enacting las that violated the intent of the #ivil 5ights

Act of 1&<<

(!) shift to state governments the resonsibility for enforcement of las

rohibiting discriminatory ractices

1. The author's osition regarding the intent of the framers of the >ourteenth

Amendment ould be most seriously undermined if hich of the folloing ere



GRE 3+9

true*

(A) The framers had anticiated state action limitations as they are described in

the assage.

(") The framers had merely sought to revent discriminatory acts by federal

officials.

(#) The framers ere concerned that the #ivil 5ights Act of 1&<< ould be

overturned by the ,ureme #ourt.

($) The framers ere aare that the hrase Eequal rotection of the lasF had

broad imlications.

(!) The framers believed that racial as ell as non-racial forms of discrimination

ere unaccetable.

+. According to the assage8 the original roonents of the >ourteenth Amendment

ere rimarily concerned ith(A) detailing the rights afforded by the rincile of equal citizenshi

(") roviding suort in the #onstitution for equal rotection for all citizens of

the 6nited ,tates

(#) closing a loohole that could be used to deny individuals the right to sue for

enforcement of their civil rights

($) asserting that the civil rights rotected by the #onstitution included nonracial

discrimination as ell as racial discrimination

(!) granting state governments broader discretion in interreting the #ivil 5ights

Act of 1&<<

+1. The author imlies that the >ourteenth Amendment might not have been enacted

if

(A) #ongress' authority ith regard to legislating civil rights had not been

challenged

(") the framers had anticiated the ,ureme #ourt's ruling in Brown +0 Board of

!ducation

(#) the framers had believed that it ould be used in deciding cases of

discrimination involving non-racial grous

($) most state governments had been illing to rotect citizens' civil rights

(!) its essential elements had not been imlicit in the Thirteenth Amendment

++. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing most accurately indicates the

sequence of the events listed belo*

:. #ivil 5ights Act of 1&<<

::. $red ,cott v. ,andford

:::. >ourteenth Amendment

:?. ?eto by resident 2ohnson



GRE 3+;

(A) :8 ::8 :::8 :?

(") :8 :?8 ::8 :::

(#) :8 :?8 :::8 ::

($) ::8 :8 :?8 :::

(!) :::8 ::8 :8 :?

+3. hich of the folloing can be inferred about the second of the to doctrines

referred to in lines 3-91 of the assage*

(A) :t caused some ustices to rule that all tyes of discrimination are rohibited

by the #onstitution.

(") :t shifted the focus of the ,ureme #ourt from racial to nonracial

discrimination.

(#) :t narroed the concern of the ,ureme #ourt to legislation that emloyed a

susect classification.

($) :t caused legislators ho ere riting ne legislation to reect language that

could be construed as ermitting racial discrimination.

(!) :t made it more difficult for commercial businesses to ractice racial

discrimination.

(he Earth’s magnetic eld is generated as the molten iron of the Earth’s outer

core revolves around its solid inner core. !hen surges in the molten iron occur%

magnetic tempests are created. At the Earth’s surface% these tempests can be

detected by changes in the strength of the Earth’s magnetic eld. ;or reasons not

fully understood% the eld itself reverses periodically every million years or so.

uring the past million years% for instance% the magnetic north pole has migrated

between the Antarctic and the Arctic.

Clearly% geophysicists who seek to explain and forecast changes in the eld

must understand what happens in the outer core. 8nlike meteorologists% however%

they cannot rely on observations made in their own lifetimes. !hereas

atmospheric storms arise in a matter of hours and last for days% magnetic

tempests develop over decades and persist for centuries. ;ortunately scientists

have been recording changes in the Earth’s magnetic eld for more than :33

years.


(A) analyzing a comlicated scientific henomenon and its imact on the !arth's

surface features

(") describing a natural henomenon and the challenges its study resents to

researchers

(#) discussing a scientific field of research and the gas in researchers'

methodological aroaches to it

($) comaring to distinct fields of hysical science and the different research



GRE 3+<

methods emloyed in each

(!) roosing an e%lanation for a geohysical henomenon and an e%eriment

that could hel confirm that e%lanation

+;. The assage suggests hich of the folloing about surges in the !arth's outercore*

(A) They occur cyclically every fe decades.

(") They can be redicted by changes in the !arth's inner core.

(#) They are detected through indirect means.

($) They are linked to disturbances in the !arth's atmoshere.

(!) They last for eriods of about 1 million years.

+<. :t can be inferred from the assage that geohysicists seeking to e%lain magnetic

temests ought to conduct research on the !arth's outer core because the !arth'souter core

(A) is more fully understood than the !arth's magnetic field

(") is more easily observed than the !arth's magnetic field

(#) has been the subect of e%tensive scientific observation for 3 years

($) is involved in generating the !arth's magnetic field

(!) reflects changes in the inner core caused by magnetic temests

+7. :n the second aragrah8 the author is rimarily concerned ith

(A) stating a limitation that hels determine a research methodology(") making a comarative analysis of to different research methodologies

(#) assessing the amount of emirical data in the field of hysical science

($) suggesting an otimistic ay of vieing a idely feared henomenon

(!) describing a fundamental issue and discussing its future imact on society

SECTION B

(he defoliation of millions of acres of trees by massive infestations of gypsy

moth caterpillars is a recurring phenomenon in the northeastern 8nited 9tates. nstudying these outbreaks% scientists have discovered that a=ected trees ght back

by releasing toxic chemicals% mainly phenols% into their foliage. (hese noxious

substances limit caterpillars’ growth and reduce the number of eggs that female

moths lay. 6henols also make the eggs smaller% which reduces the growth of the

following year’s caterpillars. "ecause the number of eggs a female moth produces

is directly related to her si&e% and because her si&e is determined entirely by her

feeding success as a caterpillar% the trees’ defensive mechanism has an impact on

moth fecundity.

(he gypsy moth is also sub/ect to attack by the nucleopolyhedrosis virus% or

wilt disease% a particularly important killer of the caterpillars in outbreak years.



GRE 3+7

Caterpillars contract wilt disease when they eat a leaf to which the virus% encased

in a protein globule% has become attached. ?nce ingested by a caterpillar% the

protein globule dissolves% releasing thousands of viruses% or virions% that after

about two weeks multiply enough to ll the entire body cavity. !hen the

caterpillar dies% the virions are released to the outside% encased in a new proteinglobule synthesi&ed from the caterpillar’s tissues and ready to be picked up by

other caterpillars.

Jnowing that phenols% including tannins% often act by associating with and

altering the activity of proteins% researchers focused on the e=ects on caterpillars

of ingesting the virus and leaves together. (hey found that on tannin-rich oak

leaves% the virus is considerably less e=ective at killing caterpillars than when it is

on aspen leaves% which are lower in phenols. n general% the more concentrated

the phenols in tree leaves% the less deadly the virus. (hus% while highly

concentrated phenols in tree leaves reduce the caterpillar population by limitingthe si&e of caterpillars and% conse'uently% the si&e of the female’s egg cluster%

these same chemicals also help caterpillars survive by disabling the wilt virus.

;orest stands of red oaks% with their tannin-rich foliage% may even provide

caterpillars with safe havens from disease. n stands dominated by trees such as

aspen% however% incipient gypsy moth outbreaks are 'uickly suppressed by viral

epidemics.

;urther research has shown that caterpillars become virtually immune to the

wilt virus as the trees on which they feed respond to increasing defoliation. (he

trees’ own defenses raise the threshold of caterpillar vulnerability to the disease%

allowing populations to grow denser without becoming more susceptible to

infection. ;or these reasons% the benets to the caterpillars of ingesting phenols

appear to outweigh the costs. 7iven the presence of the virus% the trees’

defensive tactic apparently has backred.

17. hich of the folloing statements best e%resses the main oint of the assage*

(A) 5ecurring outbreaks of infestation by gysy moth caterillars have had a

devastating imact on trees in the northeastern 6nited ,tates.

(") A mechanism used by trees to combat the threat from gysy moth caterillars

has actually made some trees more vulnerable to that threat.(#) Although deadly to gysy moth caterillars8 ilt disease has failed to

significantly affect the oulation density of the caterillars.

($) The tree secies ith the highest levels of henols in their foliage are the

most successful in defending themselves against gysy moth caterillars.

(!) :n their efforts to develo ne methods for controlling gysy moth

caterillars8 researchers have focused on the effects of henols in tree leaves

on the insects' groth and reroduction.

1&. :n lines 1+-198 the hrase Ethe trees' defensive mechanism has an imact on moth

fecundityF refers to hich of the folloing henomena*



GRE 3+&

(A) >emale moths that ingest henols are more suscetible to ilt virus8 hich

causes them to lay smaller eggs.

(") 4ighly concentrated henols in tree leaves limit caterillars' food suly8

thereby reducing the gysy moth oulation.

(#) henols attack the rotein globule that rotects moth egg clusters8 making

them vulnerable to ilt virus and loering their survival rate.

($) henols in oak leaves drive gysy moths into forest stands dominated by

asens8 here they succumb to viral eidemics.

(!) The consumtion of henols by caterillars results in undersized female

gysy moths8 hich tend to roduce small egg clusters.

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that ilt disease virions deend for their

survival on

(A) rotein synthesized from the tissues of a host caterillar (") asen leaves ith high concentrations of henols

(#) tannin-rich oak leaves

($) nutrients that they synthesize from gysy moth egg clusters

(!) a rising threshold of caterillar vulnerability to ilt disease

+. hich of the folloing8 if true8 ould most clearly demonstrate the oeration of

the trees' defensive mechanism as it is described in the first aragrah of the

assage*

(A) #aterillars feeding on red oaks that ere more than ; ercent defoliatedgre to be only to-thirds the size of those feeding on trees ith relatively

intact foliage.

(") Bak leaves in areas unaffected by gysy moths ere found to have higher

levels of tannin on average than asen leaves in areas infested ith gysy

moths.

(#) The survival rate of gysy moth caterillars e%osed to the ilt virus as 9

ercent higher for those that fed on asen leaves than for those that ate oak

leaves.

($) >emale gysy moths roduced an average of +; ercent feer eggs in areashere the ilt virus flourished than did moths in areas that ere free of the

virus.

(!) /ysy moth egg clusters deosited on oak trees ere found to have relatively

large individual eggs comared to those deosited on asen trees.

+1. hich of the folloing best describes the function of the third aragrah of the

assage*

(A) :t resolves a contradiction beteen the ideas resented in the first and second

aragrahs.

(") :t introduces research data to suort the theory outlined in the second



GRE 3+

aragrah.

(#) :t dras a conclusion from conflicting evidence resented in the first to

aragrahs.

($) :t shos ho henomena described in the first and second aragrahs act in

combination.

(!) :t elaborates on the thesis introduced in the first aragrah after a digression

in the second aragrah.

++. :t can be inferred from the assage that gysy moth caterillars become immune

to the ilt virus as a result of

(A) consuming a ide range of nutrients from a variety of leaf tyes

(") feeding on leaves that contain high levels of henols

(#) roducing feer offsring8 hich favors the survival of the hardiest

individuals

($) ingesting the virus together ith leaves that do not contain tannin

(!) groing oulation density8 hich outstris the ability of the virus to multily

and sread

+3. hich of the folloing statements about gysy moth caterillars is suorted by

information resented in the assage*

(A) ilt disease is more likely to strike small gysy moth caterillars than large

ones.

(") The concentration of henols in tree leaves increases as the gysy mothcaterillar oulation dies off.

(#) >emale gysy moth caterillars sto groing after they ingest leaves

containing henols.

($) $iffering concentrations of henols in leaves have differing effects on the

ability of the ilt virus to kill gysy moth caterillars.

(!) The longer a gysy moth oulation is e%osed to ilt disease8 the greater the

likelihood that the gysy moth caterillars ill become immune to the virus.

(he sweep of narrative in A. B. !ilson’s biography of C. 9. ewis is impressive

and there is much that is acute and well argued. "ut much in this work is careless

and unworthy of its author. !ilson% a novelist and an accomplished biographer%

has failed to do what any writer on such a sub/ect as ewis ought to do% namely

work out a coherent view of how the various literary works by the sub/ect are to

be described and commented on. ecisions have to be made on what to look at in

detail and what to pass by with /ust a mention. !ilson has not thought this

problem out. ;or instance% Ti!! We Ha-e Faces% ewis’ treatment of the Eros and

6syche story and one of his best-executed and most moving works% is merely

mentioned by !ilson% though it illuminates ewis’ spiritual development% whereas

ewis’ minor work Pi!gri$#s %egress is looked at in considerable detail.



GRE 33

+9. The author of the assage imlies that ilson's e%amination of Pilgri%1s &egress

(A) is not as coherent as his treatment of Till We Ha+e Faces

(") ould have been more aroriate in a searate treatise because of the scoe

of Pilgri%1s 5egress

(#) demonstrates ho ilson's narro focus ignores the general themes of

Deis' orks

($) as more e%tensive than arranted because of the relative unimortance of

Pilgri%1s &egress

(!) as disroortionately long relative to the amount of effort Deis devoted to

riting Pilgri%1s &egress

+;. The author of the assage ould be most likely to agree ith hich of the

folloing statements regarding Till We Ha+e Faces*

(A) :t is an imrovement over the !ros and syche story on hich it is based.

(") :t illustrated Deis' attemt to involve his readers emotionally in the story of

!ros and syche.

(#) :t as more highly regarded by ilson than by Deis himself.

($) :t is one of the outstanding literary achievements of Deis' career.

(!) :t is robably one of the most oular of Deis' orks.

+<. hich of the folloing best describes the organization of the assage*

(A) An evaluation is made8 and asects of the evaluation are e%anded on ith

suorting evidence.

(") A theory is roosed8 and suorting e%amles are rovided.

(#) A osition is e%amined8 analyzed8 and reected.

($) A contradiction is described8 then the oints of contention are evaluated and

reconciled.

(!) Bosing vies are resented and evaluated8 then modifications are

advocated.

+7. hich of the folloing best describes the content of the assage*

(A) A critique of A. . ilson as a biograher

(") An evaluation of the significance of several orks by #. ,. Deis

(#) An araisal of a biograhy by A. . ilson

($) A ranking of the elements necessary for a ell-structured biograhy

(!) A roosal for evaluating the literary merits of the orks of #. ,. Deis

1995 04

SECTION A



GRE 331

n#uenced by the view of some twentieth-century feminists that women’s

position within the family is one of the central factors determining women’s social

position% some historians have underestimated the signicance of the woman

su=rage movement. (hese historians contend that nineteenth-century su=ragist

was less radical and% hence% less important than% for example% the moral reformmovement or domestic feminism—two nineteenth-century movements in which

women struggled for more power and autonomy within the family. (rue% by

emphasi&ing these struggles% such historians have broadened the conventional

view of nineteenth-century feminism% but they do a historical disservice to

su=ragism. Bineteenth-century feminists and anti-feminist alike perceived the

su=ragists’ demand for enfranchisement as the most radical element in women’s

protest% in part because su=ragists were demanding power that was not based on

the institution of the family% women’s traditional sphere. !hen evaluating

nineteenth-century feminism as a social force% contemporary historians should

consider the perceptions of actual participants in the historical events.

17. The author asserts that the historians discussed in the assage have

(A) influenced feminist theorists ho concentrate on the family

(") honored the ercetions of the omen ho articiated in the omen

suffrage movement

(#) treated feminism as a social force rather than as an intellectual tradition

($) aid little attention to feminist movements

(!) e%anded the conventional vie of nineteenth-century feminism

1&. The author of the assage asserts that some tentieth-century feminists have

influenced some historians vie of the

(A) significance of the oman suffrage movement

(") imortance to society of the family as an institution

(#) degree to hich feminism changed nineteenth-century society

($) hilosohical traditions on hich contemorary feminism is based

(!) ublic resonse to domestic feminism in the nineteenth century

1. The author of the assage suggests that hich of the folloing as true ofnineteenth-century feminists*

(A) Those ho articiated in the moral reform movement ere motivated

rimarily by a desire to reconcile their rivate lives ith their ublic

ositions.

(") Those ho advocated domestic feminism8 although less visible than the

suffragists8 ere in some ays the more radical of the to grous.

(#) Those ho articiated in the oman suffrage movement sought social roles

for omen that ere not defined by omen's familial roles.

($) Those ho advocated domestic feminism regarded the gaining of more



GRE 33+

autonomy ithin the family as a ste toard more articiation in ublic

life.

(!) Those ho articiated in the nineteenth-century moral reform movement

stood miday beteen the ositions of domestic feminism and suffragism.

+. The author imlies that hich of the folloing is true of the historians discussed

in the assage*

(A) They argue that nineteenth-century feminism as not as significant a social

force as tentieth-century feminism has been.

(") They rely too greatly on the ercetions of the actual articiants in the

events they study.

(#) Their assessment of the relative success of nineteenth-century domestic

feminism does not adequately take into account the effects of antifeminist

rhetoric.($) Their assessment of the significance of nineteenth-century suffragism differs

considerably from that of nineteenth-century feminists.

(!) They devote too much attention to nineteenth-century suffragism at the

e%ense of more radical movements that emerged shortly after the turn of the

century.

>any ob/ects in daily use have clearly been in#uenced by science% but their

form and function% their dimensions and appearance% were determined by

technologists% artisans% designers% inventors% and engineers0using non-scientic

modes of thought. >any features and 'ualities of the ob/ects that a technologistthinks about cannot be reduced to unambiguous verbal descriptions4 they are

dealt with in the mind by a visual% nonverbal process. n the development of

!estern technology% it has been non-verbal thinking% by and large% that has xed

the outlines and lled in the details of our material surroundings. 6yramids%

cathedrals% and rockets exist not because of geometry or thermodynamics% but

because they were rst a picture in the minds of those who built them.

(he creative shaping process of a technologist’s mind can be seen in nearly

every artifact that exists. ;or example% in designing a diesel engine% a technologist

might impress individual ways of nonverbal thinking on the machine by

continually using an intuitive sense of rightness and tness. !hat would be the

shape of the combustion chamberP !here should the valves be placedP 9hould it

have a long or short pistonP 9uch 'uestions have a range of answers that are

supplied by experience% by physical re'uirements% by limitations of available

space% and not least by a sense of form. 9ome decisions% such as wall thickness

and pin diameter% may depend on scientic calculations% but the nonscientic

component of design remains primary.

esign courses% then% should be an essential element in engineering curricula.

Bonverbal thinking% a central mechanism in engineering design% involves

perceptions% the stock-in-trade of the artist% not the scientist. "ecause perceptive



GRE 333

processes are not assumed to entail @hard thinking% nonverbal thought is

sometimes seen as a primitive stage in the development of cognitive processes

and inferior to verbal or mathematical thought. "ut it is paradoxical that when the

sta= of the Historic '$erican *ngineering %ecord wished to have drawings made

of machines and isometric views of industrial processes for its historical record ofAmerican engineering% the only college students with the re'uisite abilities were

not engineering students% but rather students attending architectural schools.

f courses in design% which in a strongly analytical engineering curriculum

provide the background re'uired for practical problem-solving% are not provided%

we can expect to encounter silly but costly errors occurring in advanced

engineering systems. ;or example% early models of high-speed railroad cars

loaded with sophisticated controls were unable to operate in a snowstorm

because a fan sucked snow into the electrical system. Absurd random failures that

plague automatic control systems are not merely trivial aberrations4 they are are#ection of the chaos that results when design is assumed to be primarily a

problem in mathematics.


(A) identifying the kinds of thinking that are used by technologists

(") stressing the imortance of nonverbal thinking in engineering design

(#) roosing a ne role for nonscientific thinking in the develoment of

technology

($) contrasting the goals of engineers ith those of technologists

(!) criticizing engineering schools for emhasizing science in engineering

curricula

++. :t can be inferred that the author thinks engineering curricula are

(A) strengthened hen they include courses in design

(") eakened by the substitution of hysical science courses for courses designed

to develo mathematical skills

(#) strong because nonverbal thinking is still emhasized by most of the courses

($) strong desite the errors that graduates of such curricula have made in the

develoment of automatic control systems

(!) strong desite the absence of nonscientific modes of thinking

+3. hich of the folloing statements best illustrates the main oint of lines 1-+& of

the assage*

(A) hen a machine like a rotary engine malfunctions8 it is the technologist ho

is best equied to reair it.

(") !ach comonent of an automobile—for e%amle8 the engine or the fuel tank

—has a shae that has been scientifically determined to be best suited to that

comonent's function.



GRE 339

(#) A telehone is a comle% instrument designed by technologists using only

nonverbal thought.

($) The designer of a ne refrigerator should consider the designs of other

refrigerators before deciding on its final form.

(!) The distinctive features of a susension bridge reflect its designer's

concetualization as ell as the hysical requirements of its site.

+9. hich of the folloing statements ould best serve as an introduction to the

assage*

(A) The assumtion that the knoledge incororated in technological

develoments must be derived from science ignores the many non-scientific

decisions made by technologists.

(") Analytical thought is no longer a vital comonent in the success of

technological develoment.(#) As knoledge of technology has increased8 the tendency has been to lose

sight of the imortant role layed by scientific thought in making decisions

about form8 arrangement8 and te%ture.

($) A movement in engineering colleges toard a technician's degree reflects a

demand for graduates ho have the nonverbal reasoning ability that as

once common among engineers.

(!) A technologist thinking about a machine8 reasoning through the successive

stes in a dynamic rocess8 can actually turn the machine over mentally.

+;. The author calls the redicament faced by the Historic A%erican !ngineering

&ecord Earado%icalF (lines 3<-37) most robably because

(A) the ublication needed draings that its on staff could not make

(") architectural schools offered but did not require engineering design courses

for their students

(#) college students ere qualified to make the draings hile racticing

engineers ere not

($) the draings needed ere so comlicated that even students in architectural

schools had difficulty making them

(!) engineering students ere not trained to make the tye of draings needed to

record the develoment of their on disciline

+<. According to the assage8 random failures in automatic control systems are Enot

merely trivial aberrationsF (lines ;3) because

(A) automatic control systems are designed by engineers ho have little ractical

e%erience in the field

(") the failures are characteristic of systems designed by engineers relying too

heavily on concets in mathematics

(#) the failures occur too often to be taken lightly



GRE 33;

($) designers of automatic control systems have too little training in the analysis

of mechanical difficulties

(!) designers of automatic control systems need more hel from scientists ho

have a better understanding of the analytical roblems to be solved before

such systems can ork efficiently

+7. The author uses the e%amle of the early models of high-seed railroad cars

rimarily to

(A) eaken the argument that modern engineering systems have maor defects

because of an absence of design courses in engineering curricula

(") suort the thesis that the number of errors in modern engineering systems is

likely to increase

(#) illustrate the idea that courses in design are the most effective means for

reducing the cost of designing engineering systems($) suort the contention that a lack of attention to the nonscientific asects of

design results in oor concetualization by engineers

(!) eaken the roosition that mathematics is a necessary art of the study of

design

SECTION B

?ne explanation for the tendency of animals to be more vigilant in smaller

groups than in larger ones assumes that the vigilant behavior—looking up% for

example—is aimed at predators. f individuals on the edge of a group are more

vigilant because they are at greater risk of being captured% then individuals on

average would have to be more vigilant in smaller groups% because the animals on

the periphery of a group form a greater proportion of the whole group as the si&e

of the group diminishes.

,owever% a di=erent explanation is necessary in cases where the vigilant

behavior is not directed at predators. . Jrebs has discovered that great blue

herons look up more often when in smaller #ocks than when in larger ones% solely

as a conse'uence of poor feeding conditions. Jrebs hypothesi&es that the herons

in smaller #ocks are watching for herons that they might follow to better feedingpools% which usually attract larger numbers of the birds.

17. :t can be inferred from the assage that in secies in hich vigilant behavior is

directed at redators8 the tendency of the animals to be more vigilant in smaller

grous than in larger ones ould most likely be minimized if hich of the

folloing ere true*

(A) The vigilance of animals on the erihery of a grou alays e%ceeded that of

animals located in its interior8 even hen redators ere not in the area.

(") The risk of cature for individuals in a grou as the same8 hether they

ere located in the interior of the grou or on its erihery.



GRE 33<

(#) Animals on the erihery of a grou tended to be less caable of defending

themselves from attack by redators than animals located in the interior of

the grou.

($) Animals on the erihery of a grou tended to bear marks that ere more

distinctive to redators than animals located in the interior of the grou.

(!) Animals on the erihery of a grou tended to have shorter life sans than

animals located in the interior of the grou.

1&. hich of the folloing best describes the relationshi of the second aragrah to

the first*

(A) The second aragrah relies on different evidence in draing a conclusion

similar to that e%ressed in the first aragrah.

(") The second aragrah rovides further elaboration on hy an assertion made

at the end of the first aragrah roves to be true in most cases.(#) The second aragrah rovides additional information in suort of a

hyothesis stated in the first aragrah.

($) The second aragrah rovides an e%amle of a case in hich the assumtion

described in the first aragrah is unarranted.

(!) The second aragrah describes a henomenon that has the same cause as the

henomenon described in the first aragrah.

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author of the assage ould be most

likely to agree ith hich of the folloing assertions about vigilant behavior*

(A) The larger the grou of animals8 the higher the robability that individuals in

the interior of the grou ill e%hibit vigilant behavior.

(") ?igilant behavior e%hibited by individuals in small grous is more effective at

arding off redators than the same behavior e%hibited by individuals in

larger grous.

(#) ?igilant behavior is easier to analyze in secies that are reyed uon by many

different redators than in secies that are reyed uon by relatively fe of

them.

($) The term Evigilant8F hen used in reference to the behavior of animals8 does

not refer e%clusively to behavior aimed at avoiding redators.

(!) The term Evigilant8F hen used in reference to the behavior of animals8

usually refers to behavior e%hibited by large grous of animals.

+. The assage rovides information in suort of hich of the folloing

assertions*

(A) The avoidance of redators is more imortant to an animal's survival than is

the quest for food.

(") ?igilant behavior aimed at redators is seldom more beneficial to grous of

animals than to individual animals.



GRE 337

(#) $ifferent secies of animals often develo different strategies for dealing ith

redators.

($) The size of a grou of animals does not necessarily reflect its success in

finding food.

(!) ,imilar behavior in different secies of animals does not necessarily serve the

same urose.

(he earliest controversies about the relationship between photography and

art centered on whether photography’s delity to appearances and dependence

on a machine allowed it to be a ne art as distinct from merely a practical art.

(hroughout the nineteenth century% the defense of photography was identical with

the struggle to establish it as a ne art. Against the charge that photography was

a soulless% mechanical copying of reality% photographers asserted that it was

instead a privileged way of seeing% a revolt against commonplace vision% and no

less worthy an art than painting.

ronically% now that photography is securely established as a ne art% many

photographers nd it pretentious or irrelevant to label it as such. 9erious

photographers variously claim to be nding% recording% impartially observing%

witnessing events% exploring themselves—anything but making works of art. n

the nineteenth century% photography’s association with the real world placed it in

an ambivalent relation to art4 late in the twentieth century% an ambivalent relation

exists because of the >odernist heritage in art. (hat important photographers are

no longer willing to debate whether photography is or is not a ne art% except to

proclaim that their own work is not involved with art% shows the extent to whichthey simply take for granted the concept of art imposed by the triumph of

>odernism< the better the art% the more subversive it is of the traditional aims of

art.

6hotographers’ disclaimers of any interest in making art tell us more about

the harried status of the contemporary notion of art than about whether

photography is or is not art. ;or example% those photographers who suppose that%

by taking pictures% they are getting away from the pretensions of art as

exemplied by painting remind us of those Abstract Expressionist painters who

imagined they were getting away from the intellectual austerity of classical

>odernist painting by concentrating on the physical act of painting. >uch of

photography’s prestige today derives from the convergence of its aims with those

of recent art% particularly with the dismissal of abstract art implicit in the

phenomenon of 6op painting during the 1IO3’s. Appreciating photographs is a

relief to sensibilities tired of the mental exertions demanded by abstract art.

Classical >odernist painting—that is% abstract art as developed in di=erent ways

by 6icasso% Jandinsky% and >atisse—presupposes highly developed skills of

looking and a familiarity with other paintings and the history of art. 6hotography%

like 6op painting% reassures viewers that art is not hard4 photography seems to be

more about its sub/ects than about art.



GRE 33&

6hotography% however% has developed all the anxieties and self-consciousness

of a classic >odernist art. >any professionals privately have begun to worry that

the promotion of photography as an activity subversive of the traditional

pretensions of art has gone so far that the public will forget that photography is a

distinctive and exalted activity—in short% an art.


(A) defining the @odernist attitude toard art

(") e%laining ho hotograhy emerged as a fine art after the controversies of

the nineteenth century

(#) e%laining the attitudes of serious contemorary hotograhers toard

hotograhy as art and lacing those attitudes in their historical conte%t

($) defining the various aroaches that serious contemorary hotograhers

take toard their art and assessing the value of each of those aroaches(!) identifying the ays that recent movements in ainting and sculture have

influenced the techniques emloyed by serious hotograhers

++. hich of the folloing adectives best describes Ethe concet of art imosed by

the triumh of @odernismF as the author reresents it in lines +;-+7*

(A) Bbective

(") @echanical

(#) ,uerficial

($) $ramatic(!) arado%ical

+3. The author introduces Abstract !%ressionist ainters (lines 39) in order to

(A) rovide an e%amle of artists ho8 like serious contemorary hotograhers8

disavoed traditionally acceted aims of modern art

(") call attention to artists hose orks often bear a hysical resemblance to the

orks of serious contemorary hotograhers

(#) set forth an analogy beteen the Abstract !%ressionist ainters and classical

@odernist ainters

($) rovide a contrast to o artists and others ho created orks that e%emlify

the @odernist heritage in art

(!) rovide an e%lanation of hy serious hotograhy8 like other contemorary

visual forms8 is not and should not retend to be an art

+9. According to the author8 the nineteenth-century defenders of hotograhy

mentioned in the assage stressed that hotograhy as

(A) a means of making eole familiar ith remote locales and unfamiliar things

(") a technologically advanced activity

(#) a device for observing the orld imartially



GRE 33

($) an art comarable to ainting

(!) an art that ould eventually relace the traditional arts

+;. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing best e%lains the reaction of

serious contemorary hotograhers to the question of hether hotograhy is anart*

(A) The hotograhers' belief that their reliance on an imersonal machine to

roduce their art requires the surrender of the authority of their ersonal

vision

(") The hotograhers' fear that serious hotograhy may not be acceted as an

art by the contemorary art ublic

(#) The influence of Abstract !%ressionist ainting and o Art on the subect

matter of the modern hotograh

($) The hotograhers' belief that the best art is subversive of art as it has reviously been defined

(!) The notorious difficulty of defining art in its relation to realistic

reresentation

+<. According to the assage8 certain serious contemorary hotograhers e%ressly

make hich of the folloing claims about their hotograhs*

(A) Their hotograhs could be created by almost anyone ho had a camera and

the time to devote to the activity.

(") Their hotograhs are not e%amles of art but are e%amles of the

hotograhers' imartial observation of the orld.

(#) Their hotograhs are imortant because of their subects but not because of

the resonses they evoke in vieers.

($) Their hotograhs e%hibit the same ageless rinciles of form and shading

that have been used in ainting.

(!) Their hotograhs reresent a conscious glorification of the mechanical

asects of tentieth-century life.

+7. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author most robably considers

serious contemorary hotograhy to be a

(A) contemorary art that is struggling to be acceted as fine art

(") craft requiring sensitivity but by no means an art

(#) mechanical coying of reality

($) modern art that dislays the @odernist tendency to try to subvert the

revailing aims of art

(!) modern art that dislays the tendency of all @odernist art to become

increasingly formal and abstract



GRE 39

1995 10

SECTION A

t is possible for students to obtain advanced degrees in English while knowing

little or nothing about traditional scholarly methods. (he conse'uences of this

neglect of traditional scholarship are particularly unfortunate for the study of

women writers. f the canon—the list of authors whose works are most widely

taught—is ever to include more women% scholars must be well trained in historical

scholarship and textual editing. 9cholars who do not know how to read early

manuscripts% locate rare books% establish a se'uence of editions% and so on are

bereft of crucial tools for revising the canon.

(o address such concerns% an experimental version of the traditional scholarly

methods course was designed to raise students’ consciousness about the

usefulness of traditional learning for any modern critic or theorist. (o minimi&e the

articial aspects of the conventional course% the usual procedure of assigning a

large number of small problems drawn from the entire range of historical periods

was abandoned% though this procedure has the obvious advantage of at least

supercially familiari&ing students with a wide range of reference sources. nstead

students were engaged in a collective e=ort to do original work on a neglected

eighteenth-century writer% Eli&abeth 7ri*th% to give them an authentic experience

of literary scholarship and to inspire them to take responsibility for the 'uality of

their own work.

7ri*th’s work presented a number of advantages for this particular

pedagogical purpose. ;irst% the body of extant scholarship on 7ri*th was so tiny

that it could all be read in a day4 thus students spent little time and e=ort

mastering the literature and had a clear eld for their own discoveries. 7ri*th’s

play The P!atonic Wife exists in three versions% enough to provide illustrations of

editorial issues but not too many for beginning students to manage. n addition%

because 7ri*th was successful in the eighteenth century% as her continued

productivity and favorable reviews demonstrate% her exclusion from the canon and

virtual disappearance from literary history also helped raise issues concerning the

current canon.

(he range of 7ri*th’s work meant that each student could become the

world’s leading authority on a particular 7ri*th text. ;or example% a student

studying 7ri*th’s Wife in the %ight obtained a rst edition of the play and studied

it for some weeks. (his student was suitably shocked and outraged to nd its title

transformed into ' Wife in the 0ight in !att’s &i(!iotheca &ritannica. 9uch

experiences% inevitable and common in working on a writer to whom so little

attention has been paid% serve to vaccinate the student— hope for a lifetime—

against credulous use of reference sources.




GRE 391

(A) revealing a commonly ignored deficiency

(") roosing a return to traditional terminology

(#) describing an attemt to correct a shortcoming

($) assessing the success of a ne edagogical aroach

(!) redicting a change in a traditional teaching strategy

1&. :t can be inferred that the author of the assage e%ects that the e%erience of the

student mentioned as having studied Wife in the &ight ould have hich of the

folloing effects*

(A) :t ould lead the student to disregard information found in the Bibliotheca

Britannica.

(") :t ould teach the student to question the accuracy of certain kinds of

information sources hen studying neglected authors.

(#) :t ould teach the student to avoid the use of reference sources in studying

neglected authors.

($) :t ould hel the student to understand the imortance of first editions in

establishing the authorshi of lays.

(!) :t ould enhance the student's areciation of the orks of authors not

included in the canon.

1. The author of the assage suggests that hich of the folloing is a disadvantage

of the strategy emloyed in the e%erimental scholarly methods course*

(A) ,tudents ere not given an oortunity to study omen riters outside thecanon.

(") ,tudents' original ork ould not be areciated by recognized scholars.

(#) Dittle scholarly ork has been done on the ork of !lizabeth /riffith.

($) @ost of the students in the course had had little oortunity to study

eighteenth-century literature.

(!) ,tudents ere not given an oortunity to encounter certain sources of

information that could rove useful in their future studies.

+. hich of the folloing best states the Earticular edagogical uroseFmentioned in line +&*

(A) To assist scholars in revising the canon of authors

(") To minimize the trivial asects of the traditional scholarly methods course

(#) To rovide students ith information about /riffith's ork

($) To encourage scholarly rigor in students' on research

(!) To reestablish /riffith's reutation as an author

+1. hich of the folloing best describes the function of the last aragrah in

relation to the assage as a hole*(A) :t summarizes the benefits that students can derive from the e%erimental



GRE 39+

scholarly methods course.

(") :t rovides additional reasons hy /riffith's ork raises issues having to do

ith the canon of authors.

(#) :t rovides an illustration of the immediate nature of the e%eriences students

can derive from the e%erimental scholarly methods course.

($) :t contrasts the e%erience of a student in the e%erimental scholarly methods

course ith the e%erience of a student in the traditional course.

(!) :t rovides information that emhasizes the suitability of /riffith's ork for

inclusion in the canon of authors.

++. :t can be inferred that hich of the folloing is most likely to be among the

EissuesF mentioned in line 3&*

(A) hy has the ork of /riffith8 a oman riter ho as oular in her on

century8 been e%cluded from the canon*(") :n hat ays did /riffith's ork reflect the olitical climate of the eighteenth

century*

(#) 4o as /riffith's ork received by literary critics during the eighteenth

century*

($) 4o did the error in the title of /riffith's lay come to be made*

(!) 4o did critical recetion of /riffith's ork affect the quantity and quality of

that ork*

+3. :t can be inferred that the author of the assage considers traditional scholarlymethods courses to be

(A) irrelevant to the ork of most students

(") inconsequential because of their narro focus

(#) unconcerned about the accuracy of reference sources

($) too suerficial to establish imortant facts about authors

(!) too ide-ranging to aro%imate genuine scholarly activity

Experiments show that insects can function as pollinators of cycads% rare%

palmlike tropical plants. ;urthermore% cycads removed from their native habitats—

and therefore from insects native to those habitats—are usually infertile.

Bevertheless% anecdotal reports of wind pollination in cycads cannot be ignored.

(he structure of cycads male cones is 'uite consistent with the wind dispersal of

pollen% clouds of which are released from some of the larger cones. (he male cone

of C"cas circina!is% for example% sheds almost 133 cubic centimeters of pollen%

most of which is probably dispersed by wind. 9till% many male cycad cones are

comparatively small and thus produce far less pollen. ;urthermore% the structure

of most female cycad cones seems inconsistent with direct pollination by wind.

?nly in the Cycas genus are the females’ ovules accessible to airborne pollen%

since only in this genus are the ovules surrounded by a loose aggregation of



GRE 393

megasporophylls rather than by a tight cone.

+9. According to the assage8 the size of a male cycad cone directly influences hich

of the folloing*

(A) The arrangement of the male cone's structural elements(") The mechanism by hich ollen is released from the male cone

(#) The degree to hich the ovules of female cycads are accessible to airborne

ollen

($) The male cone's attractiveness to otential insect ollinators

(!) The amount of ollen roduced by the male cone

+;. The assage suggests that hich of the folloing is true of the structure of cycad

cones*

(A) The structure of cycad cones rovides conclusive evidence in favor of one articular e%lanation of cycad ollination.

(") The structure of cycad cones rovides evidence concerning hat triggers the

first ste in the ollination rocess.

(#) An irresolvable discreancy e%ists beteen hat the structure of most male

cycad cones suggests about cycad ollination and hat the structure of most

female cones suggests about that rocess.

($) The structure of male cycad cones rules out a ossible mechanism for cycad

ollination that is suggested by the structure of most female cycad cones.

(!) The structure of male cycad cones is consistent ith a certain means of cycad ollination8 but that means is inconsistent ith the structure of most female

cycad cones.

+<. The evidence in favor of insect ollination of cycads resented in lines +-9 ould

be more convincing if hich of the folloing ere also true*

(A) Bnly a small variety of cycad secies can be successfully translanted.

(") #ycads can sometimes be ollinated by means other than ind or insects.

(#) :nsects indigenous to regions to hich cycads are translanted sometimes

feed on cycads.

($) inds in the areas to hich cycads are usually translanted are similar to

inds in cycads' native habitats.

(!) The translantation of cycads from one region to another usually involves the

accidental removal and introduction of insects as ell.

+7. The assage suggests that hich of the folloing is true of scientific

investigations of cycad ollination*

(A) They have not yet roduced any systematic evidence of ind ollination in

cycads.

(") They have so far confirmed anecdotal reorts concerning the ind ollination



GRE 399

of cycads.

(#) They have8 until recently8 roduced little evidence in favor of insect

ollination in cycads.

($) They have rimarily been carried out using cycads translanted from their

native habitats.

(!) They have usually concentrated on describing the hysical characteristics of

the cycad reroductive system.

SECTION B

+(his passage is adapted from an article published in 1IN1.

(he term @remote sensing refers to the techni'ues of measurement and

interpretation of phenomena from a distance. 6rior to the mid-1IO3’s the

interpretation of lm images was the primary means for remote sensing of theEarth’s geologic features. !ith the development of the optomechanical scanner%

scientists began to construct digital multispectral images using data beyond the

sensitivity range of visible light photography. (hese images are constructed by

mechanically aligning pictorial representations of such phenomena as the

re#ection of light waves outside the visible spectrum% the refraction of radio

waves% and the daily changes in temperature in areas on the Earth’s surface.

igital multispectral imaging has now become the basic tool in geologic remote

sensing from satellites.

(he advantage of digital over photographic imaging is evident< the resultingnumerical data are precisely known% and digital data are not sub/ect to the

vagaries of di*cult-to-control chemical processing. !ith digital processing% it is

possible to combine a large number of spectral images. (he ac'uisition of the rst

multispectral digital data set from the multispectral scanner +>99 aboard the

satellite andsat in 1IQ5 conse'uently attracted the attention of the entire

geologic community. andsat >99 data are now being applied to a variety of

geologic problems that are di*cult to solve by conventional methods alone. (hese

include specic problems in mineral and energy resource exploration and the

charting of glaciers and shallow seas.

A more fundamental application of remote sensing is to augment conventional

methods for geologic mapping of large areas. $egional maps present

compositional% structural% and chronological information for reconstructing

geologic evolution. 9uch reconstructions have important practical applications

because the conditions under which rock units and other structural features are

formed in#uence the occurrence of ore and petroleum deposits and a=ect the

thickness and integrity of the geologic media in which the deposits are found.

7eologic maps incorporate a large% varied body of specic eld and laboratory

measurements% but the maps must be interpretative because eld measurements

are always limited by rock exposure% accessibility and labor resources. !ith



GRE 39;

remote-sensing techni'ues it is possible to obtain much geologic information

more e*ciently than it can be obtained on the ground. (hese techni'ues also

facilitate overall interpretation. 9ince detailed geologic mapping is generally

conducted in small areas% the continuity of regional features that have

intermittent and variable expressions is often not recogni&ed% but in thecomprehensive views of andsat images these continuities are apparent.

,owever% some critical information cannot be obtained through remote sensing%

and several characteristics of the andsat >99 impose limitations on the

ac'uisition of diagnostic data. 9ome of these limitations can be overcome by

designing satellite systems specically for geologic purposes4 but% to be most

e=ective% remote-sensing data must still be combined with data from eld surveys

and laboratory tests% the techni'ues of the earlier twentieth century.

17. "y using the ord EinterretativeF in line 98 the author is indicating hich of the

folloing*(A) ,ome mas are based more on data from aerial hotograhy than on data

from field oerations.

(") ,ome mas are based almost e%clusively on laboratory measurements.

(#) ,ome mas are based on incomlete data from field observations.

($) ,ome mas sho only large geologic features.

(!) ,ome mas can be three-dimensional.

1&. ith hich of the folloing statements about geologic maing ould the author

be most likely to agree*(A) /eologic maing is basically an art and not a science.

(") /eologic maing has not changed significantly since the early 1<'s.

(#) /eologic maing ill have limited ractical alications until remote-

sensing systems are erfected.

($) A develomental milestone in geologic maing as reached in 17+.

(!) ithout the resent variety of remote-sensing techniques8 geologic maing

could not be done.

1. According to the assage8 measurements of hich of the folloing can be rovided by the otomechanical scanner but not by visible-light hotograhy*

(A) The amount of visible light reflected from oceans

(") The density of foliage in remote areas on the !arth's surface

(#) $aily temerature changes of areas on the !arth's surface

($) The degree of radioactivity emitted by e%osed rocks on the !arth's surface

(!) Atmosheric conditions over large landmasses

+. :t can be inferred from the assage that a maor disadvantage of hotograhic

imaging in geologic maing is that such hotograhy



GRE 39<

(A) cannot be used at night

(") cannot focus on the details of a geologic area

(#) must be chemically rocessed

($) is alays enhanced by digital reconstruction

(!) cannot reflect changes over e%tended eriods of time

+1. :t can be inferred from the assage that Dandsat images differ from conventional

geologic mas in that Dandsat images

(A) reveal the e%act size of etroleum deosits and ore deosits

(") indicate the continuity of features that might not otherise be interreted as

continuous

(#) redict the movements of glaciers

($) rovide highly accurate data about the occurrence of mineral deosits

(!) reveal the integrity of the media in hich etroleum deosits and ore deosits

are found

++. The assage rovides information about each of the folloing toics !C#!T=

(A) the rincial method of geologic remote sensing rior to the mid-1<'s

(") some of the henomena measured by digital multi-sectral images in remote

sensing

(#) some of the ractical uses of regional geologic mas

($) the kinds of roblems that are difficult to solve solely through conventional

methods of geologic maing

(!) the secific limitations of the Dandsat multi-sectral scanner

+3. The assage suggests hich of the folloing about the Econventional methodsF

mentioned in line +*

(A) They consist rimarily of field surveys and laboratory measurements.

(") They are not useful in roviding information necessary for reconstructing

geologic evolution.

(#) They have rarely been used by geologists since 17+.

($) They are used rimarily to gather comositional information about geologic

features.

(!) They are limited rimarily because of difficulties involved in interreting film

images.

Although the development of new infrastructure +such public facilities as

power plants% schools% and bridges is usually determined by governmental

planning% sometimes this development can be planned more #exibly and

realistically by private investors who anticipate prot from the collection of user

fees. 9uch prots can contribute to the nancing of more infrastructure if demand

proves great enough% whereas the reluctance of developers to invest in such



GRE 397

pro/ects can signal that additional infrastructure is not needed. uring the

economic boom of the 1IN3’s% for example% the state of Firginia authori&ed private

developers to build a X:33 million toll road. (hese developers obtained the

needed right-of-way from property owners% but by 1II: they still had not raised

the necessary nancing. (he unwillingness of investors to nance this pro/ectdoes not negate the viability of privately nanced roads4 rather% it illustrates a

virtue of private nancing. f a road appears unlikely to attract enough future

tra*c to pay for the road% then it should not be built.


(A) build a case for increasing the develoment of ne infrastructure

(") advocate an alternative to government financing of infrastructure

(#) e%lain the failure of a rivately financed venture

($) suggest the tyes of infrastructure most aroriate for rivate financing(!) argue against government restrictions on develoing ne infrastructure

+;. The assage imlies that the Egovernmental lanningF mentioned in line 3 may

lead to hich of the folloing roblems*

(A) :mroer use of rofits derived from user fees

(") 6nduly slo develoment of necessary ne infrastructure

(#) 6nrealistic decisions about develoing ne infrastructure

($) :ncorrect redictions about rofits to be gained from user fees

(!) Bbstruction of rivate financing for the develoment of ne infrastructure

+<. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing is true of the toll road

mentioned in line 1+*

(A) After it as built8 it attracted too little traffic to ay for its construction.

(") :t as artially financed by the state of ?irginia.

(#) :ts develoment as authorized during an economic boom.

($) :ts construction as controversial among local residents.

(!) :ts develoers ere discouraged by governmental restrictions on acquiring the

necessary land.

+7. The assage suggests that hich of the folloing ould occur if a rivately

financed bridge that roved to be rofitable failed after a number of years to meet

the demands of traffic*

(A) rivate develoers ho financed the bridge ould rely on governmental

authorities to develo ne infrastructure.

(") 6ser fees ould be increased so that usage ould become more costly.

(#) /overnmental authorities ould be reluctant to rely on rivate contractors to

develo a ne bridge.

($) The success of the roect ould be eoardized by ublic dissatisfaction ith



GRE 39&

the roect's adequacy.

(!) rofits generated by user fees ould be used to hel finance the construction

of ne infrastructure to alleviate the traffic roblem.

1996 04

SECTION A

As people age% their cells become less e*cient and less able to replace

damaged components. At the same time their tissues sti=en. ;or example% the

lungs and the heart muscle expand less successfully% the blood vessels become

increasingly rigid% and the ligaments and tendons tighten.

;ew investigators would attribute such diverse e=ects to a single cause.

Bevertheless% researchers have discovered that a process long known to discolor

and toughen foods may also contribute to age-related impairment of both cells

and tissues. (hat process is nonen&ymatic glycosylation% whereby glucose

becomes attached to proteins without the aid of en&ymes. !hen en&ymes attach

glucose to proteins +en&ymatic glycosylation% they do so at a specic site on a

specic protein molecule for a specic purpose. n contrast% the nonen&ymatic

process adds glucose hapha&ardly to any of several sites along any available

peptide chain within a protein molecule.

(his nonen&ymatic glycosylation of certain proteins has been understood by

food chemists for decades% although few biologists recogni&ed until recently thatthe same steps could take place in the body. Bonen&ymatic glycosylation begins

when an aldehyde group +C,? of glucose and an amino group +B,5 of a protein

are attracted to each other. (he molecules combine% forming what is called a

9chi= base within the protein. (his combination is unstable and 'uickly rearranges

itself into a stabler% but still reversible% substance known as an Amadori product.

f a given protein persists in the body for months or years% some of its

Amadori products slowly dehydrate and rearrange themselves yet again% into new

glucose-derived structures. (hese can combine with various kinds of molecules to

form irreversible structures named advanced glycosylation end products +A7E’s.

>ost A7E’s are yellowish brown and #uorescent and have specic spectrographic

properties. >ore important for the body% many are also able to cross-link ad/acent

proteins% particularly ones that give structure to tissues and organs. Although no

one has yet satisfactorily described the origin of all such bridges between

proteins% many investigators agree that extensive cross-linking of proteins

probably contributes to the sti=ening and loss of elasticity characteristic of aging

tissues.

n an attempt to link this process with the development of cataracts +the

browning and clouding of the lens of the eye as people age% researchers studied

the e=ect of glucose on solutions of puried crystallin% the ma/or protein in the



GRE 39

lens of the eye. 7lucose-free solutions remained clear% but solutions with glucose

caused the proteins to form clusters% suggesting that the molecules had become

cross-linked. (he clusters di=racted light% making the solution opa'ue. (he

researchers also discovered that the pigmented cross-links in human cataracts

have the brownish color and #uorescence characteristic of A7E’s. (hese datasuggest that nonen&ymatic glycosylation of lens crystallins may contribute to

cataract formation.

17. ith hich of the folloing statements concerning the stiffening of aging tissues

ould the author most likely agree*

(A) :t is caused to a large degree by an increased rate of cell multilication.

(") :t arado%ically both hels and hinders the longevity of roteins in the human

body.

(#) :t can be counteracted in art by increased ingestion of glucose-free foods.

($) :t is e%acerbated by increased enzymatic glycosylation.

(!) :t robably involves the nonenzymatic glycosylation of roteins.

1&. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing statements is true of the rocess

that discolors and toughens foods*

(A) :t takes lace more sloly than glycosylation in the human body.

(") :t requires a higher ratio of glucose to rotein than glycosylation requires in

the human body.

(#) :t does not require the aid of enzymes to attach glucose to rotein.

($) :t roceeds more quickly hen the food roteins have a molecular structure

similar to that of crystallin roteins.

(!) :ts effectiveness deends heavily on the amount of environmental moisture.

1. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing is characteristic of enzymatic

glycosylation of roteins*

(A) A/!'s are formed after a eriod of months or years.

(") roteins affected by the rocess are made unstable.

(#) /lucose attachment imairs and stiffens tissues.

($) /lucose is attached to roteins for secific uroses.

(!) Amino grous combine ith aldehyde grous to form ,chiff bases.

+. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing statements is true of Amadori

roducts in roteins*

(A) They are more lentiful in a dehydrated environment.

(") They are created through enzymatic glycosylation.

(#) They are comosed entirely of glucose molecules.

($) They are derived from ,chiff bases.(!) They are derived from A/!'s.



GRE 3;

+1. hich of the folloing best describes the function of the third aragrah of the

assage (lines 1-+)*

(A) :t offers evidence that contradicts the findings described in the first to

aragrahs.

(") :t resents a secific e%amle of the rocess discussed in the first to

aragrahs.

(#) :t e%lains a roblem that the researchers mentioned in the second aragrah

have yet to solve.

($) :t evaluates the research discoveries described in the revious aragrah.

(!) :t begins a detailed descrition of the rocess introduced in the revious to

aragrahs.

++. The assage suggests that hich of the folloing ould be D!A,T imortant in

determining hether nonenzymatic glycosylation is likely to have taken lace inthe roteins of a articular tissue*

(A) The likelihood that the tissue has been e%osed to free glucose

(") The color and sectrograhic roerties of structures ithin the tissue

(#) The amount of time that the roteins in the tissue have ersisted in the body

($) The number of amino grous ithin the roteins in the tissue

(!) The degree of elasticity that the tissue e%hibits

+3. :f the hyothesis stated in lines ;<-;& is true8 it can be inferred that the crystallin

roteins in the lenses of eole ith cataracts(A) have increased elasticity

(") do not resond to enzymatic glycosylation

(#) are more suscetible to stiffening than are other roteins

($) are at least several months old

(!) resond more acutely than other roteins to changes in moisture levels

!riting of the ro'uois nation% 9mith has argued that through the chiefs’

council% tribal chiefs traditionally maintained complete control over the political

a=airs of both the ro'uois tribal league and the individual tribes belonging to the

league% whereas the sole /urisdiction over religious a=airs resided with the

shamans. According to 9mith% this division was maintained until the late

nineteenth century% when the dissolution of the chiefs’ council and the

conse'uent diminishment of the chiefs’ political power fostered their increasing

involvement in religious a=airs.

,owever% 9mith fails to recogni&e that this division of power between the

tribal chiefs and shamans was not actually rooted in ro'uois tradition4 rather% it

resulted from the ro'uois’ resettlement on reservations early in the nineteenth

century. 6rior to resettlement% the chiefs’ council controlled only the broad policy

of the tribal league4 individual tribes had institutions0most important% the



GRE 3;1

longhouse0to govern their own a=airs. n the longhouse% the tribe’s chief

in#uenced both political and religious a=airs.


(A) question the ublished conclusions of a scholar concerning the history of the:roquois nation

(") establish the relationshi beteen an earlier scholar's ork and ne

anthroological research

(#) summarize scholarly controversy concerning an incident from :roquois

history

($) trace to generations of scholarly oinion concerning :roquois social

institutions

(!) differentiate beteen :roquois olitical ractices and :roquois religious

ractices

+;. :t can be inferred that the author of the assage regards ,mith's argument as

(A) rovocative and otentially useful8 but flaed by oor organization

(") eloquently resented8 but needlessly inflammatory

(#) accurate in some of its articulars8 but inaccurate ith regard to an imortant

oint

($) historically sound8 but overly detailed and redundant

(!) ersuasive in its time8 but no largely outdated

+<. The author of the assage imlies that hich of the folloing occurred after the

:roquois ere resettled on reservations early in the nineteenth century*

(A) #hiefs became more involved in their tribes' religious affairs.

(") The authority of the chiefs' council over the affairs of individual tribes

increased.

(#) The olitical influence of the :roquois shamans as diminished.

($) :ndividual tribes coalesced into the :roquois tribal league.

(!) The longhouse because a olitical rather than a religious institution.

+7. hich of the folloing best e%resses an oinion resented by the author of the

assage*

(A) ,mith has overstated the imortance of the olitical role layed by :roquois

tribal chiefs in the nineteenth century.

(") ,mith has overlooked the fact that the :roquois rarely alloed their shamans

to e%ercise olitical authority.

(#) ,mith has failed to e%lain hy the chiefs' council as dissolved late in the

nineteenth century.

($) ,mith has failed to acknoledge the role rior to the nineteenth century of the:roquois tribal chiefs in religious affairs.



GRE 3;+

(!) ,mith has failed to recognize that the very structure of :roquois social

institutions reflects religious beliefs.

SECTION B

Mar" &arton% particularly in its early chapters% is a moving response to the

su=ering of the industrial worker in the England of the 1NG3’s. !hat is most

impressive about the book is the intense and painstaking e=ort made by the

author% Eli&abeth 7askell% to convey the experience of everyday life in working-

class homes. ,er method is partly documentary in nature< the novel includes such

features as a carefully annotated reproduction of dialect% the exact details of food

prices in an account of a tea party% an itemi&ed description of the furniture of the

"artons’ living room% and a transcription +again annotated of the ballad @(he

?ldham !eaver. (he interest of this record is considerable% even though the

method has a slightly distancing e=ect.

As a member of the middle class% 7askell could hardly help approaching

working-class life as an outside observer and a reporter% and the reader of the

novel is always conscious of this fact. "ut there is genuine imaginative re-creation

in her accounts of the walk in 7reen ,eys ;ields% of tea at the "artons’ house% and

of ohn "arton and his friend’s discovery of the starving family in the cellar in the

chapter @6overty and eath. ndeed% for a similarly convincing re-creation of such

families’ emotions and responses +which are more crucial than the material details

on which the mere reporter is apt to concentrate% the English novel had to wait

O3 years for the early writing of . ,. awrence. f 7askell never 'uite conveys the

sense of full participation that would completely authenticate this aspect of Mar"

&arton% she still brings to these scenes an intuitive recognition of feelings that has

its own su*cient conviction.

(he chapter @?ld Alice’s ,istory brilliantly dramati&es the situation of that

early generation of workers brought from the villages and the countryside to the

urban industrial centers. (he account of ob egh% the weaver and naturalist who

is devoted to the study of biology% vividly embodies one kind of response to an

urban industrial environment< an a*nity for living things that hardens% by its verycontrast with its environment% into a kind of crankiness. (he early chapters0about

factory workers walking out in spring into 7reen ,eys ;ields4 about Alice !ilson%

remembering in her cellar the twig-gathering for brooms in the native village that

she will never again see4 about ob egh% intent on his impaled insects0capture

the characteristic responses of a generation to the new and crushing experience

of industrialism. (he other early chapters elo'uently portray the development of

the instinctive cooperation with each other that was already becoming an

important tradition among workers.

17. hich of the folloing best describes the author's attitude toard /askell's useof the method of documentary record in Mar Barton*



GRE 3;3

(A) 6ncritical enthusiasm

(") 6nresolved ambivalence

(#) Kualified aroval

($) 5esigned accetance

(!) @ild irritation

1&. According to the assage8 Mar Barton and the early novels of $. 4. Darence

share hich of the folloing*

(A) $eiction of the feelings of orking-class families

(") $ocumentary obectivity about orking-class circumstances

(#) 5ichly detailed descrition of orking-class adustment to urban life

($) :maginatively structured lots about orking-class characters

(!) !%erimental rose style based on orking-class dialect

1. hich of the folloing is most closely analogous to 2ob Degh in Mar Barton8 as

that character is described in the assage*

(A) An entomologist ho collected butterflies as a child

(") A small-ton attorney hose hobby is nature hotograhy

(#) A young man ho leaves his family's dairy farm to start his on business

($) A city deller ho raises e%otic lants on the roof of his aartment building

(!) A union organizer ho orks in a te%tile mill under dangerous conditions

+. :t can be inferred from e%amles given in the last aragrah of the assage that

hich of the folloing as art of Ethe ne and crushing e%erience of

industrialismF (lines 9<-97) for many members of the !nglish orking class in

the nineteenth century*

(A) !%tortionate food rices

(") /eograhical dislacement

(#) 4azardous orking conditions

($) Alienation from fello orkers

(!) $issolution of family ties

+1. :t can be inferred that the author of the assage believes that Mar Barton might

have been an even better novel if /askell had

(A) concentrated on the emotions of a single character

(") made no attemt to re-create e%eriences of hich she had no firsthand

knoledge

(#) made no attemt to reroduce orking-class dialects

($) gron u in an industrial city

(!) managed to transcend her osition as an outsider



GRE 3;9

++. hich of the folloing hrases could best be substituted for the hrase Ethis

asect of Mar BartonF in line + ithout changing the meaning of the assage

as a hole*

(A) the material details in an urban orking-class environment

(") the influence of Mar Barton on larence's early ork

(#) the lace of Mar Barton in the develoment of the !nglish novel

($) the e%tent of the overty and hysical suffering among !ngland's industrial

orkers in the 1&9's

(!) the ortrayal of the articular feelings and resonses of orking-class

characters

+3. The author of the assage describes Mar Barton as each of the folloing

!C#!T=

(A) insightful

(") meticulous

(#) vivid

($) oignant

(!) lyrical

As of the late 1IN3’s% neither theorists nor large-scale computer climate

models could accurately predict whether cloud systems would help or hurt a

warming globe. 9ome studies suggested that a four percent increase in

stratocumulus clouds over the ocean could compensate for a doubling inatmospheric carbon dioxide% preventing a potentially disastrous planetwide

temperature increase. ?n the other hand% an increase in cirrus clouds could

increase global warming.

(hat clouds represented the weakest element in climate models was

illustrated by a study of fourteen such models. Comparing climate forecasts for a

world with double the current amount of carbon dioxide% researchers found that

the models agreed 'uite well if clouds were not included. "ut when clouds were

incorporated% a wide range of forecasts was produced. !ith such discrepancies

plaguing the models% scientists could not easily predict how 'uickly the world’s

climate would change% nor could they tell which regions would face dustier

droughts or deadlier monsoons.

+9. The author of the assage is rimarily concerned ith

(A) confirming a theory

(") suorting a statement

(#) resenting ne information

($) redicting future discoveries

(!) reconciling discreant findings

+;. :t can be inferred that one reason the fourteen models described in the assage



GRE 3;;

failed to agree as that

(A) they failed to incororate the most u-to-date information about the effect of

clouds on climate

(") they ere based on faulty information about factors other than clouds that

affect climate

(#) they ere based on different assumtions about the overall effects of clouds

on climate

($) their originators disagreed about the kinds of forecasts the models should

rovide

(!) their originators disagreed about the factors other than clouds that should be

included in the models

+<. :t can be inferred that the rimary urose of the models included in the study

discussed in the second aragrah of the assage as to(A) redict future changes in the orld's climate

(") redict the effects of cloud systems on the orld's climate

(#) find a ay to revent a disastrous lanetide temerature increase

($) assess the ercentage of the !arth's surface covered by cloud systems

(!) estimate by ho much the amount of carbon dio%ide in the !arth's

atmoshere ill increase

+7. The information in the assage suggests that scientists ould have to anser

hich of the folloing questions in order to redict the effect of clouds on thearming of the globe*

(A) hat kinds of cloud systems ill form over the !arth*

(") 4o can cloud systems be encouraged to form over the ocean*

(#) hat are the causes of the roected lanetide temerature increase*

($) hat roortion of cloud systems are currently comosed of cirrus of clouds*

(!) hat roortion of the clouds in the atmoshere form over land masses*

1996 04

SECTION A

;or many years% "en/amin Ruarles’ seminal account of the participation of

African Americans in the American $evolution has remained the standard work in

the eld. According to Ruarles% the outcome of this con#ict was mixed for African

American slaves who enlisted in "ritain’s ght against its rebellious American

colonies in return for the promise of freedom< the "ritish treacherously resold

many into slavery in the !est ndies% while others obtained freedom in Canada

and Africa. "uilding on Ruarles’ analysis of the latter group% 9ylvia ;rey studied



GRE 3;<

the former slaves who emigrated to "ritish colonies in Canada. According to ;rey%

these refugees—the most successful of the African American $evolutionary !ar

participants—viewed themselves as the ideological heirs of the American

$evolution. ;rey sees this inheritances re#ected in their demands for the same

rights that the American revolutionaries had demanded from the "ritish< landownership% limits to arbitrary authority and burdensome taxes% and freedom of

religion.

17. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing is true about the African

American 5evolutionary ar articiants ho settled in #anada after the

American 5evolution*

(A) Although they ere olitically unaligned ith either side8 they identified

more ith "ritish ideology than ith American ideology.

(") hile they ere not immediately betrayed by the "ritish8 they ultimately

suffered the same fate as did African American 5evolutionary ar

articiants ho ere resold into slavery in the est :ndies.

(#) They settled in #anada rather than in Africa because of the greater religious

freedom available in #anada.

($) They ere more olitically active than ere African American 5evolutionary

ar articiants ho settled in Africa.

(!) They ere more successful than ere African American 5evolutionary ar

articiants ho settled Africa.

1&. hich of the folloing is most analogous to the relationshi beteen the AfricanAmerican 5evolutionary ar articiants ho settled in #anada after the

American 5evolution and the American revolutionaries8 as that relationshi is

described in the assage*

(A) A brilliant uil of a great musician rebels against the teacher8 but adots the

teacher's musical style after the teacher's une%ected death.

(") To arring rulers finally make eace after a lifetime of strife hen they

realize that they have been dued by a common enemy.

(#) A child ho has sided ith a domineering arent against a defiant sibling

later makes demands of the arent similar to those once made by the sibling.

($) A riter sends much of her life oularizing the ork of her mentor8 only to

discover late in life that much of the older riter's ork is lagiarized from

the ritings of a foreign contemorary.

(!) To research scientists send much of their careers orking together toard

a common goal8 but later quarrel over hich of them should receive credit

for the training of a romising student.

1. The author of the assage suggests that hich of the folloing is true of

"enamin Kuarles' ork*

(A) :t introduced a ne and untried research methodology.



GRE 3;7

(") :t contained theories so controversial that they gave rise to an entire

generation of scholarshi.

(#) :t as a ioneering ork that has not yet been dislaced by subsequent

scholarshi.

($) :t launched the career of a scholar ho later rote even more imortant

orks.

(!) At the time it aeared8 its author already enoyed a ell-established

reutation in the field.

+. hich of the folloing can be inferred from the assage concerning "ritain's rule

in its #anadian colonies after the American 5evolution*

(A) 4umiliated by their defeat by the Americans8 the "ritish sharly curtailed

civil rights in their #anadian colonies.

(") The "ritish largely ignored their #anadian colonies.(#) The "ritish encouraged the colonization of #anada by those African

Americans ho had served on the American side as ell as by those ho

had served on the "ritish side.

($) ,ome of "ritain's olicies in its #anadian colonies ere similar to its olicies

in its American colonies before the American 5evolution.

(!) To reduce the debt incurred during the ar8 the "ritish imosed even higher

ta%es on the #anadian colonists than they had on the American colonists.

?ver the years% biologists have suggested two main pathways by which sexual

selection may have shaped the evolution of male birdsong. n the rst% male

competition and intrasexual selection produce relatively short% simple songs used

mainly in territorial behavior. n the second% female choice and intersexual

selection produce longer% more complicated songs used mainly in mate attraction4

like such visual ornamentation as the peacock’s tail% elaborate vocal

characteristics increase the male’s chances of being chosen as a mate% and he

thus en/oys more reproductive success than his less ostentatious rivals. (he two

pathways are not mutually exclusive% and we can expect to nd examples that

re#ect their interaction. (easing them apart has been an important challenge to

evolutionary biologists.Early research conrmed the role of intrasexual selection. n a variety of

experiments in the eld% males responded aggressively to recorded songs by

exhibiting territorial behavior near the speakers. (he breakthrough for research

into intersexual selection came in the development of a new techni'ue for

investigating female response in the laboratory. !hen female cowbirds raised in

isolation in sound-proof chambers were exposed to recordings of male song% they

responded by exhibiting mating behavior. "y 'uantifying the responses%

researchers were able to determine what particular features of the song were

most important. n further experiments on song sparrows% researchers found that

when exposed to a single song type repeated several times or to a repertoire of



GRE 3;&

di=erent song types% females responded more to the latter. (he beauty of the

experimental design is that it e=ectively rules out confounding variables4 acoustic

isolation assures that the female can respond only to the song structure itself.

f intersexual selection operates as theori&ed% males with more complicated

songs should not only attract females more readily but should also en/oy greater

reproductive success. At rst% however% researchers doing eldwork with song

sparrows found no correlation between larger repertoires and early mating% which

has been shown to be one indicator of reproductive success4 further% common

measures of male 'uality used to predict reproductive success% such as weight%

si&e% age% and territory% also failed to correlate with song complexity.

(he conrmation researchers had been seeking was nally achieved in studies

involving two varieties of warblers. 8nlike the song sparrow% which repeats one of

its several song types in bouts before switching to another% the warbler

continuously composes much longer and more variable songs without repetition.;or the rst time% researchers found a signicant correlation between repertoire

si&e and early mating% and they discovered further that repertoire si&e had a more

signicant e=ect than any other measure of male 'uality on the number of young

produced. (he evidence suggests that warblers use their extremely elaborate

songs primarily to attract females% clearly conrming the e=ect of intersexual

selection on the evolution of birdsong.


(A) shoing that intrase%ual selection has a greater effect on birdsong than does

interse%ual selection

(") contrasting the role of song comle%ity in several secies of birds

(#) describing research confirming the susected relationshi beteen interse%ual

selection and the comle%ity of birdsong

($) demonstrating the sueriority of laboratory ork over field studies in

evolutionary biology

(!) illustrating the effectiveness of a articular aroach to e%erimental design

in evolutionary biology

++. The author mentions the eacock's tail in line & most robably in order to(A) cite an e%cetion to the theory of the relationshi beteen intrase%ual

selection and male cometition

(") illustrate the imortance of both of the athays that shaed the evolution of

birdsong

(#) dra a distinction beteen cometing theories of interse%ual selection

($) give an e%amle of a feature that may have evolved through interse%ual

selection by female choice

(!) refute a commonly held assumtion about the role of song in mate attraction

+3. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing is secifically related to



GRE 3;

intrase%ual selection*

(A) >emale choice

(") Territorial behavior

(#) #omle% song tyes

($) Darge song reertoires

(!) ?isual ornamentation

+9. hich of the folloing8 if true8 ould most clearly demonstrate the interaction

mentioned in lines 11-13*

(A) >emale larks resond similarly both to short8 simle songs and to longer8

more comlicated songs.

(") @ale canaries use visual ornamentation as ell as elaborate song reertoires

for mate attraction.

(#) "oth male and female blackbirds develo elaborate visual and vocal

characteristics.

($) @ale ays use songs to comete among themselves and to attract females.

(!) @ale robins ith elaborate visual ornamentation have as much reroductive

success as rivals ith elaborate vocal characteristics.

+;. The assage indicates that researchers raised female cobirds in acoustic

isolation in order to

(A) eliminate confounding variables

(") aro%imate field conditions

(#) measure reroductive success

($) quantify reertoire comle%ity

(!) revent early mating

+<. According to the assage8 the song sarro is unlike the arbler in that the song

sarro

(A) uses songs mainly in territorial behavior

(") continuously comoses long and comle% songs

(#) has a much larger song reertoire

($) reeats one song tye before sitching to another

(!) resonds aggressively to recorded songs

+7. The assage suggests that the song sarro e%eriments mentioned in lines 37-93

failed to confirm the role of interse%ual selection because

(A) females ere alloed to resond only to the song structure

(") song sarros are unlike other secies of birds

(#) the e%eriments rovided no evidence that elaborate songs increased male

reroductive success



GRE 3<

($) the e%eriments included the songs of only a small number of different song

sarros

(!) the e%eriments dulicated some of the limitations of revious field studies

SECTION B

An experiment conducted aboard 9pace ab in 1IN: was the rst attempt to

grow protein crystals in the low-gravity environment of space. (hat experiment is

still cited as evidence that growing crystals in microgravity can increase crystal

si&e< the authors reported that they grew lyso&yme protein crystals 1%333 times

larger than crystals grown in the same device on Earth. 8nfortunately% the authors

did not point out that their crystals were no larger than the average crystal grown

using other% more standard techni'ues in an Earth laboratory.

Bo research has yet produced results that could /ustify the enormous costs of

producing crystals on a large scale in space. (o get an unbiased view of the

usefulness of microgravity crystal growth% crystals grown in space must be

compared with the best crystals that have been grown with standard techni'ues

on Earth. 7iven the great expense of conducting such experiments with proper

controls% and the limited promise of experiments performed thus far% it is

'uestionable whether further experiments in this area should even be conducted.

17. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing is true about the ,ace Dab

e%eriment conducted in 1&3*

(A) :t as the first e%eriment to take lace in the microgravity environment ofsace.

(") :t as the first e%eriment in hich researchers in sace ere able to gro

lysozyme rotein crystals greater in size than those gron on !arth.

(#) :ts results have been suerseded by subsequent research in the field of

microgravity rotein crystal groth.

($) :ts results are still considered by some to be evidence for the advantages of

microgravity rotein crystal groth.

(!) :ts results are considered by many to be invalid because nonstandard

techniques ere emloyed.

1&. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author ould find the ,ace Dab

e%eriment more imressive if hich of the folloing ere true*

(A) The results of the ,ace Dab e%eriment could be relicated in roducing

other kinds of crystals in addition to lysozyme rotein.

(") The device used in the e%eriment roduced larger crystals on !arth than it

did in sace.

(#) The size of the crystals roduced in the e%eriment e%ceeded the size of

crystals gron in !arth laboratories using standard techniques.($) The cost of roducing the crystals in sace e%ceeded that of roducing them



GRE 3<1

using standard laboratory techniques.

(!) The standard techniques used in !arth laboratories ere modified in the

,ace Dab e%eriment due to the effects of microgravity.

1. hich of the folloing can be inferred from the assage about the device used togro crystals in the ,ace Dab e%eriment*

(A) The device is more e%ensive to manufacture than are the devices used in

standard techniques in an !arth laboratory.

(") The device has not been used to gro crystals in sace since the ,ace Dab

e%eriment of 1&3.

(#) #rystals gron in the device on !arth tend to be much smaller than crystals

gron in it in sace.

($) #rystals gron in the device in sace have been e%ceeded in size by crystals

gron in subsequent e%eriments in sace using other devices.(!) The e%eriments in hich the device as used ere conducted ith roer

controls.

+. The assage suggests that the author ould most robably agree ith hich of

the folloing assessments of the results of the ,ace Dab e%eriment*

(A) Although the results of the e%eriment are imressive8 the e%eriment as too

limited in scoe to allo for definitive conclusions.

(") The results of the e%eriment are imressive on the surface8 but the reort is

misleading.

(#) The results of the e%eriment convincingly confirm hat researchers have

long susected.

($) "ecause of design flas8 the e%eriment did not yield any results relevant to

the issue under investigation.

(!) The results of the e%eriment are too contradictory to allo for easy

interretation.

n 1I5: the innovative $ussian lmmaker &iga Fertov described lmmaking

as a process that leads viewers toward a @fresh perception of the world. Fertov’s

description of lmmaking should apply to lms on the sub/ect of art. Det lms onart have not had a powerful and pervasive e=ect on the way we see.

6ublications on art #ourish% but these books and articles do not necessarily

succeed in teaching us to see more deeply or more clearly. >uch writing in art

history advances the discourse in the eld but is unlikely to inform the eye of one

unfamiliar with its polemics. ;ilms% however% with their capacity to present

material visually and to reach a broader audience% have the potential to enhance

visual literacy +the ability to identify the details that characteri&e a particular

style more e=ectively than publications can. 8nfortunately% few of the hundred or

so lms on art that are made each year in the 8nited 9tates are broadcast

nationally on prime-time television.



GRE 3<+

(he fact that lms on art are rarely seen on prime-time television may be due

not only to limitations on distribution but also to the shortcomings of many such

lms. 9ome of these shortcomings can be attributed to the failure of art historians

and lmmakers to collaborate closely enough when making lms on art. (hese

professionals are able% within their respective disciplines% to increase ourawareness of visual forms. ;or close collaboration to occur% professionals in each

discipline need to recogni&e that lms on art can be both educational and

entertaining% but this will re'uire compromise on both sides.

A lmmaker who is creating a lm about the work of an artist should not

follow the standards set by rock videos and advertising. ;ilmmakers need to resist

the impulse to move the camera 'uickly from detail to detail for fear of boring the

viewer% to frame the image for the sake of drama alone% to add music for fear of

silence. ;ilmmakers are aware that an art ob/ect demands concentration and% at

the same time% are concerned that it may not be compelling enough0and so theyhope to provide relief by interposing @real scenes that bear only a tangential

relationship to the sub/ect. "ut a work of art needs to be explored on its own

terms. ?n the other hand% art historians need to trust that one can indicate and

analy&e% not solely with words% but also by directing the viewer’s ga&e. (he

speciali&ed written language of art history needs to be relin'uished or at least

tempered for the screen. ?nly an e=ective collaboration between lmmakers and

art historians can create lms that will enhance viewers’ perceptions of art.

+1. The assage suggests that a filmmaker desiring to enhance vieers' ercetions

of art should do hich of the folloing*(A) 5ely on the recise language of art history hen develoing scrits for films

on art.

(") 5ely on dramatic narrative and music to set a film's tone and style.

(#) 5ecognize that a ork of art by itself can be comelling enough to hold a

vieer's attention.

($) $eend more strongly on narration instead of camera movements to guide the

vieer's gaze.

(!) !mhasize the social and the historical conte%ts ithin hich orks of art

have been created.

++. The author of the assage refers to ?ertov in the first aragrah most robably in

order to

(A) rovide an e%amle of ho films can be used to influence ercetions

(") resent evidence to suort the argument that films have been used

successfully to influence vieers' ercetions

(#) introduce the notion that film can influence ho vieers see

($) contrast a traditional vie of the uses of film ith a more modern vie

(!) describe ho film can change a vieer's ercetion of a ork of art



GRE 3<3


(A) An observation about an unsatisfactory situation is offered8 the reasons for the

situation are discussed8 and then ays to change it are suggested.

(") To oinions regarding a controversial henomenon are contrasted8

suorting evidence for each is resented8 and then the to oinions are

reconciled.

(#) #riticism of a oint of vie is discussed8 the criticism is ansered8 and then

the criticism is alied to another oint of vie.

($) A oint of vie is described8 evidence suorting the vie is rovided8 and

then a summary is resented.

(!) A strategy is resented8 reasons for its ast failure are discussed8 and then a

recommendation that ill be abandoned is offered.

+9. The assage is rimarily concerned ith(A) discussing hy film's otential as a medium for resenting art to the general

ublic has not been fully realized and ho film might be made more

effective in this regard

(") discussing the shortcomings of films on art and the technological innovations

required to increase the imact of film on visual literacy

(#) discussing the advantages and the disadvantages of using films rather than

ublications to resent orks of art to the general ublic

($) resenting information to suort the vie that films on art must focus more

on education and less on entertainment in order to increase visual literacy

(!) resenting information to suort the vie that films on art8 because they

reach a broader audience than many other kinds of media8 have had greater

success in romoting visual literacy

+;. The author ould most likely agree ith hich of the folloing statements about

film and visual literacy*

(A) 5eading a ublication about a ork of art and then seeing a film about the

same ork is the most effective ay to develo visual literacy.

(") An increase in a vieer's aareness of visual forms ill also lead to anincreased attention san.

(#) >ilm has a great but not yet fully e%loited caacity to increase vieers'

aareness of visual forms.

($) A film that focuses on the details of a ork of art ill hinder the develoment

of visual literacy.

(!) >ilms on art ould more effectively enhance the visual literacy of teenagers if

filmmakers folloed the standards set by rock videos.

+<. According to the assage8 art historians desiring to ork ith filmmakers to

enhance the ublic's areciation of art need to acknoledge hich of the



GRE 3<9

folloing*

(A) The art historian's role in the creation of a film on art is likely to be a

relatively minor one.

(") >ilm rovides an ideal oortunity to acquaint vieers ith a ide range of

issues that relate incidentally to a ork of art.

(#) An in-deth analysis of a ork of art is not an aroriate toic for a film on

art.

($) Although silence may be an aroriate background hen vieing a ork of

art in a museum8 it is inaroriate in a film.

(!) >ilm can use nonverbal means to achieve some of the same results that a

soken or ritten discourse can achieve.

+7. hich of the folloing ould describe the author's most likely reaction to a

claim that films on art ould more successfully romote visual literacy if theyfolloed the standards set for rock videos*

(A) Ambivalence

(") :ndifference

(#) ,ymathy

($) :nterest

(!) $isdain

1996 10

SECTION A

(his is not to deny that the "lack gospel music of the early twentieth century

di=ered in important ways from the slave spirituals. !hereas spirituals were

created and disseminated in folk fashion% gospel music was composed% published%

copyrighted% and sold by professionals. Bevertheless% improvisation remained

central to gospel music. ?ne has only to listen to the recorded repertoire of gospel

songs to reali&e that "lack gospel singers rarely sang a song precisely the same

way twice and never according to its exact musical notation. (hey performed what

/a&& musicians call @head arrangements proceeding from their own feelings and

from the way @the spirit moved them at the time. (his improvisatory element

was re#ected in the manner in which gospel music was published. "lack gospel

composers scored the music intended for !hite singing groups fully% indicating

the various vocal parts and the accompaniment% but the music produced for "lack

singers included only a vocal line and piano accompaniment.

17. hich of the folloing best describes Ehead arrangementF as the term is used in

line 11*

(A) A ublished version of a gosel song roduced for use by "lack singers



GRE 3<;

(") A gosel song based on a slave siritual

(#) A musical score shared by a gosel singer and a azz musician

($) An informally ritten comosition intended for use by a gosel singer

(!) An imrovised erformance insired by the singer's emotions

1&. The author mentions Efolk fashionF (line 9) most likely in order to

(A) counter an assertion about the role of imrovisation in music created by

"lack eole

(") comare early gosel music ith gosel music ritten later in the tentieth

century

(#) make a distinction beteen gosel music and slave sirituals

($) introduce a discussion about the dissemination of slave sirituals

(!) describe a similarity beteen gosel music and slave sirituals

1. The assage suggests hich of the folloing about "lack gosel music and slave

sirituals*

(A) "oth became idely knon in the early tentieth century.

(") "oth had an imortant imrovisatory element.

(#) "oth ere frequently erformed by azz musicians.

($) "oth ere ublished ith only a vocal line and iano accomaniment.

(!) "oth ere disseminated chiefly by "lack singing grous.

+. Bf the folloing sentences8 hich is most likely to have immediately recededthe assage*

(A) >e comosers of gosel music dre on traditions such as the siritual in

creating their songs.

(") ,irituals and "lack gosel music ere derived from the same musical

tradition.

(#) The creation and singing of sirituals8 racticed by "lack Americans before

the #ivil ar8 continued after the ar.

($) ,irituals and gosel music can be clearly distinguished from one another.

(!) :mrovisation as one of the rimary characteristics of the gosel music

created by "lack musicians.

About a century ago% the 9wedish physical scientist Arrhenius proposed a law

of classical chemistry that relates chemical reaction rate to temperature.

According to the Arrhenius e'uation% chemical reactions are increasingly unlikely

to occur as temperatures approach absolute &ero% and at absolute &ero +&ero

degrees Jelvin% or minus 5Q: degrees Celsius reactions stop. ,owever% recent

experimental evidence reveals that although the Arrhenius e'uation is generally

accurate in describing the kind of chemical reaction that occurs at relatively high

temperatures% at temperatures closer to &ero a 'uantum-mechanical e=ect known



GRE 3<<

as tunneling comes into play4 this e=ect accounts for chemical reactions that are

forbidden by the principles of classical chemistry. 9pecically% entire molecules

can @tunnel through the barriers of repulsive forces from other molecules and

chemically react even though these molecules do not have su*cient energy%

according to classical chemistry% to overcome the repulsive barrier.

(he rate of any chemical reaction% regardless of the temperature at which it

takes place% usually depends on a very important characteristic known as its

activation energy. Any molecule can be imagined to reside at the bottom of a so-

called potential well of energy. A chemical reaction corresponds to the transition

of a molecule from the bottom of one potential well to the bottom of another. n

classical chemistry% such a transition can be accomplished only by going over the

potential barrier between the wells% the height of which remains constant and is

called the activation energy of the reaction. n tunneling% the reacting molecules

tunnel from the bottom of one to the bottom of another well without having to riseover the barrier between the two wells. $ecently researchers have developed the

concept of tunneling temperature< the temperature below which tunneling

transitions greatly outnumber Arrhenius transitions% and classical mechanics gives

way to its 'uantum counterpart.

(his tunneling phenomenon at very low temperatures suggested my

hypothesis about a cold prehistory of life< the formation of rather complex organic

molecules in the deep cold of outer space% where temperatures usually reach only

a few degrees Jelvin. Cosmic rays +high-energy protons and other particles might

trigger the synthesis of simple molecules% such as interstellar formaldehyde% in

dark clouds of interstellar dust. Afterward complex organic molecules would be

formed% slowly but surely% by means of tunneling. After o=ered my hypothesis%

,oyle and !ickramasinghe argued that molecules of interstellar formaldehyde

have indeed evolved into stable polysaccharides such as cellulose and starch.

(heir conclusions% although strongly disputed% have generated excitement among

investigators such as myself who are proposing that the galactic clouds are the

places where the prebiological evolution of compounds necessary to life occurred.

+1. The author of the assage is rimarily concerned ith

(A) describing ho the rinciles of classical chemistry ere develoed(") initiating a debate about the kinds of chemical reactions required for the

develoment of life

(#) e%laining ho current research in chemistry may be related to broader

biological concerns

($) reconciling oosing theories about chemical reactions

(!) clarifying inherent ambiguities in the las of classical chemistry

++. According to the assage8 classical chemical reactions and tunneling reactions are

alike in hich of the folloing ays*

(A) :n both tyes of reactions8 reacting molecules have to rise over the barrier



GRE 3<7

beteen the to ells.

(") :n both tyes of reactions8 a transition is made from the bottom of one

otential ell to the bottom of another.

(#) :n neither tye of reaction does the height of the barrier beteen the ells

remain constant.

($) :n neither tye of reaction does the rate of a chemical reaction deend on its

activation energy.

(!) :n both tyes of reactions8 reacting molecules are able to go through the

barrier beteen the to ells.

+3. According to the Arrhenius equation as discussed in the assage8 hich of the

folloing statements about chemical reactions is true*

(A) #hemical reactions are less likely to occur at temeratures close to absolute

zero.(") :n some cases the rate of a chemical reaction is related to temerature and in

other cases it is not.

(#) #hemical reactions frequently occur at a fe degrees above absolute zero8 but

they are very unredictable.

($) The rate of a chemical reaction deends on many other factors besides

temerature.

(!) #hemical reaction rate and temerature are not related.

+9. The author's attitude toard the theory of a cold re-history of life can best bedescribed as

(A) neutral

(") sketical

(#) mildly ositive

($) very suortive

(!) ointedly critical

+;. The author's hyothesis concerning the cold rehistory of life ould be most

eakened if hich of the folloing ere true*(A) #osmic rays are unlikely to trigger the formation of simle molecules.

(") Tunneling occurs only in a narro band of temeratures around zero degrees

Jelvin.

(#) The synthesis of interstellar formaldehyde can be activated by means other

than cosmic rays.

($) ,imle molecules can be synthesized by means of tunneling.

(!) #lassical chemical reactions do not occur at temeratures close to absolute

zero.

+<. hich of the folloing best describes the hyothesis of 4oyle and



GRE 3<&

ickramasinghe as it is resented in the assage*

(A) #osmic rays can directly synthesize comle% organic molecules.

(") The galactic clouds are the laces here rebiological evolution of

comounds necessary to life occurred.

(#) :nterstellar formaldehyde can be synthesized by tunneling.

($) @olecules of interstellar formaldehyde can evolve into comle% organic

molecules.

(!) #omle% organic molecules can be synthesized from stable olysaccharides

such as cellulose and starch.

+7. hich of the folloing best describes the organization of the first to aragrahs

of the assage*

(A) The author cites a basic rincile of classical chemistry and then describes the

research from hich that rincile as develoed.

(") The author cites an aarent contradiction to the rinciles of classical

chemistry and then e%lains the rocess of a chemical reaction to sho there

is in fact no contradiction.

(#) The author describes the role of heat in chemical reactions and then offers a

detailed e%lanation of its function.

($) The author resents a la of classical chemistry in order to introduce a kind

of chemical reaction that differs from it and then e%lains the essential

difference beteen the to.

(!) The author resents the fundamental rules of classical chemistry in order to

introduce an e%lanation of a secific chemical reaction.

SECTION B

Although the hormone adrenaline is known to regulate memory storage% it

does not pass from the blood into brain cells. !e are faced with an apparent

paradox< how can a hormone that does not act directly on the brain have such a

large e=ect on brain functionP

$ecently% we tested the possibility that one of the hormone’s actions outsidethe brain might be responsible. 9ince one conse'uence of adrenaline release in an

animal is an increase in blood glucose levels% we examined the e=ects of glucose

on memory in rats. !e found that glucose in/ected immediately after training

enhances memory tested the next day. Additional evidence was provided by

negative ndings< drugs called adrenergic antagonists% which block peripheral

adrenaline receptors% disrupted adrenaline’s ability to regulate memory but did

not a=ect memory enhancements produced by glucose that was not stimulated by

adrenaline. (hese results are as they should be if adrenaline a=ects memory

modulation by increasing blood glucose levels.




GRE 3<

(A) reconcile to oosing theories

(") comare to different e%lanations for a henomenon

(#) describe e%erimental research that aears to suort an unoular theory

($) resent evidence that may hel to resolve an aarent contradiction

(!) describe a hyothesis that has cause a controversy

1&. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author ould most likely describe the

Eadditional evidenceF (line 1+) rovided by e%eriments ith adrenergic

antagonists as

(A) revolutionary

(") disaointing

(#) incomlete

($) une%ected

(!) corroborative

1. The assage rovides information about hich of the folloing toics*

(A) The mechanism by hich glucose affects memory storage

(") The evidence that romted scientist to test the effects of adrenaline on

memory regulation

(#) The reason that the effects of glucose on memory ere tested

($) The ays that memory storage modifies the structure of the brain

(!) The kinds of training used to test memory enhancement in rats

+. The author refers to the results of the e%eriment using adrenergic antagonists as

Enegative findingsF (line 13) most likely because the adrenergic antagonists

(A) failed to disrut adrenaline's effect on memory

(") did not affect glucose's ability to enhance memory

(#) did not block adrenaline's ability to increase blood glucose levels

($) only artially affected adrenaline's ability to enhance memory

(!) disruted both adrenaline's and glucose's effect on memory

(he age at which young children begin to make moral discriminations aboutharmful actions committed against themselves or others has been the focus of

recent research into the moral development of children. 8ntil recently% child

psychologists supported pioneer developmentalist ean. 6iaget in his hypothesis

that because of their immaturity% children under age seven do not take into

account the intentions of a person committing accidental or deliberate harm% but

rather simply assign punishment for transgressions on the basis of the magnitude

of the negative conse'uences caused. According to 6iaget% children under age

seven occupy the rst stage of moral development% which is characteri&ed by

moral absolutism +rules made by authorities must be obeyed and imminent

/ustice +if rules are broken% punishment will be meted out. 8ntil young children



GRE 37

mature% their moral /udgments are based entirely on the e=ect rather than the

cause of a transgression. ,owever% in recent research% Jeasey found that six-year-

old children not only distinguish between accidental and intentional harm% but also

/udge intentional harm as naughtier% regardless of the amount of damage

produced. "oth of these ndings seem to indicate that children% at an earlier agethan 6iaget claimed% advance into the second stage of moral development% moral

autonomy% in which they accept social rules but view them as more arbitrary than

do children in the rst stage.

Jeasey’s research raises two key 'uestions for developmental psychologists

about children under age seven< do they recogni&e /ustications for harmful

actions% and do they make distinctions between harmful acts that are preventable

and those acts that have unforeseen harmful conse'uencesP 9tudies indicate that

/ustications excusing harmful actions might include public duty% self-defense% and

provocation. ;or example% Besdale and $ule concluded that children were capableof considering whether or not an aggressor’s action was /ustied by public duty<

ve year olds reacted very di=erently to @"onnie wrecks Ann’s pretend house

depending on whether "onnie did it @so somebody won’t fall over it or because

"onnie wanted @to make Ann feel bad. (hus% a child of ve begins to understand

that certain harmful actions% though intentional% can be /ustied4 the constraints of

moral absolutism no longer solely guide their /udgments.

6sychologists have determined that during kindergarten children learn to

make subtle distinctions involving harm. arley observed that among acts

involving unintentional harm% six-year-old children /ust entering kindergarten

could not di=erentiate between foreseeable% and thus preventable% harm and

unforeseeable harm for which the perpetrator cannot be blamed. 9even months

later% however% arley found that these same children could make both

distinctions% thus demonstrating that they had become morally autonomous.

+1. hich of the folloing best describes the assage as a hole*

(A) An outline for future research

(") An e%anded definition of commonly misunderstood terms

(#) An analysis of a disute beteen to theorists

($) A discussion of research findings in an ongoing inquiry

(!) A confirmation of an established authority's theory

++. According to the assage8 $arley found that after seven months of kindergarten

si% year olds acquired hich of the folloing abilities*

(A) $ifferentiating beteen foreseeable and unforeseeable harm

(") :dentifying ith the eretrator of a harmful action

(#) 2ustifying harmful actions that result from rovocation

($) !valuating the magnitude of negative consequences resulting from the

breaking of rules



GRE 371

(!) 5ecognizing the difference beteen moral absolutism and moral autonomy

+3. According to the assage8 iaget and Jeasey ould not have agreed on hich of

the folloing oints*

(A) The kinds of e%cuses children give for harmful acts they commit(") The age at hich children begin to discriminate beteen intentional and

unintentional harm

(#) The intentions children have in eretrating harm

($) The circumstances under hich children unish harmful acts

(!) The ustifications children recognize for mitigating unishment for harmful

acts

+9. :t can be inferred that the term Eublic dutyF (line 33) in the conte%t of the

assage means hich of the folloing*

(A) The necessity to arehend eretrators.

(") The resonsibility to unish transgressors

(#) An obligation to revent harm to another

($) The assignment of unishment for harmful action

(!) A ustification for unishing transgressions

+;. According to the assage8 Jeasey's findings suort hich of the folloing

conclusions about si%-year-old children*

(A) They have the ability to make autonomous moral udgments.(") They regard moral absolutism as a threat to their moral autonomy.

(#) They do not understand the concet of ublic duty.

($) They accet moral udgment made by their eers more easily than do older

children.

(!) They make arbitrary moral udgments.

+<. :t can be inferred from the assage that iaget ould be likely to agree ith

hich of the folloing statements about the unishment that children under seven

assign to rongdoing*

(A) The severity of the assigned unishment is determined by the erceived

magnitude of negative consequences more than by any other factor.

(") The unishment is to be administered immediately folloing the

transgression.

(#) The children assign unishment less arbitrarily than they do hen they reach

the age of moral autonomy.

($) The unishment for acts of unintentional harm is less severe than it is for acts

involving accidental harm.

(!) The more develomentally immature a child8 the more severe the unishmentthat the child ill assign.



GRE 37+

+7. According to the assage8 the research of esdale and 5ule suggests hich of the

folloing about five-year-old children*

(A) Their reactions to intentional and accidental harm determine the severity of

the unishments they assign.

(") They8 as eretrators of harmful acts8 disregard the feelings of the children

they harm.

(#) They take into account the motivations of actions hen udging the behavior

of other children.

($) They vie ublic duty as a ustification for accidental8 but not intentional8

harm.

(!) They ustify any action that rotects them from harm.

1997 04

SECTION A

7eologists ,arris and 7ass hypothesi&ed that the $ed 9ea rift developed along

the line of a suture +a splice in the Earth’s crust formed during the late

6rotero&oic era% and that signicant observable di=erences in the composition of

the upper layers of rocks deposited on either side of the suture give clues to the

di=erent natures of the underlying igneous rocks.

?ther geologists argued that neither the upper rock layer nor the underlying

igneous rocks on the one side of the rift di=er fundamentally from the

corresponding layers on the other side. (hese geologists believe% therefore% that

there is inade'uate evidence to conclude that a suture underlies the rift.

n response% ,arris and 7ass asserted that the upper rock layers on the two

sides of the rift had not been shown to be of similar age% structure% or

geochemical content. ;urthermore% they cited new evidence that the underlying

igneous rocks on either side of the rift contain signicantly di=erent kinds of rare

metals.

17. art of the 4arris and /ass hyothesis about the 5ed ,ea rift ould be eakenedif it could be demonstrated that the comosition of uer rock layers

(A) cannot cause a suture to develo

(") has no effect on here a suture ill occur

(#) cannot rovide information about the nature of underlying rocks

($) is similar on the to sides of a rift unless a suture divides the to sides

(!) is usually different from the comosition of underlying rocks

1&. :t can be inferred from the assage that the EBther geologistsF (line &) ould be

most likely to agree ith hich of the folloing statements*(A) ,imilar geological features along both sides of a ossible suture imly the



GRE 373

e%istence of that suture.

(") ,utures can be discovered only here they are not obscured by suerimosed

geological features.

(#) The comosition of igneous rocks ermits rediction of the likelihood of a rift

develoing through them.

($) :t is ossible to date igneous rocks by carefully studying the different kinds of

rare metals contained in them and by observing their similarity to the layer

of rock that lies above them.

(!) The e%istence of rock layers on one side of a rift that are similar in

comosition to rock layers on the other side suggests that no suture e%ists

beteen the to sides.

1. :t can be inferred from the assage that 4arris and /ass have done hich of the

folloing*(A) $ran detailed diagrams of the 5ed ,ea rift.

(") "ased their conclusions on the ay in hich sutures develo in the !arth's

crust.

(#) 5eected other geologists obections to their hyothesis about the 5ed ,ea

rift.

($) ,uggested that the resence of rare metals in rocks indicates an underlying

suture.

(!) Asserted that rifts usually occur along the lines of sutures.

+. According to the assage8 4arris and /ass have mentioned all of the folloing

roerties of rocks along the 5ed ,ea rift !C#!T=

(A) age of the uer layers of rock

(") structure of the uer layers of rocks

(#) geochemical content of the uer layers of rocks

($) metallic content of the underlying igneous rocks

(!) age of the underlying igneous rocks

6roponents of di=erent /a&& styles have always argued that their

predecessors’ musical style did not include essential characteristics that dene

/a&& as /a&&. (hus% 1IG3’s swing was belittled by beboppers of the 1I23’s% who

were themselves attacked by free /a&&ers of the 1IO3’s. (he neoboppers of the

1IN3’s and 1II3’s attacked almost everybody else. (he titanic gure of "lack

saxophonist ohn Coltrane has complicated the arguments made by proponents of

styles from bebop through neobop because in his own musical /ourney he drew

from all those styles. ,is in#uence on all types of /a&& was immeasurable. At the

height of his popularity% Coltrane largely abandoned playing bebop% the style that

had brought him fame% to explore the outer reaches of /a&&.



GRE 379

Coltrane himself probably believed that the only essential characteristic of

/a&& was improvisation% the one constant in his /ourney from bebop to open-ended

improvisations on modal% ndian% and African melodies. ?n the other hand% this

dogged student and prodigious technician—who insisted on spending hours each

day practicing scales from theory books0was never able to /ettison completelythe in#uence of bebop% with its fast and elaborate chains of notes and ornaments

on melody.

(wo stylistic characteristics shaped the way Coltrane played the tenor

saxophone% he favored playing fast runs of notes built on a melody and depended

on heavy% regularly accented beats. (he rst led Coltrane to @sheets of sound%

where he raced faster and faster% pile-driving notes into each other to suggest

stacked harmonies. (he second meant that his sense of rhythm was almost as

close to rock as to bebop.

(hree recordings illustrate Coltrane’s energi&ing explorations. $ecording Kindof &!ue with >iles avis% Coltrane found himself outside bop% exploring modal

melodies. ,ere he played surging% lengthy solos built largely around repeated

motifs—an organi&ing principle unlike that of free /a&& saxophone player ?rnette

Coleman% who modulated or altered melodies in his solos. ?n Giant Ste)s%

Coltrane debuted as leader% introducing his own compositions. ,ere the sheets of

sound% downbeat accents% repetitions% and great speed are part of each solo% and

the variety of the shapes of his phrases is uni'ue. Coltrane’s searching

explorations produced solid achievement. M" Fa-orite Things was another kind of

watershed. ,ere Coltrane played the soprano saxophone% an instrument seldom

used by /a&& musicians. >usically% the results were astounding. !ith the soprano’s

piping sound% ideas that had sounded dark and brooding ac'uired a feeling of

giddy fantasy.

!hen Coltrane began recording for the mpulseY label% he was still searching.

,is music became raucous% physical. ,is in#uence on rockers was enormous%

including imi ,endrix% the rock guitarist% who% following Coltrane% raised the

extended guitar solo using repeated motifs to a kind of rock art form.


(A) discuss the lace of #oltrane in the orld of azz and describe his musicale%lorations

(") e%amine the nature of bebo and contrast it ith imrovisational azz

(#) analyze the musical sources of #oltrane's style and their influence on his

ork

($) acknoledge the influence of #oltrane's music on rock music and rock

musicians

(!) discuss the arguments that divide the roonents of different azz styles

++. The author imlies that hich of the folloing ould have been an effect of#oltrane's having chosen to lay the tenor rather than the sorano sa%ohone on



GRE 37;

M Fa+orite Things*

(A) The tone of the recording ould have been more somber.

(") The influence of bebo on the recording ould have been more obvious.

(#) The music on the recording ould have sounded less raucous and hysical.

($) 4is influence on rock music might have been less ervasive.

(!) The style of the recording ould have been indistinguishable from that on

4ind of Blue0

+3. hich of the folloing best describes the organization of the fourth aragrah*

(A) A thesis referred to earlier in the assage is mentioned and illustrated ith

three secific e%amles.

(") A thesis is stated and three e%amles are given each suggesting that a

correction needs to be made to a thesis referred to earlier in the assage.

(#) A thesis referred to earlier in the assage is mentioned8 and three e%amles

are resented and ranked in order of their suort of the thesis.

($) A thesis is stated8 three seemingly oosing e%amles are resented8 and their

underlying corresondence is e%lained.

(!) A thesis is stated8 three dissimilar e%amles are considered8 and the thesis is

restated.

+9. According to the assage8 2ohn #oltrane did all of the folloing during his career

!C#!T=

(A) imrovise on melodies from a number of different cultures

(") erform as leader as ell as soloist

(#) send time imroving his technical skills

($) e%eriment ith the sounds of various instruments

(!) eliminate the influence of bebo on his on music

+;. The author mentions the ork of Brnette #oleman in the fourth aragrah in

order to do hich of the folloing*

(A) !%and the discussion by mentioning the ork of a sa%ohone layer ho

layed in #oltrane's style.

(") #omare #oltrane's solos ith the ork of another azz artist.

(#) ,uort the idea that rational organizing rinciles need to be alied to

artistic ork.

($) ,ho the increasing intricacy of #oltrane's ork after he abandoned bebo.

(!) :ndicate disagreement ith the ay #oltrane modulated the motifs in his

lengthy solos.

+<. According to the assage8 a maor difference beteen #oltrane and other azz

musicians as the



GRE 37<

(A) degree to hich #oltrane's music encomassed all of azz

(") reetition of motifs that #oltrane used in his solos

(#) number of his on comositions that #oltrane recorded

($) indifference #oltrane maintained to musical technique

(!) imortance #oltrane laced on rhythm in azz

+7. :n terms of its tone and form8 the assage can best be characterized as

(A) dogmatic e%lanation

(") indignant denial

(#) enthusiastic raise

($) seculative study

(!) lukearm revie

SECTION B

A special mucous coating that serves as a chemical camou#age allows clown

sh to live among the deadly tentacles of the unsuspecting sea anemone. 8tterly

dependent on this unlikely host for protection from predators% clown sh have

evolved in isolated communities% a pattern that has led to unusual behavioral

adaptations.

(he rigidly dened hierarchy of each clown-sh community is dominated by a

monogamous breeding pair consisting of the largest sh% a female% and the next

largest% a male% attended by a xed number of sexually immature sh ranging in

si&e from large to tiny. A remarkable adaptation is that the development of these

/uveniles is somehow arrested until the hierarchy changes4 then they grow in

lockstep% maintaining their relative si&es. !hile the community thus economi&es

on limited space and food resources% life is risky for newly spawned clown sh. ?n

hatching% the hundreds of larvae drift o= into the plankton. f% within three weeks%

the defenseless larval clown sh locates a suitable anemone +either by pure

chance or perhaps guided by chemicals secreted by the anemone% it may survive.

,owever% if an anemone is fully occupied% the resident clown sh will repel any

newcomer. (hough advantageous for established community members% the suspended

and staggered maturation of /uveniles might seem to pose a danger to the

continuity of the community< there is only one successor for two breeding sh.

9hould one of a pair die% the remaining sh cannot swim o= in search of a mate%

nor is one likely to arrive. t would seem inevitable that reproduction must

sometimes have to halt% pending the chance arrival and maturation of a larval sh

of the appropriate sex.

(his% however% turns out not to be the case. n experiments% vacancies have

been contrived by removing an established sh from a community. Elimination ofthe breeding male triggers the prompt maturation of the largest /uvenile. Each



GRE 377

remaining /uvenile also grows somewhat% and a minuscule newcomer drops in

from the plankton. $emoval of the female also triggers growth in all remaining sh

and acceptance of a newcomer% but the female is replaced by the adult male.

!ithin days% the male’s behavior alters and physiological transformation is

complete within a few months. (hus% whichever of the breeding pair is lost% arelatively large /uvenile can ll the void% and reproduction can resume with a

minimal loss of time. ;urthermore% the new mate has already proved its ability to

survive.

(his transformation of a male into a female% or protandrous hermaphroditism%

is rare among reef sh. (he more common protogynous hermaphroditism% where

females change into males% does not occur among clown sh. An intriguing

'uestion for further research is whether a /uvenile clown sh can turn directly into

a female or whether it must function rst as a male.


(A) analyzing the mutually advantageous relationshi beteen to secies

(") comaring to forms of hermahroditism among clon fish

(#) describing and e%laining asects of clon-fish behavior

($) outlining roosed research on clon-fish reroduction

(!) attemting to reconcile inconsistent observations of clon-fish develoment

1&. :t can be inferred from the assage that the clon fish is able to survive in close

association ith the sea anemone because the

(A) sea anemone cannot detect the resence of the clon fish

(") tentacles of the sea anemone cannot gras the sliery clon fish

(#) sea anemone refers other rey

($) clon fish does not actually come ithin the range of the sea anemone's

tentacles

(!) clon fish has develoed tolerance to the sea anemone's oison

1. According to the assage8 adult clon fish ould be at a disadvantage if they

ere not associated ith sea anemones because the clon fish ould

(A) be incaable of se%ual transformation

(") be vulnerable to redators

(#) have no reliable source of food

($) have to lay their eggs in the oen

(!) face cometition from other clon fish

+. :t can be inferred from the assage that se% change ould have been less

necessary for the clon fish if

(A) the male clon fish ere larger than the female

(") each sea anemone ere occuied by several varieties of clon fish



GRE 37&

(#) many mature clon fish of both se%es occuied each sea anemone

($) uvenile clon fish had a high mortality rate

(!) both male clon fish and female clon fish ere highly territorial

+1. The author mentions all of the folloing as characteristic of the Erigidly definedhierarchyF (line &) of the clon-fish community !C#!T=

(A) At any time only one female clon fish can be reroductively active

(") The mature clon fish are monogamous

(#) The groth of clon fish is synchronized

($) The ma%imum number of clon fish is fi%ed

(!) There are equal numbers of male uveniles and female uveniles

++. hich of the folloing statements about nely hatched clon fish can be

inferred from the assage*(A) They develo raidly.

(") They remain close to the sea anemone occuied by their arents.

(#) They are more sensitive to chemical signals than are adult clon fish.

($) They are not rotected by their arents.

(!) They are less vulnerable to redation than are adult fish.

+3. hich of the folloing8 if true8 ould be D!A,T consistent ith the author's

e%lanation of the advantage of hermahroditism for clon fish*

(A) The number of individuals in a clon-fish community fluctuates significantly.

(") Adult clon fish frequently cannibalize their young.

(#) The sea anemone tolerates clon fish only during a secific stage of the

anemone's life cycle.

($) 2uvenile clon fish rarely reach maturity.

(!) #lon-fish communities are caable of efficiently recruiting solitary adult

clon fish.

Comparing designs in music with visual designs raises interesting 'uestions.

!e are familiar with the easy transfers of terms denoting 'ualities from one eld

to another. (he basic problem can be put this way< can music sound the way a

design looksP (he elements of music are not the same as those of painting. (hey

may be analogous% but to be analogous is not to be identical. s it possible% then%

for the same broad characteristics to emerge from di=erent perceptual

conditionsP

(wo facts about the relation between broad characteristics of a work and their

perceptual conditions must be kept distinct. ;irst% the global characteristics of a

visual or auditory complex are determined by the discernible parts and their

relationships. (hus% any notable change in the parts or their relationships

produces a change in some of the global characteristics. 9econd% a change in the



GRE 37

parts or their relationships may leave other global characteristics unchanged.

+9. :n the first aragrah8 the author is rimarily concerned ith establishing the fact

that

(A) comarisons are not equations(") auditory henomena are not visual henomena

(#) frequently used comarisons are usually inaccurate

($) careless ercetions result from careless thought

(!) questions concerning ercetion are sychological

+;. :n the assage8 the author is rimarily concerned ith

(A) distinguishing mutually e%clusive categories

(") clarifying an aarent contradiction

(#) suorting ne ideas

($) analyzing a roblem

(!) comaring oinions

+<. The second aragrah is rimarily concerned ith establishing the idea that

(A) different global characteristics of a ork result from the same discernible

arts

(") the arts of a ork of art influence the total ercetion of the ork

(#) visual and auditory characteristics can be combined

($) changes in the arts of a ork remain isolated from the ork as a hole

(!) the visual comle%es in a ork of art influence the ork's auditory comle%es

+7. hich of the folloing statements is most likely be a continuation of the

assage*

(A) The search for broad similarities thus begins by understanding and

distinguishing these to facts.

(") The search for musical-visual analogies thus deends on the comle%ity of

the orks being comared.

(#) The search for music and art of the highest quality thus deends on verydifferent assumtions.

($) Thus music and ainting e%ist in mutually e%clusive orlds.

(!) Thus music and ainting are too comlicated to be evaluated in terms of

analogies.

1997 11

SECTION A



GRE 3&

nvestigators of monkeys’ social behavior have always been struck by

monkeys’ aggressive potential and the conse'uent need for social control of their

aggressive behavior. 9tudies directed at describing aggressive behavior and the

situations that elicit it% as well as the social mechanisms that control it% were

therefore among the rst investigations of monkeys’ social behavior.

nvestigators initially believed that monkeys would compete for any resource

in the environment< hungry monkeys would ght over food% thirsty monkeys would

ght over water% and% in general% any time more than one monkey in a group

sought the same incentive simultaneously% a dispute would result and would be

resolved through some form of aggression. ,owever% the motivating force of

competition for incentives began to be doubted when experiments like

9outhwick’s on the reduction of space or the withholding of food failed to produce

more than temporary increases in intragroup aggression. ndeed% food deprivation

not only failed to increase aggression but in some cases actually resulted indecreased fre'uencies of aggression.

9tudies of animals in the wild under conditions of extreme food deprivation

likewise revealed that starving monkeys devoted almost all available energy to

foraging% with little energy remaining for aggressive interaction. ;urthermore%

accumulating evidence from later studies of a variety of primate groups% for

example% the study conducted by "ernstein% indicates that one of the most potent

stimuli for eliciting aggression is the introduction of an intruder into an organi&ed

group. 9uch introductions result in far more serious aggression than that produced

in any other types of experiments contrived to produce competition.

(hese studies of intruders suggest that adult members of the same species

introduced to one another for the rst time show considerable hostility because% in

the absence of a social order% one must be established to control interanimal

relationships. !hen a single new animal is introduced into an existing social

organi&ation% the newcomer meets even more serious aggression. !hereas in the

rst case aggression establishes a social order% in the second case resident

animals mob the intruder% thereby initially excluding the new animal from the

existing social unit. (he simultaneous introduction of several animals lessens the

e=ect% if only because the group divides its attention among the multiple targets.

f% however% the several animals introduced to a group constitute their own social

unit% each group may ght the opposing group as a unit4 but% again% no individual

is sub/ected to mass attack% and the very cohesion of the groups precludes

prolonged individual combat. (he submission of the defeated group% rather than

unleashing unchecked aggression on the part of the victorious group% reduces

both the intensity and fre'uency of further attack. >onkey groups therefore see to

be organi&ed primarily to maintain their established social order rather than to

engage in hostilities per se.


(A) advancing a ne methodology for changing a monkey's social behavior



GRE 3&1

(") comaring the methods of several research studies on aggression among

monkeys

(#) e%laining the reasons for researchers' interest in monkeys' social behavior

($) discussing the develoment of investigators' theories about aggression among

monkeys

(!) e%amining the effects of cometition on monkeys' social behavior

1&. hich of the folloing best summarizes the findings reorted in the assage

about the effects of food derivation on monkeys' behavior*

(A) >ood derivation has no effect on aggression among monkeys.

(") >ood derivation increases aggression among monkeys because one of the

most otent stimuli for eliciting aggression is the cometition for incentives.

(#) >ood derivation may increase long-term aggression among monkeys in a

laboratory setting8 but it roduces only temorary increases among monkeysin the ild.

($) >ood derivation may temorarily increase aggression among monkeys8 but it

also leads to a decrease in conflict.

(!) >ood derivation decreases the intensity but not the frequency of aggressive

incidents among monkey.

1. According to the author8 studies such as ,outhick's had hich of the folloing

effects on investigators' theories about monkeys' social behavior*

(A) They suggested that e%isting theories about the role of aggression amongmonkeys did not fully account for the monkeys' ability to maintain an

established social order.

(") They confirmed investigators' theories about monkeys' aggressive resonse to

cometition for food and ater.

(#) They confirmed investigators' beliefs about the motivation for continued

aggression among monkeys in the same social grou.

($) They disroved investigators' theory that the introduction of intruders in an

organized monkey grou elicits intragrou aggressive behavior.

(!) They cast doubt on investigators' theories that could account for observed atterns of aggression among monkeys.

+. The assage suggests that investigators of monkeys social behavior have been

esecially interested in aggressive behavior among monkeys because

(A) aggression is the most common social behavior among monkeys

(") successful cometition for incentives determines the social order in a monkey

grou

(#) situations that elicit aggressive behavior can be studied in a laboratory

($) most monkeys are otentially aggressive8 yet they live in social units thatcould not function ithout control of their aggressive imulses



GRE 3&+

(!) most monkeys are social8 yet they frequently resond to necomers entering

e%isting social units by attacking them

+1. :t can be inferred from the assage that the establishment and reservation of

social order among a grou of monkeys is essential in order to

(A) kee the monkeys from straying and oining other grous

(") control aggressive behavior among grou members

(#) revent the domination of that grou by another

($) rotect individuals seeking to become members of that grou from mass

attack

(!) revent aggressive cometition for incentives beteen that grou and another

++. The assage sulies information to anser hich of the folloing questions*

(A) 4o does the reduction of sace affect intragrou aggression amongmonkeys in an e%erimental setting*

(") $o family units ithin a monkey social grou comete ith other family

units for food*

(#) hat are the mechanisms by hich the social order of an established grou of

monkeys controls aggression ithin that grou*

($) 4o do monkeys engaged in aggression ith other monkeys signal

submission*

(!) $o monkeys of different secies engage in aggression ith each other over

food*

+3. hich of the folloing best describes the organization of the second aragrah*

(A) A hyothesis is e%lained and counter evidence is described.

(") A theory is advanced and secific evidence suorting it is cited.

(#) >ield observations are described and a conclusion about their significance is

dran.

($) To theories are e%lained and evidence suorting each of them is detailed.

(!) An e%lanation of a general rincile is stated and secific e%amles of its

oeration are given.Analysis of prehistoric air trapped in tiny bubbles beneath the polar ice sheets

and of the composition of ice surrounding those bubbles suggests a correlation

between carbon dioxide levels in the Earth’s atmosphere and global temperature

over the last 1O3%333 years. Estimates of global temperature at the time air in the

bubbles was trapped rely on measuring the relative abundances of hydrogen and

its heavier isotope% deuterium% in the ice surrounding the bubbles. !hen global

temperatures are relatively low% water containing deuterium tends to condense

and precipitate before reaching the poles4 thus% ice deposited at the poles when

the global temperature was cooler contained relatively less deuterium than ice

deposited at warmer global temperatures. Estimates of global temperature based



GRE 3&3

on this information% combined with analysis of the carbon dioxide content of air

trapped in ice deep beneath the polar surface% suggest that during periods of

postglacial warming carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere increased by

approximately G3 percent.

+9. :n the assage8 the author is rimarily concerned ith doing hich of the

folloing*

(A) $escribing a ne method of estimating decreases in global temerature that

have occurred over the last 1<8 years

(") $escribing a method of analysis that rovides information regarding the

relation beteen the carbon dio%ide content of the !arth's atmoshere and

global temerature

(#) resenting information that suggests that global temerature has increased

over the last 1<8 years

($) $escribing the kinds of information that can be gleaned from a careful

analysis of the contents of sheets

(!) $emonstrating the difficulty of arriving at a firm conclusion regarding ho

increases in the amount of carbon dio%ide in the !arth's atmoshere affect

global temerature

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that during eriods of ostglacial arming8

hich of the folloing occurred*

(A) The total volume of air traed in bubbles beneath the olar ice sheets

increased.

(") The amount of deuterium in ice deosited at the oles increased.

(#) #arbon dio%ide levels in the !arth atmoshere decreased.

($) The amount of hydrogen in the !arth's atmoshere decreased relatively the

amount of deuterium.

(!) The rate at hich ice as deosited at the oles increased.

+<. The author states that there is evidence to suort hich of the folloing

assertions*

(A) !stimates of global temerature that rely on measurements of deuterium inice deosited at the oles are more reliable than those based on the amount

of carbon dio%ide contained in air bubbles beneath the olar surface.

(") The amount of deuterium in the !arth's atmoshere tends to increase as

global temerature decreases.

(#) eriods of ostglacial arming are characterized by the resence of increased

levels of carbon dio%ide in the !arth's atmoshere.

($) :ncreases in global temerature over the last 1<8 years are largely the

result of increases in the ratio of deuterium to hydrogen in the !arth's

atmoshere.



GRE 3&9

(!) :ncreases in global temerature over the last 1<8 years have been

accomanied by decreases in the amount of deuterium in the ice deosited at

the oles.

+7. :t can be inferred from the assage that the conclusion stated in the last sentence

ould need to be reevaluated if scientists discovered that hich of the folloing

ere true*

(A) The amount of deuterium in ice deosited on the olar surface is significantly

greater than the amount of deuterium in ice located dee beneath the olar

surface.

(") "oth the air bubbles traed dee beneath the olar surface and the ice

surrounding them contain relatively lo levels of deuterium.

(#) Air bubbles traed dee beneath the olar surface and containing relatively

high levels of carbon dio%ide are surrounded by ice that contained relatively

lo levels of deuterium.

($) The current level of carbon dio%ide in the !arth's atmoshere e%ceeds the

level of carbon dio%ide in the rehistoric air traed beneath the olar

surface.

(!) :ncreases in the level of carbon dio%ide in the !arth's atmoshere are

accomanied by increases in the amount of deuterium in the ice deosited at

the oles.

SECTION B

"racken fern has been spreading from its woodland strongholds for centuries%

but the rate of encroachment into open countryside has lately increased

alarmingly throughout northern and western "ritain. A tough competitor% bracken

reduces the value of gra&ing land by crowding out other vegetation. (he fern is

itself poisonous to livestock% and also encourages proliferation of sheep ticks%

which not only attack sheep but also transmit diseases. Bo less important to some

people are bracken’s e=ects on threatened habitats and on the use of uplands for

recreational purposes% even though many appreciate its beauty.

"iological controls may be the only economic solution. ?ne potentially cheapand self-sustaining method of halting the spread of bracken is to introduce natural

enemies of the plant. nitially unrestrained by predators of their own% foreign

predators are likely to be able to multiply rapidly and overwhelm intended targets.

"ecause bracken occurs throughout the world% there is plenty of scope for this

approach. (wo candidates% both moths from the 9outhern ,emisphere% are now

being studied.

?f course% biological control agents can safely be released only if it can be

veried that they feed solely on the target weed. (he screening tests have so far

been fraught with di*culties. (he rst large shipment of moths succumbed to a

disease. 7rowing enough bracken indoors is di*cult% and the moths do not readily



GRE 3&;

exploit cut stems. (hese are common problems with rearing insects for biological

control.

?ther problems can be foreseen. 6olicymakers need to consider many factors

and opinions such as the cost of control compared to existing methods% and the

impact of the clearance of bracken on the landscape% wildlife% and vegetation. n

fact% scientists already have much of the information needed to assess the impact

of biological control of bracken% but it is spread among many individuals%

organi&ations% and government bodies. (he potential gains for the environment

are likely to outweigh the losses because few plants% insects% mammals% and birds

live associated only with bracken% and many would benet from a return of other

vegetation or from a more diverse mosaic of habitats. "ut legal conse'uences of

attempts at biological control present a potential mineeld. ;or example% many

rural tenants still have the right of @estoyers% the right to cut bracken as bedding

for livestock and uses. !hat would happen if they were deprived of these rightsP?nce a biological control agent is released% it is di*cult to control its speed. !hat

consideration is due landowners who do not want to control brackenP According to

law% the release of the biological control agents must be authori&ed by the

secretary of state for the environment. "ut "ritain lacks the legal and

administrative machinery to assemble evidence for and against release.

17. hich of the folloing best states the main idea of the assage*

(A) ,tudies suggest that biological control of bracken ill not be technically

feasible.

(") Although biological control aears to be the best solution to brackeninfestation8 careful assessment of the consequences is required.

(#) !nvironmentalists are hoing that laboratory technicians ill find a ay to

raise large numbers of moths in cativity.

($) "racken is currently the best solution to the roliferation of nonnative moth

secies.

(!) !ven after researchers discover the most economical method of est control8

the government has no authority to imlement a control rogram.

1&. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing can be inferred about sheeticks*

(A) They increase here bracken sreads.

(") They are dangerous only to shee.

(#) They are esecially adated to oodland.

($) They have no natural enemies.

(!) They cause disease among bracken.

1. The author cites all of the folloing as disadvantages of bracken encroachment

!C#!T=(A) "racken is oisonous to farm animals.



GRE 3&<

(") "racken inhibits the groth of valuable vegetation.

(#) "racken indirectly hels sread certain diseases.

($) "racken is aesthetically obectionable.

(!) "racken disturbs habitats that some eole ould like to rotect.

+. The final aragrah can best be described as

(A) a summation of arguments resented in revious aragrahs

(") the elimination of cometing arguments to strengthen a single remaining

conclusion

(#) an enumeration of advantages to biological control

($) an e%ansion of the discussion from the articular e%amle of bracken control

to the general roblem of government regulation

(!) an overvie of the variety of factors requiring further assessment

+1. :t can be inferred from the assage that it is advantageous to choose as the

biological control agent a redator that is foreign to the targeted environment for

hich of the folloing reasons*

(A) #onservation grous refer not to favor one native secies over another.

(") All local redators have already been overhelmed by the target secies.

(#) Docal redators cannot be effectively screened since they already e%ist in the

ild.

($) There is little risk of an artificially introduced foreign redator multilying

out of control.

(!) ative redator secies are generally limited by their on redators.

++. :t can be inferred from the assage that the screening tests erformed on the

biological control agent are designed rimarily to determine

(A) its effectiveness in eliminating the target secies

(") the resonse of local residents to its introduction

(#) the risk it oses to secies other than the target

($) its resistance to the stress of shiment

(!) the likelihood of its survival indoors

+3. As it is discussed in the assage8 the lace of bracken ithin the forest habitat can

best be described as

(A) raidly e%anding

(") the subect of controversy

(#) ell established

($) circumscribed by numerous redators

(!) a significant nutrient source

Allen and !olkowit&’s research challenges the common claim that homework



GRE 3&7

—waged labor performed at home for a company—is primarily a response to

women workers’ needs and preferences. "y focusing on a limited geographical

area in order to gather in-depth information% the authors have avoided the

methodological pitfalls that have plagued earlier research on homework. (heir

ndings disprove accepted notions about homeworkers< that they are un'ualiedfor other /obs and that they use homework as a short-term strategy for dealing

with child care.

(he authors conclude that the persistence of homework cannot be explained

by appeal to such notions% for% in fact% homeworkers do not di=er sharply from

other employed women. >ost homeworkers would prefer to work outside the

home but are constrained from doing so by lack of opportunity. n fact% homework

is driven by employers’ desires to minimi&e xed costs< homeworkers receive no

benets and are paid less than regular employees.


(A) advocating a controversial theory

(") resenting and challenging the results of a study

(#) describing a roblem and roosing a solution

($) discussing research that ooses a idely acceted belief

(!) comaring several e%lanations for the same henomenon

+;. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing has been generally believed

about homeork*

(A) The benefits of homeork accrue rimarily to emloyers rather than to

homeorkers.

(") 4omeork is revalent redominantly in rural areas.

(#) 4omeork is rimarily a resonse to the references of omen orkers.

($) >e homeorkers rely on homeork for the maority of their family income.

(!) @ost homeork is seasonal and art-time rather than full-time and year-

round.

+<. Allen and olkoitz's research suggests that each of the folloing is true of

most homeorkers !C#!T=

(A) They do not necessarily resort to homeork as a strategy for dealing ith

child care.

(") Their family situations are not unlike those of other emloyed omen.

(#) They are as ell qualified as omen ho ork outside the home.

($) They erform rofessional-level duties rather than manual tasks or

ieceork.

(!) They do not refer homeork to emloyment outside the home.

+7. The assage suggests hich of the folloing about revious research on



GRE 3&&

homeork*

(A) :t as conducted rimarily ith omen ho did not have e%tensive

household resonsibilities or care for small children at home.

(") :t as conducted ith homeorkers and comanies over a large geograhical

area.

(#) :t indicated that omen homeorkers had numerous oortunities to ork

outside the home.

($) :t indicated that homeorkers usually ork for comanies that are close to

their homes.

(!) :t indicated that homeork as financially advantageous to large comanies.

1998 04

SECTION A

>uch of the research on hallucinogenic drugs such as 9 has focused on the

neurotransmitter serotonin% a chemical that when released from a presynaptic

serotonin-secreting neuron causes the transmission of a nerve impulse across a

synapse to an ad/acent postsynaptic% or target% neuron. (here are two ma/or

reasons for this emphasis. ;irst% it was discovered early on that many of the ma/or

hallucinogens have a molecular structure similar to that of serotonin. n addition%

animal studies of brain neurochemistry following administration of hallucinogens

invariably reported changes in serotonin levels.

Early investigators correctly reasoned that the structural similarity to the

serotonin molecule might imply that 9’s e=ects are brought about by an action

on the neurotransmission of serotonin in the brain. 8nfortunately% the level of

technical expertise in the eld of brain research was such that this hypothesis had

to be tested on peripheral tissue +tissue outside the brain. (wo di=erent groups of

scientists reported that 9 powerfully blockaded serotonin’s action. (heir

conclusions were 'uickly challenged% however. !e now know that the action of a

drug at one site in the body does not necessarily correspond to the drug’s action

at another site% especially when one site is in the brain and the other is not.

"y the 1IO3’s% technical advances permitted the direct testing of the

hypothesis that 9 and related hallucinogens act by directly suppressing the

activity of serotonin-secreting neurons themselves0the so-called presynaptic

hypothesis. $esearchers reasoned that if the hallucinogenic drugs act by

suppressing the activity of serotonin-secreting neurons% then drugs administered

after these neurons had been destroyed should have no e=ect on behavior%

because the system would already be maximally suppressed. Contrary to their

expectations% neuron destruction enhanced the e=ect of 9 and related

hallucinogens on behavior. (hus% hallucinogenic drugs apparently do not act

directly on serotonin-secreting neurons.



GRE 3&

,owever% these and other available data do support an alternative hypothesis

that 9 and related drugs act directly at receptor sites on serotonin target

neurons +the postsynaptic hypothesis. (he fact that 9 elicits @serotonin

syndrome0that is% causes the same kinds of behaviors as does the

administration of serotonin0in animals whose brains are depleted of serotoninindicates that 9 acts directly on serotonin receptors% rather than indirectly

through the release of stores of serotonin. (he enhanced e=ect of 9 reported

after serotonin depletion could be due to a proliferation of serotonin receptor sites

on serotonin target neurons. (his phenomenon often follows neuron destruction or

neurotransmitter depletion4 the increase in the number of receptor sites appears

to be a compensatory response to decreased input. 9ignicantly% this hypothesis

is supported by data from a number of di=erent laboratories.

17. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing is one of the rimary factors

that led researchers studying hallucinogenic drugs to focus on serotonin*(A) The suression of the activity of serotonin-secreting neurons by the

administration of hallucinogens

(") The observed similarities in the chemical structures of serotonin and

hallucinogens

(#) The effects the administration of hallucinogens has on serotonin roduction in

the human brain

($) ,erotonin-induced changes in the effects of hallucinogens on behavior

(!) 4allucinogen-induced changes in the effects of serotonin on behavior

1&. :t can be inferred that researchers abandoned the resynatic hyothesis because

(A) a ne and more attractive hyothesis as suggested

(") no research as reorted that suorted the hyothesis

(#) research results rovided evidence to counter the hyothesis

($) the hyothesis as suorted only by studies of animals and not by studies of

human beings

(!) the level of technical e%ertise in the field of brain research did not ermit

adequate testing of the hyothesis


(A) 5esearch has suggested that the neurotransmitter serotonin is resonsible for

the effects of hallucinogenic drugs on the brain and on behavior.

(") 5esearchers have sent an inadequate amount of time develoing theories

concerning the ay in hich the effects of hallucinogenic drugs occur.

(#) 5esearch results strongly suggest that hallucinogenic drugs create their effects

by acting on the serotonin recetor sites located on target neurons in the

brain.

($) 5esearchers have recently made valuable discoveries concerning the effects



GRE 3

of deleting the amount of serotonin in the brain.

(!) 5esearchers have concluded that hallucinogenic drugs suress the activity of

serotonin-secreting neurons.

+. The research described in the assage is rimarily concerned ith anseringhich of the folloing questions*

(A) 4o can researchers control the effects that D,$ has on behavior*

(") 4o are animals' reactions to D,$ different from those of human beings*

(#) hat triggers the effects that D,$ has on human behavior*

($) hat technical advances ould ermit researchers to redict more accurately

the effects of D,$ on behavior*

(!) hat relationshi does the suression of neuron activity have to the

occurrence of Eserotonin syndromeF*

+1. hich of the folloing best defines Eserotonin syndromeF (line 9<) as the term is

used in the assage*

(A) The series of behaviors8 usually associated ith the administration of

serotonin8 that also occurs hen D,$ is administered to animals hose

brains are deleted of serotonin

(") The series of behaviors8 usually associated ith the administration of D,$8

that also occurs hen the amount of serotonin in the brain is reduced

(#) The ma%imal suression of neuron activity that results from the destruction

of serotonin-secreting neurons($) The release of stores of serotonin from serotonin-secreting neurons in the

brain

(!) The roliferation of serotonin recetor sites that follos deletion of

serotonin sulies in the brain

++. hich of the folloing best describes the organization of the argument that the

author of the assage resents in the last to aragrahs*

(A) To aroaches to testing a hyothesis are described8 and the greater merits

of one aroach are indicated.

(") The assumtions underlying to hyotheses are outlined8 and evidence for

and against each hyothesis is discussed.

(#) A henomenon is described8 and hyotheses concerning its occurrence are

considered and reected.

($) The reasoning behind a hyothesis is summarized8 evidence suorting the

hyothesis is resented8 and research that counters the suorting evidence

is described.

(!) A hyothesis is discussed8 evidence undermining the hyothesis is revealed8

and a further hyothesis based on the undermining evidence is e%lained.



GRE 31

+3. The author's attitude toard early researchers' reasoning concerning the

imlications of similarities in the structures of serotonin and D,$ molecules can

best be described as one of

(A) comlete agreement

(") reluctant suort

(#) subtle condescension

($) irreverent dismissal

(!) strong oosition

!hen literary periods are dened on the basis of men’s writing% women’s

writing must be forcibly assimilated into an irrelevant grid< a $enaissance that is

not a renaissance for women% a $omantic period in which women played very little

part% a modernism with which women con#ict. 9imultaneously% the history of

women’s writing has been suppressed% leaving large% mysterious gaps in accountsof the development of various genres. ;eminist criticism is beginning to correct

this situation. >argaret Anne oody% for example% suggests that during @the

period between the death of $ichardson and the appearance of the novels of 9cott

and Austen% which has @been regarded as a dead period% late-eighteenth-

century women writers actually developed @the paradigm for women’s ction of

the nineteenth century0something hardly less than the paradigm of the

nineteenth-century novel itself. ;eminist critics have also pointed out that the

twentieth-century writer Firginia !oolf belonged to a tradition other than

modernism and that this tradition surfaces in her work precisely where criticism

has hitherto found obscurities% evasions% implausibilities% and imperfections.

+9. :t can be inferred from the assage that the author vies the division of literature

into eriods based on men's riting as an aroach that

(A) makes distinctions among literary eriods ambiguous

(") is aroriate for evaluating only remodern literature

(#) as misunderstood until the advent of feminist criticism

($) rovides a valuable basis from hich feminist criticism has evolved

(!) obscures omen's contributions to literature

+;. The assage suggests hich of the folloing about ?irginia oolf's ork*

:. onfeminist criticism of it has been flaed.

::. #ritics have treated it as art of modernism.

:::. :t is based on the ork of late-eighteenth-century omen riters.

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) : and :: only

($) :: and ::: only

(!) :8 :: and :::



GRE 3+

+<. The author quotes $oody most robably in order to illustrate

(A) a contribution that feminist criticism can make to literary criticism

(") a modernist aroach that conflicts ith omen's riting

(#) riting by a oman hich had reviously been ignored

($) the hitherto overlooked significance of ,cott's and Austen's novels

(!) a standard system of defining literary eriods

+7. The assage rovides information that ansers hich of the folloing questions*

(A) :n hat tradition do feminist critics usually lace ?irginia oolf*

(") hat are the main themes of omen's fiction of the nineteenth century*

(#) hat events motivated the feminist reinterretation of literary history*

($) 4o has the eriod beteen 5ichardson's death and ,cott's and Austen's

novels traditionally been regarded by critics*(!) 4o as the develoment of the nineteenth-century novel affected by

omen's fiction in the same century*

SECTION B

(he origin of the theory that ma/or geologic events may occur at regular

intervals can be traced back not to a study of volcanism or plate tectonics but to

an investigation of marine extinctions. n the early 1IN3’s% scientists began to look

closely at the 'uestion of how these extinctions occur. (wo paleontologists% $aup

and 9epkoski% compiled a master list of marine species that died out during the

past 5ON million years and noted that there were brief periods during which many

species disappeared at once. (hese mass extinctions occurred at surprisingly

regular intervals.

ater studies revealed that extinctions of terrestrial reptiles and mammals

also occurred periodically. (hese ndings% combined with the research of $aup and

9epkoski% led scientists to hypothesi&e the existence of some kind of cyclically

recurring force powerful enough to a=ect living things profoundly. 9peculation that

so powerful a force might a=ect geologic events as well led geologists to search

for evidence of periodicity in episodes of volcanism% sea#oor spreading% and platemovement.

17. According to the assage8 5au and ,ekoski's research as concerned ith

(A) learning more about the habitats of marine secies

(") studying late tectonics and the occurrence of volcanism over the ast +<&

million years

(#) e%amining e%tinctions of marine secies over the ast +<& million years

($) finding out hether a rhythmically recurring geologic force e%ists

(!) confirming revious evidence suggesting that e%tinction of terrestrial seciesoccurred regularly



GRE 33

1&. The author of the assage ould most likely describe the findings of 5au and

,ekoski as

(A) lausible8 because the findings suorted the theories of revious researchers

(") significant8 because the findings ere an imetus for subsequent research

(#) controversial8 because the findings contradicted the theories of revious

researchers

($) questionable8 because the authors ere not orking in their field of e%ertise

(!) definitive8 because the findings confirmed the e%istence of a rhythmically

recurring force


(A) determining the dates of various geologic events

(") defending the conclusions reached by 5au and ,ekoski

(#) establishing a link beteen the discilines of aleontology and geology

($) roving that mass e%tinctions of marine animals occur eriodically

(!) e%laining ho a theory concerning geologic events as formulated

+. The assage suggests hich of the folloing about the EforceF mentioned in lines

1< and 1&*

(A) :t is resonsible for most of the maor geologic events that have occurred.

(") :t is resonsible for most of the marine e%tinctions that have occurred.

(#) :ts recurrence is unlikely to be able to be redicted by scientists.

($) :ts e%istence as not seriously considered by scientists before 5au and

,ekoski did their research.

(!) :ts e%istence as confirmed by the research of 5au and ,ekoski.

A recent history of the Chicago meat-packing industry and its workers

examines how the industry grew from its appearance in the 1N:3’s through the

early 1NI3’s. >eat-packers% the author argues% had good wages% working

conditions% and prospects for advancement within the packinghouses% and did not

cooperate with labor agitators since labor relations were so harmonious. "ecause

the history maintains that conditions were above standard for the era% the

fre'uency of labor disputes% especially in the mid-1NN3’s% is not accounted for. (he

work ignores the fact that the 1NN3’s were crucial years in American labor history%

and that the packinghouse workers’ e=orts were part of the national movement

for labor reform.

n fact% other historical sources for the late nineteenth century record

deteriorating housing and high disease and infant mortality rates in the industrial

community% due to low wages and unhealthy working conditions. Additional data

from the 8niversity of Chicago suggest that the packinghouses were dangerous

places to work. (he government investigation commissioned by 6resident

(heodore $oosevelt which eventually led to the adoption of the 1I3O >eat



GRE 39

nspection Act found the packinghouses unsanitary% while social workers observed

that most of the workers were poorly paid and overworked. (he history may be

too optimistic because most of its data date from the 1NN3’s at the latest% and the

information provided from that decade is insu*ciently analy&ed. Conditions

actually declined in the 1NN3’s% and continued to decline after the 1NN3’s% due toa reorgani&ation of the packing process and a massive in#ux of unskilled workers.

(he deterioration in worker status% partly a result of the new availability of

unskilled and hence cheap labor% is not discussed. (hough a detailed account of

work in the packing-houses is attempted% the author fails to distinguish between

the wages and conditions for skilled workers and for those unskilled laborers who

comprised the ma/ority of the industry’s workers from the 1NN3’s on. !hile

conditions for the former were arguably tolerable due to the strategic importance

of skilled workers in the complicated slaughtering% cutting% and packing process

+though worker complaints about the rate and conditions of work were fre'uent%

pay and conditions for the latter were wretched.

(he author’s misinterpretation of the origins of the feelings the meat-packers

had for their industrial neighborhood may account for the history’s faulty

generali&ations. (he pride and contentment the author remarks upon were%

arguably% less the products of the industrial world of the packers0the giant yards

and the intricate plants0than of the unity and vibrance of the ethnic cultures that

formed a viable community on Chicago’s 9outh 9ide. ndeed% the strength of this

community succeeded in generating a social movement that e=ectively

confronted the problems of the industry that provided its livelihood.

+1. The assage is rimarily concerned ith discussing

(A) ho historians ought to e%lain the origins of the conditions in the #hicago

meat-acking industry

(") hy it is difficult to determine the actual nature of the conditions in the

#hicago meat-acking industry

(#) hy a articular account of the conditions in the #hicago meat-acking

industry is inaccurate

($) hat ought to be included in any account of the #hicago meat-ackers' role

in the national labor movement(!) hat data are most relevant for an accurate account of the relations beteen

#hicago meat-ackers and local labor agitators

++. The author of the assage mentions all of the folloing as describing negative

conditions in the meat-acking industry !C#!T=

(A) data from the 6niversity of #hicago

(") a recent history of the meat-acking industry

(#) social orkers

($) historical sources for the late nineteenth century



GRE 3;

(!) government records

+3. The author of the assage mentions the Esocial movementF (line ;7) generated by

#hicago's ,outh ,ide community rimarily in order to

(A) inform the reader of events that occurred in the meat-acking industry afterthe eriod of time covered by the history

(") suggest the history's limitations by ointing out a situation that the history

failed to e%lain adequately

(#) salvage the history's oint of vie by suggesting that there ere ositive

develoments in the meat-acking industry due to orker unity

($) introduce a ne issue designed to elaborate on the good relationshi beteen

the meat-ackers and #hicago's ethnic communities

(!) suggest that the history should have focused more on the general issue of the

relationshi beteen labor movements and healthy industrial communities

+9. According to the assage8 the orking conditions of skilled orkers in the meat-

acking industry during the 1&&'s ere influenced by

(A) the orkers' determined comlaints about the rate and conditions of their

ork

(") the efforts of social orkers to imrove sanitation in the ackinghouses

(#) the orkers' ability to erform the industry's comle% tasks

($) imrovements in the industry's acking rocess that occurred in the 1&&'s

(!) oortunities for ob advancement due to the filling of less desirable ositions by increasing numbers of unskilled orkers

+;. The author of the assage uses the second aragrah to

(A) summarize the main oint of the history discussed in the assage

(") e%lain hy the history discussed in the assage has been disaraged by

critics

(#) evaluate the findings of recent studies that undermine the remises of the

history discussed in the assage

($) introduce a hyothesis that ill be discussed in detail later in the assage(!) resent evidence that is intended to refute the argument of the history

discussed in the assage

+<. The tone of the author of the assage in discussing the meat-acker community

on #hicago's ,outh ,ide can best be described as one of

(A) areciation of the community's ability to coe ith difficult conditions

(") admiration for the community's refusal to cooerate ith labor agitators

(#) indignation at the kinds of social conditions the community faced

($) annoyance at the community's inability to abolish discrimination in the meat- acking industry



GRE 3<

(!) concern that the meat-ackers' feelings for their community have not been

documented

+7. The information in the assage suggests that the author of the history discussed in

the assage made hich of the folloing errors*

(A) >ailing to recognize the effect of the diversity of the ,outh ,ide community

on the meat-ackers' efforts to reform the industry

(") Attributing good orking conditions in the meat-acking industry to the

efforts of labor agitators

(#) Bveremhasizing the imortance of the availability of unskilled labor as an

influence on conditions in the meat acking industry

($) :nterreting the meat-ackers' feelings for their community as areciation of

their industry

(!) >ailing to observe the ride and contentment felt by the meat-ackers

1998 11

SECTION A

+(his passage is from a book published in 1IO3.

!hen we consider great painters of the past% the study of art and the study of

illusion cannot always be separated. "y illusion mean those contrivances of

color% line% shape% and so forth that lead us to see marks on a #at surface asdepicting three-dimensional ob/ects in space. must emphasi&e that am not

making a plea% disguised or otherwise% for the exercise of illusionist tricks in

painting today% although am% in fact% rather critical of certain theories of non-

representational art. "ut to argue over these theories would be to miss the point.

(hat the discoveries and e=ects of representation that were the pride of earlier

artists have become trivial today would not deny for a moment. Det believe that

we are in real danger of losing contact with past masters if we accept the

fashionable doctrine that such matters never had anything to do with art. (he

very reason why the representation of nature can now be considered something

commonplace should be of the greatest interest to art historians. Bever before

has there been an age when the visual image was so cheap in every sense of the

word. !e are surrounded and assailed by posters and advertisements% comics and

maga&ine illustrations. !e see aspects of reality represented on television%

postage stamps% and food packages. 6ainting is taught in school and practiced as

a pastime% and many modest amateurs have mastered tricks that would have

looked like sheer magic to the fourteenth-century painter 7iotto. Even the crude

colored renderings on a cereal box might have made 7iotto’s contemporaries

gasp. 6erhaps there are people who conclude from this that the cereal box is

superior to a 7iotto4 do not. "ut think that the victory and vulgari&ation ofrepresentational skills create a problem for both art historians and critics.



GRE 37

n this connection it is instructive to remember the 7reek saying that to

marvel is the beginning of knowledge and if we cease to marvel we may be in

danger of ceasing to know. believe we must restore our sense of wonder at the

capacity to con/ure up by forms% lines% shades% or colors those mysterious

phantoms of visual reality we call @pictures. Even comics and advertisements%rightly viewed% provide food for thought. ust as the study of poetry remains

incomplete without an awareness of the language of prose% so% believe% the study

of art will be increasingly supplemented by in'uiry into the @linguistics of the

visual image. (he way the language of art refers to the visible world is both so

obvious and so mysterious that it is still largely unknown except to artists% who

use it as we use all language0without needing to know its grammar and

semantics.

17. The author of the assage e%licitly disagrees ith hich of the folloing

statements'(A) :n modern society even nonartists can master techniques that great artists of

the fourteenth century did not emloy.

(") The ability to reresent a three-dimensional obect on a flat surface has

nothing to do ith art.

(#) :n modern society the victory of reresentational skills has created a roblem

for art critics.

($) The ay that artists are able to reresent the visible orld is an area that

needs a great deal more study before it can be fully understood.

(!) @odern ainters do not frequently make use of illusionist tricks in their ork.

1&. The author suggests hich of the folloing about art historians*

(A) They do not believe that illusionist tricks have become trivial.

(") They generally send little time studying contemorary artists.

(#) They have not given enough consideration to ho the reresentation of nature

has become commonlace.

($) They generally tend to argue about theories rather than address substantive

issues.

(!) They are less likely than art critics to study comics or advertisements.

1. hich of the folloing best states the author's attitude toard comics8 as

e%ressed in the assage*

(A) They constitute an innovative art form.

(") They can be a orthhile subect for study.

(#) They are critically imortant to an understanding of modem art.

($) Their visual structure is more comle% than that of medieval art.

(!) They can be understood best if they are e%amined in conunction ith

advertisements.



GRE 3&

+. The author's statement regarding ho artists use the language of art (lines 9&-;+)

imlies that

(A) artists are better equied than are art historians to rovide detailed

evaluations of other artists' ork

(") many artists have an unusually quick8 intuitive understanding of language

(#) artists can roduce orks of art even if they cannot analyze their methods of

doing so

($) artists of the ast8 such as /iotto8 ere better educated about artistic issues

than ere artists of the author's time

(!) most artists robably consider the rocesses involved in their ork to be

closely akin to those involved in riting oetry

+1. The assage asserts hich of the folloing about commercial art*

(A) There are many e%amles of commercial art hose artistic merit is equal tothat of great orks of art of the ast.

(") #ommercial art is heavily influenced by hatever doctrines are fashionable in

the serious art orld of the time.

(#) The line beteen commercial art and great art lies rimarily in ho an image

is used8 not in the motivation for its creation.

($) The level of technical skill required to roduce reresentational imagery in

commercial art and in other kinds of art cannot be comared.

(!) The ervasiveness of contemorary commercial art has led art historians to

undervalue reresentational skills.

++. hich of the folloing can be inferred from the assage about the adherents of

Ecertain theories of nonreresentational artF (lines -1)*

(A) They consider the use of illusion to be inaroriate in contemorary art.

(") They do not agree that marks on a flat surface can ever satisfactorily convey

the illusion of three-dimensional sace.

(#) They do not discuss imortant orks of art created in the ast.

($) They do not think that the reresentation of nature as ever the rimary goal

of ast ainters.

(!) They concern themselves more ith tyes of art such as advertisements and

magazine illustrations than ith traditional art.

+3. :t can be inferred from the assage that someone ho anted to analyze the

Egrammar and semanticsF (line ;+) of the language of art ould most

aroriately comment on hich of the folloing*

(A) The relationshi beteen the draings in a comic stri and the accomanying

te%t

(") The amount of detail that can be included in a tiny illustration on a ostagestam



GRE 3

(#) The sociological imlications of the images chosen to advertise a articular

roduct

($) The degree to hich various colors used in different versions of the same

oster ould attract the attention of assersby

(!) The articular u%taosition of shaes in an illustration that makes one shae

look as though it ere behind another

(he 1IQ: Endangered 9pecies Act made into legal policy the concept that

endangered species of wildlife are precious as part of a natural ecosystem. (he

nearly unanimous passage of this act in the 8nited 9tates Congress% re#ecting the

rising national popularity of environmentalism% masked a bitter debate. A=ected

industries clung to the former wildlife policy of valuing individual species

according to their economic usefulness. (hey fought to minimi&e the law’s impact

by limiting denitions of key terms% but they lost on nearly every issue. (he act

dened @wildlife as almost all kinds of animals0from large mammals toinvertebrates0and plants. @(aking wildlife was dened broadly as any action that

threatened an endangered species4 areas vital to a species’ survival could be

federally protected as @critical habitats. (hough these denitions legislated

strong environmentalist goals% political compromises made in the enforcement of

the act were to determine /ust what economic interests would be set aside for the

sake of ecological stabili&ation.

+9. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing does the !ndangered ,ecies

Act define as a Ecritical habitatF*

(A) A natural ecosystem that is threatened by imminent develoment

(") An industrial or urban area in hich ildlife secies have almost ceased to

live among humans

(#) A natural area that is crucial to the survival of a secies and thus eligible for

federal rotection

($) A ilderness area in hich the EtakingF of ildlife secies is ermitted rarely

and only under strict federal regulation

(!) A natural environment that is rotected under la because its ildlife has a

high economic value

+;. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing is an e%lanation for the degree

of suort that the !ndangered ,ecies Act received in #ongress*

(A) #oncern for the environment had gained increasing national oularity.

(") !cological research had created ne economic oortunities deendent on

the survival of certain secies.

(#) #ongress had long anted to change the e%isting ildlife olicy.

($) The groth of industry had endangered increasing numbers of ildlife

secies.

(!) Degislators did not anticiate that the act could be effectively enforced.



GRE 9

+<. :t can be inferred from the assage that if business interests had on the debate

on rovisions of the 173 !ndangered ,ecies Act8 hich of the folloing ould

have resulted*

(A) !nvironmentalist concets ould not have become idely oular.

(") The definitions of key terms of the act ould have been more restricted.

(#) !nforcement of the act ould have been more difficult.

($) The act ould have had stronger suort from #ongressional leaders.

(!) The ublic ould have boycotted the industries that had the greatest imact in

defining the act.

+7. The author refers to the terms EildlifeF (line 11)8 EtakingF (line 13)8 and Ecritical

habitatsF (line 1<) most likely in order to

(A) illustrate the misuse of scientific language and concets in olitical rocesses

(") emhasize the imortance of selecting recise language in transforming

scientific concets into la

(#) reresent terminology hose definition as crucial in riting

environmentalist goals into la

($) demonstrate the triviality of the issues debated by industries before #ongress

assed the !ndangered ,ecies Act

(!) sho that broad definitions of key terms in many tyes of las resulted in

ambiguity and thus left room for disagreement about ho the la should be

enforced

SECTION B

;rom the 1I33’s through the 1I23’s waitresses in the 8nited 9tates developed

a form of unionism based on the unions’ dening the skills that their occupation

included and enforcing standards for the performance of those skills. (his

@occupational unionism di=ered substantially from the @worksite unionism

prevalent among factory workers. $ather than unioni&ing the workforces of

particular employers% waitress locals sought to control their occupation throughout

a city. ?ccupational unionism operated through union hiring halls% which provided

free placement services to employers who agreed to hire their personnel only

through the union. ,iring halls o=ered union waitresses collective employment

security% not individual /ob security—a basic protection o=ered by worksite unions.

(hat is% when a waitress lost her /ob% the local did not intervene with her employer

but placed her elsewhere4 and when /obs were scarce% the work hours available

were distributed fairly among all members rather than being assigned according

to seniority.


(A) analyze a current trend in relation to the ast



GRE 91

(") discuss a articular solution to a longstanding roblem

(#) analyze changes in the ay that certain standards have been enforced

($) aly a generalization to an unusual situation

(!) describe an aroach by contrasting it ith another aroach

1&. hich of the folloing statements best summarizes a distinction mentioned in the

assage beteen aitress unions and factory orkers' unions*

(A) aitress unions ere more successful than factory orkers' unions in that

they ere able to unionize hole cities.

(") aitress unions had an imact on only certain local areas8 hereas the imact

of factory orkers' unions as national.

(#) aitress union members held rimarily art-time ositions8 hereas factory

orkers' unions laced their members in full-time obs.

($) aitress unions emhasized the occuation of orkers8 hereas factory

orkers' unions emhasized the orksite at hich orkers ere emloyed.

(!) aitress unions defined the skills of their trade8 hereas the skills of factory

trades ere determined by emloyers' grous.

1. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing as characteristic of the form

of union that 6nited ,tates aitresses develoed in the first half of the tentieth

century*

(A) The union reresented a ide variety of restaurant and hotel service

occuations.(") The union defined the skills required of aitresses and discilined its

members to meet certain standards.

(#) The union billed emloyers for its members' ork and distributed the

earnings among all members.

($) The union negotiated the enforcement of occuational standards ith each

emloyer hose orkforce oined the union.

(!) The union ensured that a orker could not be laid off arbitrarily by an

emloyer.

+. The author of the assage mentions Earticular emloyersF (line &) rimarily in

order to

(A) suggest that occuational unions found some emloyers difficult to satisfy

(") indicate that the occuational unions served some emloyers but not others

(#) emhasize the unique focus of occuational unionism

($) accentuate the hostility of some emloyers toard occuational unionism

(!) oint out a eakness of orksite unionism

n prehistoric times brachiopods were one of the most abundant and diverse

forms of life on Earth< more than :3%333 species of this clamlike creature have



GRE 9+

been cataloged from fossil records. (oday brachiopods are not as numerous% and

existing species are not well studied% partly because neither the animal’s #eshy

inner tissue nor its shell has any commercial value. >oreover% in contrast to the

greater diversity of the extinct species% the approximately :33 known surviving

species are relatively uniform in appearance. >any &oologists have interpretedthis as a sign that the animal has been unable to compete successfully with other

marine organisms in the evolutionary struggle.

9everal things% however% suggest that the conventional view needs revising.

;or example% the genus 9ingu!a has an unbroken fossil record extending over

more than half a billion years to the present. (hus% if longevity is any measure%

brachiopods are the most successful organisms extant. ;urther% recent studies

suggest that diversity among species is a less important measure of evolutionary

success than is the ability to withstand environmental change% such as when a

layer of clay replaces sand on the ocean bottom. (he relatively greater uniformityamong the existing brachiopod species may o=er greater protection from

environmental change and hence may re#ect highly successful adaptive behavior.

(he adaptive advantages of uniformity for brachiopods can be seen by

considering speciali&ation% a process that occurs as a result of prolonged

coloni&ation of a uniform substrate. (hose that can survive on many surfaces are

called generalists% while those that can survive on a limited range of substrates

are called specialists. ?ne specialist species% for example% has valves weighted at

the base% a characteristic that assures that the organism is properly positioned for

feeding in mud and similar substrates4 other species secrete glue allowing them

to survive on the face of underwater cli=s. (he fossil record demonstrates that

most brachiopod lineages have followed a trend toward increased speciali&ation.

,owever% during periods of environmental instability% when a particular substrate

to which a specialist species has adapted is no longer available% the species

'uickly dies out. 7eneralists% on the other hand% are not dependent on a particular

substrate% and are thus less vulnerable to environmental change. ?ne study of the

fossil record revealed a mass extinction of brachiopods following a change in

sedimentation from chalk to clay. ?f the :2 brachiopod species found in the chalk%

only O survived in the clay% all of them generalists.

As long as enough generalist species are maintained% and studies of arctic and

subarctic seas suggest that generalists are often dominant members of the

marine communities there% it seems unlikely that the phylum is close to

extinction.


(A) reecting an earlier e%lanation for the longevity of certain brachiood

secies

(") reevaluating the imlications of uniformity among e%isting brachiood

secies

(#) describing the varieties of environmental change to hich brachioods are



GRE 93

vulnerable

($) reconciling oosing e%lanations for brachioods' lack of evolutionary

success

(!) elaborating the mechanisms resonsible for the tendency among brachiood

secies toard secialization

++. :t can be inferred from the assage that many zoologists assume that a large

diversity among secies of a given class of organisms tyically leads to hich of

the folloing*

(A) $ifficulty in classification

(") A discontinuous fossil record

(#) A greater chance of survival over time

($) umerical abundance

(!) A longer life san

+3. The second aragrah makes use of hich of the folloing*

(A) ,ecific e%amles

(") Analogy

(#) @etahor

($) Kuotation

(!) !%aggeration

+9. The author suggests that the scientists holding the conventional vie mentionedin lines 1;-1< make hich of the folloing errors*

(A) They mistakenly emhasize survival rather than diversity.

(") They misunderstand the causes of secialization.

(#) They misuse zoological terminology.

($) They catalog fossilized remains imroerly.

(!) They overlook an alternative criterion of evolutionary success.

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that the decision to study an organism may

sometimes be influenced by(A) its ractical or commercial benefits to society

(") the nature and revalence of its fossilized remains

(#) the relative convenience of its geograhical distribution

($) its similarity to one or more better-knon secies

(!) the degree of its hysiological comle%ity

+<. hich of the folloing8 if true8 ould most strengthen the author's claim (lines

;<-;7) that Eit seems unlikely that the hylum is close to e%tinctionF*

(A) /eneralist secies no living in arctic ater give fe if any indications of a



GRE 99

tendency toards significant future secialization.

(") Loologists have recently discovered that a common marine organism is a

natural redator of brachioods.

(#) :t as recently discovered that certain brachiood secies are almost alays

concentrated near areas rich in offshore oil deosits.

($) The ratio of secialist to /eneralist secies is sloly but steadily increasing.

(!) :t is easier for a brachiood to survive a change in sedimentation than a

change in ater temerature.

+7. :nformation in the assage suorts hich of the folloing statements about

brachioods*

:. >e brachioods living in rehistoric times ere secialists.

::. A tendency toard secialization8 though tyical8 is not inevitable.

:::. ,ecialist secies dominate in all but arctic and subarctic aters.

(A) : only

(") :: only

(#) :: and ::: only

($) : and ::: only

(!) :8 :: and :::

1999 04

SECTION A

(his passage is based on an article published in 1II3.

Eight times within the past million years% something in the Earth’s climatic

e'uation has changed% allowing snow in the mountains and the northern latitudes

to accumulate from one season to the next instead of melting away. Each time%

the enormous ice sheets resulting from this continual buildup lasted tens of

thousands of years until the end of each particular glacial cycle brought a warmer

climate. 9cientists speculated that these glacial cycles were ultimately driven byastronomical factors< slow% cyclic changes in the eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit

and in the tilt and orientation of its spin axis. "ut up until around :3 years ago%

the lack of an independent record of ice-age timing made the hypothesis

untestable.

(hen in the early 1I23’s Emiliani produced the rst complete record of the

waxings and wanings of past glaciations. t came from a seemingly odd place% the

sea#oor. 9ingle-cell marine organisms called @foraminifera house themselves in

shells made from calcium carbonate. !hen the foraminifera die% sink to the

bottom% and become part of sea#oor sediments% the carbonate of their shells

preserves certain characteristics of the seawater they inhabited. n particular% the



GRE 9;

ratio of a heavy isotope of oxygen +oxygen-1N to ordinary oxygen +oxygen-1O in

the carbonate preserves the ratio of the two oxygens in water molecules.

t is now understood that the ratio of oxygen isotopes in seawater closely

re#ects the proportion of the world’s water locked up in glaciers and ice sheets. A

kind of meteorological distillation accounts for the link. !ater molecules

containing the heavier isotope tend to condense and fall as precipitation slightly

sooner than molecules containing the lighter isotope. ,ence% as water vapor

evaporated from warm oceans moves away from its source% its oxygen-1N returns

more 'uickly to the oceans than does its oxygen-1O. !hat falls as snow on distant

ice sheets and mountain glaciers is relatively depleted of oxygen-1N. As the

oxygen-1N-poor ice builds up% the oceans become relatively enriched in the

isotope. (he larger the ice sheets grow% the higher the proportion of oxygen-1N

becomes in seawater0and hence in the sediments.

Analy&ing cores drilled from sea#oor sediments% Emiliani found that theisotopic ratio rose and fell in rough accord with the Earth’s astronomical cycles.

9ince that pioneering observation% oxygen-isotope measurements have been

made on hundreds of cores. A chronology for the combined record enables

scientists to show that the record contains the very same periodicities as the

orbital processes. ?ver the past N33%333 years% the global ice volume has peaked

every 133%333 years% matching the period of the orbital eccentricity variation. n

addition% @wrinkles superposed on each cycle0small decreases or surges in ice

volume0have come at intervals of roughly 5:%333 and G1%333 years% in keeping

with the precession and tilt fre'uencies of the Earth’s spin axis.


(A) @arine sediments have alloed scientists to amass evidence tending to

confirm that astronomical cycles drive the !arth's glacial cycles.

(") The ratio beteen to different isotoes of o%ygen in seaater correlates

closely ith the size of the !arth's ice sheets.

(#) ,urrisingly8 single-cell marine organisms rovide a record of the !arth's ice

ages.

($) The !arth's astronomical cycles have recently been revealed to have an

une%ectedly large imact on the !arth's climate.

(!) The earth has e%erienced eight eriods of intense glaciation in the ast

million years8 rimarily as a result of substantial changes in its orbit.

1&. The assage asserts that one reason that oceans become enriched in o%ygen-1& as

ice sheets gro is because

(A) ater molecules containing o%ygen-1& condense and fall as reciitation

slightly sooner than those containing o%ygen-1<

(") the ratio of o%ygen-1& to o%ygen-1< in ater vaor evaorated from oceans is

different from that of these isotoes in seaater



GRE 9<

(#) groing ice sheets tend to lose their o%ygen-1& as the temerature of the

oceans near them gradually decreases

($) less ater vaor evaorates from oceans during glacial eriods and therefore

less o%ygen-1& is removed from the seaater

(!) the freezing oint of seaater rich in o%ygen-1& is slightly loer than that of

seaater oor in o%ygen-1&

1. According to the assage8 the large ice sheets tyical of glacial cycles are most

directly caused by

(A) changes in the average temeratures in the troics and over oen oceans

(") rolonged increases in the rate at hich ater evaorates from the oceans

(#) e%treme seasonal variations in temerature in northern latitudes and in

mountainous areas

($) steadily increasing reciitation rates in northern latitudes and inmountainous areas

(!) the continual failure of sno to melt comletely during the armer seasons in

northern latitudes and in mountainous areas

+. :t can be inferred from the assage that hich of the folloing is true of the ater

locked in glaciers and ice sheets today*

(A) :t is richer in o%ygen-1& than frozen ater as during ast glacial eriods.

(") :t is rimarily located in the northern latitudes of the !arth.

(#) :ts ratio of o%ygen isotoes is the same as that revalent in seaater duringthe last ice age.

($) :t is steadily decreasing in amount due to increased thaing during summer

months.

(!) :n comarison ith seaater8 it is relatively oor in o%ygen-1&.

+1. The discussion of the o%ygen-isotoe ratios in aragrah three of the assage

suggests that hich of the folloing must be assumed if the conclusions

described in lines 9-;& are to be validly dran*

(A) The !arth's overall annual reciitation rates do not dramatically increase or

decrease over time.

(") The various chemicals dissolved in seaater have had the same

concentrations over the ast million years.

(#) atural rocesses unrelated to ice formation do not result in the formation of

large quantities of o%ygen-1&.

($) ater molecules falling as reciitation usually fall on the oen ocean rather

than on continents or olar ice acks.

(!) :ncreases in global temerature do not increase the amount of ater that

evaorates from the oceans.



GRE 97

++. The assage suggests that the scientists ho first constructed a coherent8

continuous icture of ast variations in marine-sediment isotoe ratios did hich

of the folloing*

(A) 5elied rimarily on the data obtained from the analysis of !miliani's core

samles.

(") #ombined data derived from the analysis of many different core samles.

(#) @atched the data obtained by geologists ith that rovided by astronomers.

($) !valuated the isotoe-ratio data obtained in several areas in order to eliminate

all but the most reliable data.

(!) #omared data obtained from core samles in many different marine

environments ith data samles derived from olar ice cas.

+3. The assage suggests that the scientists mentioned in line & considered their

reconstruction of ast astronomical cycles to be(A) unreliable because astronomical observations have been made and recorded

for only a fe thousand years

(") adequate enough to allo that reconstruction's use in e%laining glacial

cycles if a record of the latter could be found

(#) in need of confirmation through comarison ith an indeendent source of

information about astronomical henomena

($) incomlete and therefore unusable for the uroses of e%laining the causes

of ice ages

(!) adequate enough for scientists to suort conclusively the idea that ice ages

ere caused by astronomical changes

Although Fictor (urner’s writings have proved fruitful for elds beyond

anthropology% his denition of ritual is overly restrictive. $itual% he says% is

@prescribed formal behavior for occasions not given over to technological routine%

having reference to beliefs in mystical beings or powers. @(echnological routine

refers to the means by which a social group provides for its material needs.

(urner’s di=erentiating ritual from technology helps us recogni&e that festivals and

celebrations may have little purpose other than play% but it obscures the practical

aims% such as making crops grow or healing patients% of other rituals. ;urther%

(urner’s denition implies a necessary relationship between ritual and mystical

beliefs. ,owever% not all rituals are religious4 some religions have no reference to

mystical beings4 and individuals may be re'uired only to participate in% not

necessarily believe in% a ritual. (urner’s assumption that ritual behavior follows

belief thus limits the usefulness of his denition in studying ritual across cultures.

+9. According to the assage8 hich of the folloing does Turner e%clude from his

concetion of ritual*

(A) "ehavior based on beliefs

(") "ehavior based on formal rules



GRE 9&

(#) #elebrations hose urose is lay

($) 5outines directed toard ractical ends

(!) >estivals honoring suernatural beings

+;. The assage suggests that an assumtion underlying Turner's definition of ritualis that

(A) anthroological concets aly to other fields

(") festivals and ceremonies are related cultural henomena

(#) there is a relationshi beteen lay and ractical ends

($) rituals refer only to belief in mystical beings or oers

(!) mystical beings and oers have certain common attributes across cultures

+<. :t can be inferred that the author of the assage believes each of the folloing

concerning rituals !C#!T=(A) ,ome are unrelated to religious belief.

(") ,ome are intended to have ractical consequences.

(#) ,ome have no urose other than lay.

($) They sometimes involve reference to mystical beings.

(!) They are redominantly focused on agricultural ends.


(A) >actual data are resented and a hyothesis is roosed.

(") A distinction is introduced then shon not to be a true distinction.

(#) A statement is quoted8 and to assumtions on hich it is based are clarified.

($) A definition is challenged8 and to reasons for the challenge are given.

(!) An oinion is offered and then laced ithin a historical frameork.

SECTION B

"en/amin ;ranklin established that lightning is the transfer of positive or

negative electrical charge between regions of a cloud or from cloud to earth. 9uch

transfers re'uire that electrically neutral clouds% with uniform charge distributions%become electried by separation of charges into distinct regions. (he greater this

separation is% the greater the voltage% or electrical potential of the cloud.

9cientists still do not now the precise distribution of charges in thunderclouds nor

how separation ade'uate to support the huge voltages typical of lightning bolts

arises. According to one theory% the precipitation hypothesis% charge separation

occurs as a result of precipitation. arger droplets in a thundercloud precipitate

downward past smaller suspended droplets. Collisions among droplets transfer

negative charge to precipitating droplets% leaving the suspended droplets with a

positive charge% thus producing a positive dipole in which the lower region of the

thundercloud is lled with negatively charged raindrops and the upper with



GRE 9

positively charged suspended droplets.

17. The assage is rimarily concerned ith discussing hich of the folloing*

(A) A central issue in the e%lanation of ho lightning occurs

(") "enamin >ranklin's activities as a scientist(#) 5esearch into the strength and distribution of thunderstorms

($) The direction of movement of electrical charges in thunderclouds

(!) The relation beteen a cloud's charge distribution and its voltage

1&. The assage suggests that lightning bolts tyically

(A) roduce a distribution of charges called a ositive diole in the clouds here

they originate

(") result in the movement of negative charges to the centers of the clouds here

they originate(#) result in the susension of large8 ositively charged raindros at the tos of

the clouds here they originate

($) originate in clouds that have large numbers of negatively charged drolets in

their uer regions

(!) originate in clouds in hich the ositive and negative charges are not

uniformly distributed

1. According to the assage8 "enamin >ranklin contributed to the scientific study of

lightning by

(A) testing a theory roosed earlier8 shoing it to be false8 and develoing an

alternative8 far more successful theory of his on

(") making an imortant discovery that is still imortant for scientific

investigations of lightning

(#) introducing a hyothesis that8 though recently shon to be false8 roved to be

a useful source of insights for scientists studying lightning

($) develoing a technique that has enabled scientists to measure more recisely

the henomena that affect the strength and location of lightning bolts

(!) redicting correctly that to factors reviously thought unrelated to lightningould eventually be shon to contribute ointly to the strength and location

of lightning bolts

+. hich of the folloing8 if true8 ould most seriously undermine the reciitation

hyothesis8 as it is set forth in the assage*

(A) Darger clouds are more likely than smaller clouds to be characterized by

comlete searation of ositive and negative charges.

(") :n smaller clouds lightning more often occurs ithin the cloud than beteen

the cloud and the earth.

(#) Darge raindros move more raidly in small clouds than they do in large



GRE 91

clouds.

($) #louds that are smaller than average in size rarely8 if ever8 roduce lightning

bolts.

(!) :n clouds of all sizes negative charges concentrate in the center of the clouds

hen the clouds become electrically charged.

"efore aura 7ilpin +1NI1-1IQI% few women in the history of photography

had so devoted themselves to chronicling the landscape. ?ther women had

photographed the land% but none can be regarded as a landscape photographer

with a sustained body of work documenting the physical terrain. Anne "rigman

often photographed woodlands and coastal areas% but they were generally

settings for her artfully placed sub/ects. orothea ange’s landscapes were always

conceived of as counterparts to her portraits of rural women.

At the same time that 7ilpin’s interest in landscape work distinguished her

from most other women photographers% her approach to landscape photography

set her apart from men photographers who% like 7ilpin% documented the western

8nited 9tates. !estern American landscape photography grew out of a male

tradition% pioneered by photographers attached to government and commercial

survey teams that went west in the 1NO3’s and 1NQ3’s. (hese explorer-

photographers documented the !est that their employers wanted to see< an

exotic and ma/estic land shaped by awesome natural forces% unpopulated and

ready for American settlement. (he next generation of male photographers%

represented by Ansel Adams and Eliot 6orter% often worked with conservationist

groups rather than government agencies or commercial companies% but theynonetheless preserved the @heroic style and maintained the role of respectful

outsider peering in with reverence at a fragile natural world.

;or 7ilpin% by contrast% the landscape was neither an empty vista awaiting

human settlement nor a /ewel-like scene resisting human intrusion% but a peopled

landscape with a rich history and tradition of its own% an environment that shaped

and molded the lives of its inhabitants. ,er photographs of the $io 7rande% for

example% consistently depict the river in terms of its signicance to human

culture< as a source of irrigation water% a source of food for livestock% and a

provider of town sites. Also instructive is 7ilpin’s general avoidance of extreme

close-ups of her natural sub/ects< for her% emblematic details could never suggest

the intricacies of the interrelationship between people and nature that made the

landscape a compelling sub/ect. !hile it is dangerous to draw conclusions about a

@feminine way of seeing from the work of one woman% it can nonetheless be

argued that 7ilpin’s uni'ue approach to landscape photography was analogous to

the work of many women writers who% far more than their male counterparts%

described the landscape in terms of its potential to sustain human life.

7ilpin never spoke of herself as a photographer with a feminine perspective<

she eschewed any discussion of gender as it related to her work and maintained

little interest in interpretations that relied on the concept of a @woman’s eye.



GRE 911

(hus it is ironic that her photographic evocation of a historical landscape should

so clearly present a distinctively feminine approach to landscape photography.

+1. hich of the folloing best e%resses the main idea of the assage*

(A) /ilin's landscae hotograhs more accurately documented the ,outhestthan did the hotograhs of e%lorers and conservationists.

(") /ilin's style of landscae hotograhy substantially influenced the heroic

style racticed by her male counterarts.

(#) The labeling of /ilin's style of landscae hotograhy as feminine ignores

imortant ties beteen it and the heroic style.

($) /ilin's ork e%emlifies an arguably feminine style of landscae

hotograhy that contrasts ith the style used by her male redecessors.

(!) /ilin's style as strongly influenced by the ork of omen riters ho

described the landscae in terms of its relationshi to eole.

++. :t can be inferred from the assage that the teams mentioned in line 1 ere most

interested in hich of the folloing asects of the land in the estern 6nited

,tates*

(A) :ts fragility in the face of increased human intrusion

(") :ts role in shaing the lives of indigenous eoles

(#) :ts otential for sustaining future settlements

($) :ts imortance as an environment for rare lants and animals

(!) :ts unusual vulnerability to e%treme natural forces

+3. The author of the assage claims that hich of the folloing is the rimary

reason hy /ilin generally avoided e%treme close-us of natural subects*

(A) /ilin believed that ictures of natural details could not deict the

interrelationshi beteen the land and humans.

(") /ilin considered close-u hotograhy to be too closely associated ith her

redecessors.

(#) /ilin believed that all of her hotograhs should include eole in them.

($) /ilin associated close-u techniques ith hotograhy used for commercial uroses.

(!) /ilin feared that ictures of small details ould suggest an indifference to

the fragility of the land as a hole.

+9. The assage suggests that a hotograher ho racticed the heroic style ould be

most likely to emhasize hich of the folloing in a hotograhic series focusing

on the 5io /rande*

(A) :ndigenous eole and their ancient customs relating to the river

(") The e%loits of navigators and e%lorers

(#) 6noulated8 ristine arts of the river and its surroundings



GRE 91+

($) !%isting commercial ventures that relied heavily on the river

(!) The dams and other monumental engineering structures built on the river

+;. :t can be inferred from the assage that the first to generations of landscae

hotograhers in the estern 6nited ,tates had hich of the folloing incommon*

(A) They hotograhed the land as an entity that had little interaction ith human

culture.

(") They advanced the hilosohy that hotograhers should resist alliances ith

olitical or commercial grous.

(#) They ere convinced that the ristine condition of the land needed to be

reserved by government action.

($) They hotograhed the land as a lace ready for increased settlement.

(!) They hotograhed only those locations here humans had settled.

+<. "ased on the descrition of her orks in the assage8 hich of the folloing

ould most likely be a subect for a hotograh taken by /ilin*

(A) A vista of a canyon still untouched by human culture

(") A ortrait of a visitor to the est against a desert backdro

(#) A vie of historic ative American dellings carved into the side of a natural

cliff

($) A icture of artifacts from the est being transorted to the eastern 6nited

,tates for retail sale(!) An abstract attern created by the shados of clouds on the desert

+7. The author of the assage mentions omen riters in line ; most likely in order

to

(A) counter a idely held criticism of her argument

(") bolster her argument that /ilin's style can be characterized as a feminine

style

(#) suggest that /ilin took some of her ideas for hotograhs from landscae

descritions by omen riters($) clarify the interrelationshi beteen human culture and the land that /ilin

as attemting to cature

(!) offer an analogy beteen hotograhic close-us and literary descritions of

small details



GRE 913

GRE RC (No. 2—No. 9)

No. 2-1

SECTION A

17. " 1&. # 1. $ +. ! +1. A++. # +3. ! +9. " +;. ! +<. A

+7. $ +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. A 1&. # 1. $ +. ! +1. "

++. # +3. A +9. # +;. ! +<. #

+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

No. 2-2

SECTION A

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++. ! +3. " +9. # +;. ! +<. $+7. $ +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

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++. " +3. ! +9. $ +;. ! +<. !

+7. # +&. +. 3. 31.

No. 2-3

SECTION A

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+7. A +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

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++. A +3. # +9. A +;. # +<. !

+7. $ +&. +. 3. 31.

No. 3-1

SECTION A

17. $ 1&. # 1. # +. $ +1. $

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+7. $ +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. # 1&. A 1. " +. ! +1. A

++. $ +3. # +9. $ +;. " +<. A

+7. A +&. +. 3. 31.

No. 3-2

SECTION A



GRE 919

17. A 1&. " 1. # +. $ +1. A

++. ! +3. # +9. $ +;. ! +<. #

+7. #

SECTION B

17. ! 1&. $ 1. ! +. $ +1. $

++. ! +3. # +9. $ +;. A +<. $+7. ! +&. +. 3. 31.

No. 3-3

SECTION A

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SECTION B

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No. 4-1

SECTION A

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+7. $ +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

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+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

No. 4-2

SECTION A

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+7. ! +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

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++. ! +3. " +9. $ +;. # +<. A

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No. 4-3

SECTION A

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SECTION B

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GRE 91;

++. $ +3. $ +9. A +;. ! +<. !

+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

No. 5-1

SECTION A

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+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

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++. $ +3. " +9. $ +;. A +<. !

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No. 5-2

SECTION A

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SECTION B

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No. 5-3

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SECTION B

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No. 6-1

SECTION A

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SECTION B

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No. 6-2

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GRE 91<

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SECTION B

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No. 6-3

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SECTION B

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No. 7-1

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SECTION B

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No. 7-2

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SECTION B

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No. 7-3

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SECTION B

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GRE 917

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No. 8-1

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+7. $ +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

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No. 8-2

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SECTION B

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No. 8-3

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SECTION B

17. " 1&. ! 1. # +. # +1. A

++. " +3. # +9. # +;. A +<. A

+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

No. 9-1

SECTION A

17. $ 1&. " 1. " +. " +1. "

++. A +3. $ +9. ! +;. $ +<. A

+7. $ +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B17. " 1&. $ 1. A +. $ +1. #

++. $ +3. A +9. " +;. " +<. "

+7. # +&. +. 3. 31.

No. 9-2

SECTION A

17. " 1&. " 1. A +. $ +1. A



GRE 91&

++. " +3. ! +9. # +;. $ +<. A

+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. $ 1&. # 1. ! +. " +1. $

++. ! +3. A +9. A +;. ! +<. #

+7. $ +&. +. 3. 31.

No. 9-3

SECTION A

17. A 1&. ! 1. " +. " +1. !

++. ! +3. # +9. ! +;. # +<. #

+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. " 1&. $ 1. " +. $ +1. !

++. A +3. ! +9. # +;. A +<. "

+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

No. 9-4

SECTION A

17. A 1&. $ 1. $ +. " +1. "

++. $ +3. A +9. ! +;. " +<. #

+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. " 1&. " 1. # +. A +1. !

++. # +3. " +9. $ +;. # +<. A

+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

No. 9-5

SECTION A

17. # 1&. A 1. $ +. ! +1. A

++. $ +3. " +9. ! +;. A +<. A

+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. # 1&. $ 1. ! +. A +1. $

++. " +3. A +9. " +;. A +<. $

+7. ! +&. +. 3. 31.

No. 9-6

SECTION A

17. " 1&. ! 1. A +. " +1. A

++. # +3. " +9. # +;. ! +<. $

+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. ! 1&. # 1. $ +. A +1. A

++. $ +3. A +9. ! +;. " +<. #



GRE 91

+7. $ +&. +. 3. 31.

GRE 内题全部 RC

1990 04

SECTION A17. A 1&. # 1. # +. # +1. "

++. A +3. " +9. # +;. ! +<. A

+7. ! +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. # 1&. " 1. A +. " +1. $

++. # +3. # +9. $ +;. ! +<. A

+7. $ +&. +. 3. 31.

1990 10

SECTION A

17. # 1&. " 1. A +. # +1. !++. $ +3. $ +9. " +;. A +<. !

+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. A 1&. $ 1. " +. $ +1. "

++. A +3. " +9. # +;. $ +<. A

+7. # +&. +. 3. 31.

1991 02

SECTION A

17. A 1&. " 1. ! +. A +1. $

++. ! +3. $ 670 ! +;. ! +<. $+7. # +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. " 1&. ! 1. ! +. " +1. "

++. A +3. $ +9. A +;. # +<. #

+7. $ +&. +. 3. 31.

1991 04

SECTION A

17. $ 1&. # 1. " +. A +1. A

++. # +3. " +9. A +;. ! +<. !

+7. ! +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. # 1&. " 1. ! +. " +1. #

++. $ +3. $ +9. " +;. # +<. A

+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

1991 10



GRE 9+

SECTION A

17. A 1&. " 1. ! +. # +1. "

++. # +3. $ +9. A +;. $ +<. !

+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. $ 1&. ! 1. $ +. ! +1. $++. " +3. $ +9. A +;. # +<. "

+7. ! +&. +. 3. 31.

1992 02

SECTION A

17. " 1&. # 1. " +. ! +1. $

++. A +3. A +9. A +;. " +<. $

+7. ! +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. " 1&. A 1. ! +. $ +1. "

++. $ +3. A +9. ! +;. " +<. "+7. # +&. +. 3. 31.

1992 04

SECTION A

17. ! 1&. $ 1. ! +. A +1. !

++. " +3. # +9. $ +;. # +<. "

+7. # +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. " 1&. " 1. $ +. A +1. "

++. " +3. ! +9. # +;. A +<. A

+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

1992 10

SECTION A

17. A 1&. ! 1. $ +. " +1. #

++. $ +3. " +9. # +;. $ +<. !

+7. # +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. ! 1&. $ 1. # +. " +1. A

++. $ +3. ! +9. $ +;. " +<. $

+7. ! +&. +. 3. 31.

1993 02

SECTION A

17. $ 1&. ! 1. " +. A +1. !

++. # +3. ! +9. " +;. $ +<. "

+7. A +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B



GRE 9+1

17. # 1&. A 1. A +. $ +1. A

++. $ +3. " +9. " +;. " +<. $

+7. A +&. +. 3. 31.

1993 04

SECTION A

17. $ 1&. " 1. A +. # +1. !

++. ! +3. A +9. # +;. # +<. $

+7. ! +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. " 1&. $ 1. A +. " +1. A

++. # +3. " +9. ! +;. ! +<. #

+7. $ +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION C

17. $ 1&. ! 1. $ +. ! +1. A

++. " +3. $ +9. " +;. ! +<. A

+7. A +&. +. 3. 31.

1993 10

SECTION A

17. # 1&. $ 1. " +. A +1. "

++. ! +3. # +9. ! +;. ! +<. A

+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. $ 1&. A 1. " +. ! +1. !

++. # +3. $ +9. A +;. # +<. !

+7. ! +&. +. 3. 31.

1994 02

SECTION A

17. " 1&. ! 1. " +. # +1. #

++. " +3. " +9. $ +;. A +<. !

+7. ! +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. " 1&. A 1. $ +. ! +1. $

++. A +3. " +9. ! +;. A +<. $

+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

1994 04

SECTION A

17. A 1&. $ 1. # +. ! +1. "

++. A +3. " +9. $ +;. ! +<. #

+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. " 1&. $ 1. # +. ! +1. A



GRE 9++

++. $ +3. " +9. ! +;. # +<. !

+7. " +&. +. 3. 31.

1994 10

SECTION A

17. # 1&. A 1. " +. " +1. A++. $ +3. ! +9. " +;. # +<. $

+7. A +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. " 1&. ! 1. A +. A +1. $

++. " +3. $ +9. $ +;. $ +<. A

+7. # +&. +. 3. 31.

1995 04

SECTION A

17. ! 1&. A 1. # +. $ +1. "

++. A +3. ! +9. A +;. ! +<. "+7. $ +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. " 1&. $ 1. $ +. ! +1. #

++. ! +3. A +9. $ +;. $ +<. "

+7. $ +&. +. 3. 31.

1995 10

SECTION A

17. # 1&. " 1. ! +. $ +1. #

++. A +3. ! +9. ! +;. ! +<. $

+7. A +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. # 1&. $ 1. # +. # +1. "

++. ! +3. A +9. " +;. # +<. #

+7. ! +&. +. 3. 31.

1996 04

SECTION A

17. ! 1&. # 1. $ +. $ +1. !

++. $ +3. $ +9. A +;. # +<. "

+7. $ +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. # 1&. A 1. $ +. " +1. !

++. ! +3. ! +9. " +;. # +<. A

+7. A +&. +. 3. 31.

1996 04

SECTION A



GRE 9+3

17. ! 1&. # 1. # +. $ +1. #

++. $ +3. " +9. $ +;. A +<. $

+7. # +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. $ 1&. # 1. # +. A +1. #

++. # +3. A +9. A +;. # +<. !+7. ! +&. +. 3. 31.

1996 10

SECTION A

17. ! 1&. # 1. " +. " +1. #

++. " +3. A +9. # +;. A +<. $

+7. $ +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. $ 1&. ! 1. # +. " +1. $

++. A +3. " +9. # +;. A +<. A

+7. # +&. +. 3. 31.

1997 04

SECTION A

17. # 1&. ! 1. # +. ! +1. A

++. A +3. A +9. ! +;. " +<. A

+7. # +&. +. 3. 31.

SECTION B

17. # 1&. A 1. " +. # +1. !

++. $ +3. ! +9. A +;. $ +<. "

+7. A +&. +. 3. 31.

1997 11

SECTION A

17. $ 1&. $ 1. ! +. $ +1. $

++. A +3. A +9. " +;. " +<. #

+7. # +&. +. 3. 31.

200 GRE RC Passages.doc

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