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2. u n e a s y h a r v e s t n a u s t r a l i a n b i o f u e l s n i n d i a

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s p e c i a l r e p o r t n w a t e r v s . e n e r g y

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T h e n o r T h e r n I n d I a n s TaT e o f P u n j a b is the country’s historic breadbasket, and 60-year-old Harnek Singh is one of the million farmers who work its soil. On a sunny February afternoon in Khunimajra, about 275 kilometers from New Delhi, he is busy repairing his tube well. The tube well is simple: a steel pipe bored into the ground and attached to a cheap electric pump. This rudimen-tary tool is the engine of Singh’s success as a farmer. But it and millions of others like it are quickly drain-ing away India’s agricultural riches.

In dirt-covered shorts and an undershirt, Singh squats amid the thick foliage that feeds his 50-odd cattle, preparing his pump for the day’s most critical event. He’s about to get the 4 hours of free electricity that lets him extract water from a natural reservoir 82 meters underground. These days, that hardly suf-fices. He needs another 8 to 9 hours of power to fin-ish watering his wheat and rice. So he’ll continue to run the pump with diesel generators, which cost him US $4.50 an hour in fuel—a crushing price, consid-ering that his farm’s annual revenue is just $20 000.

“Sometimes the [grid] electricity goes off after 2 or 3 hours, and I want to commit suicide,” says Singh.

Even so, farmers are emptying Punjab’s aquifers at an alarming rate. Each year, as the ground water table steadily retreats, they are forced to go half a meter deeper to pump water. Two abandoned wells on Singh’s farm offer proof of the changing conditions.

If cultivation continues here as it has, the groundwater—the source of most of Punjab’s irrigation—could be exhausted in 20 years, say researchers at Punjab Agricultural University, in Ludhiana.

The situation is not unique to Punjab. Collectively, India’s farmers extract about 212 million megaliters of water each year to irrigate some 35 million hectares. That amount of water—enough to submerge London by more than 100 meters—is considerably more than what f lows into the aquifers through rainfall and runoff, and plummeting water tables now plague other areas as well. Based on its aquifers’ natural rate of recharge, Punjab can sustainably sup-port at most 1.8 million hectares of rice, according to the state’s director of agri-culture, Balwinder Singh Sidhu. At pres-ent, it has 2.8 million hectares of rice. If the situation doesn’t change, a food cri-sis in India seems imminent.

A main culprit is grossly underpriced electricity. For decades, it’s allowed farmers to pump groundwater at very low cost. Now, not only is the water run-ning out, but India’s electricity utilities lack the revenue to maintain their infra-structure and provide rural communi-ties with adequate power.

I t ’ s o d d t o e v e n b e t a l k I n g a b o u t India’s faltering agricultural sector, because in so many ways the Green Revolution that began in the mid-1960s has been a magnificent success. As the country’s farmland grew tenfold, India went from frequent famines to food self-sufficiency, even as its population more than doubled.

Punjab is important to India’s abil-ity to feed itself. Despite its small size, it accounts for about a fifth of the coun-try’s wheat and more than a tenth of its rice. What’s more, its productivity has grown by an order of magnitude, to 11.5 metric tons of rice and wheat per hectare, the highest output in the world, says G.S. Kalkat, the chairman of the Punjab State Farmers’ Commission. But because nearly all the state’s farm-land is irrigated, this agricultural bonanza has come at the expense of the state’s groundwater.

PumPIng Punjab dry

B y S e e m a S i n g hp h o t o S B y S e p h i B e r g e r S o n

Cheap energy endangers India’s ability to feed itself

H a r n e k S i ng H o n H i S fa r m i n P u n j a b , i n di a [ top ] .

a fa r m e r ’ S P l a n f o r a de e P e r w e l l ; H a r n e k S i ng H ’ S t u b e w e l l ; a wat e r t ow e r i n a w H e at f i e l d [b ot tom , f rom le f t ] .

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2. u n e a s y h a r v e s t n a u s t r a l i a n b i o f u e l s n i n d i a

How did unrealistic electricity pric-ing make that happen? India’s electricity grid is largely controlled by about 20 state boards. The fi rst of these was created in 1948, to move the control of power genera-tion away from private operators. But the boards never managed to operate in good fi nancial health, and grid infrastructure began to deteriorate. Soon enough, power shortages became routine.

In the mid-1970s, state governments began to shift to a system of low, f lat electricity tariffs for farmers, on the premise that the utilities’ profits from the agricultural sector were too small to justify the cost of installing electric-ity meters. But as the agricultural rev-olution gained momentum, ground-water use shot up, while electricity rates remained f lat. Several states, including Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra, as well as Punjab, went even further and made power free for farmers. The politicians in these states viewed the move as an easy way to bolster their populist cre-dentials and gain rural votes.

Only recently did that arrangement begin to change. Under pressure from the World Bank and the Asian Development

Bank, a few states scrapped free power in 2005 and reverted to a system of sub-sidized pricing. But not Punjab, which continues to dole out free electricity.

As farmers’ electricity use grew in Punjab, the quality, reliability, and supply of that electricity all declined. Back in the 1980s, farmers could expect 18 hours of electricity a day; now it’s at most 6 hours. And because the ground-water table has been falling at about half a meter each year, farmers actually need more energy every year to irrigate the same field. Though Punjab author-ities aren’t doing the math themselves, a back-of-the- envelope calculation shows that raising the 8 ML needed to irrigate one hectare of rice by an extra half meter requires at least an additional 11 kilowatt-hours each year. (That’s the energy needed to lift nearly 30 empty A irbus A-3 8 0s.) India’s Central Electricity Authority has esti-mated that electricity demand will out-strip supply in Punjab by as much as 28 percent this year.

I n d I a ’ s e l e C t r I C a l f a I l I n g s a r e n ’ treally the farmers’ fault, of course. A third of the nation’s installed capac-

ing to pay 4 to 5 rupees [$0.09 to $0.11] per kilowatt-hour for a 24-7 metered power supply.”

t h o u g h P u n j a b fa lt e r s , t h e C o a s ta lstate of Gujarat has managed to over-com e si m i l a r c i r c u m st a nce s . A s in Punjab, f lat electricity tariffs in Gujarat led to mounting f inancial losses for the state electricity board and the rapid depletion of aquifers. It also spawned an informal water mar-ket in which tube-well owners sold surplus water to poorer farmers who couldn’t afford tube wells or couldn’t get permission to install them.

In 2003, Gujarat’s state offi cials came up with a plan to improve the power sup-ply in rural areas and curb ground water consumption. A $254 million parallel rural transmission network was laid across the state, with feeders for supply-ing agricultural users separated from those going to commercial and residen-tial users. Tube-well owners now pay the market rate for full-voltage power for 8 hours a day—just long enough to irri-gate an average-size fi eld, the state’s reg-ulators fi gured. Experts say the scheme has cut g roundwater pumping on medium and large farms. The farmers have benefi ted, too: Continuous and full-voltage power means less wear and tear on the tube wells’ electric motors.

What’s more, villages in Gujarat now have electricity around the clock, of a quality seldom seen in rural India. Access to reliable electricity has in turn led to a better drinking water supply and improved street lighting; rice and f lour mills, telephone exchanges and kiosks, and computer-training centers are thriving. A study of 55 villages by the International Water Management Institute in 2008 concluded that the scheme had managed to cap ground-water withdrawal in a fair manner.

But not everyone has prospered. The state’s small tenant farmers, who relied on the informal water market to irri-gate their crops, have largely been cut out of the new system, according to a survey by the Columbia Water Center India (part of the Earth Institute of Columbia University, in New York City).

g. S . k a l k at, c H a i r m a n of t H e P u n j a b S tat e fa r m e r S ’ com m i S S io n, HoP e S

wat e r co n S e r vat io n w i l l wo r k .

NO REFILLS

Area of detailI N D I AG U J A R A T

P U N J A B

ity of 157 gigawatts gets lost in the sys-tem, either from technical problems in the transmission and distribution sys-tems or from theft. Even in the states with relatively well-run grids, less than 65 percent of electricity use is metered. Many Punjab farmers are now clam-oring for metered electricity, which would be cheaper than running a diesel generator. “No farmer has demanded free power,” says Singh, the farmer in Khunimajra. “Please charge [for it] and give us an assured supply.”

Though some farmers agree with Singh, clearly others do not. Tradition-ally, electricity has been viewed as a social benefit rather than a service to be paid for. Those politicians who’ve tried to change the system haven’t fared well. When he was chief minister of the southern state of Andhra Pradesh, N. Chandrababu Naidu introduced metering; he was ousted in the next elec-tion. Cases like Naidu’s cause Tushaar Shah, a researcher at the International Water Management Institute, based in Colombo, Sri Lanka, to wonder whether the Punjab farmers are in earnest.

“Many people have told me that Punjab farmers want metered power supply,” he says. “But I am not sure they will be will-

New Delhi

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Ground water changes in India from 2002 to 2008, based on gravitational maps from the GRACE satellites, show big losses in the Punjab area [in red].

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s p e c i a l r e p o r t n w a t e r v s . e n e r g y

ing to pay 4 to 5 rupees [$0.09 to $0.11] per kilowatt-hour for a 24-7 metered power supply.”

t h o u g h P u n j a b fa lt e r s , t h e C o a s ta l state of Gujarat has managed to over-com e si m i l a r c i r c u m st a nce s . A s in Punjab, f lat electricity tariffs in Gujarat led to mounting f inancial losses for the state electricity board and the rapid depletion of aquifers. It also spawned an informal water mar-ket in which tube-well owners sold surplus water to poorer farmers who couldn’t afford tube wells or couldn’t get permission to install them.

In 2003, Gujarat’s state officials came up with a plan to improve the power sup-ply in rural areas and curb ground water consumption. A $254 million parallel rural transmission network was laid across the state, with feeders for supply-ing agricultural users separated from those going to commercial and residen-tial users. Tube-well owners now pay the market rate for full-voltage power for 8 hours a day—just long enough to irri-gate an average-size field, the state’s reg-ulators figured. Experts say the scheme has cut g roundwater pumping on medium and large farms. The farmers have benefited, too: Continuous and full-voltage power means less wear and tear on the tube wells’ electric motors.

What’s more, villages in Gujarat now have electricity around the clock, of a quality seldom seen in rural India. Access to reliable electricity has in turn led to a better drinking water supply and improved street lighting; rice and f lour mills, telephone exchanges and kiosks, and computer-training centers are thriving. A study of 55 villages by the International Water Management Institute in 2008 concluded that the scheme had managed to cap ground-water withdrawal in a fair manner.

But not everyone has prospered. The state’s small tenant farmers, who relied on the informal water market to irri-gate their crops, have largely been cut out of the new system, according to a survey by the Columbia Water Center India (part of the Earth Institute of Columbia University, in New York City).

g. S . k a l k at, c H a i r m a n of t H e P u n j a b S tat e fa r m e r S ’ com m i S S io n, HoP e S

wat e r co n S e r vat io n w i l l wo r k .

To assist those poorer farmers, the state government is subsidizing new tube-well connections, which previously it had banned, says Shah, who headed the International Water Management Institute’s study. In the last three years, the state has issued 200 000 new connec-tions, he says, mostly to small farmers.

“Gujarat has more or less resolved the energy-water nexus to the extent it is resolvable,” Shah says.

g u j a r a t ’ s e x a m P l e P r o v e s t h a t reform can work. But Gujarat may not hold all the answers for Punjab, says Kalkat, the chairman of Punjab’s farmers’ com-mission. He worries about the effect of metering on Punjab’s small farms—how will they pay for their electricity? Kalkat favors alternatives that avoid the thorny politics of electricity pricing.

Some of these alter nat ives are already reducing water use. Two years ago, Punjab passed a law that sets a date close to the monsoon season when farm-ers can start sowing their fields; previ-ously they would sow much earlier and thus pump more water. Groundwater data shows that the law has had some benefit, says Sidhu, the state’s director of agriculture. Punjab is also introduc-ing new varieties of rice that grow faster and use less water.

To trim water use further, the state agriculture department is now help-ing farmers laser-level their f ields. Farmland that isn’t flat requires as much as 25 percent more water. Using lasers attached to high-power tractors, work-ers can measure the terrain and then scrape away the excess grade. As of last June, Punjab had about 700 laser level-ers operating. As a result, some farm-ers have largely been able to stop using groundwater for irrigation.

Kamal Vatta and Rupinder Singh Sidhu, professors at the Punjab Agri-cultural University, say that the water savings could go much further if state subsidies were revised to favor less-thirsty crops. At present, they say, incen-tives for growing rice essentially pay for the entire cost of extracting ground water, including the diesel generators. As a result, farmers feel no pressure to shift

to crops such as corn, which requires a quarter of the water needed for rice but commands a much lower subsidy.

Whether water conservation and agricultural policy will be enough in Punjab or whether, as in Gujarat, a new electricity infrastructure is needed might not be clear for some time. At the rate Punjab’s groundwater is disap-pearing, time is something India may not have enough of. o

green revoluTIonIndia’s yield of grain has nearly tripled as it has irrigated more land using groundwater from tube wells. how much electricity farmers use for pumping the groundwater roughly follows the rate of electricity subsidies.

Sources: Grain growth: Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, New Delhi; World Bank report “Deep Wells and Prudence: Towards Pragmatic Action for Addressing Groundwater Overexploitation in India.” Electricity: Punjab State Electricity Regulatory Commission. Data compiled by professors Kamal Vatta and Rupinder Singh Sidhu

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ity of 157 gigawatts gets lost in the sys-tem, either from technical problems in the transmission and distribution sys-tems or from theft. Even in the states with relatively well-run grids, less than 65 percent of electricity use is metered. Many Punjab farmers are now clam-oring for metered electricity, which would be cheaper than running a diesel generator. “No farmer has demanded free power,” says Singh, the farmer in Khunimajra. “Please charge [for it] and give us an assured supply.”

Though some farmers agree with Singh, clearly others do not. Tradition-ally, electricity has been viewed as a social benefit rather than a service to be paid for. Those politicians who’ve tried to change the system haven’t fared well. When he was chief minister of the southern state of Andhra Pradesh, N. Chandrababu Naidu introduced metering; he was ousted in the next elec-tion. Cases like Naidu’s cause Tushaar Shah, a researcher at the International Water Management Institute, based in Colombo, Sri Lanka, to wonder whether the Punjab farmers are in earnest.

“Many people have told me that Punjab farmers want metered power supply,” he says. “But I am not sure they will be will-

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