2 pollution (heavy metals)w

MARINE POLLUTION:MARINE POLLUTION:Heavy MetalsHeavy Metals

M. Nadeem AshrafM. Nadeem Ashraf

What is marine pollution?What is marine pollution?

According to the UN Group of Experts on the According to the UN Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution (GESAMP):(GESAMP):

Marine pollution is the introduction by man, Marine pollution is the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy to directly or indirectly, of substances or energy to the marine environment resulting in deleterious the marine environment resulting in deleterious effects such as: effects such as: hazards to human health; hazards to human health; hindrance of marine activities, including fishing;hindrance of marine activities, including fishing;impairment of the quality for the use of seawater, impairment of the quality for the use of seawater, and reduction of amenities.and reduction of amenities.

What is contamination?What is contamination?

Contamination is caused when an input Contamination is caused when an input from human activities causes the increase from human activities causes the increase of a substance in seawater, sediments, or of a substance in seawater, sediments, or organisms above the natural background organisms above the natural background level for that area and for those level for that area and for those organisms. organisms.

Measuring contamination?Measuring contamination?

Contamination is usually measured as Contamination is usually measured as parts (of pollutant) per million (ppm) = parts (of pollutant) per million (ppm) = µµg.gg.g-1-1

or parts per billion (ppb) = or parts per billion (ppb) = nng.gg.g-1-1 = = µµg.kgg.kg-1-1

it is measured as “wet weight” it is measured as “wet weight” (e.g. contamination in moist water containing tissues)(e.g. contamination in moist water containing tissues)

as water content can vary a lot as water content can vary a lot – dry weight is a better measure – dry weight is a better measure

or as “dry weight” or as “dry weight” (e.g. contamination in dehydrated tissues)(e.g. contamination in dehydrated tissues)

Heavy metal pollutionHeavy metal pollution

High atomic weight metals (mercury, lead etc.)High atomic weight metals (mercury, lead etc.)Sometimes the term trace elements is used to Sometimes the term trace elements is used to include non-metal and lower atomic weight include non-metal and lower atomic weight elementselementsMany of these elements are essential to the Many of these elements are essential to the body in very low concentrations: body in very low concentrations:

Iron – essential for hemoglobinIron – essential for hemoglobin Copper - essential for hemocyanin Copper - essential for hemocyanin (in invertebrates)(in invertebrates) Cobalt – in vitamin BCobalt – in vitamin B1212

Zinc – essential component of many enzymesZinc – essential component of many enzymes

Heavy metal pollutionHeavy metal pollution

But in high concentrations these can be But in high concentrations these can be toxic.toxic.e.g. one asprin tablet is a useful medicinee.g. one asprin tablet is a useful medicine

but 100 tablets are lethalbut 100 tablets are lethal

Some heavy metals have no essential Some heavy metals have no essential function in the body (e.g. mercury, lead) function in the body (e.g. mercury, lead) and any concentrations can be harmfuland any concentrations can be harmful

Toxicity of metals can vary according the their valency (e.g. 2+ or 3+) and their combination with other elements

LC50: contaminant concentration level required for 50% of the test species to die

Clark (2001)

BioaccumulationBioaccumulation

Pollutants like heavy metals are CONSERVATIVE Pollutants like heavy metals are CONSERVATIVE pollutants – i.e. they aren’t broken down by bacteria etc pollutants – i.e. they aren’t broken down by bacteria etc and are effectively permanentand are effectively permanent

Most plants and animals can regulate their metal Most plants and animals can regulate their metal content to a certain point – but metals that can’t content to a certain point – but metals that can’t be excreted build up in an organism over its be excreted build up in an organism over its lifetimelifetime

= = BIOACCUMULATION BIOACCUMULATION

BiomagnificationBiomagnification

Animals feeding on bioaccumulators take in a higher Animals feeding on bioaccumulators take in a higher level of contaminants, which bioaccumulate within level of contaminants, which bioaccumulate within themselvesthemselves

Those animals feeding on them gain even higher Those animals feeding on them gain even higher inputs of contaminants, and bioaccumulate even inputs of contaminants, and bioaccumulate even greater concentrationsgreater concentrations

= = BIOMAGNIFICATIONBIOMAGNIFICATION

and so on… with animals at the highest trophic and so on… with animals at the highest trophic level obtaining highest concentrationslevel obtaining highest concentrations

i.e. long-living, top predators bioaccumulate and i.e. long-living, top predators bioaccumulate and biomagnify the highest contaminant levelsbiomagnify the highest contaminant levels

Sources of heavy metal pollutionSources of heavy metal pollution

ATMOSPHERICATMOSPHERIC Forest firesForest fires Volcanic activityVolcanic activity Dust particlesDust particles Anthropogenic emissions Anthropogenic emissions

coal fired power stationscoal fired power stations car exhaustscar exhausts

Clark (2001)


ATMOSPHERICATMOSPHERICMetals can be transferred by the atmosphere in gas or Metals can be transferred by the atmosphere in gas or particle form particle form (aerosol)(aerosol)

Particles can fall from the atmosphere onto the land or sea = Particles can fall from the atmosphere onto the land or sea = dry depositiondry deposition

Also precipitation can carry particles or dissolved gases = Also precipitation can carry particles or dissolved gases = wet depositionwet deposition

Gaseous state elements Gaseous state elements (Boron, Mercury, Selenium)(Boron, Mercury, Selenium) can also dissolve can also dissolve at the surface of water bodies (gaseous exchange)at the surface of water bodies (gaseous exchange)

Bubbles breaking the surface of the sea can release salt Bubbles breaking the surface of the sea can release salt particles containing metals particles containing metals

– – can travels from sea to atmosphere as well as atmosphere to seacan travels from sea to atmosphere as well as atmosphere to sea

Clark (2001)


RIVERSRIVERS Erosion of rocks containing metalsErosion of rocks containing metals Surface runoff sweeps up naturally formed Surface runoff sweeps up naturally formed

and anthropogenic metal particlesand anthropogenic metal particlesMetals often bind with sediments and are Metals often bind with sediments and are deposited on the seabeddeposited on the seabed

– – but these can enter the marine environment but these can enter the marine environment again is there is:again is there is: DredgingDredging TrawlingTrawling Severe weatherSevere weather


GROUNDWATER SEEPAGEGROUNDWATER SEEPAGE Dissolved substances are carried via Dissolved substances are carried via

ground water movement – contamination ground water movement – contamination in soil may be picked up by the moving in soil may be picked up by the moving waterswaters

DELIBERATE DISCHARGEDELIBERATE DISCHARGE Contaminated waste dumping Contaminated waste dumping Industrial dischargesIndustrial discharges SewageSewage

Clark (2001)

Islam & Tanaka (2004).

MERCURY (Hg)

http://www.zyra.org.uk/mercury3.htm

Toxic effects of mercuryToxic effects of mercury

Mercury can cause neurological damage, Mercury can cause neurological damage, immune system suppression and can immune system suppression and can cause fetal abnormalities in mammals cause fetal abnormalities in mammals

[Clarkson (1987); von Burg and Greenwood (1991)[Clarkson (1987); von Burg and Greenwood (1991) ] ]

In humans it has been associated with In humans it has been associated with various neurological effects, abnormal various neurological effects, abnormal development and heart damage development and heart damage

[Guallar et al., (2002); Clarkson [Guallar et al., (2002); Clarkson et al.,et al., (2003); Murata (2003); Murata et al.et al. (2004); Grandjean et al. (2004) (2004); Grandjean et al. (2004) ] ]

Mercury toxicityMercury toxicity

Visual field constriction Visual field constriction Behavioral changes, memory loss, headaches Behavioral changes, memory loss, headaches Tremor, loss of fine motor control, spasticity Tremor, loss of fine motor control, spasticity Hair loss Hair loss

In human adults mercury toxicity symptoms include:In human adults mercury toxicity symptoms include:

If fetuses / infants are exposed to mercury:If fetuses / infants are exposed to mercury:

•Mental retardation •Seizures •Cerebral palsy •Blindness and deafness •Disturbances of swallowing, sucking, and speech •Hypertonia - muscle rigidity

[Clarkson [Clarkson et al.,et al., (2003) (2003)]]


Mercury in the marine environment Mercury in the marine environment identified as a health risk for humans –identified as a health risk for humans –

Minamata diseaseMinamata disease

In 1952 a factory in Minamata Japan was In 1952 a factory in Minamata Japan was using mercury as a catalyst using mercury as a catalyst – mercury washed into bay – mercury washed into bay

In 1953 fishermen and farmers showed In 1953 fishermen and farmers showed symptoms – neurological damage and symptoms – neurological damage and fetal deformity etc.fetal deformity etc.

Minamata diseaseMinamata disease Disease diagnosed in 1956 Disease diagnosed in 1956

– linked to fish consumption – linked to fish consumption

1957 fishing banned in area1957 fishing banned in area

1959 – mercury identified as cause1959 – mercury identified as cause

1960 source identified 1960 source identified – factory effluent– factory effluent

2000 cases –2000 cases – 41 deaths and 700 permanent disabilities41 deaths and 700 permanent disabilities

fish: 10-55 ppm fish: 10-55 ppm (dry weight)(dry weight); bivalves 10-39 ppp ; bivalves 10-39 ppp (dry weight)(dry weight)


In the US an estimated 650,000 newborns a In the US an estimated 650,000 newborns a year are at risk from developmental and year are at risk from developmental and neurological damage due mercuryneurological damage due mercury [[Mahaffey (2004)Mahaffey (2004)]]

The source of this mercury is The source of this mercury is contaminated seafoodcontaminated seafood

Around the world seafood with mercury Around the world seafood with mercury levels over 0.5 to 1.0 ppm are considered levels over 0.5 to 1.0 ppm are considered unsafe for human consumptionunsafe for human consumption

Mercury in fishMercury in fish Most fish species have mercury levels of Most fish species have mercury levels of

approximately 0.15 ppm in muscle tissueapproximately 0.15 ppm in muscle tissue However cod have been found with levels of However cod have been found with levels of

1.29 ppm in Sweden and Denmark1.29 ppm in Sweden and Denmark Tuna highly contaminated Tuna highly contaminated [Adams (2004)][Adams (2004)]

Blackfin tuna (Blackfin tuna (Thunnus atlanticusThunnus atlanticus) up to 2ppm) up to 2ppm 81% more contaminated than 0.5 ppm health regulation81% more contaminated than 0.5 ppm health regulation

Little tunny (Little tunny (Euthynnus alletterusEuthynnus alletterus) up to 3.4ppm) up to 3.4ppm 75% more contaminated than 0.5 ppm health regulation75% more contaminated than 0.5 ppm health regulation

Recreational fish - Red drum Recreational fish - Red drum ((Scaenops ocellatusScaenops ocellatus) ) also also contaminated: contaminated: up to 3.6 ppm;up to 3.6 ppm; 95% >0.5 ppm health limit95% >0.5 ppm health limit

[Adams & Onorato (2004)][Adams & Onorato (2004)]

Adams (2004)

Yellowfin tuna are pelagic and have lower levels of Hg. Blackfin tuna are primarily near-shore species and show elevated Hg concentrations

Mercury in marine mammalsMercury in marine mammals As long-lived top predators marine mammals As long-lived top predators marine mammals

accumulate very high concentrations of mercuryaccumulate very high concentrations of mercury

Striped dolphins Striped dolphins ((Stenella coeruleoalbaStenella coeruleoalba)) 485 ppm 485 ppm wet weightwet weight (~ 1600 ppm (~ 1600 ppm dry weightdry weight))

[Honda [Honda et alet al., (1983)]., (1983)]

Indo-Pacific humpback dolphinsIndo-Pacific humpback dolphins ((Sousa chinensisSousa chinensis)) 900 ppm 900 ppm dry weightdry weight [Parsons (1999)][Parsons (1999)]

Bottlenose dolphins Bottlenose dolphins ((Tursiops truncatusTursiops truncatus)) 13,15613,156 ppm ppm dry weightdry weight [Leonzio[Leonzio et alet al., (1992)]., (1992)]

Mercury in marine mammalsMercury in marine mammals Toxic effects reported in marine mammals Toxic effects reported in marine mammals

include:include:

High mercury (and other heavy metal) levels High mercury (and other heavy metal) levels have also been associated with disease have also been associated with disease -induced mortality -induced mortality i.e. mercury may damage the immune i.e. mercury may damage the immune systemsystem [Bennett [Bennett et alet al., (2001)]., (2001)]

Lesions in the liver and other tissues; decrease nutritional Lesions in the liver and other tissues; decrease nutritional state and fatty degenerationstate and fatty degeneration

[Rawson [Rawson et alet al., (1993); Siebert ., (1993); Siebert et al.,et al., (1995)] (1995)]

Mercury in whale meatMercury in whale meatRecent research has shown that cetacean meat being sold in Japan for human consumption had extremely high levels of mercury

Mean contamination levels in cetacean red meat were 22 and 18 times higher than levels permitted by the Japanese government for total mercury (0.4 ppm)

Levels were exceeded by up to 200x

Mercury levels in boiled liver were even higher: 1,980 ppm (wet weight).

Rats fed contaminated meat showed signs of kidney abnormalities after a single dose Endo et al., (2002; 2003a; 2003b; 2004)

Mercury in whale meatMercury in whale meatAnother study in the Faeroe islands looked at the effects on the population of eating contaminated long-finned pilot whale meat

Effects linked with mercury contamination included mental retardation, neurological abnormalities and brain stem damage in children

Abnormal heart activity also linked to mercury contamination

Prenatal exposure to mercury was believed to be causing irreversible neurological damage

[ Murata [ Murata et al.et al. (2004); Grandjean (2004); Grandjean et al.et al. (2004) (2004) ] ]

Imputs of MercuryImputs of Mercury

6000-7500 tons a year

Clark (2001)

U.S. Anthropogenic Mercury U.S. Anthropogenic Mercury EmissionsEmissions

~ 158 Metric Tons~ 158 Metric Tons Sources Sources 87% combustion 87% combustion

33% coal fired power33% coal fired power 19% burning municipal 19% burning municipal

waste waste 10% burning medical 10% burning medical

waste waste

10% manufacturing 10% manufacturing 3% all other sources 3% all other sources

Mercury Emissions

Global

US

• 2/3 deposited outside US

•~53 tons deposited inside US+ 35 tons deposited in US from outside sources

Mercury emissions

Mercury Production 1996Mercury production

6%

15%

Data & Images: Moore (2002)

Mercury trendsMercury trends Over past 100 years there’s been a 20 x Over past 100 years there’s been a 20 x

increase in the deposition of mercuryincrease in the deposition of mercury 70% of this mercury has been from 70% of this mercury has been from

anthropogenic sources anthropogenic sources Over past 10 years – deposition has declined Over past 10 years – deposition has declined

– – BUT deposition rate is still 11x higher than in BUT deposition rate is still 11x higher than in the pre-industrial erathe pre-industrial era

Schuster (2002)

Schuster (2002)

CONTROVERSIAL: CONTROVERSIAL: Mercury and US PolicyMercury and US Policy During the Clinton Administration the Environmental During the Clinton Administration the Environmental

Protection Agency conducted research on the impacts of Protection Agency conducted research on the impacts of mercury and the role of coal-fired power plants in mercury mercury and the role of coal-fired power plants in mercury emissions. emissions.

The EPA introduced a plan in which mercury emissions from The EPA introduced a plan in which mercury emissions from coal-fired power plants would be reduced by 90% by 2008. coal-fired power plants would be reduced by 90% by 2008.

The Bush Administration altered these plans: emissions The Bush Administration altered these plans: emissions would be lowered by only 70% by 2018. would be lowered by only 70% by 2018. “Under the Bush plan, you will have seven times more mercury released into the waters than if we just simply followed the Clean Air Act as it is written today. There will be no overall reduction in mercury. Every other major source of pollution has been subject to the requirements of the Clean Air Act, until now. The Bush Administration has simply decided that the coal-fired power industry will be exempt.”

Felice Stradler of the National Wildlife Federation Felice Stradler of the National Wildlife Federation

Several states decided the Bush Administration plan is insufficient and Several states decided the Bush Administration plan is insufficient and are attempting to follow the original Clinton Administration plan is too are attempting to follow the original Clinton Administration plan is too lenient and they will follow the original. lenient and they will follow the original.

CADMIUM (Cd)CADMIUM (Cd) Cadmium was used in:Cadmium was used in:

Electroplating, solder and as a pigment for plasticsElectroplating, solder and as a pigment for plasticsBut less frequently now due to health concernsBut less frequently now due to health concerns

Main sources of current production:Main sources of current production:By product of zinc miningBy product of zinc mining

Nickel-Cadmium battery productionNickel-Cadmium battery production

Other sources:Other sources:Burning coal (0.25-0.5 ppm) and oil (0.3ppm)Burning coal (0.25-0.5 ppm) and oil (0.3ppm)

Wearing down of car tyres (20-90 ppm)Wearing down of car tyres (20-90 ppm)

Corrosion of galvanised metal (impurity: 0.2% Cd) Corrosion of galvanised metal (impurity: 0.2% Cd)

Phosphate fertilisers (phosphate rock 100 ppm Cd)Phosphate fertilisers (phosphate rock 100 ppm Cd)

Sewage sludge (30 ppm)Sewage sludge (30 ppm)

Input of Cadmium into oceans: 8000 tons/yearInput of Cadmium into oceans: 8000 tons/year- 50% anthropogenic- 50% anthropogenic

CADMIUM (Cd)CADMIUM (Cd)

TOXIC EFFECTSTOXIC EFFECTS

High cadmium levels can lead to: High cadmium levels can lead to: depressed growth, depressed growth, kidney damage, kidney damage, cardiac enlargement, cardiac enlargement, hypertension, hypertension, foetal deformity,foetal deformity, cancercancer

In humans cadmium concentrations above 200-400 In humans cadmium concentrations above 200-400 ppm in kidney tissue can lead to renal damageppm in kidney tissue can lead to renal damage

[Kostial (1986); Stoeppler (1991)]

Piotrowski & Coleman (1980)Piotrowski & Coleman (1980)

Kidney dysfunction has been reported in cetaceans when liver concentrations of cadmium exceed 20 ppm wet weight.

Fujise et al. (1988)

LEAD (Pb)LEAD (Pb) Lead is used in:Lead is used in:

Battery casings, pipes, sheets etcBattery casings, pipes, sheets etc

43 million tons produced a year43 million tons produced a year

10% of lead production is for lead-based 10% of lead production is for lead-based additives for gas (e.g. tetraethyl lead)additives for gas (e.g. tetraethyl lead)

High levels of lead have been found in marine life High levels of lead have been found in marine life near areas of high car densitynear areas of high car density- e.g. 10 ppm in fish caught 300 miles off California coast- e.g. 10 ppm in fish caught 300 miles off California coast

- High levels of lead in UK cetaceans were attributed to lead - High levels of lead in UK cetaceans were attributed to lead additives in fuel additives in fuel

(up to 4.3 ppm wet weight ~ 14 ppm dry weight)(up to 4.3 ppm wet weight ~ 14 ppm dry weight) [Law [Law et alet al., (1992)]., (1992)]

The toxic effects of lead include:The toxic effects of lead include: anaemia, anaemia, kidney damage, kidney damage, hypertension, hypertension, cardiac disease, cardiac disease, Immune system suppression Immune system suppression (antibody inhibition)(antibody inhibition)

neurological damage neurological damage Quaterman (1986) Quaterman (1986)

LEAD (Pb)LEAD (Pb)

AluminiumAluminium ArsenicArsenic CopperCopper chromiumchromium IronIron SilverSilver NickelNickel Zinc – Zinc – linked with decreasing health in porpoises linked with decreasing health in porpoises

(Das (Das et alet al., 2004)., 2004)

Tin….Tin….

OTHER HEAVY METALS OF OTHER HEAVY METALS OF CONCERNCONCERN

Superfund site in Tacoma: a copper smelter deposited slag containing lead and arsenic along the shoreline from 1890 to 1985.

In 1980 (Carter Administration) the Superfund system was established to cleanup old waste sites that may pose an environmental or human health threat – including heavy metal contaminated sites

- over 900 sites have been cleaned to date.

ReferencesReferences

Adams, D.H. 2004. Total mercury levels in tunas from offshore waters of the Florida Atlantic coast. Marine Pollution Bulletin 49: 659-663

Adams, D.H. and Onorato, G.V. 2005. Mercury concentrations in red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus, from estuarine and offshore waters of Florida. Marine Pollution Bulletin 50: 291-300.

Bennett, P.M., Jepson, P.D., Law, R.J., Jones, B.R., Kuiken, T., Baker, J.R., Rogan, E. and Kirkwood, J.K. 2001. Exposure to heavy metals and infectious disease mortality in harbour porpoises from England and Wales. Environmental Pollution 112: 33-40.

Clarkson, T. 1987. Mercury. In: Trace Metals in Human and Animal Nutrition. Vol. 1 (Ed. W. Mertz). Academic Press, Florida.

Clarkson, T.W., Magos, L. and Myers G.J. 2003. The toxicology of mercury - current exposures and clinical manifestations. New England Journal of Medicine 349: 1731-1737.

Das, K., Siebert, U., Fontaine, M., Jauniaux, T., Holsbeek, L., and Bouquegneau, J.-M. 2004. Das, K., Siebert, U., Fontaine, M., Jauniaux, T., Holsbeek, L., and Bouquegneau, J.-M. 2004. Ecological and pathological factors related to trace metal concentrations in harbour porpoises Ecological and pathological factors related to trace metal concentrations in harbour porpoises Phocoena phocoenaPhocoena phocoena from the North Sea and adjacent areas. from the North Sea and adjacent areas. Marine Ecology Progress SeriesMarine Ecology Progress Series281: 283-295.281: 283-295.

Endo, T., Haraguchi, K., Cipriano, F., Simmonds, M.P., Hotta, Y. and Sakata, M. 2004. Contamination Endo, T., Haraguchi, K., Cipriano, F., Simmonds, M.P., Hotta, Y. and Sakata, M. 2004. Contamination by mercury and cadmium in the cetacean products from the Japanese market. by mercury and cadmium in the cetacean products from the Japanese market. Chemosphere Chemosphere 54:1653-1662.54:1653-1662.

Endo, T., Hotta, Y., Haraguchi, K. and Sakata, M. 2003a. Mercury contamination in the red meat of Endo, T., Hotta, Y., Haraguchi, K. and Sakata, M. 2003a. Mercury contamination in the red meat of whales and dolphins marketed for human consumption in Japan. whales and dolphins marketed for human consumption in Japan. Environmental Science and Environmental Science and TechnologyTechnology 37: 2681-2685. 37: 2681-2685.

Endo, T., Haraguchi, K., and Sakata, M. 2003b. Renal toxicity in rats after oral administration of Endo, T., Haraguchi, K., and Sakata, M. 2003b. Renal toxicity in rats after oral administration of mercury-contaminated boiled whale livers marketed for human consumption. mercury-contaminated boiled whale livers marketed for human consumption. Archives Archives Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 44:412-416.44:412-416.

Clark, R.B. 2001. Metals. In: Marine Pollution. 5th Ed., pp. 98-125. Oxford University press, Oxford.

Endo, T., Haraguchi, K., and Sakata, M. 2002. Mercury and selenium concentrations in the internal Endo, T., Haraguchi, K., and Sakata, M. 2002. Mercury and selenium concentrations in the internal organs of toothed whales and dolphins marketed for human consumption in Japan. organs of toothed whales and dolphins marketed for human consumption in Japan. Science of the Science of the Total Environment Total Environment 300: 15-22300: 15-22

Fujise, Y., Honda, K., Tatsukawa, R. and Mishima, S. 1988. Tissue distribution of heavy metals in Dall’s porpoise in the northwestern Pacific. Marine Pollution Bulletin 19: 226-30.

Grandjean, P., Murata, K., Budtz-Jørgensen, E. and Weihe, P. 2004. Cardiac autonomic activity in methylmercury neurotoxicity: 14-year follow-up of a Faroese birth cohort. Journal of Pediatrics144:169-176.

Guallar, E,, Sanz-Gallardo, M.I., van't Veer, P., Bode, P., Aro, A., Gomez-Aracena, J., Kark, J.D., Riemersma, R.A., Martin-Moreno, J.M. and Kok, F.J. 2002. Mercury, fish oils, and the risk of myocardial infarction. New England Journal of Medicine 347: 1747-1754.

Honda, K., Tatsukawa, R., Itano, K., Miyazaki, N. and Fujiyama, T. 1983. Heavy metal concentrations Honda, K., Tatsukawa, R., Itano, K., Miyazaki, N. and Fujiyama, T. 1983. Heavy metal concentrations in muscle, liver and kidney tissue of Striped dolphin in muscle, liver and kidney tissue of Striped dolphin Stenella coeruleoalbaStenella coeruleoalba and their variations with and their variations with body length, weight, age and sex. body length, weight, age and sex. Agricultural and Biological ChemistryAgricultural and Biological Chemistry 47: 1219-1228. 47: 1219-1228.

Islam, M.S. and Tanaka M. 2004. Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis Marine Pollution Bulletin 48: 624-649.

Kostial, K. 1986. Cadmium. In: Trace Elements in Human and Animal Nutrition. 5th Ed. Vol. 2. (Ed. W. Hertz). Academic Press. Orlando.

Leonzio, C., Focardi, S and Fossi, C. 1992. Heavy metals and selenium in stranded dolphins of the northern Tyrrhenian (NW Mediterranean). Science of the Total Environment 119: 77-84.

Mahaffey, K.R. 2004. Methylmercury: epidemiology update. Presentation at the National Forum on Mahaffey, K.R. 2004. Methylmercury: epidemiology update. Presentation at the National Forum on Contaminants in Fish, San Diego, January 28, 2004.Contaminants in Fish, San Diego, January 28, 2004.

Murata, K., Weihe, P., Budtz-Jørgensen, E., Jørgensen, P.J., Grandjean, P. 2004. Delayed brainstem auditory evoked potential latencies in 14-year-old children exposed to methylmercury. Journal of Pediatrics 144 177-183.

Parsons, E.C.M. 1999. Trace metal concentrations in the tissues of cetaceans from Hong Kong’s Parsons, E.C.M. 1999. Trace metal concentrations in the tissues of cetaceans from Hong Kong’s territorial waters. territorial waters. Environmental ConservationEnvironmental Conservation 26: 30-40. 26: 30-40.

Piotrowski, J.K. and Coleman. D.O. 1980. Piotrowski, J.K. and Coleman. D.O. 1980. Environmental hazards of heavy metals: summary Environmental hazards of heavy metals: summary evaluation of lead, cadmium.and mercury – a general reportevaluation of lead, cadmium.and mercury – a general report. UNEP, Nairobi.. UNEP, Nairobi.

Quaterman, J. 1986. Lead. In: Quaterman, J. 1986. Lead. In: Trace metals in human and animal nutritionTrace metals in human and animal nutrition. Vol. 2 (Ed. W. Mertz). . Vol. 2 (Ed. W. Mertz). Academic Press, Florida. Academic Press, Florida.

Rawson, A.J., Patton, G.W., Hofmann, S., Pietra, G.G. and Johns, L. 1993. Liver abnormalities Rawson, A.J., Patton, G.W., Hofmann, S., Pietra, G.G. and Johns, L. 1993. Liver abnormalities associated with chronic mercury accumulation in stranded Atlantic bottlenose dolphins. associated with chronic mercury accumulation in stranded Atlantic bottlenose dolphins. Ecotoxicology Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safetyand Environmental Safety 25: 41-47. 25: 41-47.

Rawson, A.J., Patton, G.W., Hofmann, S., Pietra, G.G. and Johns, L. 1993. Liver abnormalities Rawson, A.J., Patton, G.W., Hofmann, S., Pietra, G.G. and Johns, L. 1993. Liver abnormalities associated with chronic mercury accumulation in stranded Atlantic bottlenose dolphins. associated with chronic mercury accumulation in stranded Atlantic bottlenose dolphins. Ecotoxicology Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safetyand Environmental Safety 25: 41-47. 25: 41-47.

Schuster, P.F., Krabbenhoft, D.P., Naftz, D.L., Cecil, L.D., Olson, M.L., Dewild, J.F., Susong, D.D., Schuster, P.F., Krabbenhoft, D.P., Naftz, D.L., Cecil, L.D., Olson, M.L., Dewild, J.F., Susong, D.D., Green, J.R. and Abbott, M.L. 2002. Green, J.R. and Abbott, M.L. 2002. Atmospheric mercury deposition during the last 270 years: a glacial ice core record of natural and Atmospheric mercury deposition during the last 270 years: a glacial ice core record of natural and anthropogenic sources. anthropogenic sources. Environmental Science and TechnologyEnvironmental Science and Technology 36: 2303-2310. 36: 2303-2310.

Siebert, U., Joiris, C., Holsbeek, L., Benkes, H., Failing, K., Frese, K. and Petzinger, E. 1999. Siebert, U., Joiris, C., Holsbeek, L., Benkes, H., Failing, K., Frese, K. and Petzinger, E. 1999. Potential relation between mercury concentrations and necropsy findings in cetaceans from German Potential relation between mercury concentrations and necropsy findings in cetaceans from German waters of the North and Baltic Seas. waters of the North and Baltic Seas. Marine Pollution BulletinMarine Pollution Bulletin 38: 285-295. 38: 285-295.

Steuerwald, U., Weihe, P., Jorgensen, P.J., Bjerve, K., Brock, J., Heinzow, B., Budtz-Jorgensen, E. Steuerwald, U., Weihe, P., Jorgensen, P.J., Bjerve, K., Brock, J., Heinzow, B., Budtz-Jorgensen, E. and Grandjean, P. 2000. Maternal seafood diet, methyl mercury exposure, and neonatal neurologic and Grandjean, P. 2000. Maternal seafood diet, methyl mercury exposure, and neonatal neurologic function. function. Journal of PediatricsJournal of Pediatrics 136: 599-605. 136: 599-605.

Stoeppler, M. 1991. Cadmium. In: Stoeppler, M. 1991. Cadmium. In: Metals and their compounds in the environmentMetals and their compounds in the environment. (Ed. E. Merian). . (Ed. E. Merian). VCH Publishers, Weinheim, Germany.VCH Publishers, Weinheim, Germany.

Von Burg, R. and Greenwood, M.R. 1991. Mercury. In: Von Burg, R. and Greenwood, M.R. 1991. Mercury. In: Trace Metals and their Compounds in the Trace Metals and their Compounds in the EnvironmentEnvironment (Ed. by E. Merian). VCH Publishers, Weinheim, Germany. (Ed. by E. Merian). VCH Publishers, Weinheim, Germany.

SLIDE IMAGES:

Moore, C. 2002. Historical background of mercury in the environment. Paper presented at the Mercury Forum, Mercury Forum, May 20-21, 2002, Mobile, TX. <http://www.masgc.org/mercury/ppt/Moore-ppt_files/frame.htm>

2 pollution (heavy metals)w

Health & Medicine

Transcript of 2 pollution (heavy metals)w