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2Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Chapter Goals
• Describe the distinguishing characteristics of primary and secondary storage
• Describe the devices used to implement primary storage
• Describe memory allocation schemes• Compare and contrast secondary storage
technology alternatives
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3Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Chapter Goals (continued)
• Describe factors that determine storage device performance
• Choose appropriate secondary storage technologies and devices
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4Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
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5Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Storage Devices
• Consist of a read/write mechanism and a storage medium– Device controller provides interface
• Primary storage devices– Support immediate execution of programs
• Secondary storage devices– Provide long-term storage of programs and data
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6Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
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7Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Characteristics of Storage Devices
• Speed• Volatility• Access method• Portability• Cost and capacity
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8Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Speed
• Primary storage speed– Typically faster than secondary storage speed by a
factor of 105 or more
– Expressed in nanoseconds (billionths of a second)
• Secondary storage speed– Expressed in milliseconds (thousandths of a second)
• Data transfer rate = 1 second/access time (in seconds) x unit of data transfer (in bytes)
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9Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Volatility
• Primary storage devices are generally volatile– Cannot reliably hold data for long periods
• Secondary storage devices are generally nonvolatile– Hold data without loss over long periods of time
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10Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Access Method
• Serial access (linear)• Random access (direct access)• Parallel access (simultaneous)
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11Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Portability
• Removable storage media with standardized formats (e.g., compact disc and tape storage)
• Typically results in slower access speeds
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12Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Cost and Capacity
• Cost increases:– With improved speed, volatility, or portability
– As access method moves from serial to random to parallel access method
• Primary storage - expensive (high speed and combination of parallel/random access methods)
• Capacity of secondary storage devices is greater than primary storage devices
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13Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
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14Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Memory-Storage Hierarchy
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15Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Primary Storage Devices
• Critical performance characteristics– Access speed
– Data transfer unit size
• Must closely match CPU speed and word size to avoid wait states
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16Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Storing Electrical Signals
• Directly– By devices such as batteries and capacitors
– Trade off between access speed and volatility
• Indirectly– Uses energy to alter the state of a device; inverse
process regenerates equivalent electrical signal
• Modern computers use memory implemented with semiconductors (RAM and NVM)
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17Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Random Access Memory
• Characteristics– Microchip implementation using semiconductors
– Ability to read and write with equal speed
– Random access to stored bytes, words, or larger data units
• Basic types– Static RAM (SRAM) – uses transistors
– Dynamic RAM (DRAM) – uses transistors and capacitors
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18Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
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19Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Random Access Memory
• To bridge performance gap between memory and microprocessors– Read-ahead memory access
– Synchronous read operations
– On-chip memory caches
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20Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Nonvolatile Memory
• Random access memory with long-term or permanent data retention
• Usually relegated to specialized roles and secondary storage; slower write speeds and limited number of rewrites
• Generations of devices (ROM, EPROM, and EEPROM)
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21Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Nonvolatile Memory
• Flash RAM (most common NVM)– Competitive with DRAM in capacity and read
performance
– Relatively slow write speed
– Limited number of write cycles
• NVM technologies under development– Ferroelectric RAM
– Polymer memory
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22Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Memory Packaging
• Dual in-line packages (DIPs)– Early RAM and ROM circuits
• Single in-line memory module (SIMM)– Standard RAM package in late 1980s
• Double in-line memory module (DIMM)– Newer packaging standard
– A SIMM with independent electrical contacts on both sides of the module
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23Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
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24Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
CPU Memory Access
• Critical design issues for primary storage devices and processors– Physical organization of memory
– Organization of programs and data within memory
– Method(s) of referencing specific memory locations
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25Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Physical Memory Organization
• Physical memory– Actual number of memory bytes that physically are
installed in the machine
• Most and least significant bytes• Big endian and little endian• Addressable memory
– Highest numbered storage byte that can be represented
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26Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
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27Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Memory Allocation and Addressing
• Memory allocation– Assignment of specific memory addresses to
system software, application programs, and data
• Absolute addressing• Indirect addressing (relative addressing)
– Offset register
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28Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
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29Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
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30Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Magnetic Storage
• Exploits duality of magnetism and electricity– Converts electrical signals into magnetic charges
– Captures magnetic charge on a storage medium
– Later regenerates electrical current from stored magnetic charge
• Polarity of magnetic charge represents bit values zero and one
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31Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
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32Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
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33Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
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34Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Magnetic Tape
• Ribbon of plastic with a coercible (usually metallic oxide) surface coating
• Mounts in a tape drive for reading and writing• Relatively slow serial access• Compounds magnetic leakage; wraps upon itself• Susceptible to stretching, friction, temperature
variations
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36Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Magnetic Tape
• Two approaches to recording data– Linear recording
– Helical scanning
• Several formats and standards (e.g., DDS [DAT], AIT, Mammoth, DLT, LTO)
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38Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Magnetic Disk
• Flat, circular platter with metallic coating that is rotated beneath read/write heads
• Random access device; read/write head can be moved to any location on the platter
• Hard disks and floppy disks• Cost performance leader for general-purpose
on-line secondary storage
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41Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Magnetic Disk Access Time
• Head-to-head switching time• Track-to-track seek time• Rotational delay• Most important performance numbers
– Average access time
– Sequential access time
– Sustained data transfer rate
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43Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
To increase capacity per platter, disk manufacturers divide tracks into zones and vary the sectors per track in each zone.
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44Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Optical Mass Storage Devices
• Store bit values as variations in light reflection• Higher areal density and longer data life than
magnetic storage• Standardized and relatively inexpensive• Uses: read-only storage with low performance
requirements, applications with high capacity requirements, and where portability in a standardized format is needed
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45Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Optical storage devices read data by shining laser beam on the disc.
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46Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
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47Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
CD-ROM
• Read-only; data permanently embedded in durable polycarbonate disc
• Bit values represented as flat areas (lands) and concave dents (pits) in the reflective layer
• Data recorded in single continuous track that spirals outward from center of disc
• Popular medium for distributing software and large data sets
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48Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
CD-ROM
Advantages Drawbacks
• Standardized format• High density• Cheap to manufacture
• Cannot be rewritten• Capacity limited to 700
MB
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49Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
CD-R
• Uses a laser that can be switched between high and low power and a laser-sensitive dye embedded in the disc
• Relatively cheap• Common uses: create music CDs on home
computers, back up data from other storage devices, create archives of large data sets, and manufacture small quantities of identical CDs
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50Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Magneto-Optical
• Uses a laser and reflected light to sense bit values• Technology peaked in the mid 1990s• Advantages over CD-RW in access speed and
capacity
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51Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Phase-Change Optical Discs
• Enables nondestructive writing to optical storage media
• Materials change state easily from non-crystalline (amorphous), to crystalline, and then back again– Reflective layer is a compound of tellurium,
selenium, and tin
• Example: CD-RW
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52Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
DVD
• Improves on CD and CD-RW technology– Increased track and bit density: smaller wavelength
lasers and more precise mechanical control
– Improved error correction
– Multiple recording sites and layers
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53Systems Architecture, Fifth Edition
Summary
• Storage devices and their underlying technologies• Characteristics common to all storage devices• Technology, strengths, and weaknesses of primary
and secondary storage