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Transcript of 20 Saxena Acute Renal Failure
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Acute Renal failure(Acute Kidney Injury)
Anil K. Saxena, MD; FRCP (Dublin)
Renal Physician,
Nephrology Division,
Al- Rahba Hospital - Johns Hopkins Medicine,
Abu Dhabi, UAE
Renal autoregulation, Definitions, Pathogenesis, Diagnosis & General Principles of Management
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To function properly kidneys require:
• Normal renal blood flow • Functioning glomeruli and
tubules • Clear urinary outflow tract
– for drainage and elimination of formed urine from the body.
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RENAL BLOOD FLOW
“Effective Circulating Volume”
Normal RBF/RPF
Intrarenal Autoregulation
GFR, FF
Renal Perfusion Pressure
Cardiac out put
Mean Arterial
Pressure
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Renal Autoregulation
Autoregulation is the maintenance of a near normal intrarenal hemodynamic environment (RBF, RPF, FF and GFR) despite large changes in the systemic blood pressure
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Renal autoregulation• RBF - blood perfusing the kidneys each
minute (1200 ml/min)• Renal Plasma Flow (RPF) - plasma
flowing to kidneys each minute (670 ml/min or 55-60% of RBF)
• GFR - amount of plasma filtered each minute by the glomeruli. (Normal GFR -125 ml /min for men and 100 ml/min for women)
• Filtration Fraction (FF) - the ratio of GFR to RPF (Normal - .18 - .22)
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Renal autoregulation
F = P R
RAP RBF Raff + Reff~
F = Flow
P = Pressure Changes
R = Resistance
RBF = Renal blood flow
Raff = Afferent arteriolar resistance
RAP = Renal arterial pressure
Reff = Efferent arteriolar resistance
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Renal blood flow (RBF)
• Major sites of renal vascular resistance -Glomerular afferent (Raff ) and efferent (Reff) arterioles
• Changes in Raff and Reff affect RBF.
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Intrarenal autoregulation
Vasoconstrictors– Renin– Angiotensin II– Endothelin– ADH
Vasodilators– PGs– Kinins– NO– ANP
RBFGFR
Figure : RBF / GFR is maintained by a balance between vasodilators and vasoconstrictors of Afferent and Efferent arterioles
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Intrarenal Mechanisms for Autoregulation
Afferent Arteriole
PGC
GFR.
Glomerulus
Efferent Arteriole
Tubule
Figure - shows normal conditions normal renal perfusion pressure and a normal GFR.
RBF
Reff / Raff ratio =N
N Engl J Med 357;8 August 23, 2007
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RBF Afferent Arteriole
PGC
GFR.
Efferent Arteriole
PGEAng II
Figure: shows reduced perfusion pressure within the autoregulatory range. Normal glomerular capillary pressure is maintained by afferent
vasodilatation and efferent vasoconstriction.
Intrarenal Mechanisms for Autoregulation under decreased Perfusion Pressure MAP
Reff / Raff ratio =
N Engl J Med 357;8 August 23, 2007
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Reff / Raff ratio
Figure: Loss of vasodilatory PGs increases afferent resistance causing drop in the glomerular capillary pressure below normal values and the fall in GFR
RBF PGC
GFR.
Ang II
Afferent Arteriole
Efferent Arteriole
PGE
NSAIDΘ
Reduced perfusion pressure with a NSAID.
N Engl J Med 357;8 August 23, 2007
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Reduced perfusion pressure with an ACEI or ARB.
PGC
GFR.
Ang II
Afferent Arteriole
Efferent Arteriole
PGE
ACEI /ARB
Θ
Figure: Loss of angiotensin II action reduces efferent resistance; this causes the glomerular capillary pressure to drop below normal values
and the GFR to decrease.
Reff / Raff ratio
RBF
N Engl J Med 357;8 August 23, 2007
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Renal autoregulation failure
• Renal autoregulation breaks down as MAP falls below 80 mm Hg,
• Further adjustments in intra-renal hemodynamics are unable to maintain RBF and GFR
• Hallmark of ARF
After age 30, RBF/ GFR decreases progressively with age; at 80 years it is nearly half of that at 20 years
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ARF - definition
• An abrupt fall in GFR over a period of minutes to days with rapid & sustained rise in nitrogenous waste products in blood.
(Rate of production of metabolic waste exceeds the rate of renal excretion)
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Definitions …
• Well over 30 definitions used in published studies (Ranging from subtle increases in S. Cr. levels – requirement of dialysis)
• Multiple aetiologies
• Different outcomes
• Classification according to severity and outcome - elusive
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Clinical markers of ARF
• Reduced GFR
• Raised S.Creatinine
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Ser
um
Cre
atin
ine
(mg
/dl)
GFR (ml/min per 1.73m2)
1.0
0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180200
Relationship between GFR and serum creatinine in ARF
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Relationship between GFR and serum creatinine in ARF
• S.Cr. poor marker of renal function.
• Poor correlation between S.Cr. and level of GFR related to muscle mass.
S.Cr. of 1.0 does not represent the same level of GFR in a cachectic 70-year-old as in a highly muscular 25-year-old.
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Figure: The abrupt drop in GFR but the S.Cr. does not start going up for 24 or 36 hours after the acute insult .
40
80
0
GFR(mL/min)
0 7 14 21 28
4
Days
2
0
6
Serum Creatinine(mg/dL)
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Acute Kidney Injury Network (AKIN- 2005)
Continuum of the renal injury
STAGE I
RISK (R)
STAGE I
RISK (R)
STAGE II
INJURY (I)
STAGE II
INJURY (I)
STAGE VESRD
(E)
STAGE VESRD
(E)
STAGE III
FAILURE (F)
STAGE III
FAILURE (F)
STAGE IVLOSS
(L)
STAGE IVLOSS
(L)
Severity Outcome
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– RIFLE criteria/staging system
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Definitions….
–Azotemia - silent
–Uremia - symptomatic
–Oliguria - < 400 mL/24 h
–Anuria - < 100 mL/24 h –Nonoliguric ARF - > 400 ml / 24 h
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D/D of Azotemia
Acute rise in S. Creatinine• Medications that block tubular creatinine
secretion– Trimethoprim– Cimetidine
• Substances that interfere with creatinine assay – Cefoxitin– Flucytosine
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D/D of Azotemia
• Acute elevation of BUN– Protein loading– Catabolic state - severe sepsis – GI bleeding– Corticosteroid therapy– Antibiotics -Tetracycline
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ARF: Life threatening consequences
• Volume overload
• Hyperkalaemia• Uremia:
Pericarditis
Encephalopathy
Platelet dysfunction
• Metabolic acidosis
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Epidemiology
INCIDENCE
• 1-5% of all patients
• 7-23 % in the ICU
Crit Care Med 16 (11): 1106-1109, 1998
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ARF- Community vs. Hospital Acquired
Obialo, C. I. et al. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:1309-1313.
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Epidemiology
MORTALITY
• 20-70% Overall
• 79% for patients requiring RRT (ICU)
Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1994:9 S179-S182
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Epidemiology
MORTALITY
ARF Outcome ~ Severity of Underlying Disease
Significant Mortality difference -
Ischemic -30% vs. Nephrotoxic- 10%
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MORTALITY
ARF is an independent predictor of a poor renal outcome
Vascular/ cardiac surgery – ARF increases mortality
Cardiac surgery patientsMatched illness severity / comorbidities
• 63% mortality dialysis• 4.3 % mortality intact renal function
Am J Med 1998; 104 (4) 343-348Am J Med 1998; 104 (4) 343-348
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Predictors of mortality
Multisystem failure
– Mechanical ventilation
– Hypoalbuminemia
– Hyperbilirubinemia
– Severe Lactic acidosis
Dialysis requirement
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Spectrum of AKI
• Prerenal : renal hypoperfusion
• Renal (Intrinsic) :– Glomerular– Tubular– Vascular – Interstitial
• Post renal: obstruction
injuryinjury
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Spectrum ….
• Hemodynamic AKI (≈30%)
• Parenchymal AKI (65%)– Acute tubular necrosis (55%)– Acute glomerulonephritis (≈5%)– Vasculopathy (3%)– Acute interstitial nephritis (≈2%)
• Obstruction (≈5%)
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Generalized or localized reduction in RBF
HypovolaemiaHaemorrhageHaemorrhage
Volume depletionVolume depletion( vomiting,( vomiting,diarrhoea,diarrhoea,
inappropriate inappropriate diuresis, burns)diuresis, burns)
HypotensionCardiogenicshockCardiogenicshockDistributive Distributive shockshock
(sepsis, (sepsis, anaphylaxis)anaphylaxis)
Oedema states
Cardiac failureCardiac failureHepatic cirrhosisHepatic cirrhosis
Nephrotic syndromeNephrotic syndrome
Renal Hypoperfusion
NSAIDs NSAIDs ACEI / ARBsACEI / ARBs
AAAAAARAS /occlusionRAS /occlusion
HepatorenalHepatorenalsyndromesyndrome
Reduced GFR
PRE-RENAL (Hemodynamic) AKI
PRERENAL AKI
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Prerenal AKI
• Renal hypoperfusion– Decreased RBF and GFR
– Increased Na and H2O reabsorption
– Oliguria
– High Uosm (>500), low UNa ( FeNa >1%)
– Elevated BUN / S.Cr. Ratio– Bland urinary sediments
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Renal / Intrinsic AKI
TubularTubularGlomerularGlomerular VascularVascularInterstitialInterstitial
ATNATN
Ischemia (50%)Ischemia (50%)Toxins (30%)Toxins (30%)
Ac. Interstitial Ac. Interstitial nephritisnephritis
Drug inducedDrug induced - - NSAIDs,NSAIDs,
antibioticsantibioticsInfiltrative -Infiltrative -lymphomalymphoma
Granulomatous- Granulomatous- sarcoidosis, sarcoidosis, tuberculosistuberculosis
Infection relatedInfection related - - post-infective, post-infective, pyelonephritispyelonephritis
Vascular Vascular occlusionsocclusions
- - Renal artery Renal artery occlusion occlusion
- Renal vein - Renal vein thrombosisthrombosis
- Cholesterol - Cholesterol emboliemboli
Ac.GN Ac.GN
–post-infectious,post-infectious,– SLE,SLE,–ANCA associated,ANCA associated,–anti-GBM diseaseanti-GBM disease–Henoch-Schönlein Henoch-Schönlein purpurapurpura–Cryoglobulinaemia,Cryoglobulinaemia,–Thrombotic Thrombotic microangiopathy microangiopathy
•TTPTTP•HUSHUS
5%5%
85%85%
8 -12%8 -12%
< 2%< 2%
N Engl J Med 1996;334 (22):1448-60
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ATN• Sepsis - 48%
• Hemodynamic (excluding sepsis) - 32%
• Toxic – 20%– NSAIDS– Radiocontrast media – ACEI– Antibiotics (Gentamicin, Amphotericin)
Crit care Med 1996; 24(2) 192-198
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PaO2
50 mm of Hg
PaO2
20 mm of Hg
10 mm of Hg
PaO2
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ATN
• Medullary blood flow constitutes about 10% to 15% of total RBF
• Relative hypoxia in the outer medulla predisposes to ischemic injury in – S3 segment of the proximal tubule – Thick ascending limb (more glycolytic
machinery for ATP synthesis)
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Pathophysiology of ATN:Tubular Epithelial Cell Injury and Repair
Loss of polarityLoss of polarityNormal EpitheliumNormal Epithelium
Migration , Dedifferentiation of Viable CellsMigration , Dedifferentiation of Viable Cells
Differentiation & Differentiation & Reestablishment Reestablishment of polarityof polarity
Sloughing of viable and dead cells Sloughing of viable and dead cells with luminal obstructionwith luminal obstruction
Ischemia/ Ischemia/ ReperfusionReperfusion
ApoptosisApoptosisNecrosis
Cell deathCell death
Adhesion moleculesNa+/K+-ATPase
ProliferationProliferation
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ATN
• Renal Tubular obstruction, Tubular back leak– Decreased GFR, Oliguria – Decreased Na reabsorption– Low Uosm (< 350), High UNa (FeNa <1%)– Elevated BUN / S.Cr. – Urinary sediments- Muddy pigmented
granular casts
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Principal POST-RENAL causes of AKI
Intra-luminalIntra-luminal•Stone,Stone,•Blood clots, Blood clots, •Papillary Papillary necrosisnecrosis
•Pelvic Pelvic malignanciesmalignancies•Prolapsed Prolapsed
uterusuterus•RetroperitoneaRetroperitonea
l fibrosisl fibrosis
IntrinsicIntrinsic
Intra-mural Intra-mural •Urethral stricture, Urethral stricture, •BPH, BPH, •Carcinoma prostate,Carcinoma prostate,• Bladder tumour,Bladder tumour,• Radiation fibrosisRadiation fibrosis
ExtrinsicExtrinsic
Post-renal Urinary outflow tract obstruction
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How do we assess a patient with AKI?
• Is this acute or chronic renal failure?– History and examination– Previous Serum creatinine measurements– Small kidneys on ultrasound (except for in -
Diabetes, PCKD, Urinary Tract Obstruction)
Hilton et al, BMJ 2006;333;786-790
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• Distinguishing between acute and chronic renal failure is important, as – – The approach to these patients differs
greatly.– This may, save a great deal of
unnecessary investigation.
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• Factors that suggest chronicity include – – Long duration of symptoms,– Nocturia,– Absence of acute illness, anaemia,
hyperphosphatemia, and hypocalcaemia,
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• Has obstruction been excluded?–Complete anuria
–Palpable bladder
–Renal ultrasound
Hilton et al, BMJ 2006;333;786-790
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• Careful urological evaluation – P/H Renal stones,– H/O Symptoms of bladder outflow
obstruction- Prostate enlargement – Prolapsed uterus– A palpable bladder. – Catheterization
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• Complete anuria suggests renal tract obstruction – X-ray KUB– Renal ultrasonography – detect dilatation
of the renal pelvis and calyces,– CT Scan
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• Is the patient euvolaemic?– Pulse, JVP/CVP, postural blood pressure,
daily weights, fluid balance– Disproportional increase in urea /creatinine
ratio– Urinary sodium concentration (unless on
diuretics)– Fluid challenge
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• Does evidence of renal parenchymal disease exist (other than ATN)? – History and examination (systemic
features)– Urine dipstick and microscopy (red cells,
red cell casts, eosinophils, proteinuria)
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• Has a major vascular occlusion occurred?– Atherosclerotic vascular disease– Renal asymmetry– Loin pain– Macroscopic haematuria– Complete anuria
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What investigations are most useful in ARF?
• Urinalysis:– Dipstick for blood, protein, or both -
Suggests a renal inflammatory process– Microscopy for cells, casts, crystals - Red
cell casts diagnostic in glomerulonephritis
Hilton et al, BMJ 2006;333;786-790
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RBCs
•Dysmorphic red blood cells suggest glomerular injury.
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Red blood cell cast
Marker of glomerular injury
Granular cast
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Pigmented granular (“muddy brown”) casts
Marker of acute tubular necrosis
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May- Grünwald - Giemsa staining
Marker of acute interstitial nephritis.
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Biochemistry
• Serial blood urea, creatinine, electrolytes, Blood gas analysis, serum bicarbonate – – Important metabolic consequences of ARF
include hyperkalaemia, metabolic acidosis, hypocalcaemia, hyperphosphataemia
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Biochem….
• Creatine kinase, myoglobinuria – – Markedly elevated CK and myoglobinuria
suggests rhabdomyolysis
• Serum immunoglobulins, serum protein electrophoresis, Bence Jones proteinuria – – Immune paresis, monoclonal band on serum
protein electrophoresis, and Bence Jones proteinuria suggest multiple myeloma
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Haematology
• Full blood count, blood film:– Eosinophilia may be present in acute interstitial nephritis,
cholesterol embolization, or vasculitis (CSS)– Thrombocytopenia and red cell fragments suggest
thrombotic microangiopathy –TTP, HUS
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Haem….
• Coagulation studies – Disseminated intravascular coagulation
associated with sepsis
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Immunology• Antinuclear antibody (ANA) , Anti-double stranded
(ds) antibody - – ANA positive in SLE and other autoimmune
disorders;DNA antibodies anti-ds DNA antibodies more specific for SLE
• C3 & C4 complement concentrations-– Low in SLE, acute post infectious glomerulonephritis,
Cryoglobulinemia
• ASO and anti-DNAse B titres – High after streptococcal infection
Hilton et al, BMJ 2006;333;786-790
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Immunology
• ANCA • p-ANCA - Anti PR3 antibodies
• c-ANCA - Anti MPO antibodies
– Associated with systemic vasculitis - Wegener’s granulomatosis; CSS, Microscopic polyangiitis.
• AntiGBM antibodies – Present in Goodpasture’s disease
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serology
• Hepatitis B and C, HIV serology– – Important implications for infection control
within dialysis area
• Radiology
• Renal ultrasonography – For renal size, symmetry, evidence of
obstruction
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Management principles in ARF• Identify and correct pre-renal and post-
renal factors
• Optimise cardiac output and RBF-
• Review drugs: – Stop ACEI, ARBs, NSAIDs – Adjust doses / monitor drug concentrations
(where appropriate)
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Avoid
• Aminoglycosides– 33 % of nephrotoxicity “therapeutic levels”
• Amphotericin – hydration,– Liposomal formulation
• Radiocontrast media - – Hydration– N-acetyl cysteine
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Management principles..
• Accurately monitor fluid balance and daily body weight
• Identify and treat acute complications– Hyperkalaemia,– Acidosis,– Pulmonary oedema
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Optimise nutritional support
• Maintaining calories enhances patient survival
• Maintaining protein intake MAY enhance recovery & outcome
• protein intakes of > 1.2- 1.4 g/kg/ day can dramatically increase urea production WITHOUT evidence of outcome benefit
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Management principles…
• Identify and aggressively treat infection;– Minimise indwelling lines– Remove bladder catheter if anuric.
• Identify and treat bleeding tendency: – Prophylaxis - proton pump inhibitor or H2
antagonist, avoid aspirin– transfuse if required
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• Initiate dialysis before uraemic complications set in.
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Radiocontrast induced nephropathy (RCIN)
• Less than 1% in patients with normal renal function
• Increases significantly with renal insufficiency
• Dialysis - rarely needed
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Risk FactorsPatient Related
– Elderly– Dehydration– Underlying CKD– Diabetes mellitus– Urgent procedure– Multiple myeloma
– CHF ( LVEF < 40%)
– Hypertension– Low hematocrit– Intra-aortic
balloon pump
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Contrast properties
– High osmolar contrast
– Ionic contrast
– High viscosity
– Large volume
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Clinical Characteristics
• Onset - 24 to 48 hrs after exposure• Duration - 5 to 7 days• Non-oliguric (majority)• Urinary sediment – May contain the
“muddy-brown” pigmented casts and renal tubular cells typical of ATN or may be quite bland.
• Low fractional excretion of Na
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Mechanism
• Hemodynamic- reduce RBF
• Direct tubulotoxicity
• Cytokine release
• Osmolar injury
• Tubular obstruction
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Patients who are administered contrast media through an arterial vessel, are at the risk of developing Atheroembolic (cholesterol) AKI
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Prophylactic Strategies
• Use I.V. contrast only when necessary• Hydration with normal saline (1-1.5 mL/Kg/ h)
6 -12 h before and after the procedure. • Use Low/ iso osmolar (nonionic) contrast
media• Minimize contrast volume• N-acetylcysteine - 600-1200 mg BID for two
doses before and 2 doses after the procedure
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Conclusions.
• ARF is common worldwide • Occurs in all clinical & community
settings• It carries a high morbidity and
mortality risks.• Involves high cost of management.
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Conclusions..
• The most common cause of in-hospital ARF is ATN that results from multiple acute insults e.g. sepsis, Hypotension, and use of nephrotoxic drugs or Radiocontrast media
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Conclusions
• ARF is increasingly common, particularly among hospital inpatients, elderly people, and critically ill patients.
• It carries a high mortality
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Conclusions..
• Patients at risk are - elderly people; patients with diabetes, hypertension, or vascular disease; and those with pre -existing renal impairment
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Conclusions..
• ARF is often preventable.
• Rapid recognition of incipient ARF and early treatment of established ARF may prevent irreversible loss of nephrons.
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Conclusions..
• No drug treatment has been shown to limit the progression of, or speed up recovery from, ARF.
• Advice from a nephrologist should be sought for all cases of ARF.