1COMPLETE Presentation Business Communication

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CommunicationCommunication




The word ¶communicate· comes from the Latin verb The word ¶communicate· comes from the Latin verb¶communicare /communis (meaning common)· that¶communicare /communis (meaning common)· thatmeans to impart, to participate, to share or to makemeans to impart, to participate, to share or to make

common. By virtue of its Latin origin it is also thecommon. By virtue of its Latin origin it is also thesource of the English word ¶common·. Whatever issource of the English word ¶common·. Whatever iscommon is shared by all. Hence the sense of ¶sharing· iscommon is shared by all. Hence the sense of ¶sharing· isinherent in the very origin and nature of inherent in the very origin and nature of communication. And, what is that we share incommunication. And, what is that we share incommunication? The one word answer iscommunication? The one word answer is ² ² ¶information·, i.e., something to tell, in whatever way we¶information·, i.e., something to tell, in whatever way welike, or as the situation demands.like, or as the situation demands.




In the words of Johan Adair ¶Communication· isIn the words of Johan Adair ¶Communication· is

essentially the ability of one person to makeessentially the ability of one person to make

contact with another and to make himself orcontact with another and to make himself orherself understood. Or, if you prefer a slightly herself understood. Or, if you prefer a slightly more formal version, ¶communication is themore formal version, ¶communication is the

process by which meanings are exchangedprocess by which meanings are exchanged

between people through the use of a commonbetween people through the use of a commonset of symbols.·set of symbols.·




Peter Little defines it as Ćommunication is thePeter Little defines it as Ćommunication is the

process by which information is transmittedprocess by which information is transmitted

between individuals and/ or organizations sobetween individuals and/ or organizations sothat an understanding response results. Anotherthat an understanding response results. Another very simple definition of ¶communication· has very simple definition of ¶communication· has

been provided by W.H.Newman andbeen provided by W.H.Newman and

C.F.Summer Jr, Ćommunication is an exchangeC.F.Summer Jr, Ćommunication is an exchangeof facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two orof facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or

more persons.µmore persons.µ




Two major objectives emerging from these Two major objectives emerging from thesedefinitions are information and persuasion. Thedefinitions are information and persuasion. Theemphasis is mainly on 4 points: (a) The Processemphasis is mainly on 4 points: (a) The Process

of communication involves the communicationof communication involves the communicationof ideas; (b) The ideas should be accurately of ideas; (b) The ideas should be accurately replicated (reproduced) in the receiver·s mind,replicated (reproduced) in the receiver·s mind,i.e., the receiver should get exactly the samei.e., the receiver should get exactly the sameideas as were transmitted. If the process of ideas as were transmitted. If the process of communication is perfect, there will be nocommunication is perfect, there will be nodilution, exaggeration or distortion of the ideas;dilution, exaggeration or distortion of the ideas;




(c) The transmitter is assured of the accurate(c) The transmitter is assured of the accurate

replication of the ideas by feedback, i.e., by thereplication of the ideas by feedback, i.e., by the

receiver·s response which is communicated back receiver·s response which is communicated back to the transmitter. This shows thatto the transmitter. This shows thatcommunication is twocommunication is two--way process including way process including

transmission and feedback; (d) The purpose of transmission and feedback; (d) The purpose of

all communication is to elicit action.all communication is to elicit action.




Communication is a unified process of thinking, reading, writing,Communication is a unified process of thinking, reading, writing,speaking andspeaking and

listening, and in fact the last four are the basic communicationlistening, and in fact the last four are the basic communicationskills that we allskills that we all

require.require.

The following communication ability and skills are required for The following communication ability and skills are required forsuccess insuccess in

business career:business career:

Must be able to communicate effectively with all levels of Must be able to communicate effectively with all levels of management.management.

Must have substantial experience, training in oral and writtenMust have substantial experience, training in oral and writtencommunication and demonstrate good writing skills.communication and demonstrate good writing skills.




Be able to prepare special analyses, research reports,Be able to prepare special analyses, research reports,and proposals.and proposals.

Need ability to compose effective correspondence.Need ability to compose effective correspondence.

Must have ability to communicate and sell ideas, firm,Must have ability to communicate and sell ideas, firm,and products.and products.

Must be able to cultivate and maintain good customerMust be able to cultivate and maintain good customer

relationships.relationships. Need skills in gathering, analyzing, and interpreting dataNeed skills in gathering, analyzing, and interpreting data

and in writing analytical reports.and in writing analytical reports.



Effective Communications in BusinessEffective Communications in Business



Effective Communications in BusinessEffective Communications in Business

If you can communicate effectively in speaking and writing, youIf you can communicate effectively in speaking and writing, youhave a highly valued skill. Communicating effectively in speaking have a highly valued skill. Communicating effectively in speaking and writing extends across all areas of business, including and writing extends across all areas of business, including management, technical, clerical and social positions. For effectivemanagement, technical, clerical and social positions. For effectivecommunication it is more important to know how to say whatcommunication it is more important to know how to say what

you want to say.you want to say.



Importance and BenefitsImportance and Benefitsof Effective Communicationof Effective Communication




Communication is the lifeblood of organizations, andCommunication is the lifeblood of organizations, andeffective communication improves an organization·seffective communication improves an organization·sproductivity, image, and responsiveness.productivity, image, and responsiveness.

Communication is effective when it helps peopleCommunication is effective when it helps peopleunderstand each other, stimulates others to take action,understand each other, stimulates others to take action,and encourages others to think in new ways. It helpsand encourages others to think in new ways. It helpsyou speed problem solution, strengthen decisionyou speed problem solution, strengthen decisionmaking, coordinate work flow, cement businessmaking, coordinate work flow, cement businessrelationships, clarify promotional materials, enhancerelationships, clarify promotional materials, enhanceyour professional image, and improve your response toyour professional image, and improve your response tostakeholders.stakeholders.



Good communication skills increase your chances forGood communication skills increase your chances forcareer success and your ability to adapt to the changing career success and your ability to adapt to the changing workplace. Your job, promotion, and professional workplace. Your job, promotion, and professional

reputation often depend on doing well in written andreputation often depend on doing well in written andoral communication. Also, your ability to communicateoral communication. Also, your ability to communicateeffectively is a valuable asset for many activities in youreffectively is a valuable asset for many activities in yourpersonal life. If your career requires mainly mentalpersonal life. If your career requires mainly mentalrather than manual labor, your progress will be strongly rather than manual labor, your progress will be strongly influenced by how effectively you communicate yourinfluenced by how effectively you communicate yourknowledge, proposals, and ideas to others who need orknowledge, proposals, and ideas to others who need orshould receive them.should receive them.




It is an established fact that effective communication is essentialIt is an established fact that effective communication is essentialfor success and promotion in business. The way youfor success and promotion in business. The way youcommunicate both within and outside your own country willcommunicate both within and outside your own country willaffect everything you accomplish. Your ability to speak and writeaffect everything you accomplish. Your ability to speak and writeeffectively will also make a difference to your organization.effectively will also make a difference to your organization.

Developing the right attitude and preparing adequately areDeveloping the right attitude and preparing adequately arecrucial to effective communication in the internationalcrucial to effective communication in the internationalmarketplace.marketplace.




Components of CommunicationComponents of Communication




Communication is a process of transmitting and receiving verbalCommunication is a process of transmitting and receiving verbaland nonverbal messages. Communication is considered effectiveand nonverbal messages. Communication is considered effective

when it achieves the desired reaction or response from the when it achieves the desired reaction or response from thereceiver. Simply stated, communication is a tworeceiver. Simply stated, communication is a two--way process of way process of exchanging ideas or information.exchanging ideas or information.




Communication includes six components:Communication includes six components: context, sender context, sender- -encoder,encoder,

message, medium, receiver message, medium, receiver- -decoder, and feedbackdecoder, and feedback. Let·s have a look at. Let·s have a look athow these factors interact in the communication process,how these factors interact in the communication process,

affected by various contextual conditions and decisions.affected by various contextual conditions and decisions.




ContextContext

Every message, whether oral or written, begins withEvery message, whether oral or written, begins with

context. Context is a broad field that includes country,context. Context is a broad field that includes country,culture, organization and external and internal stimuli.culture, organization and external and internal stimuli.Every country, every culture, and every company orEvery country, every culture, and every company ororganization has its own convention for processing andorganization has its own convention for processing and

communicating information. This aspect of context iscommunicating information. This aspect of context isthe playing field on which you must plan, design, andthe playing field on which you must plan, design, andcommunicate your message successfully.communicate your message successfully.




Another aspect of context is the external stimulus that Another aspect of context is the external stimulus thatprompts you to send a message. The source of thisprompts you to send a message. The source of thisprompt may be a letter, memo, note, electronic mail,prompt may be a letter, memo, note, electronic mail,

fax, telex, telephone call, a meeting, or even a casualfax, telex, telephone call, a meeting, or even a casualconversation. Your response to this prompt may beconversation. Your response to this prompt may beoral or written.oral or written.

Next, internal stimuli have a complex influence on how Next, internal stimuli have a complex influence on how

you translate ideas into a message. When you encode,you translate ideas into a message. When you encode,your own view of the world affects the choices youyour own view of the world affects the choices youmake in languagemake in language




SenderSender--EncoderEncoder::

When you send a message, you are the ´encoder,µ the writer or When you send a message, you are the ´encoder,µ the writer or

speaker, depending on whether your message is written or oral.speaker, depending on whether your message is written or oral. You try to choose symbols You try to choose symbols ² ² usually words (and sometimes alsousually words (and sometimes alsographics or pictures)graphics or pictures) ² ² that express your message so that thethat express your message so that thereceiver(s) will understand it and react with the response youreceiver(s) will understand it and react with the response you

desire. Here you basically need to decide which symbols bestdesire. Here you basically need to decide which symbols best

convey your message and which message channel will be mostconvey your message and which message channel will be mosteffective among the oral and written media.effective among the oral and written media.




MessageMessage

The message is the core idea you wish to communicate; it The message is the core idea you wish to communicate; itconsists of both verbal (written or spoken) symbols andconsists of both verbal (written or spoken) symbols andnonverbal (unspoken) symbols. Your first task is to decidenonverbal (unspoken) symbols. Your first task is to decideexactly what your message is and what content to include. Youexactly what your message is and what content to include. Youmust consider your context and especially the receiver of yourmust consider your context and especially the receiver of yourmessagemessage ² ² how the receiver will interpret it and how it may affecthow the receiver will interpret it and how it may affectyour relationship.your relationship.




MediumMedium

Your message channel depends on all the contextual Your message channel depends on all the contextualfactors and the nature of the message itself. Thefactors and the nature of the message itself. The

choices of medium include the printed word, electronicchoices of medium include the printed word, electronicmail, or sound. Like message content, the choice of mail, or sound. Like message content, the choice of medium is influenced by the relationship between themedium is influenced by the relationship between thesender and the receiver. Some research suggests thatsender and the receiver. Some research suggests that

the urgency of a message is a primary factor in whetherthe urgency of a message is a primary factor in whetherto use the written or spoken medium. You may alsoto use the written or spoken medium. You may alsoconsider factors such as importance, number of consider factors such as importance, number of receivers, costs, and amount of information.receivers, costs, and amount of information.



Oral vs. Written MediaOral vs. Written Media

Immediate feedback Immediate feedback

Shorter sentences; shorter wordsShorter sentences; shorter words

ConversationalConversational

Focus on interpersonal relationsFocus on interpersonal relations

Prompt actionPrompt action

Less detailed technical informationLess detailed technical information

More personal pronounsMore personal pronouns

More colloquial language SimplerMore colloquial language Simplerconstructionsconstructions

More imperative, interrogative, andMore imperative, interrogative, andexclamatory sentencesexclamatory sentences

Delayed feedback Delayed feedback

Longer sentences; longer wordsLonger sentences; longer words

More formalMore formal

Focus on contentFocus on content

Delayed actionDelayed action

More detailed technical informationMore detailed technical information

Fewer personal pronounsFewer personal pronouns

More complex constructionsMore complex constructions

Useful for permanent record: detailedUseful for permanent record: detaileddocumentationdocumentation

Possibility of review Possibility of review




The written channel is often preferred when the message is long, The written channel is often preferred when the message is long,technical, or formal in nature, and when the message must betechnical, or formal in nature, and when the message must be

documented. The oral channel is effective when the message isdocumented. The oral channel is effective when the message isurgent or personal or when immediate feedback is important.urgent or personal or when immediate feedback is important.




R eceiverR eceiver--DecoderDecoder

The message receiver is your reader or listener, also The message receiver is your reader or listener, alsoknown as the decoder. Many of our messages may haveknown as the decoder. Many of our messages may havemore than one decoder. The receiver as well as themore than one decoder. The receiver as well as thesender is influenced by the context and by the externalsender is influenced by the context and by the externaland internal stimuli. Both receive messages through theand internal stimuli. Both receive messages through theeyes and ears but are also influenced by nonverbaleyes and ears but are also influenced by nonverbal

factors such as touch, taste, and smell. All factors of afactors such as touch, taste, and smell. All factors of amessage are filtered through the receivers) view of andmessage are filtered through the receivers) view of andexperiences in the world.experiences in the world.




Feedback Feedback

Feedback can be oral or written. It can also be an action, such asFeedback can be oral or written. It can also be an action, such asreceiving in the mail an item you ordered. Sometimes silence isreceiving in the mail an item you ordered. Sometimes silence is

also used as feedback though it is almost always ineffective.also used as feedback though it is almost always ineffective.Senders need feedback in order to determine the success orSenders need feedback in order to determine the success orfailure of the communication.failure of the communication.



CONTEXT

Stimuli

Massage

Medium

Verbal, nonverbal

Sender- Encoder

(experiences,attitudes, skills)

PerceptionIdea encoding

Symbol decisionsSending mechanisms

Receiver-encoder

(experiences,attitudes, skil ls)

Receptor mechanisms

PerceptionDecoding

Idea interpretation

FEEDBACK

Verbal, nonverbal




These six components represent what happens in These six components represent what happens in

communication. A context exists in which a sender chooses acommunication. A context exists in which a sender chooses amessage to communicate; the sender must also choose themessage to communicate; the sender must also choose the

medium for the message; a receiver decodes the message andmedium for the message; a receiver decodes the message andprovides feedback.provides feedback.



Internal and external communicationInternal and external communication




Internal communicationInternal communication

refers to the exchange of information and ideas within anrefers to the exchange of information and ideas within an

organization. Communication among the members of anorganization. Communication among the members of anorganization is essential for effective functioning. Theorganization is essential for effective functioning. Thecommunication can take place downward, upward andcommunication can take place downward, upward andhorizontally. It helps increase job satisfaction, safety,horizontally. It helps increase job satisfaction, safety,

productivity, and profits and decreases absenteeism, grievancesproductivity, and profits and decreases absenteeism, grievances

and turnover.and turnover.




Downward communicationDownward communication::Organizational decisions are usually made at the top and thenOrganizational decisions are usually made at the top and thenflow down to the people who will carry them out. Most of flow down to the people who will carry them out. Most of

what filters downward is geared toward helping employees do what filters downward is geared toward helping employees dotheir jobs. From top to bottom, each person must understandtheir jobs. From top to bottom, each person must understandeach message, apply it, and pass it along.each message, apply it, and pass it along.




Up ward communicationUp ward communication

Upward internal communication has become increasingly moreUpward internal communication has become increasingly more

significant. Many executives sincerely seek frank comments fromsignificant. Many executives sincerely seek frank comments from

employees, in addition to the usual periodic reports. Successfulemployees, in addition to the usual periodic reports. Successfulmanagers listen closely to opinions, complaints, problems, andmanagers listen closely to opinions, complaints, problems, andsuggestions, especially when these are clearly and effectively suggestions, especially when these are clearly and effectively

stated.stated.




Horizontal communicationHorizontal communication

Communication also flows from one department toCommunication also flows from one department to

another. This horizontal communication helpsanother. This horizontal communication helpsemployees share information and coordinate tasks, andemployees share information and coordinate tasks, andit is especially useful for solving complex and difficultit is especially useful for solving complex and difficultproblems. Among various ways of communicating problems. Among various ways of communicating

within companies are memos, reports, meetings, face within companies are memos, reports, meetings, face--toto--face discussions, teleconferences, videoconferencesface discussions, teleconferences, videoconferencesand electronic mail.and electronic mail.




Just as internal communication carries information, up, down, Just as internal communication carries information, up, down,

and across the organization,and across the organization, external communicationexternal communication carries itcarries itinto and out of the organization. Companies constantly exchangeinto and out of the organization. Companies constantly exchange

messages with customers, vendors, distributors, competitors,messages with customers, vendors, distributors, competitors,investors, journalists, and community representatives.investors, journalists, and community representatives.




One important form of communication is the Internet. AOne important form of communication is the Internet. Acompany Web site can impart crucial information both inside thecompany Web site can impart crucial information both inside theorganization (using an intranet) and outside (via the Internet).organization (using an intranet) and outside (via the Internet).

Web sites can communicate a company·s image to the outside Web sites can communicate a company·s image to the outside world and a company·s culture to employees. world and a company·s culture to employees.



Concepts and problems of communicationConcepts and problems of communication




Each person·s mind is a unique filter. Problems withEach person·s mind is a unique filter. Problems withcommunication are more likely to occur when thecommunication are more likely to occur when thecommunicators· filters are sharply different. The messagecommunicators· filters are sharply different. The messagesender·s meanings and the receiver·s response are affected by sender·s meanings and the receiver·s response are affected by numerous factors, such as individualnumerous factors, such as individual

Conventions of meaning Conventions of meaning

Perceptions of reality Perceptions of reality

Values, attitudes, and opinions Values, attitudes, and opinions




Conventions of meaningConventions of meaning::

A fundamental principle of communication is that the symbols A fundamental principle of communication is that the symbolsthe sender uses to communicate messages must have essentially the sender uses to communicate messages must have essentially

the same meaning in both the sender and receiver·s minds. Youthe same meaning in both the sender and receiver·s minds. Youcan never assume that the message in your mind will be perfectly can never assume that the message in your mind will be perfectly transmitted to your receiver.transmitted to your receiver.



CommunicationCommunicationProblems in Conventions of Meaning Problems in Conventions of Meaning




Communication Problems in Conventions of MeaningCommunication Problems in Conventions of Meaning

The meanings of words (semantics) are constructed within each The meanings of words (semantics) are constructed within eachperson·s experience of reality. The knowledge we each have aboutperson·s experience of reality. The knowledge we each have about

a subject or word affects the meanings we attach to it.a subject or word affects the meanings we attach to it.




Miscommunicated InstructionsMiscommunicated Instructions::

When the message sender and receiver attribute When the message sender and receiver attributedifferent meanings to the same words or use differentdifferent meanings to the same words or use different words though intending the same meanings, words though intending the same meanings,miscommunication occurs. To avoid communicationmiscommunication occurs. To avoid communicationerrors when you give instructions or discuss issues, beerrors when you give instructions or discuss issues, besure your words convey the intended meaning to thesure your words convey the intended meaning to the

recipient. When you are the recipient of unclearrecipient. When you are the recipient of unclearinstructions, before acting on them, ask questions toinstructions, before acting on them, ask questions todetermine the sender·s intended meaning.determine the sender·s intended meaning.




R eactions to denotations, Connotations:R eactions to denotations, Connotations:

Because words have both denotative and connotativeBecause words have both denotative and connotative

meanings and because the sender has not consideredmeanings and because the sender has not consideredthe receiver·s probable interpretations and reactions,the receiver·s probable interpretations and reactions,miscommunication can occur. A denotation is usually miscommunication can occur. A denotation is usually the dictionary meaning of a word whereas athe dictionary meaning of a word whereas a

connotation is an implication of a word or a suggestionconnotation is an implication of a word or a suggestionseparate from the usual definition.separate from the usual definition.




To communicate effectively, you must be aware of the To communicate effectively, you must be aware of the

connotative meaning of your words, and you must realize thatconnotative meaning of your words, and you must realize thatsome people have their own idiosyncratic meanings because of some people have their own idiosyncratic meanings because of

their experiences and background. Thus we need to choose ourtheir experiences and background. Thus we need to choose ourlanguage carefully and consider both its denotations and itslanguage carefully and consider both its denotations and itsconnotations to convey the exact idea we want and to achieveconnotations to convey the exact idea we want and to achieveour desired results.our desired results.




Perce ptions of R ealityPerce ptions of R eality

Complex, infinite, and continuously changing, the material worldComplex, infinite, and continuously changing, the material world

provides a special reality to each individual. Also, human beings·provides a special reality to each individual. Also, human beings·

sensory perceptionssensory perceptions ² ² touch, sight, hearing, smell, tastetouch, sight, hearing, smell, taste ² ² arearelimited, and each person·s mental filter is unique. We makelimited, and each person·s mental filter is unique. We make

various abstractions, inferences, and evaluations of the world various abstractions, inferences, and evaluations of the world

around us.around us.



CommunicationCommunicationProblems in perceptions of Reality Problems in perceptions of Reality




A bstracting A bstracting::Focusing on some details and omitting others is aFocusing on some details and omitting others is aprocess called abstracting. In countless instances,process called abstracting. In countless instances,abstracting is necessary. However, you should beabstracting is necessary. However, you should becautious about ́ slantedµ statements.cautious about ́ slantedµ statements.

Necessary, desirable abstractsNecessary, desirable abstracts:: Whether you write or speak, you are usually limited by Whether you write or speak, you are usually limited by time, expense, space, or purpose. You need to selecttime, expense, space, or purpose. You need to select

facts that are pertinent to accomplish your purpose andfacts that are pertinent to accomplish your purpose andto omit the rest (as you do, for example, in a oneto omit the rest (as you do, for example, in a one--pagepageapplication letter about yourself).application letter about yourself).




Slanted statementsSlanted statements::

Conscientious communicators, both senders and receivers of Conscientious communicators, both senders and receivers of messaged, should try to determine whether the facts they aremessaged, should try to determine whether the facts they are

acquainted with are truly representative of the whole. Slanting isacquainted with are truly representative of the whole. Slanting isunfair in factual reporting. Not only the language you use butunfair in factual reporting. Not only the language you use butalso the type of information you include and exclude can resultalso the type of information you include and exclude can resultin slanting, revealing your own biases. Although total objectivity in slanting, revealing your own biases. Although total objectivity is not possible, you should try to not let personal preferencesis not possible, you should try to not let personal preferences

influence your factual reporting of information.influence your factual reporting of information.




InferringInferring::

Conclusions made by reasoning from evidenceConclusions made by reasoning from evidence

or premises are called inferences. Every day or premises are called inferences. Every day most of us find it necessary to act on somemost of us find it necessary to act on someinferences. We make assumptions and draw inferences. We make assumptions and draw conclusions even though we are not able toconclusions even though we are not able to

immediately verify the evidence. Someimmediately verify the evidence. Someinferences are both necessary and desirable;inferences are both necessary and desirable;others are risky, even dangerous.others are risky, even dangerous.




Necessary, desirable InferencesNecessary, desirable Inferences::For business and professional people, inferences are essential inFor business and professional people, inferences are essential inanalyzing materials, solving problems, and planning procedures.analyzing materials, solving problems, and planning procedures.

In our everyday activities, we make inferences that are necessary In our everyday activities, we make inferences that are necessary and usually fairly reliable.and usually fairly reliable.

When we base our inferences on direct observations or on When we base our inferences on direct observations or onreasonable evidence, they are likely to be quite dependable; butreasonable evidence, they are likely to be quite dependable; but

even so, there are disappointing exceptions. Conclusions weeven so, there are disappointing exceptions. Conclusions wemake about things we have not observed directly can often bemake about things we have not observed directly can often beuntrue.untrue.




R isks of InferenceR isks of Inference::

As intelligent communicators, we must realize that inferences As intelligent communicators, we must realize that inferences

may be incorrect or unreliable and anticipate the risks beforemay be incorrect or unreliable and anticipate the risks before

acting on them. If you are presenting a report on which anacting on them. If you are presenting a report on which animportant executive decision may rest, be careful to distinguishimportant executive decision may rest, be careful to distinguishclearly among verifiable facts, inferences based on facts, andclearly among verifiable facts, inferences based on facts, andmere ´guesstimates.µmere ´guesstimates.µ



Values, Attitudes, and Opinions Values, Attitudes, and Opinions




Communication effectiveness is influenced also by the values,Communication effectiveness is influenced also by the values,attitudes, and opinions the communicators have in their mentalattitudes, and opinions the communicators have in their mentalfilters. People react favorably when the message they receivefilters. People react favorably when the message they receiveagrees with their views toward the information, the facts, and theagrees with their views toward the information, the facts, and the

sender.sender.



CommunicationCommunicationProblems Involving Values, Attitudes, OpinionsProblems Involving Values, Attitudes, Opinions




Communication Problems Involving Values,Communication Problems Involving Values, A ttitudes, Opinions A ttitudes, Opinions

Receivers· views of the information presented willReceivers· views of the information presented will

affect their response, which could be what the senderaffect their response, which could be what the senderdesires or just the opposite.desires or just the opposite.

Favorable or unfavorable informationFavorable or unfavorable information::

The effective communicator considers the receivers, The effective communicator considers the receivers,

and whenever possible, emphasizes the points theand whenever possible, emphasizes the points thereceivers will regard as favorable or beneficial.receivers will regard as favorable or beneficial.Receivers often react to unfavorable information by Receivers often react to unfavorable information by rejecting, distorting, or avoiding it.rejecting, distorting, or avoiding it.




Inadequate or Incorrect informationInadequate or Incorrect information

Occasionally people react according to their attitudesOccasionally people react according to their attitudes

toward a situation rather than to the facts.toward a situation rather than to the facts.Closed MindsClosed Minds::

Some people hold rigid views on certain subjects. TheseSome people hold rigid views on certain subjects. Thesepeople do not consider facts or additional informationpeople do not consider facts or additional information

and maintain their rigid views regardless of theand maintain their rigid views regardless of thecircumstances.circumstances.




Sender·s CredibilitySender·s Credibility::

Often people react more according to their attitudeOften people react more according to their attitude

toward the source of information than to thetoward the source of information than to theinformation itself. In general, people react moreinformation itself. In general, people react morefavorably to a communicator who has credibility favorably to a communicator who has credibility ² ² someone whom they trust and respect. An effectivesomeone whom they trust and respect. An effective

communicator builds credibility by writing and speaking communicator builds credibility by writing and speaking in a fair and just manner and by considering receivers·in a fair and just manner and by considering receivers·points of view.points of view.




Other circumstances affecting attitudes,Other circumstances affecting attitudes,

o pinions, res ponseso pinions, res ponses::

when personal, business, or environments stresses when personal, business, or environments stressesoccur, attitudes toward messages may be affected. Life·soccur, attitudes toward messages may be affected. Life·sstresses affect our ability to send effective messages andstresses affect our ability to send effective messages andcolor our responses when we receive them. Sensitivity color our responses when we receive them. Sensitivity

to your own state of mind as well as to that of yourto your own state of mind as well as to that of yourreceiver helps you communicate your messages in areceiver helps you communicate your messages in apositive way.positive way.



How to make communication effectiveHow to make communication effective




The basic princi ples of effective communication The basic princi ples of effective communication

are as followsare as follows

Be clear about the objectiveBe clear about the objective

Before beginning the process of communication, we must be very Before beginning the process of communication, we must be very clears about the purpose for which we want to communicate. If we areclears about the purpose for which we want to communicate. If we areclear about our objectives, our message will be precise, intelligible andclear about our objectives, our message will be precise, intelligible andeffective.effective.

Organize you message wellOrganize you message well

If it is written communication, we need to use simple but forcefulIf it is written communication, we need to use simple but forceful

language. Its presentation on the paper should also be neat, orderly language. Its presentation on the paper should also be neat, orderly and impressive. In case of a faceand impressive. In case of a face--toto--face talk, gestures and facialface talk, gestures and facialexpressions can also be used effectively.expressions can also be used effectively.




Suit your message to the needs of the receiverSuit your message to the needs of the receiver

While organizing the message, visualize to yourself the person While organizing the message, visualize to yourself the person who is to receive it who is to receive it ² ² his academic qualification, his technicalhis academic qualification, his technicalbackground etc.background etc.

Carefully select your mediumCarefully select your medium

A number of mediums are available to you. If you want to A number of mediums are available to you. If you want toorder goods, you can go personally, send a message, write aorder goods, you can go personally, send a message, write aletter, send a fax, or talk to the suppliers on telephone. Youletter, send a fax, or talk to the suppliers on telephone. Youshould carefully select your message keeping in mind suchshould carefully select your message keeping in mind suchfactors as time, cost and urgency etc.factors as time, cost and urgency etc.




Be careful about timing the messageBe careful about timing the message

A number of messages fail to achieve the desirable results because A number of messages fail to achieve the desirable results becausethey do not reach their destination at an appropriate timethey do not reach their destination at an appropriate time

R emove the barriers to effective communicationR emove the barriers to effective communication

If you notice any barriers to effective communication, try to removeIf you notice any barriers to effective communication, try to removethem. While communicating with someone on telephone, low voicethem. While communicating with someone on telephone, low voicecan be a barrier, so we should use loud, clear voice.can be a barrier, so we should use loud, clear voice.

Try to get feedback Try to get feedback

Feedback is very important for effective communication, for it helpsFeedback is very important for effective communication, for it helpsto ascertain whether your message has been properly understood.to ascertain whether your message has been properly understood.



Characteristics of Effective CommunicationCharacteristics of Effective Communication




Open communication climateOpen communication climate

Communication climate is a reflection of a company·s corporateCommunication climate is a reflection of a company·s corporateculture, the mixture of values, traditions, and habits that give aculture, the mixture of values, traditions, and habits that give aplace its atmosphere or personality. Some companies discourageplace its atmosphere or personality. Some companies discourage

upward communication as it is time consuming andupward communication as it is time consuming andunproductive. In some companies, employees feel free tounproductive. In some companies, employees feel free toconfess their mistakes, to disagree with the boss and to expressconfess their mistakes, to disagree with the boss and to expresstheir opinions.their opinions.

Commitment to ethical communicationCommitment to ethical communication

Ethical communication includes all relevant information, is trueEthical communication includes all relevant information, is truein every sense, and is not deceptive in any way.in every sense, and is not deceptive in any way.




Understanding of intercultural communicationUnderstanding of intercultural communication

Not only is more and more business crossing nationalNot only is more and more business crossing nationalboundaries to compete on a global scale, but also theboundaries to compete on a global scale, but also the

makeup of the global and domestic workforce ismakeup of the global and domestic workforce ischanging rapidly. These companies must understandchanging rapidly. These companies must understandthe laws, customs, and business practices of their hostthe laws, customs, and business practices of their hostcountries, and they must deal with business associatescountries, and they must deal with business associates

and employees who are native to those countries.and employees who are native to those countries.Domestically, firms are also working with more andDomestically, firms are also working with more andmore employees whose cultural background differs.more employees whose cultural background differs.




Proficiency in communication technologyProficiency in communication technology

The increasing speed of communication and the The increasing speed of communication and thegrowing amount of information to begrowing amount of information to be

communicated are only two results of the evercommunicated are only two results of the ever--changing technology one will encounter on thechanging technology one will encounter on the

job. To succeed, business people today must bejob. To succeed, business people today must be

able to understand, use, and adapt to theable to understand, use, and adapt to thetechnological tools of communication.technological tools of communication.




A udience A udience--centered a pproach to communicationcentered a pproach to communication

This requires keeping the audience in mind at all times This requires keeping the audience in mind at all timesduring the process of communication. Emphasizing during the process of communication. Emphasizing

with, being sensitive to, and generally considering your with, being sensitive to, and generally considering youraudience·s feelings are the best approach for effectiveaudience·s feelings are the best approach for effectivecommunication.communication.

Efficient flow of communication messagesEfficient flow of communication messages

Cost of communication can be minimized and theCost of communication can be minimized and thebenefits of communication can be maximized, if thebenefits of communication can be maximized, if thefollowing guidelines are followed:following guidelines are followed:




R educe the number of messagesR educe the number of messages

The average cost of dictating, transcribing, and The average cost of dictating, transcribing, andmailing a business letter is considerably high. Somailing a business letter is considerably high. So

if a message must be put in writing, a letter orif a message must be put in writing, a letter ormemo is a good investment.memo is a good investment.




Speed u p the pre paration of messageSpeed u p the pre paration of message

Save time by making sure that written messagesSave time by making sure that written messagesare prepared correctly the first time around.are prepared correctly the first time around.

Time can also be saved by standardization. Most Time can also be saved by standardization. Mostorganizations use form letters to handleorganizations use form letters to handle

repetitive correspondence, and most employ arepetitive correspondence, and most employ a

standard format for memos, reports, and estandard format for memos, reports, and e--mailmailmessages prepared on a recurring basis.messages prepared on a recurring basis.




Train the writers and s peakers Train the writers and s peakers

This can be done by holding seminars and This can be done by holding seminars and workshops; on handling common oral workshops; on handling common oral

communication situations (such as dealing withcommunication situations (such as dealing withcustomers, managing subordinates, and getting customers, managing subordinates, and getting

along with coalong with co--workers) as well as training in workers) as well as training in

computers and other electronic means of computers and other electronic means of communication.communication.



CommunicationCommunication ² ² A Challenge A Challenge





Developing the right attitude and preparing adequately Developing the right attitude and preparing adequately

are crucial to effective communication in theare crucial to effective communication in theinternational marketplace. These qualities will help youinternational marketplace. These qualities will help youto be effective in dealing with international businessto be effective in dealing with international businesspeople outside your organization. In addition,people outside your organization. In addition,

becoming flexible in attitude and methods of becoming flexible in attitude and methods of communicating will help you to be effective in dealing communicating will help you to be effective in dealing

with issues within your organization with issues within your organization..




Develo ping the R ight A ttitudeDevelo ping the R ight A ttitude

Your attitude when dealing with customers, clients, Your attitude when dealing with customers, clients,and the public reflect on the company you represent.and the public reflect on the company you represent. When you deal with international business people, When you deal with international business people,

your attitude will reflect your country and youryour attitude will reflect your country and yourculture. Each message communicates the essentialculture. Each message communicates the essentialquality and culture of your company and can eitherquality and culture of your company and can eitherbuild goodwill or destroy it.build goodwill or destroy it.




Pre paring A dequatelyPre paring A dequately

Most people can learn to communicate effectively if they areMost people can learn to communicate effectively if they are willing to devote whatever effort is necessary to prepare them willing to devote whatever effort is necessary to prepare themadequately. In addition to the proper goodwilladequately. In addition to the proper goodwill--building attitude,building attitude,

the desirable qualities arethe desirable qualities are(i) Careful, sound judgment when choosing ideas and facts for(i) Careful, sound judgment when choosing ideas and facts foreach message; (ii) Patience and understanding, even with unjustly each message; (ii) Patience and understanding, even with unjustly insulting persons; (iii) Integrity, backed up by a valid code of insulting persons; (iii) Integrity, backed up by a valid code of ethics; (iv) Reasonable facility with the English language; (v)ethics; (iv) Reasonable facility with the English language; (v)

Applied knowledge of the communication process and principles Applied knowledge of the communication process and principlesand of successful methods for sending and receiving messages,and of successful methods for sending and receiving messages,and (vi) Knowledge of the cultural conventions of your audienceand (vi) Knowledge of the cultural conventions of your audience




Becoming FlexibleBecoming Flexible

Today·s managers and workers need to be flexible in the way Today·s managers and workers need to be flexible in the way they deal with others; problems can be avoided by keeping anthey deal with others; problems can be avoided by keeping anopen mind and being willing to make extra efforts inopen mind and being willing to make extra efforts in

communication. Effective communication in organizations withcommunication. Effective communication in organizations witha multinational workforce takes flexibility and an awareness of a multinational workforce takes flexibility and an awareness of the important components of language use. These componentsthe important components of language use. These componentsinvolve the major issues of communication, including how toinvolve the major issues of communication, including how toeffectively address various audiences and how to chooseeffectively address various audiences and how to choose

effective communication channels and information.effective communication channels and information.



Nonverbal CommunicationNonverbal Communication




Earlier on, we focused on verbal communication processEarlier on, we focused on verbal communication process

through written or spoken syllables, usually words. However, wethrough written or spoken syllables, usually words. However, we

also communicate nonverbally i.e., without words. Sometimesalso communicate nonverbally i.e., without words. Sometimesnonverbal messages contradict the verbal;nonverbal messages contradict the verbal;

Often they express feelings more accurately than the spoken orOften they express feelings more accurately than the spoken or written language. In fact, some studies suggest that from 60 to 90 written language. In fact, some studies suggest that from 60 to 90

percent of a message effect comes from nonverbal cues. Thepercent of a message effect comes from nonverbal cues. Theusual methods adopted for nonverbal communication areusual methods adopted for nonverbal communication are

Appearance Appearance ,, Body language Body language ,, Silence, time, and s pace Silence, time, and s pace ..



Communication Through A ppearanceCommunication Through A ppearance Appearance conveys nonverbal impressions that affect receivers· Appearance conveys nonverbal impressions that affect receivers·attitude toward the verbal message even before they read or hearattitude toward the verbal message even before they read or hearthem.them.

Effect on Written MessagesEffect on Written Messages

An envelope·s appearance An envelope·s appearance ² ² size, color, weight, and postagesize, color, weight, and postage ² ² may impress the receiver as ´important,µ ´routine,µ or ´junkµmay impress the receiver as ´important,µ ´routine,µ or ´junkµmail. Telegrams, express mail, and private courier mail also havemail. Telegrams, express mail, and private courier mail also havedistinctive envelopes that signal urgency and importance. Next,distinctive envelopes that signal urgency and importance. Next,the letter, report, or title page communicates nonverbally beforethe letter, report, or title page communicates nonverbally before

its contents are read by the kind of paper used, its length, format,its contents are read by the kind of paper used, its length, format,and neatness. Finally, the language itself, aside from its content,and neatness. Finally, the language itself, aside from its content,communicates something about the sender. This is basically communicates something about the sender. This is basically about careful wording and mechanics of the language such asabout careful wording and mechanics of the language such asspelling, grammar and punctuation.spelling, grammar and punctuation.

Nonverbal Communication




Effect on oral MessagesEffect on oral MessagesPersonal appearance and the appearance of yourPersonal appearance and the appearance of yoursurroundings convey nonverbal stimuli that affectsurroundings convey nonverbal stimuli that affectattitudes toward your spoken words, whether youattitudes toward your spoken words, whether you

are talking to a person one on one or to a group in aare talking to a person one on one or to a group in ameeting. Nonverbal communication adds, subtracts,meeting. Nonverbal communication adds, subtracts,and amends the messages we send. Nonverbaland amends the messages we send. Nonverbalsymbols, in conjunction with oral symbols, say symbols, in conjunction with oral symbols, say much about who we are, how we feel, and evenmuch about who we are, how we feel, and even

how we feel about others. Hence, the oralhow we feel about others. Hence, the oralcommunication context involves both verbal andcommunication context involves both verbal andnonverbal symbols, each hopefully getting listenersnonverbal symbols, each hopefully getting listenersto understand us and do what we wish them to do.to understand us and do what we wish them to do.




Personal A ppearancePersonal A ppearance

Clothing, neatness, posture and stature are part of personalClothing, neatness, posture and stature are part of personalappearance. They convey impressions regarding occupation, age,appearance. They convey impressions regarding occupation, age,nationality, social and economic level, job status, and good ornationality, social and economic level, job status, and good or

poor judgment, depending on circumstances.poor judgment, depending on circumstances. A ppearance of surroundings A ppearance of surroundings

Aspects of surroundings include room size, location, furnishings, Aspects of surroundings include room size, location, furnishings,mechanics, architecture, wall decorations, floor (carpeted ormechanics, architecture, wall decorations, floor (carpeted orbare?), lighting, windows, view, and other related featuresbare?), lighting, windows, view, and other related features

wherever people communicate orally. Surroundings will vary wherever people communicate orally. Surroundings will vary according to status and according to country and culture.according to status and according to country and culture.




Communication Through Body LanguageCommunication Through Body Language

The usual methods employed for communicating through body The usual methods employed for communicating through body language are facial expressions, gestures, posture and movement,language are facial expressions, gestures, posture and movement,smell and touch, and voice and sounds.smell and touch, and voice and sounds.

Facial Ex pressionsFacial Ex pressions The eyes and face are especially helpful means of communicating The eyes and face are especially helpful means of communicating nonverbally. They can reveal hidden emotions, including anger,nonverbally. They can reveal hidden emotions, including anger,confusion, enthusiasm, fear, joy, surprise, uncertainty, andconfusion, enthusiasm, fear, joy, surprise, uncertainty, andothers. They can also contradict verbal statements. Facialothers. They can also contradict verbal statements. Facialexpressions suggest enthusiasm for your topic. A mobile face isexpressions suggest enthusiasm for your topic. A mobile face is

an interesting face. Look at the audience; give them the feeling of an interesting face. Look at the audience; give them the feeling of high interest in them and your topic. Facial expressions includehigh interest in them and your topic. Facial expressions includeeye contact. Eye contact with your listener suggests respect andeye contact. Eye contact with your listener suggests respect andgoodwill, adding to a favorable impression of you as a speaker.goodwill, adding to a favorable impression of you as a speaker.




Gestures, Posture, and MovementGestures, Posture, and Movement

Gestures add emphasis to your oral words. Use them to emphasize aGestures add emphasis to your oral words. Use them to emphasize apoint, to suggest rejection of an idea, to describe size. Using your armspoint, to suggest rejection of an idea, to describe size. Using your armshelps hold attention. Continual gestures and movement such as pacing helps hold attention. Continual gestures and movement such as pacing

back and forth may signal nervousness and may be distracting toback and forth may signal nervousness and may be distracting tolisteners. Handshakes reveal attitudes by the firmness or limpness.listeners. Handshakes reveal attitudes by the firmness or limpness.Posture and movement can convey self Posture and movement can convey self--confidence, status or interest.confidence, status or interest.

We need movement to hold attention, to get rid of nervousness, to We need movement to hold attention, to get rid of nervousness, tosuggest transitions, to increase emphasis. Attire also carries a lot of suggest transitions, to increase emphasis. Attire also carries a lot of significance. It is determined by the culture of your group. When insignificance. It is determined by the culture of your group. When in

doubt, be more formal than informal.doubt, be more formal than informal.




Smell and TouchSmell and Touch

Various odors and fragrances convey the emotions of the sender Various odors and fragrances convey the emotions of the senderand sometimes affect the reactions of the receiver, especially if and sometimes affect the reactions of the receiver, especially if

the receiver is sensitive to scents. Also, touching people canthe receiver is sensitive to scents. Also, touching people cancommunicate friendship, love, approval, hatred, anger, or othercommunicate friendship, love, approval, hatred, anger, or otherfeelings. A kiss on the cheek, pat on the shoulder, or slap on thefeelings. A kiss on the cheek, pat on the shoulder, or slap on theback is prompted by various emotions.back is prompted by various emotions.




Voice and Sounds Voice and Sounds

Our voice quality and the extra sounds we make while speaking Our voice quality and the extra sounds we make while speaking are also a part of nonverbal communication called paralanguage.are also a part of nonverbal communication called paralanguage.Paralanguage includes voice volume, rate, articulation, pitch, andParalanguage includes voice volume, rate, articulation, pitch, andthe other sounds we may make, such as throat clearing andthe other sounds we may make, such as throat clearing andsighing. A loud voice often communicates urgency while a softsighing. A loud voice often communicates urgency while a softone is sometimes calming. Speaking fast may suggestone is sometimes calming. Speaking fast may suggestnervousness or haste. A lazy articulation, slurring sounds ornervousness or haste. A lazy articulation, slurring sounds orskipping over syllables or words, may reduce credibility. A lack skipping over syllables or words, may reduce credibility. A lack of pitch variation becomes a monotone, while too muchof pitch variation becomes a monotone, while too much

variation can sound artificial or overly dramatic. Throat clearing variation can sound artificial or overly dramatic. Throat clearing can distract from the spoken words. Emphasizing certain wordscan distract from the spoken words. Emphasizing certain wordsin a sentence can purposely indicate your feelings about what isin a sentence can purposely indicate your feelings about what isimportant.important.




Communication via Silence, time, and SpaceCommunication via Silence, time, and Space

Silence, time, and space can communicate more than we may Silence, time, and space can communicate more than we may

think, even causing hard feelings, loss of business, and profitsthink, even causing hard feelings, loss of business, and profits..

SilenceSilence

We need to consider how we feel when we make an oral request We need to consider how we feel when we make an oral request

that is met with silence. Or think about the confusion we feelthat is met with silence. Or think about the confusion we feel

when our written message generates no response). when our written message generates no response).




Time Time

Waiting when an important request is ignored causes problems and attitude Waiting when an important request is ignored causes problems and attitudechanges. Time is important in many ways. How do we feel when we are keptchanges. Time is important in many ways. How do we feel when we are kept waiting two hours after the scheduled time for an interview? In U.S. culture, waiting two hours after the scheduled time for an interview? In U.S. culture,being on time for appointments, for work each day, and for deadlinesbeing on time for appointments, for work each day, and for deadlinescommunicates favorable nonverbal messages. Concepts of time, however,communicates favorable nonverbal messages. Concepts of time, however,

vary across cultures. vary across cultures.SpaceSpace

The need for personal space decreases as the number of people increases. In The need for personal space decreases as the number of people increases. Inthe U.S. the need for personal space in a twothe U.S. the need for personal space in a two--person conversation is about 18person conversation is about 18inches. The need for space is less in many Middle Eastern countries and moreinches. The need for space is less in many Middle Eastern countries and morein most Scandinavian countries. Effective communicators must learn to adaptin most Scandinavian countries. Effective communicators must learn to adapt

to both senders· and receivers· expectations regarding space. The key toto both senders· and receivers· expectations regarding space. The key tosuccess is to be aware of the differences.success is to be aware of the differences.



Common Communication barriersCommon Communication barriers




The communication process is effective only when each The communication process is effective only when eachstep is successful. Ideas cannot be communicated if any step is successful. Ideas cannot be communicated if any step in this process is blocked (skipped or completedstep in this process is blocked (skipped or completed

incorrectly). When interference in the communicationincorrectly). When interference in the communicationprocess distorts or obscures the sender·s meaning, it isprocess distorts or obscures the sender·s meaning, it iscalled a communication barrier, or noise. Recognizing called a communication barrier, or noise. Recognizing communication barrier is the first step in overcoming communication barrier is the first step in overcoming

them. Examples of barriers to effective communicationthem. Examples of barriers to effective communicationinclude perceptual differences, restrictive environments,include perceptual differences, restrictive environments,distractions, and deceptive communication tactics.distractions, and deceptive communication tactics.




Perce ptual DifferencesPerce ptual Differences

Perception is strongly influenced by cultural differences. Perceptual differencePerception is strongly influenced by cultural differences. Perceptual differenceaffects how we see the world; no two people perceive things exactly the sameaffects how we see the world; no two people perceive things exactly the same way. Perception also influences how we develop languages, which depends on way. Perception also influences how we develop languages, which depends onshared definitions for meaning and is shaped by our culture.shared definitions for meaning and is shaped by our culture.

Little shared ex perienceLittle shared ex perience

Meanings dissimilarMeanings dissimilar ² ² Misunderstanding Misunderstanding

A verage amount of shared ex perience A verage amount of shared ex perience

Meanings similarMeanings similar ² ² Average degree of understanding Average degree of understanding Large amount of shared ex perienceLarge amount of shared ex perience

Meanings very similarMeanings very similar ² ² high degree of understanding high degree of understanding




Language is only one of the many differences thatLanguage is only one of the many differences that

exist between cultures. Communicating withexist between cultures. Communicating withsomeone from another country may be the mostsomeone from another country may be the most

extreme example of how different cultures canextreme example of how different cultures canblock communication. But even in our ownblock communication. But even in our own

culture, we and our receiver may differ in age,culture, we and our receiver may differ in age,

education, social status, economic position,education, social status, economic position,religion, and life experience.religion, and life experience.




R estrictive EnvironmentsR estrictive Environments

Restrictive structures and management block effectiveRestrictive structures and management block effectivecommunication. Every link in the communication chain is opencommunication. Every link in the communication chain is opento error. By the time a message travels all the way up or downto error. By the time a message travels all the way up or down

the chain, it may bear little resemblance to the original idea. If athe chain, it may bear little resemblance to the original idea. If acompany·s formal communication network limits the flow of company·s formal communication network limits the flow of information in any direction (upward, downward, or horizontal)information in any direction (upward, downward, or horizontal)then communication becomes fragmented. Lowerthen communication becomes fragmented. Lower--levellevelemployees may obtain only enough information to perform theiremployees may obtain only enough information to perform their

own isolated tasks, learning little about other areas; so only theown isolated tasks, learning little about other areas; so only thepeople at the very top of the organization can see the big picture.people at the very top of the organization can see the big picture.




DistractionsDistractionsCommunication barriers are often physical distractions: badCommunication barriers are often physical distractions: badconnections, poor acoustics, or illegible copy. Although noise of connections, poor acoustics, or illegible copy. Although noise of this sort seems trivial, it can block an otherwise effectivethis sort seems trivial, it can block an otherwise effectivemessage. An uncomfortable chair, poor lighting, healthmessage. An uncomfortable chair, poor lighting, healthproblems, or some other irritating condition might distract yourproblems, or some other irritating condition might distract yourreceiver. Another kind of distraction is poor listening. We all letreceiver. Another kind of distraction is poor listening. We all letour minds wander now and then, and we are especially likely toour minds wander now and then, and we are especially likely todrift off when we are forced to listen to information that isdrift off when we are forced to listen to information that isdifficult to understand or that has little direct bearing on ourdifficult to understand or that has little direct bearing on ourown lives. We are even more likely to lose interest if we are tiredown lives. We are even more likely to lose interest if we are tired

or concerned about other matters. Emotional distractions can beor concerned about other matters. Emotional distractions can bedifficult to overcome. When you are upset, hostile, or fearful,difficult to overcome. When you are upset, hostile, or fearful,you have a hard time shaping a message objectively. If youryou have a hard time shaping a message objectively. If yourreceiver is emotional, he or she may ignore or distort yourreceiver is emotional, he or she may ignore or distort yourmessage. Moreover, the sheer number of messages can also bemessage. Moreover, the sheer number of messages can also bedistracting and many executives are overwhelmed by informationdistracting and many executives are overwhelmed by information

overload (the increased volume of messages from all sources).overload (the increased volume of messages from all sources).




Dece ptive Communication TacticsDece ptive Communication TacticsLanguage itself is made up of words that carry values. So merely Language itself is made up of words that carry values. So merely by saying things a certain way, you influence how others perceiveby saying things a certain way, you influence how others perceiveyour message, and you shape expectations and behaviors. Anyour message, and you shape expectations and behaviors. Anorganization cannot create illegal or unethical messages and stillorganization cannot create illegal or unethical messages and still

be credible or successful in the long run. Still, some businessbe credible or successful in the long run. Still, some businesscommunicators try to manipulate their receivers by using communicators try to manipulate their receivers by using deceptive tactics. Deceptive communicators may exaggeratedeceptive tactics. Deceptive communicators may exaggeratebenefits, quote inaccurate statistics, or hide negative informationbenefits, quote inaccurate statistics, or hide negative informationbehind an optimistic attitude. They may state opinions as facts,behind an optimistic attitude. They may state opinions as facts,leave out crucial information, or portray graphic data unfairly.leave out crucial information, or portray graphic data unfairly.

Unscrupulous communicators may seek personal gain by making Unscrupulous communicators may seek personal gain by making others look better or worse than they are. And they may allow others look better or worse than they are. And they may allow personal preferences to influence their own perception and thepersonal preferences to influence their own perception and theperception of others.perception of others.



Overcoming Barriers to Improve CommunicationOvercoming Barriers to Improve Communication




Effective communicators work hard at perfecting theEffective communicators work hard at perfecting themessages they deliver. When they make mistakes, they messages they deliver. When they make mistakes, they learn from them. If a memo they·ve written doesn·t getlearn from them. If a memo they·ve written doesn·t getthe response they hoped for, they change theirthe response they hoped for, they change their

approach the next time around. If a meeting they·reapproach the next time around. If a meeting they·rerunning gets out of control or proves unproductive,running gets out of control or proves unproductive,they do things differently at the next one. If they findthey do things differently at the next one. If they findthat they have to explain themselves over and overthat they have to explain themselves over and over

again, they reevaluate their choice of communicationagain, they reevaluate their choice of communicationmedium or rework their messages.medium or rework their messages.




The successful communicators tend to share the following traits: The successful communicators tend to share the following traits:(i) Perception: They are able to predict how you will receive their(i) Perception: They are able to predict how you will receive theirmessage. They anticipate your reaction and shape the messagemessage. They anticipate your reaction and shape the messageaccordingly. They read your response correctly and constantly accordingly. They read your response correctly and constantly adjust to correct any misunderstanding; (ii) Precision: They adjust to correct any misunderstanding; (ii) Precision: They

create a ´meeting of the minds.µ When they finish expressing create a ´meeting of the minds.µ When they finish expressing themselves, you share the same mental picture; (iii) Credibility:themselves, you share the same mental picture; (iii) Credibility: They are believable. You have faith in the substance of their They are believable. You have faith in the substance of theirmessage. You trust their information and their intentions; (iv)message. You trust their information and their intentions; (iv)Control: They shape your response. Depending on their purpose,Control: They shape your response. Depending on their purpose,they can make you laugh or cry, calm down, change your mind,they can make you laugh or cry, calm down, change your mind,

or take action. (v) Congeniality: They maintain friendly, pleasantor take action. (v) Congeniality: They maintain friendly, pleasantrelations with you. Regardless of whether you agree with them,relations with you. Regardless of whether you agree with them,good communicators command your respect and goodwill. Yougood communicators command your respect and goodwill. Youare willing to work with them again, despite your differences.are willing to work with them again, despite your differences.



Four guidelines forFour guidelines for

overcoming communication barriersovercoming communication barriers

Four guidelines forFour guidelines for



Four guidelines forFour guidelines forovercoming communication barriersovercoming communication barriers

First, adopting an audienceFirst, adopting an audience--centered approach tocentered approach tocommunication means focusing on your audience and caring communication means focusing on your audience and caring about their needsabout their needs ² ² which means finding out as much as you can which means finding out as much as you canabout audience members, especially if your audience is from aabout audience members, especially if your audience is from adifferent culture. Second, fostering an open communicationdifferent culture. Second, fostering an open communication

climate means encouraging employee contributions, candor, andclimate means encouraging employee contributions, candor, andhonesty. You can create an open climate by modifying thehonesty. You can create an open climate by modifying thenumber of organizational levels and by facilitating feedback.number of organizational levels and by facilitating feedback.

Third, creating lean and efficient messages means not Third, creating lean and efficient messages means notcommunicating unnecessary information and making necessary communicating unnecessary information and making necessary information easy to get. You can send better messages by information easy to get. You can send better messages by

reducing the number of messages, minimizing distractions, andreducing the number of messages, minimizing distractions, andusing technology responsibly. And fourth, committing to ethicalusing technology responsibly. And fourth, committing to ethicalcommunication means including relevant information that is truecommunication means including relevant information that is truein every sense and not deceptive in any way.in every sense and not deceptive in any way.



Princi ples of Effective CommunicationPrinci ples of Effective Communication




To compose effective written or oral messages, you must apply To compose effective written or oral messages, you must apply certain communication principles. These principles providecertain communication principles. These principles provideguidelines for choice of content and style of presentation,guidelines for choice of content and style of presentation,adapted to the purpose and receiver of your message. Called theadapted to the purpose and receiver of your message. Called the´seven C·s,µ they are completeness, conciseness, consideration,´seven C·s,µ they are completeness, conciseness, consideration,concreteness, clarity, courtesy, and correctness. These seven C·sconcreteness, clarity, courtesy, and correctness. These seven C·sare applicable to all forms of communication (oral & written)are applicable to all forms of communication (oral & written)from mere utterances and sentences to complete documents orfrom mere utterances and sentences to complete documents orpresentations. To some extent the principles overlap becausepresentations. To some extent the principles overlap becausethey are based on a common concern for the audience, whetherthey are based on a common concern for the audience, whetherthe audience consists of listeners or readers.the audience consists of listeners or readers.




There is no special kind of writing to which the business There is no special kind of writing to which the businesscorrespondence should conform. It should observe the rules of correspondence should conform. It should observe the rules of good writing, free from the jargon and phraseology; it shouldgood writing, free from the jargon and phraseology; it shouldreflect the writer·s personality and the sincerity of purpose. Suchreflect the writer·s personality and the sincerity of purpose. Such

writing should have a style reflecting the background, training writing should have a style reflecting the background, training and experience of the writer in simple andand experience of the writer in simple and clearclear form. To thisform. To this

must be added an adequate vocabulary, as it is not possible tomust be added an adequate vocabulary, as it is not possible to weave the elements of style into the fabric of a good letter weave the elements of style into the fabric of a good letter without competent knowledge of words since they are the without competent knowledge of words since they are thesymbols for expressing ideas. The saying ´Take care of the sensesymbols for expressing ideas. The saying ´Take care of the senseand the sounds will take care of themselvesµ should be adheredand the sounds will take care of themselvesµ should be adheredto for effective communication. Once a writing proposal hasto for effective communication. Once a writing proposal hasbeen planned, the principles that should be followed comprisebeen planned, the principles that should be followed comprisethe famous seven C·s (i) completeness, (ii) correctness, (iii)the famous seven C·s (i) completeness, (ii) correctness, (iii)conciseness, (iv) clarity, (v) concreteness, (vi) consideration andconciseness, (iv) clarity, (v) concreteness, (vi) consideration and(vii) courtesy (vii) courtesy




Com pletenessCom pleteness

A business message is complete when it contains all A business message is complete when it contains allfacts the reader or listener needs for the reaction youfacts the reader or listener needs for the reaction you

desire. Remember that communicatorsdesire. Remember that communicators--senders andsenders andreceiversreceivers ² ² differ in their mental filters; they arediffer in their mental filters; they areinfluenced by their backgrounds· viewpoints, needs,influenced by their backgrounds· viewpoints, needs,experiences, attitudes, status, and emotions. Because of experiences, attitudes, status, and emotions. Because of

these differences, communication senders need tothese differences, communication senders need toassess their messages through their eyes of receivers toassess their messages through their eyes of receivers tobe sure they have included all relevant information.be sure they have included all relevant information.




Completeness offers numerous benefits. First, completeCompleteness offers numerous benefits. First, completemessages are more likely to bring the desired results without themessages are more likely to bring the desired results without theexpense of additional messages. Second, they can do a better jobexpense of additional messages. Second, they can do a better jobof building goodwill. Messages that contain information theof building goodwill. Messages that contain information thereceiver needs show concern for others. Third, completereceiver needs show concern for others. Third, completemessage can help avert costly lawsuits that may result if message can help avert costly lawsuits that may result if important information is missing. Last, communications thatimportant information is missing. Last, communications thatseem inconsequential can be surprisingly important if theseem inconsequential can be surprisingly important if theinformation they contain is complete and effective. As you striveinformation they contain is complete and effective. As you strivefor completeness, following guidelines should be kept in mind:for completeness, following guidelines should be kept in mind:

Provide all necessary informationProvide all necessary information

Answer all questions asked Answer all questions asked

Give something extra, when desirableGive something extra, when desirable




Provide A ll Necessary informationProvide A ll Necessary information

When a message is initiated, you need to check to make sure you When a message is initiated, you need to check to make sure youhave provided all the information the reader needs for thorough,have provided all the information the reader needs for thorough,accurate understanding. Oneaccurate understanding. One--way to help make your message way to help make your messagecomplete is to answer the five W questionscomplete is to answer the five W questions ² ² who, what, when, who, what, when,

where, why where, why ² ² and any other essentials such as how. The fiveand any other essentials such as how. The five--question method is especially useful when you write requests,question method is especially useful when you write requests,announcements, or other informative messages. For instance, toannouncements, or other informative messages. For instance, toorder (request) merchandise, make clear what you want, whenorder (request) merchandise, make clear what you want, whenyou need it, to whom and where it is to be sent, and how you need it, to whom and where it is to be sent, and how payment will be made. To reserve a hotel banquet room specify payment will be made. To reserve a hotel banquet room specify he accommodation needed (what), location (where), sponsoring he accommodation needed (what), location (where), sponsoring organization (who), date and time (when), event (why) and otherorganization (who), date and time (when), event (why) and othernecessary details (how).necessary details (how).




A nswer A ll Questions asked A nswer A ll Questions asked

Whenever you reply to an inquiry, try to answer all questions Whenever you reply to an inquiry, try to answer all questions ² ² stated and implied. A colleague or prospective customer·sstated and implied. A colleague or prospective customer·sreaction to an incomplete reply is likely to be unfavorable. Thereaction to an incomplete reply is likely to be unfavorable. The

customer may think the respondent is careless or is purposely customer may think the respondent is careless or is purposely trying to conceal a weak spot. In general, ´omissions casttrying to conceal a weak spot. In general, ´omissions castsuspicions,µ whether you are answering an inquiry about yoursuspicions,µ whether you are answering an inquiry about yourproduct or recommending a former employee for a new job. If product or recommending a former employee for a new job. If you have no information on a particular question, say so clearly.you have no information on a particular question, say so clearly.If you have unfavorable information in answer to certainIf you have unfavorable information in answer to certainquestions, handle your reply with both tact and honesty.questions, handle your reply with both tact and honesty.




In one example, a software distributor, when replying to aIn one example, a software distributor, when replying to adealer·s letter, answered only four of seven questions. Becausedealer·s letter, answered only four of seven questions. Becausethe original questions were unnumbered and somewhat buried inthe original questions were unnumbered and somewhat buried infive long paragraphs, the respondent apparently overlooked orfive long paragraphs, the respondent apparently overlooked ordisregarded three of them. The reply, incomplete and unfriendly,disregarded three of them. The reply, incomplete and unfriendly,caused the distributor to lose the business and goodwill of acaused the distributor to lose the business and goodwill of apotential customer.potential customer.

Sometimes before you can answer an inquiry, you need certainSometimes before you can answer an inquiry, you need certainspecific information from the inquirer. If so it is a good idea tospecific information from the inquirer. If so it is a good idea to

list the needed details on a reply from that the inquirer can filllist the needed details on a reply from that the inquirer can fillout and return to you. In this way both your answer and that of out and return to you. In this way both your answer and that of your respondent will be complete.your respondent will be complete.

f ff Cf ff C




Give Something Extra, When DesirableGive Something Extra, When DesirableSometimes you must do more than answer theSometimes you must do more than answer thecustomers· specific questions. They may not know whatcustomers· specific questions. They may not know whatthey need, or their questions may be inadequate. Forthey need, or their questions may be inadequate. For

example, suppose you are president of your localexample, suppose you are president of your localRotary Club and receive the following inquiry from anRotary Club and receive the following inquiry from anoutout--of of--town member:town member:I·m new to the city and would like to consider joining I·m new to the city and would like to consider joining your club. As I ¶ll be visiting your club within theyour club. As I ¶ll be visiting your club within themonth, will you please tell me where the next meeting month, will you please tell me where the next meeting will be held? will be held?..

P i i l f Eff i C i iP i i l f Eff i C i i




If you answered only this one question, your letter would beIf you answered only this one question, your letter would beincomplete. Realizing that your reader is a newcomer to your city incomplete. Realizing that your reader is a newcomer to your city and to your Rotary Club, you should include in your reply aand to your Rotary Club, you should include in your reply a

welcome plus such needed details as directions for reaching the welcome plus such needed details as directions for reaching thebuilding: parking facilities; day, date, and time of meeting andbuilding: parking facilities; day, date, and time of meeting andperhaps also the program for the next meeting. Your messageperhaps also the program for the next meeting. Your message

will then has the ´something extraµ that a reader really needs and will then has the ´something extraµ that a reader really needs andappreciates. In most cases the reason the communicator includesappreciates. In most cases the reason the communicator includessomething extra will be obvious; whenever it·s not completely something extra will be obvious; whenever it·s not completely clear, explain why you·re including the additional information.clear, explain why you·re including the additional information.

You need to use your good judgment in offering additional You need to use your good judgment in offering additionalmaterial if the sender·s message was incompletematerial if the sender·s message was incomplete




Checklist for Com pletenessChecklist for Com pleteness

² ² Remember the five W·s: Who? What? When?Remember the five W·s: Who? What? When? Where? Why? Where? Why?

² ² Answer all questions (a) Stated questions from Answer all questions (a) Stated questions fromquestioner. (b) Implied questions from questioner.questioner. (b) Implied questions from questioner.

² ² Give extra information when desirable.Give extra information when desirable.





To achieve both the specific purpose of your message To achieve both the specific purpose of your messageand the long and the long--term purposeterm purpose ² ² maintaining goodwillmaintaining goodwill ² ² you need to consider carefully just how muchyou need to consider carefully just how muchinformation is enough for each person. Completeness isinformation is enough for each person. Completeness is

necessary for several reasons: (a) complete messages arenecessary for several reasons: (a) complete messages aremore likely to bring the desired results without themore likely to bring the desired results without theexpense of additional message; (b) they can do a betterexpense of additional message; (b) they can do a betterjob of building goodwill; (c) they can help avert costly job of building goodwill; (c) they can help avert costly

lawsuits; and (d) papers that seem inconsequential canlawsuits; and (d) papers that seem inconsequential canbe surprisingly important if the information they be surprisingly important if the information they contain is complete and effective.contain is complete and effective.





Let us suppose you are ordering shirts by mail.Let us suppose you are ordering shirts by mail. Your communication must include all the relevant Your communication must include all the relevantfactsfacts ² ² size, colour, catalogue number, quantity,size, colour, catalogue number, quantity,mode of payment, mode of dispatch, the date by mode of payment, mode of dispatch, the date by

which you need shirts, etc. In the absence of any of which you need shirts, etc. In the absence of any of these details, your order may not be filled to yourthese details, your order may not be filled to yoursatisfaction. You should organize your message insatisfaction. You should organize your message insuch a way that the receiver is not in doubt aboutsuch a way that the receiver is not in doubt aboutanything contained in it.anything contained in it.





Incom pleteIncom plete: ´Thank you for the confidence you·ve shown us by : ´Thank you for the confidence you·ve shown us by the account you recently opened. All our facilities are at yourthe account you recently opened. All our facilities are at yourdisposal, and anytime we can be of service please feel free to calldisposal, and anytime we can be of service please feel free to callupon us. Our appreciation is best expressed by our being serviceupon us. Our appreciation is best expressed by our being serviceto you.µto you.µ

Com pleteCom plete: ´Thank you for the confidence you have shown in: ´Thank you for the confidence you have shown inoriental Bank Ltd. By the profit and loss sharing account youoriental Bank Ltd. By the profit and loss sharing account yourecently opened. Our goal is to make all our services to you bothrecently opened. Our goal is to make all our services to you bothpleasant and helpful. You may be especially interested in 15pleasant and helpful. You may be especially interested in 15--daysdaysgrace period each month Savegrace period each month Save--by by--mail postagemail postage--paid service,paid service,Special purpose account. Free customers parking.Special purpose account. Free customers parking.´You are most welcome to come in whenever you need our´You are most welcome to come in whenever you need ourassistance. Please consider this association a right place for theassistance. Please consider this association a right place for theconvenience of your savings and borrowing needsµ.convenience of your savings and borrowing needsµ.





ConcisenessConcisenessConciseness is saying what you have to say in the fewest possibleConciseness is saying what you have to say in the fewest possible words without sacrificing the other C qualities. A concise words without sacrificing the other C qualities. A concisemessage is complete without being wordy.message is complete without being wordy.

Conciseness is a prerequisite to effective businessConciseness is a prerequisite to effective businesscommunication. A concise message saves time and expense forcommunication. A concise message saves time and expense forboth sender and receiver. Conciseness contributes to emphasis;both sender and receiver. Conciseness contributes to emphasis;by eliminating unnecessary words, you let important ideas standby eliminating unnecessary words, you let important ideas standout. When combined with a ´youout. When combined with a ´you--view,µ concise messages are view,µ concise messages areinherently more interesting to recipients. Finally, conciseinherently more interesting to recipients. Finally, concisemessages show respect for recipients by not cluttering theirmessages show respect for recipients by not cluttering their

professional lives with unnecessary information. To achieveprofessional lives with unnecessary information. To achieveconciseness, observe the following suggestions:conciseness, observe the following suggestions: Eliminate wordy expressionsEliminate wordy expressions

Include only relevant materialInclude only relevant material Avoid unnecessary repetition Avoid unnecessary repetition

P i i l f Eff ti C i tiP i i l f Eff ti C i ti




Eliminate Wordy Ex pressionsEliminate Wordy Ex pressions

The following are some concrete suggestions you can use to reduce wordiness in The following are some concrete suggestions you can use to reduce wordiness inyour communication.your communication.

Use singleUse single--word substitutes instead of phrases whenever possible without word substitutes instead of phrases whenever possible withoutchanging meanings. E.g. At this time (Wordy) whereas Now (Concise)changing meanings. E.g. At this time (Wordy) whereas Now (Concise)

Omit trite, unnecessary expressions.Omit trite, unnecessary expressions. Wordy: Allow me to say how helpful your response was. Wordy: Allow me to say how helpful your response was.Concise: Your last response was helpful.Concise: Your last response was helpful.

3.3. Replace wordy conventional statements with concise versions.Replace wordy conventional statements with concise versions. Wordy: Please find attached the list you requested. Wordy: Please find attached the list you requested.Concise: The list you requested is attached.Concise: The list you requested is attached.

4.4. Avoid overusing empty phrases. Avoid overusing empty phrases. Wordy: There are four rules that should be observed Wordy: There are four rules that should be observedConcise: Four rules should be observed.Concise: Four rules should be observed.





6.6. Omit ´whichµ and ´thatµ clauses whenever possible.Omit ´whichµ and ´thatµ clauses whenever possible. Wordy: The receipt that is enclosed documents your purchase. Wordy: The receipt that is enclosed documents your purchase.Concise: The enclosed receipt documents your purchase.Concise: The enclosed receipt documents your purchase.

7.7. Eliminate unnecessary prepositional phrases.Eliminate unnecessary prepositional phrases. Wordy: The issue of most relevance is teamwork. Wordy: The issue of most relevance is teamwork.

Concise: The most relevant issue is teamwork.Concise: The most relevant issue is teamwork.8.8. Limit use of the passive voice.Limit use of the passive voice.

Wordy: The total balance due will be found on page 2 of this report. Wordy: The total balance due will be found on page 2 of this report.Concise: The balance due is on page 2 of this report.Concise: The balance due is on page 2 of this report.

In all attempts to reduce wordiness, you must be careful to not distort meaning.In all attempts to reduce wordiness, you must be careful to not distort meaning.Conciseness reflects the thoughtful elimination of unnecessary words.Conciseness reflects the thoughtful elimination of unnecessary words.





Include Only R elevant MaterialInclude Only R elevant Material

The effective, concise message should omit not only The effective, concise message should omit not only unnecessarily wordy expressions but also irrelevantunnecessarily wordy expressions but also irrelevant

statements. To be sure you include only relevant facts,statements. To be sure you include only relevant facts,observe the following suggestions.observe the following suggestions.

1.1. Stick to the purpose of the message.Stick to the purpose of the message.

2.2. Delete irrelevant words and rambling sentences.Delete irrelevant words and rambling sentences.

3.3. Omit information obvious to the receiver; do not repeat at lengthOmit information obvious to the receiver; do not repeat at length what that person has already told you. If you feel it is important to what that person has already told you. If you feel it is important toremind the audience of known information, subordinate the familiarremind the audience of known information, subordinate the familiarinformation.information.

Prin ipl f Eff ti C mm ni ti nPrin ipl f Eff ti C mm ni ti n




4.4. Avoid long introductions, unnecessary explanations, Avoid long introductions, unnecessary explanations,excessive adjectives and prepositions, pompousexcessive adjectives and prepositions, pompous words, gushy politeness. words, gushy politeness.

5.5. Get to the important point tactfully and concisely.Get to the important point tactfully and concisely. Wordy: we hereby wish to let you know that our Wordy: we hereby wish to let you know that ourcompany is pleased with the confidence you havecompany is pleased with the confidence you havereposed in us.reposed in us.

Concise: we appreciate your confidence.Concise: we appreciate your confidence.

Principles of Effecti e Comm nicationPrinciples of Effecti e Comm nication




A void Unnecessary R e petition A void Unnecessary R e petition

Sometimes repetition is necessary for emphasis.Sometimes repetition is necessary for emphasis.But when the same thing is said two or threeBut when the same thing is said two or three

times without reason, the message becomestimes without reason, the message becomes wordy and boring. Here are three ways to wordy and boring. Here are three ways to

eliminate repetition:eliminate repetition:

Use a shorter name after you·ve mentioned the long oneUse a shorter name after you·ve mentioned the long oneonce. Instead of the ´ North Central Company,µ useonce. Instead of the ´ North Central Company,µ use´North Central.µ´North Central.µ

Principles of Effective CommunicationPrinciples of Effective Communication




Use pronouns or initials rather than repeat long Use pronouns or initials rather than repeat long

names. Instead of citing Ámerican Associationnames. Instead of citing Ámerican Associationof Technical Analystsµ again and again, use ítµof Technical Analystsµ again and again, use ítµ

or ´theyµ or AATA. When using wellor ´theyµ or AATA. When using well--knownknowninitials or acronyms, give the full reference firstinitials or acronyms, give the full reference first

with the initials in parentheses: The North with the initials in parentheses: The North

American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) isbeing debated in Congress.being debated in Congress.



ConsiderationConsideration





Consideration means preparing every message with theConsideration means preparing every message with themessage receivers in mind; try to put yourself in theirmessage receivers in mind; try to put yourself in theirplace: You·re considerate, you don·t lose your temper,place: You·re considerate, you don·t lose your temper,

you don·t accuse, you don·t charge them without facts.you don·t accuse, you don·t charge them without facts. You·re, foremost, aware of their desires, problems, You·re, foremost, aware of their desires, problems,circumstances, emotions and probable reactions to yourcircumstances, emotions and probable reactions to yourrequest. Then handle the matter from their point of request. Then handle the matter from their point of

view. This thoughtful consideration is called ´you view. This thoughtful consideration is called ´you--attitude,µ empathy, the human touch, andattitude,µ empathy, the human touch, andunderstanding of human nature.understanding of human nature.





In a broad but true sense, considerationIn a broad but true sense, consideration

underlies the other six C·s of good businessunderlies the other six C·s of good businesscommunication. You adapt your language andcommunication. You adapt your language and

necessary content to your receiver·s needs whennecessary content to your receiver·s needs whenyou make your message complete. Three specificyou make your message complete. Three specific

ways to indicate consideration are: ways to indicate consideration are: Focus on ýouµ instead of Íµ and ´we.µFocus on ýouµ instead of Íµ and ´we.µ

Show audience benefit or interest in the receiver.Show audience benefit or interest in the receiver.

Emphasize positive, pleasant factsEmphasize positive, pleasant facts




We We--Attitude: I am delighted to announce that Attitude: I am delighted to announce that

we will be extending our hours to make we will be extending our hours to makeshopping more convenient.shopping more convenient.

You You--attitude: You·ll be able to shop eveningsattitude: You·ll be able to shop evenings with the extended hours. with the extended hours.





Showing consideration for the audience involves more than justShowing consideration for the audience involves more than justusing ýouµ instead of Íµ or ´we.· Messages that use ýouµ canusing ýouµ instead of Íµ or ´we.· Messages that use ýouµ canbe insensitive in negative situations. In fact, sometimes avoiding be insensitive in negative situations. In fact, sometimes avoiding ýouµ can reduce potential defensiveness or allow the recipientýouµ can reduce potential defensiveness or allow the recipientto save face. An extreme example of a negative situation is theto save face. An extreme example of a negative situation is thecollection letter with ýouµ or ýourµ in almost every sentence, if collection letter with ýouµ or ýourµ in almost every sentence, if those sentences are insulting, sarcastic, tactless, or untruethose sentences are insulting, sarcastic, tactless, or untrueaccusations and threats against the debtor; the letter surely lacksaccusations and threats against the debtor; the letter surely lacksa youa you--attitude. The use of ýouµ in negative situations can beattitude. The use of ýouµ in negative situations can beavoided by employing the passive voice, making the receiver partavoided by employing the passive voice, making the receiver part

of a group, or depersonalizing the situation.of a group, or depersonalizing the situation.




Show A udience Benefit or Interest in the R eceiverShow A udience Benefit or Interest in the R eceiver

Whenever possible and true, show how your receivers Whenever possible and true, show how your receivers will benefit from whatever the message asks or will benefit from whatever the message asks or

announces. Benefits must meet recipients· needs,announces. Benefits must meet recipients· needs,address their concerns, or offer them rewards. Mostaddress their concerns, or offer them rewards. Mostimportant, they must be perceived as benefits by theimportant, they must be perceived as benefits by thereceivers. This means that you must identify thereceivers. This means that you must identify the

legitimate benefits of your position, policy, or productlegitimate benefits of your position, policy, or productand then put yourself in the place of the receivers toand then put yourself in the place of the receivers toassess their perspectives.assess their perspectives.




Checklist for ConsiderationChecklist for Consideration

See your material from your reader·s point of view.See your material from your reader·s point of view.

Ýouµ is more desirable than Íµ or ´weµ in mostÝouµ is more desirable than Íµ or ´weµ in most

instances.instances. Readers like to see benefits. Be sure benefits are aReaders like to see benefits. Be sure benefits are a

prominent part of the message.prominent part of the message.

Consciously use positive words; readers will react moreConsciously use positive words; readers will react morefavorably.favorably.




When a reader receives a business letter, he assesses When a reader receives a business letter, he assesseshow it affects him and his business and what action hehow it affects him and his business and what action heneeds to take on it. A direct personal approach whichneeds to take on it. A direct personal approach whichthethe you attitudeyou attitude ensures will transmit the message toensures will transmit the message to

him quickly and produce the desired response.him quickly and produce the desired response. This, however, does not mean that the writer should This, however, does not mean that the writer should

completely suppress his own interests. He shouldcompletely suppress his own interests. He shouldinstead show how their interests are common and how instead show how their interests are common and how

they can be promoted. An attempt to do so should not,they can be promoted. An attempt to do so should not,lead to under praise, artificial cordiality and exaggeratedlead to under praise, artificial cordiality and exaggeratedclaims. Sincerity and truthfulness convince most.claims. Sincerity and truthfulness convince most.





If you glance through the pages of any newspaper orIf you glance through the pages of any newspaper ormagazine, you·ll find that good advertisements reflectmagazine, you·ll find that good advertisements reflectthe you attitudethe you attitude

² ² You can achieve success by enrolling with us for a home You can achieve success by enrolling with us for a home

study course;study course;

² ² Today you need more than an old Today you need more than an old--fashioned soap;fashioned soap;

² ² The success you deserve depends upon your training; The success you deserve depends upon your training;

² ² It cools so fast that you could have ice for the asking;It cools so fast that you could have ice for the asking;

² ² There·s always something special in the air when you fly with There·s always something special in the air when you fly with

us.us.



ConcretenessConcreteness




The benefits to business professionals of using concrete facts The benefits to business professionals of using concrete factsand figures are obvious: your receivers know exactly what isand figures are obvious: your receivers know exactly what isrequired or desired. Using concrete language has somerequired or desired. Using concrete language has someadditional, less obvious advantages. When you supply specificsadditional, less obvious advantages. When you supply specificsfor the reader or listener, you increase the likelihood that yourfor the reader or listener, you increase the likelihood that your

message will be interpreted the way you intended. Moreover,message will be interpreted the way you intended. Moreover,concrete messages are more richly textured than general or vagueconcrete messages are more richly textured than general or vaguemessages: thus, they tend to be more vivid, dynamic, andmessages: thus, they tend to be more vivid, dynamic, andinteresting. The following guidelines should help you composeinteresting. The following guidelines should help you composeconcrete, convincing messages.concrete, convincing messages.

Use specific facts and figuresUse specific facts and figures Put action in your verbsPut action in your verbs

Choose vivid, imageChoose vivid, image--building wordsbuilding words





Use Specific Facts and FiguresUse Specific Facts and Figures

It is desirable to be precise and concrete in both writtenIt is desirable to be precise and concrete in both writtenand oral business communication. Whenever possible,and oral business communication. Whenever possible,use an exact, precise statement or a figure in place of ause an exact, precise statement or a figure in place of a

general word to make your message more concrete.general word to make your message more concrete. Vague, General, indefinite: Eastern Europe is making Vague, General, indefinite: Eastern Europe is making progress in obtaining investments.progress in obtaining investments.

Concrete, precise: In 1990 investments in EasternConcrete, precise: In 1990 investments in Eastern

Europe were about US $30 million; today that figureEurope were about US $30 million; today that figurehas increased by 12%.has increased by 12%.



A passive verb has three characteristics: A passive verb has three characteristics:

The subject doesn·t do the acting in a sentence. The subject doesn·t do the acting in a sentence.

The verb consists of two or more words, one of The verb consists of two or more words, one of which is in some form of ´to beµ (is, is being, which is in some form of ´to beµ (is, is being,

am, are, was, were, will be, has, or have been,am, are, was, were, will be, has, or have been,

had been, or will have been).had been, or will have been).

The word ´byµ is expressed or implied (by The word ´byµ is expressed or implied (by whom or what) whom or what)




Active verbs help make your sentences more Active verbs help make your sentences more Specific. ´The dean decidedµ is more explicit than ÁSpecific. ´The dean decidedµ is more explicit than Á

decision has been made.µdecision has been made.µ Personal. Ýou will noteµ is both personal and specific;Personal. Ýou will noteµ is both personal and specific;

Ít will be notedµ is impersonal.µÍt will be notedµ is impersonal.µ Concise. The passive requires more words and thusConcise. The passive requires more words and thus

shows both writing and reading. Compare ´Figuresshows both writing and reading. Compare ´Figuresshowµ with Ít is shown by figures.µshowµ with Ít is shown by figures.µ

Emphatic. Passive verbs dull action. Compare ´TheEmphatic. Passive verbs dull action. Compare ´Thestudents held a contestµ with Á contest was held by students held a contestµ with Á contest was held by the students.µthe students.µ




Put A ction in Verbs, not in NounsPut A ction in Verbs, not in Nouns Verbs propel thought; they move ideas in place of Verbs propel thought; they move ideas in place of slowerslower--moving nouns. Seven verbsmoving nouns. Seven verbs ² ² be, give, have,be, give, have,hold, make, put, and takehold, make, put, and take ² ² (in any tense) might be(in any tense) might be

designated as ´deadlyµ when the action they introducedesignated as ´deadlyµ when the action they introduceis hidden in a ´quiet noun.µis hidden in a ´quiet noun.µE.g. Action Hiding in a ´Quietµ Noun: The function of E.g. Action Hiding in a ´Quietµ Noun: The function of this office is thethis office is the collectioncollection of of payments and thepayments and thecompilationcompilation of of statements.statements.

Action in the verb: This office collects payments and Action in the verb: This office collects payments andcompiles statementscompiles statements




Choose Vivid, imageChoose Vivid, image--Building WordsBuilding Words

Among the devices you can use to make your Among the devices you can use to make yourmessages forceful, vivid, and specific are sensory messages forceful, vivid, and specific are sensory

appeals, comparisons, figurative language,appeals, comparisons, figurative language,concrete nouns, and wellconcrete nouns, and well--chosen adjectives andchosen adjectives and

adverbs. But use these devices with caution:adverbs. But use these devices with caution:

business writing uses fewer descriptors thanbusiness writing uses fewer descriptors thandoes a magazine article or fictional writing.does a magazine article or fictional writing.




Sensory a ppealSensory a ppeal

Concrete language often evokes a sensory response inConcrete language often evokes a sensory response inpeople; it appeals to one or more of the five senses.people; it appeals to one or more of the five senses.Such language tends to be more descriptive thanSuch language tends to be more descriptive than

conventional business language. For example, insteadconventional business language. For example, insteadof saying ´it was hot in the factory.µ You might appealof saying ´it was hot in the factory.µ You might appealto both sight and touch by saying ´Sweat trickled downto both sight and touch by saying ´Sweat trickled downthe arms of the line workersµ. Although sensory the arms of the line workersµ. Although sensory

appeals are used primarily in marketing products, they appeals are used primarily in marketing products, they also have a limited place in providing color andalso have a limited place in providing color andspecificity in other forms of business communication.specificity in other forms of business communication.




Com parisonsCom parisons Analogies either figurative or literal) or comparisons Analogies either figurative or literal) or comparisonscan make an unclear idea clear or make an idea morecan make an unclear idea clear or make an idea more vivid. vivid.

Figurative LanguageFigurative LanguageUse figures of speech with caution. When usedUse figures of speech with caution. When usedsparingly they do make an idea more vivid.sparingly they do make an idea more vivid.E.g. Literal (and Dull): Her work in groups wasE.g. Literal (and Dull): Her work in groups wasexemplary.exemplary.More Vivid. Figurative: She could be called ´the spark More Vivid. Figurative: She could be called ´the spark plug of the group.·plug of the group.·




Checklist for ConcretenessChecklist for Concreteness

Were you precise in using figures wherever possible? Were you precise in using figures wherever possible?

Did you use the active voice more than the passive?Did you use the active voice more than the passive?

Is there action in verbs rather than in nouns orIs there action in verbs rather than in nouns orinfinitives?infinitives?

Did you try to occasionally use vivid, imageDid you try to occasionally use vivid, image--building building words? But in business writing, use them sparingly. words? But in business writing, use them sparingly.




Communicating concretely means being specific,Communicating concretely means being specific,definite, and vivid rather than vague and general.definite, and vivid rather than vague and general.

The following guidelines should help you The following guidelines should help youcompose concrete, convincing messages:compose concrete, convincing messages:

Use specific facts and figures for a general wordUse specific facts and figures for a general wordto make your message more concrete andto make your message more concrete andconvincing. Often vague general words areconvincing. Often vague general words are

opinion words; they may have differentopinion words; they may have differentmeanings to the sender and the receiver.meanings to the sender and the receiver.




Put action in your verbs so as to make your sentencePut action in your verbs so as to make your sentencedefinite. To compose strong sentences, you should (i)definite. To compose strong sentences, you should (i)use active rather than passive verbs, and (ii) put actionuse active rather than passive verbs, and (ii) put actionin your verbs instead of nouns or infinitives.in your verbs instead of nouns or infinitives.

Choose vivid, imageChoose vivid, image--building words to make yourbuilding words to make yourmessage forceful, vivid and specific and for thismessage forceful, vivid and specific and for thispurpose you can use such devices as comparisons,purpose you can use such devices as comparisons,

figurative language, concrete instead of abstract nounsfigurative language, concrete instead of abstract nounsand welland well--chosen adjectives and adverbs.chosen adjectives and adverbs.




The following examples will illustrate the point: The following examples will illustrate the point: This computer reproduces sales campaign This computer reproduces sales campaign ² ² letter fast.letter fast.(Vague, general)(Vague, general)

This computer types 1000 personalized 200 This computer types 1000 personalized 200--word campaign word campaign--

letter in one hour. (concrete, convincing)letter in one hour. (concrete, convincing)Please send your cheque for amount soon (vague)Please send your cheque for amount soon (vague)

Please send your cheque for Rs.5, 000 on or before DecemberPlease send your cheque for Rs.5, 000 on or before December31. (concrete, convincing)31. (concrete, convincing)

Our product has won several prices. (vague, general)Our product has won several prices. (vague, general)

Sunshine, as the most effective detergent, has won first prizeSunshine, as the most effective detergent, has won first prizein four national fairs within the past five years. (concrete,in four national fairs within the past five years. (concrete,convincing)convincing)



Out of seven principles of communication, theOut of seven principles of communication, the

first three i.e., correctness, conciseness &first three i.e., correctness, conciseness &completeness are also the essentials of goodcompleteness are also the essentials of good

style; the remaining C·s i.e., courtesy, clarity,style; the remaining C·s i.e., courtesy, clarity,correctness & consideration relate to the utility correctness & consideration relate to the utility

and the effectiveness of writing or the art of and the effectiveness of writing or the art of

composition.composition.



Clarity Clarity



(i) Use short familiar and conversational words, (ii)(i) Use short familiar and conversational words, (ii)Keep the sentences simple and short, (iii) Use shortKeep the sentences simple and short, (iii) Use shortparagraphs, (iv) Avoid unwanted information in theparagraphs, (iv) Avoid unwanted information in themessage, and (v) Use positive language as far asmessage, and (v) Use positive language as far as

possible.possible. Getting the meaning from your head into the head of Getting the meaning from your head into the head of

your readeryour reader ² ² accurately accurately ² ² is the purpose of clarity.is the purpose of clarity.However, we must keep this in mind that it is notHowever, we must keep this in mind that it is not

simple as we all carry around our own uniquesimple as we all carry around our own uniqueinterpretations, ideas, experiences associated withinterpretations, ideas, experiences associated with words. words.



Clarity Clarity



Construct Effective Sentences and Paragra phsConstruct Effective Sentences and Paragra phs

At the core of clarity is the sentence. This grammatical At the core of clarity is the sentence. This grammaticalstatement, when clearly expressed, moves thoughtsstatement, when clearly expressed, moves thoughts within a paragraph. Important characteristics to within a paragraph. Important characteristics to

consider are length, unity, coherence, and emphasis.consider are length, unity, coherence, and emphasis.LengthLength: Generally, short sentences are preferred. The: Generally, short sentences are preferred. The

suggested average sentence length should be about 17suggested average sentence length should be about 17to 20 words. Because variety in sentence length addsto 20 words. Because variety in sentence length adds

interest to writing, adopt a range of from 3 to 30 orinterest to writing, adopt a range of from 3 to 30 ormore words. But when a sentence exceeds 40 words,more words. But when a sentence exceeds 40 words,try to rewrite it into more than one sentence.try to rewrite it into more than one sentence.

Clarity Clarity



UnityUnity: In a sentence: In a sentence ² ² whether simple, compound, or whether simple, compound, orcomplexcomplex ² ² unity means that you·ve one main idea, andunity means that you·ve one main idea, andany other ideas in the sentence must be closely relatedany other ideas in the sentence must be closely relatedto it. ´I like Jim, and the Eiffel tower is in Parisµto it. ´I like Jim, and the Eiffel tower is in Parisµobviously isn·t a unified sentence.obviously isn·t a unified sentence.

CoherenceCoherence: In a coherent sentence the words are: In a coherent sentence the words arecorrectly arranged so that the ideas clearly express thecorrectly arranged so that the ideas clearly express the

intended meaning.P

lace the correct modifier as close asintended meaning.P

lace the correct modifier as close aspossible to the word it is supposed to modify.possible to the word it is supposed to modify.

Clarity Clarity



Em phasisEm phasis: The quality that gives force to: The quality that gives force toimportant parts of sentences and paragraphs isimportant parts of sentences and paragraphs isemphasis. Writers must decide what needsemphasis. Writers must decide what needs

emphasis and then choose correct sentenceemphasis and then choose correct sentencestructure. In a complex sentence the main ideastructure. In a complex sentence the main idea

should be placed in the main clause; the lessshould be placed in the main clause; the less

important points are in subordinate (dependent)important points are in subordinate (dependent)clauses or phrases.clauses or phrases.



Clarity Clarity



(g) Avoid ambiguity (g) Avoid ambiguity ² ² If your message can meanIf your message can meanmore than one thing, it is ambiguous, and (h)more than one thing, it is ambiguous, and (h)Use short sentencesUse short sentences ² ² Whether your Whether your

communication is oral or written, use very shortcommunication is oral or written, use very shortsentences.sentences.



Clarity Clarity



Checklist for ClarityChecklist for Clarity

Choose as precise or as concrete a word as possible.Choose as precise or as concrete a word as possible.

Select words that have a high sense of appropriatenessSelect words that have a high sense of appropriatenessfor the reader.for the reader.

Opt for the familiar word, the one that is notOpt for the familiar word, the one that is notpretentious.pretentious.

Limit average sentence length to 17 to 20 words.Limit average sentence length to 17 to 20 words.

Insert no more than one main idea into a sentence.Insert no more than one main idea into a sentence. Arrange words so that the main idea occurs early in a Arrange words so that the main idea occurs early in a

sentence.sentence.



CourtesyCourtesy

CourtesyCourtesy



Courtesy is more important and advantageous inCourtesy is more important and advantageous inbusiness writing than it is in facebusiness writing than it is in face--toto--facefacecommunication or conversation. Courtesy is morecommunication or conversation. Courtesy is moredesirable while communicating through letters becausedesirable while communicating through letters becausethe readers judge you not by actions but by words. Athe readers judge you not by actions but by words. Acourteous message not only strengthens presentcourteous message not only strengthens presentbusiness friendship but it also makes new friends.business friendship but it also makes new friends.Courtesy is a goodwill builder. Courtesy may beCourtesy is a goodwill builder. Courtesy may beachieved by being (i) Truly tactful, thoughtful, andachieved by being (i) Truly tactful, thoughtful, andappreciative, (ii) Omitting expressions that annoy,appreciative, (ii) Omitting expressions that annoy,distress, or ridicule, (iii) Answering all your maildistress, or ridicule, (iii) Answering all your mailproperly and promptly, and (iv) Apologizing candidly properly and promptly, and (iv) Apologizing candidly and being thankful.and being thankful.



CourtesyCourtesy



Sincerely tactful, thoughtful, and A ppreciative:Sincerely tactful, thoughtful, and A ppreciative:

T act T act : Though few people are intentionally abrupt or: Though few people are intentionally abrupt orblunt, these negative traits are a common cause of blunt, these negative traits are a common cause of discourtesy. Sometimes they stem from a mistaken ideadiscourtesy. Sometimes they stem from a mistaken ideaof conciseness, sometimes from negative personalof conciseness, sometimes from negative personalattitude, sometimes from not knowing the culture of aattitude, sometimes from not knowing the culture of acountry or even groups of people. E.g.country or even groups of people. E.g. T actless, blunt T actless, blunt : I : I

rewrote that letter three times; the point was clearrewrote that letter three times; the point was clear

CourtesyCourtesy



M ore T actful M ore T actful : I·m sorry the point was not clear;: I·m sorry the point was not clear;here is another version.here is another version.

EE--mail messages are short or often informal.mail messages are short or often informal.

Writing a letter to a customer outside the Writing a letter to a customer outside thecompany requires more ´nicetiesµ than writing company requires more ´nicetiesµ than writing

EE--mail within your company mail within your company



CourtesyCourtesy



C hoose Nondiscriminatory Ex pressions C hoose Nondiscriminatory Ex pressions :: Another requirement for the courtesy is the use of Another requirement for the courtesy is the use of nondiscriminatory language that reflects equalnondiscriminatory language that reflects equaltreatment of people regardless of gender, race, ethnictreatment of people regardless of gender, race, ethnic

origin, and physical features.origin, and physical features.Singular Pronouns Singular Pronouns : English lacks a neuter singular: English lacks a neuter singularpronoun signifying ´heµ or ´she.µ Use good judgment.pronoun signifying ´heµ or ´she.µ Use good judgment.Some companies use the masculine he quite freely;Some companies use the masculine he quite freely;

know the culture of the company before making a finalknow the culture of the company before making a finaldecision when writing. When using names, treat eachdecision when writing. When using names, treat eachgender with respect.gender with respect.

CourtesyCourtesyCh kli f CCh kli f C



Checklist for CourtesyChecklist for Courtesy

Ask yourself. Does the communication have a sincere Ask yourself. Does the communication have a sincereyouyou--attitude?attitude?

Have someone else look at your statement. If you·veHave someone else look at your statement. If you·vedoubts about whether it is tactful. Another opinion may doubts about whether it is tactful. Another opinion may

cause you to reconsider making a statement.cause you to reconsider making a statement. Be cautious in using humor in communication. HereBe cautious in using humor in communication. Here

too it pays to have someone else review your words.too it pays to have someone else review your words.

Be careful in using discriminatory language; this meansBe careful in using discriminatory language; this meansbeing aware of gender, race, age, color (nigger is anbeing aware of gender, race, age, color (nigger is anoffensive word for a Negro/black person), creedoffensive word for a Negro/black person), creed(faith), sexual preferences, or ethnic origins.(faith), sexual preferences, or ethnic origins.



CorrectnessCorrectness




Correctness of expression makes the writing Correctness of expression makes the writing clear, free from ambiguity and helps the readersclear, free from ambiguity and helps the readersin easy understanding and prompt response.in easy understanding and prompt response.

Thus clarity and readability are closely related to Thus clarity and readability are closely related toaccuracy. Correctness means that beside theaccuracy. Correctness means that beside thecorrect punctuation, spelling and grammar used;correct punctuation, spelling and grammar used;the type of language and facts reported shouldthe type of language and facts reported should

also be correct.It also means that all otheralso be correct.It also means that all otherprinciples of business communication are alsoprinciples of business communication are also

followed.followed.




At the core of correctness is proper grammar, At the core of correctness is proper grammar,punctuation, and spelling. However, a messagepunctuation, and spelling. However, a messagemay be perfect grammatically and mechanically may be perfect grammatically and mechanically

but still insult or lose a customer. The termbut still insult or lose a customer. The termcorrectness, as applied to business messages,correctness, as applied to business messages,

also means the following three characteristics: (i)also means the following three characteristics: (i)

Use the right level of language; (ii) Check Use the right level of language; (ii) Check

accuracy of figures, facts, and words, and (iii)accuracy of figures, facts, and words, and (iii)Maintain acceptable writing mechanics.Maintain acceptable writing mechanics.




Use the R ight Level of LanguageUse the R ight Level of Language:: There are suggested three levels of language: formal, There are suggested three levels of language: formal,informal, and substandard. Formal writing is ofteninformal, and substandard. Formal writing is oftenassociated with scholarly writing: doctoral dissertations,associated with scholarly writing: doctoral dissertations,scholarly articles, legal documents, topscholarly articles, legal documents, top--levellevelgovernment agreements, and other materials wheregovernment agreements, and other materials whereformality in style is demanded. The style isformality in style is demanded. The style isunconversational usually impersonal, and often containsunconversational usually impersonal, and often containslong and involved sentences. Informal writing is morelong and involved sentences. Informal writing is morecharacteristic of business writing characteristic of business writing ² ² even more so if thateven more so if that writing occurs in an E writing occurs in an E--mail message. Here we usemail message. Here we use words that are short, well known, and conversational words that are short, well known, and conversationalsuch as;such as;




M ore Formal M ore Formal :: participateparticipate ascertainascertain utilizeutilize

interrogateinterrogate

Less Formal Less Formal ::joinjoin find outfind out useusequestionquestion

Avoid substandard language: Avoid substandard language: Using incorrect words,Using incorrect words,incorrect grammar, and faulty pronunciation allincorrect grammar, and faulty pronunciation all

suggests an inability to use good English.suggests an inability to use good English.

Substandard Substandard :: ain·tain·t desirous to irregardlessdesirous to irregardless should of should of

M ore Acce ptable M ore Acce ptable :: isn·t, aren·tisn·t, aren·t desirous of regardlessdesirous of regardless should haveshould have




Check A ccuracy of Figures, Facts, and WordsCheck A ccuracy of Figures, Facts, and Words::It is impossible to convey meaning precisely, throughIt is impossible to convey meaning precisely, through words, from the head of the sender to a receiver. Our words, from the head of the sender to a receiver. Ourgoal is to be as precise as possible, which meansgoal is to be as precise as possible, which means

checking and doublechecking and double--checking to ensure that thechecking to ensure that thefigures, facts, and words you use are correct.figures, facts, and words you use are correct.

Figures and Facts Figures and Facts : (i) Verify your statistical data; (ii): (i) Verify your statistical data; (ii)DoubleDouble--check your total; (iii) Avoid guessing at lawscheck your total; (iii) Avoid guessing at laws

that have an impact on you, the sender, and yourthat have an impact on you, the sender, and yourmessage receiver;message receiver;



W ords T hat C onfuse W ords T hat C onfuse : Our English language is constantly : Our English language is constantly changing. In fact, even dictionaries cannot keep up withchanging. In fact, even dictionaries cannot keep up withthe rapid change in our language. But the dictionary isthe rapid change in our language. But the dictionary isstill a major source for locating correct words and theirstill a major source for locating correct words and their

intended meanings.intended meanings.E.g.E.g. acce pt, exce pt acce pt, exce pt ² ² Acce pt Acce pt is a verb and means to receive.is a verb and means to receive. Exce pt Exce pt is a verb or a preposition and relates to omitting is a verb or a preposition and relates to omitting or leaving out.or leaving out.

Im ply, infer Im ply, infer -- Imply means ´to insinuateµ or ´suggestµ;Imply means ´to insinuateµ or ´suggestµ;infer means ´to conclude.µ A writer implies; the readerinfer means ´to conclude.µ A writer implies; the readerinfers.infers.




Maintain A cce ptable Writing MechanicsMaintain A cce ptable Writing Mechanics::

Careful attention should be given to the mechanicalCareful attention should be given to the mechanicalpart (mechanics, word processing, and appearance of part (mechanics, word processing, and appearance of business messages) of every wellbusiness messages) of every well--written document. written document.Business communication often lends to expensiveBusiness communication often lends to expensiveoperations. Very often when you send importantoperations. Very often when you send importantcommunication you·ll be putting at stake yourcommunication you·ll be putting at stake yourreputation and goodwill. In internal communication,reputation and goodwill. In internal communication, while preparing reports, you are perhaps collecting facts while preparing reports, you are perhaps collecting factsthat will lead to important decisions.that will lead to important decisions.



Checklist for CorrectnessChecklist for Correctness

Select the right level language for your communicationSelect the right level language for your communicationeither formal or informal.either formal or informal.

Realize that informal language is most often used inRealize that informal language is most often used inbusiness communication.business communication.

Check Check ² ² often by letting another person read youroften by letting another person read yourmaterialmaterial ² ² for correct figures, facts, and words.for correct figures, facts, and words.

Apply the principles of accepted mechanics to your Apply the principles of accepted mechanics to your writing. writing.



(iv) Have someone else read your message if the topic(iv) Have someone else read your message if the topicinvolves data, and invite him to comment on theinvolves data, and invite him to comment on the validity of the material, and validity of the material, and

(v) Determine whether a ´factµ has changed over time.(v) Determine whether a ´factµ has changed over time.In other words, there are accepted measures forIn other words, there are accepted measures forstatistical analysis just as there are rules for goodstatistical analysis just as there are rules for goodgrammar. We need to be alert to accuracy because of grammar. We need to be alert to accuracy because of changing rates, regulations, laws, and conditions locally changing rates, regulations, laws, and conditions locally and even internationally.and even internationally.



Preparing Effective Business MessagesPreparing Effective Business Messages



If you·re sending a message to one person, try toIf you·re sending a message to one person, try tosee that person as a member of a group, such assee that person as a member of a group, such asbusiness or professional person or laborer;business or professional person or laborer;

superior, colleague, or subordinate; woman orsuperior, colleague, or subordinate; woman orman; new or longtime customer; young, middleman; new or longtime customer; young, middle--

aged, or elderly. Consider also the personsaged, or elderly. Consider also the persons

educational level, attitudes, and probable valueseducational level, attitudes, and probable values

(often culture(often culture--specific).specific).



C ollect your data C ollect your data :: After you·ve decided what ideas to include, you must After you·ve decided what ideas to include, you mustdetermine whether you need specific facts, figures,determine whether you need specific facts, figures,quotations, or other forms of evidence to support yourquotations, or other forms of evidence to support your

points. Be sure you know your company policies,points. Be sure you know your company policies,procedures, and product details if your messageprocedures, and product details if your messagerequires them. Always check your data on names of requires them. Always check your data on names of individuals, dates, addresses, and statistics.individuals, dates, addresses, and statistics.



While the direct style is often preferred by U.S. While the direct style is often preferred by U.S.business people, the indirect plan is often morebusiness people, the indirect plan is often moreeffective in South American, middle eastern, andeffective in South American, middle eastern, and

Asian countries. Europeans most often prefer Asian countries. Europeans most often prefer

the direct approach. Choose your organizationalthe direct approach. Choose your organizationalplan after you have worked through your initialplan after you have worked through your initialplanning steps. *Organizing your material beforeplanning steps. *Organizing your material before

writing your first draft can prevent rambling and writing your first draft can prevent rambling andunclear messages.unclear messages.




Basic Organizational PlansBasic Organizational Plans The choice of organizational plan depends on a The choice of organizational plan depends on anumber of factors: how you expect your readernumber of factors: how you expect your reader

or listener to react to your message, how muchor listener to react to your message, how muchthis person knows about the topic or situation,this person knows about the topic or situation,

and what his or her cultural conventions are.and what his or her cultural conventions are.




For letters and memos, you can choose one of For letters and memos, you can choose one of four basic organizational plans: the directfour basic organizational plans: the direct--request, goodrequest, good--news, badnews, bad--news, or persuasivenews, or persuasive--

request plan. The first two plans use the directrequest plan. The first two plans use the directapproach, which begins with the main idea; theapproach, which begins with the main idea; the

last two plans use the indirect approach, whichlast two plans use the indirect approach, which

states the main idea later.states the main idea later.




All these plans are flexible guides only, not rigid All these plans are flexible guides only, not rigidrules. Your own judgment must help you deciderules. Your own judgment must help you decidethe best organization and content of yourthe best organization and content of your

message, taking into consideration yourmessage, taking into consideration youraudience·s views, conventions, knowledge, andaudience·s views, conventions, knowledge, and

culture.culture.



The direct The direct--request plan has three basic parts vizrequest plan has three basic parts vizmain idea, explanation, and courteous close,main idea, explanation, and courteous close,

with motivation to action. The good with motivation to action. The good--news plannews plan

also has three basic parts including best news oralso has three basic parts including best news ormain idea, explanation, and positive, friendly main idea, explanation, and positive, friendly

close. *We use the direct approach when theclose. *We use the direct approach when the

audience is receptive to your message.audience is receptive to your message.



Beginnings and EndingsBeginnings and Endings Two of the most important positions in any business Two of the most important positions in any businessmessage are the opening and closing paragraphs.message are the opening and closing paragraphs. Whenever possible, place the main favorable ideas at Whenever possible, place the main favorable ideas at

the beginning and ending of a message.the beginning and ending of a message.Opening Paragra phsOpening Paragra phs::

The opening of a message determines whether the The opening of a message determines whether thereader continues reading, puts the message aside forreader continues reading, puts the message aside for

later, or discards it.later, or discards it.




Choose o penings a ppro priate for message pur poseChoose o penings a ppro priate for message pur poseand readerand reader

M ain Idea or Good M ain Idea or Good- -News Subject First News Subject First : Begin with the main: Begin with the mainidea or goodidea or good--news subject when you are sure the readernews subject when you are sure the reader will consider the information favorable or neutral. It is will consider the information favorable or neutral. It is

also easy for the reader to understand the main idea if italso easy for the reader to understand the main idea if itis in the first paragraph. These openings are desirable inis in the first paragraph. These openings are desirable indirectdirect--request, neutral, and goodrequest, neutral, and good--news messages. Buffernews messages. Bufferfirst for badfirst for bad--news messages. Attentionnews messages. Attention--getting getting statements first for persuasive requests.statements first for persuasive requests.




Cl i P hCl i P h



Closing Paragra phsClosing Paragra phs:: Your closing is more likely to motivate the reader to act Your closing is more likely to motivate the reader to actas required if it is appropriately strong, clear and polite.as required if it is appropriately strong, clear and polite.Here you have the opportunity to bring final focus onHere you have the opportunity to bring final focus on

the desired action and leave a sense of goodwill withthe desired action and leave a sense of goodwill withthe reader. What you say in the closing should reinforcethe reader. What you say in the closing should reinforcethe central purpose of your message. Closing should bethe central purpose of your message. Closing should bestrong, clear, and polite; they should leave a sense of strong, clear, and polite; they should leave a sense of closure and goodwill with the receiver.closure and goodwill with the receiver.


k A l d lk A l d l



(i) Make Action Request Clear and Complete wit(i) Make Action Request Clear and Complete witthe Five W·s and the H: Whenever you·rethe Five W·s and the H: Whenever you·rerequesting action by your reader or by someonerequesting action by your reader or by someone

else, your closing paragraph will usually be moreelse, your closing paragraph will usually be moreeffective if you make clear what, who, how,effective if you make clear what, who, how,

where, when, and if appropriate, why. where, when, and if appropriate, why.


h d h ? Cl f h ih d h ? Cl f h i



What and Who? Clear statement of the action What and Who? Clear statement of the actionyou desire your reader (or someone else) to take.you desire your reader (or someone else) to take.

How and Where? Make action easy. GiveHow and Where? Make action easy. Give

complete instructions regarding how and wherecomplete instructions regarding how and whereif you do not include a form and envelope.if you do not include a form and envelope.


Wh d Wh ?Wh d Wh ?



When and Why? When and Why?Name the date (and the exact hour, if pertinent)Name the date (and the exact hour, if pertinent) whenever you need the reply by a certain time. Tactfully whenever you need the reply by a certain time. Tactfully state the reason you need it thenstate the reason you need it then ² ² perhaps to meet aperhaps to meet a

report or printers deadline or to use in a speech you arereport or printers deadline or to use in a speech you aregiving at a certain meeting. When appropriate, mentiongiving at a certain meeting. When appropriate, mentionsome benefits the reader will gain by prompt action.some benefits the reader will gain by prompt action.*Be careful when setting precise deadlines with foreign*Be careful when setting precise deadlines with foreigncompanies; some will consider a deadline only aftercompanies; some will consider a deadline only after

extensive discussion.extensive discussion.


(ii) E d P i i C Th h I l d(ii) E d P i i C Th h I l d



(ii) End on a Positive, Courteous Thought: Include any (ii) End on a Positive, Courteous Thought: Include any apologies and negatives before the last paragraph.apologies and negatives before the last paragraph.

Be friendly Be friendly -- Offer to help the reader further, if that isOffer to help the reader further, if that isappropriate. Words like please or will you help softenappropriate. Words like please or will you help soften

commands.commands.Show appreciationShow appreciation ² ² Everyone likes sincere praise whenEveryone likes sincere praise whenearned. But do not thank people for doing something earned. But do not thank people for doing something before they have agreed to do it.before they have agreed to do it.


O i ll dd l Wh l dO i ll dd l Wh l d



Occasionally add a personal note. When unrelated toOccasionally add a personal note. When unrelated tothe subject discussed in the messages, a personal note isthe subject discussed in the messages, a personal note isappropriate, sometimes added as a last paragraph, oftenappropriate, sometimes added as a last paragraph, oftenhandwritten.handwritten.

(iii) Keep LastP

aragraph Concise and Correct: Trim(iii) Keep LastP

aragraph Concise and Correct: Trimyour last paragraph to five or fewer lines of completeyour last paragraph to five or fewer lines of completesentences. Avoid trite expressions and unnecessary sentences. Avoid trite expressions and unnecessary repetition. Omit discussion of trivial details. Userepetition. Omit discussion of trivial details. Userelatively short and complete sentences.relatively short and complete sentences.


C i B i MC i B i M



Com posing Business MessagesCom posing Business MessagesDrafting your message: When you have completed theDrafting your message: When you have completed thefive planning steps and considered your openings andfive planning steps and considered your openings andclosings, you are ready for your first draft. Your firstclosings, you are ready for your first draft. Your first

draft is often the most difficult to write. The importantdraft is often the most difficult to write. The importantthing is to get the most important information in yourthing is to get the most important information in yourmessage on paper early. No two people prepare theirmessage on paper early. No two people prepare theirfirst drafts the same way.first drafts the same way.




R i iR i i



R evising your messagesR evising your messagesRevision means adding necessary and deleting Revision means adding necessary and deleting unnecessary information, making sure your points areunnecessary information, making sure your points areadequately supported, checking your organizationaladequately supported, checking your organizational

approach, and reviewing your language in terms of theapproach, and reviewing your language in terms of theseven C·s. After you finish the first draft of a message,seven C·s. After you finish the first draft of a message,you must evaluate its content, organization, and style.you must evaluate its content, organization, and style. The following are suggestions for revising: The following are suggestions for revising:


(i) D li h it ?(i) D li h it ?



(i) Does your message accomplish its purpose?(i) Does your message accomplish its purpose?(ii) Have you chosen the most effective organizational(ii) Have you chosen the most effective organizationalplan? (iii) Are your points supported by adequateplan? (iii) Are your points supported by adequatematerial? (iv) Is your language complete, concise,material? (iv) Is your language complete, concise,

considerate, concrete, clear, courteous, and correct?considerate, concrete, clear, courteous, and correct?(v) Have you used variety in sentence structure?(v) Have you used variety in sentence structure?


If i l d i l d l i IfIf i l d i l d l i If



If you include necessary material, delete it. If If you include necessary material, delete it. If you need additional information, get it. Change,you need additional information, get it. Change,move, add, and delete as much information asmove, add, and delete as much information as

you need to create an effective message. Theyou need to create an effective message. Thebest writers confirm again and again thatbest writers confirm again and again that

revision is the key to good writing,revision is the key to good writing,




SummarySummary



SummarySummaryFive planning steps are basic to effective writing: (i)Five planning steps are basic to effective writing: (i)identify your purpose, (2) analyze your audience, (3)identify your purpose, (2) analyze your audience, (3)choose your ideas, (4) collect your data, and (5)choose your ideas, (4) collect your data, and (5)organize your message.organize your message.

Western countries prefer the direct (deductive) Western countries prefer the direct (deductive)approach; they like to state the main idea, the mainapproach; they like to state the main idea, the mainpurpose early. It is the preferred organizationalpurpose early. It is the preferred organizationalapproach in business. Yet, be conscious of yourapproach in business. Yet, be conscious of yourmessage receiver and know whether he or she will bemessage receiver and know whether he or she will bereceptive to your message.receptive to your message.


Other countries such as those in South America AsiaOther countries such as those in South America Asia



Other countries, such as those in South America, Asia,Other countries, such as those in South America, Asia,or the Middle East, prefer the indirect (inductive)or the Middle East, prefer the indirect (inductive)approach, in which more prefatory material is providedapproach, in which more prefatory material is providedbefore arriving at the conclusion, recommendation, orbefore arriving at the conclusion, recommendation, or

action step.action step.Certainly opening paragraphs and closing paragraphsCertainly opening paragraphs and closing paragraphsare singularly important. Opening statements attemptare singularly important. Opening statements attemptto gain reader attention; ending statements provide easy to gain reader attention; ending statements provide easy

action or precise steps to take.action or precise steps to take.


Revising and editing are central to good writingRevising and editing are central to good writing



Revising and editing are central to good writing.Revising and editing are central to good writing.Here you verify the existence of the seven C·s,Here you verify the existence of the seven C·s,here you read for sentence structure, languagehere you read for sentence structure, language

clarity and correct grammar, spelling, andclarity and correct grammar, spelling, andpunctuation. Second language writers shouldpunctuation. Second language writers should

read their material aloud, because a person·s oralread their material aloud, because a person·s oral

language recognition is often better than writtenlanguage recognition is often better than written

language recognition.language recognition.

Letter WritingLetter Writing

The medium used most often for writtenThe medium used most often for written



The medium used most often for written The medium used most often for writtenmessages to persons outside your organization ismessages to persons outside your organization isthe business letter. Your letter·s appearancethe business letter. Your letter·s appearance

conveys nonverbal impressions that affect aconveys nonverbal impressions that affect areader·s attitude even before that person readsreader·s attitude even before that person reads

the letter.the letter.


Business LettersBusiness Letters



Business LettersBusiness Letters A business letter is more formal than a personal A business letter is more formal than a personalletter. It should have a margin of at least oneletter. It should have a margin of at least one

inch on all four edges. There are eight standardinch on all four edges. There are eight standardparts to a business letter.parts to a business letter.




The

Heading

The

Heading

l h d d dl h d d d Thi i h dd ( llThi i h dd ( ll



he eadinghe eadingletterhead and date letterhead and date . This contains the return address (usually two or. This contains the return address (usually two orthree lines) with the date on the last line. Sometimes it may bethree lines) with the date on the last line. Sometimes it may benecessary to include a line after the address and before the datenecessary to include a line after the address and before the datefor a phone number, fax number, Efor a phone number, fax number, E--mail address, or something mail address, or something

similar. Often a line is skipped between the address and date.similar. Often a line is skipped between the address and date.Modern letterheads usually occupy no more than 2 inches at theModern letterheads usually occupy no more than 2 inches at thetop of the page. Letterhead information should include the firm·stop of the page. Letterhead information should include the firm·sname, address, ZIP code, telephone number, and sometimes faxname, address, ZIP code, telephone number, and sometimes faxnumber, Internet address, nature of business, and name of thenumber, Internet address, nature of business, and name of the

department are also included.department are also included.



Letter writingLetter writing

The Inside

A ddress

The Inside

A ddressThi i h dd di l M kThi i h dd di l M k



he Inside ddresshe Inside ddress.. This is the address you are sending your letter to. Make This is the address you are sending your letter to. Makeit as complete as possible. An inside address also helpsit as complete as possible. An inside address also helpsthe recipient route the letter properly and can helpthe recipient route the letter properly and can helpshould the envelope be damaged and the addressshould the envelope be damaged and the address

becomes readable. Skip a line after the heading beforebecomes readable. Skip a line after the heading beforethe inside address. Skip another line after the insidethe inside address. Skip another line after the insideaddress before the salutation. Order of items is (1)address before the salutation. Order of items is (1)courtesy title, (2) name, and (3) executive orcourtesy title, (2) name, and (3) executive orprofessional title, if any. All parts are typed singleprofessional title, if any. All parts are typed single--

spaced.spaced.




The Body

The BodyTh b d i itt t t D p di th l tt t lTh b d i itt t t D p di th l tt t l



e odye ody The body is written as text. Depending on the letter style you The body is written as text. Depending on the letter style youchoose, paragraphs may be indented. Regardless of format, skipchoose, paragraphs may be indented. Regardless of format, skipa line between paragraphs. Skip a line between the salutation anda line between paragraphs. Skip a line between the salutation andthe body. Skip a line between the body and the close. Generally the body. Skip a line between the body and the close. Generally

the body of all letters should be typed singlethe body of all letters should be typed single--spaced, with doublespaced, with doublespacing between paragraphs, before and after the salutation, andspacing between paragraphs, before and after the salutation, andbefore the complimentary close. When the body of a letter is twobefore the complimentary close. When the body of a letter is twoor more pages, each page beyond the first is headed by theor more pages, each page beyond the first is headed by theaddressee·s name, page number, and date. The information isaddressee·s name, page number, and date. The information is

typed at the top of the sheet with the same margins as the firsttyped at the top of the sheet with the same margins as the firstpage.page.




The Com plimentary Close The Com plimentary Close..This short polite closing ends with a comma It is either at theThis short polite closing ends with a comma It is either at the



This short, polite closing ends with a comma. It is either at the This short, polite closing ends with a comma. It is either at theleft margin or its left edge is in the center, depending on theleft margin or its left edge is in the center, depending on thebusiness letter style, that you use. It begins at the same columnbusiness letter style, that you use. It begins at the same columnthe heading does. The block style is becoming more widely usedthe heading does. The block style is becoming more widely usedbecause there is no indenting to bother with in the whole letter.because there is no indenting to bother with in the whole letter.

We use Sincerely, Sincerely yours or Yours sincerely as the most We use Sincerely, Sincerely yours or Yours sincerely as the mostpopular complimentary close. When the letter is informal,popular complimentary close. When the letter is informal,additional complimentary closes are often used, such as Warmadditional complimentary closes are often used, such as Warmregards, Best regards, and Best wishes. Do not be surprised toregards, Best regards, and Best wishes. Do not be surprised tosee letters from the U.K. or Asia closing with Faithfully yours, orsee letters from the U.K. or Asia closing with Faithfully yours, orFaithfully; tradition influences their use of that closing.Faithfully; tradition influences their use of that closing.




The Signature Line The Signature Line

Skip two lines (unless you have unusually wide or narrow lines)Skip two lines (unless you have unusually wide or narrow lines)



Skip two lines (unless you have unusually wide or narrow lines)Skip two lines (unless you have unusually wide or narrow lines)and type out the name to be signed. The signature should startand type out the name to be signed. The signature should startdirectly above the first letter of the signature line in the spacedirectly above the first letter of the signature line in the spacebetween the close and the signature line. You can include in thebetween the close and the signature line. You can include in thesignature area several identifications: name of your company,signature area several identifications: name of your company,

your signature, your typewritten name, and your business title. If your signature, your typewritten name, and your business title. If printed on the letterhead, your company name need not be typedprinted on the letterhead, your company name need not be typedafter the complimentary close. However, if you wish to includeafter the complimentary close. However, if you wish to includeit, type it in capital letters a double space under theit, type it in capital letters a double space under thecomplimentary close. Your signature is pencomplimentary close. Your signature is pen--written above your written above yourtyped name, which appears three to five lines below thetyped name, which appears three to five lines below the

company name (if included) and the complimentary close.company name (if included) and the complimentary close.




The R eference SectionThe R eference Section..



T T ..It may include information about the messageIt may include information about the messagecomposer, the typist, and sometimes word processing composer, the typist, and sometimes word processing data. Your initials as the composer of the messagedata. Your initials as the composer of the message

along with those of your typist usually appear at the leftalong with those of your typist usually appear at the leftmargin on the same line with the last line of themargin on the same line with the last line of thesignature area (your name or title) or one or two linessignature area (your name or title) or one or two linesbelow that.below that.




Letter stylesLetter styles



Letter stylesLetter stylesBusiness letters are usually arranged in one of Business letters are usually arranged in one of the following letter styles.the following letter styles.

Full Full- -blockblock..Every line begins at the left margin. This is aEvery line begins at the left margin. This is a

common format because it is quick and easy tocommon format because it is quick and easy to

set up.set up.

DIGIGR A PHICS, INC.DIGIGR A PHICS, INC.

222 49 TH St.222 49 TH St.

City, NY 10012City, NY 10012--00000000

Jan 23, 2009 Jan 23, 2009

REGISTERED MAILREGISTERED MAIL

Mr. Kevin George, ConsultantMr. Kevin George, Consultant

Office Supply Corp.Office Supply Corp.

111 Computer Notices Building 111 Computer Notices Building 460 River Street460 River Street



Chicago, IL 60045Chicago, IL 60045--66776677

Dear Mr. George:Dear Mr. George:

DIGIGRAPHICS, Inc. can supply you with forms for all kinds of business letters. This fullDIGIGRAPHICS, Inc. can supply you with forms for all kinds of business letters. This full--block block letter is typed singleletter is typed single--spaced with a blank line between paragraphs. Every line begins at the leftspaced with a blank line between paragraphs. Every line begins at the leftmargin. ́ REGISTERED MAILµ is a double space from the date.margin. ́ REGISTERED MAILµ is a double space from the date.

Many firms prefer this format because of its simplicity and case in setting up on computers orMany firms prefer this format because of its simplicity and case in setting up on computers or word processors. The writer·s company name may be typed under the complimentary close, as word processors. The writer·s company name may be typed under the complimentary close, ashere, or omitted.here, or omitted.

Other accepted forms of reference initials could be used with this letter style. Also, theOther accepted forms of reference initials could be used with this letter style. Also, the´REGISTERED MAILµ notation could be typed at the bottom, a double space after the´REGISTERED MAILµ notation could be typed at the bottom, a double space after thereference initials. The postscript, handwritten or typewritten, would then be placed a double spacereference initials. The postscript, handwritten or typewritten, would then be placed a double spaceunder ´REGISTERED MAIL.µunder ´REGISTERED MAIL.µ

Sincerely yours,Sincerely yours,

DIGIGRAPHICS, INC.DIGIGRAPHICS, INC.

Andrea Forman, Manager Customer Service Department Andrea Forman, Manager Customer Service Department

MB/moMB/mo

Figure 1.2 Figure 1.2 Full Full- -block letter style, with mixed punctuation, Length: short block letter style, with mixed punctuation, Length: short


M odified

M odified- -blockblock..Th d l l dTh d l l d



ff The date, complimentary close, and signature sections The date, complimentary close, and signature sectionsbegin at the horizontal center of the page or are placedbegin at the horizontal center of the page or are placedso that they end near the rightso that they end near the right--hand margin. Attentionhand margin. Attention

and subject lines may be indented, centered, or begin atand subject lines may be indented, centered, or begin atthe left margin, where all other parts begin. This letterthe left margin, where all other parts begin. This letterstyle is used often and is attractive on the page.style is used often and is attractive on the page.



M difi dM difi d bl k ith p ph i d t dbl k ith p ph i d t d



M odified M odified- -block with paragra phs indented block with paragra phs indented ..

LE TTER HE A DLE TTER HE A D

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________

January 23, 2009 January 23, 2009Research & Development DepartmentResearch & Development DepartmentFutura Graphics Company Futura Graphics Company 114 Fourth Avenue, NE114 Fourth Avenue, NESan Obispo, CA 55577San Obispo, CA 55577--00000000

Attention: Ms. Fenottus Attention: Ms. Fenottus

Research Development Team:Research Development Team:

Among other formats available for your business letters is this modified Among other formats available for your business letters is this modified--block style with paragraph indentations. The date may block style with paragraph indentations. The date may be centered orbe centered orplaced to the right of center, so long as itplaced to the right of center, so long as itdoes not extend into the right margin In this example the date begins to the right of centerdoes not extend into the right margin In this example the date begins to the right of center



does not extend into the right margin. In this example, the date begins to the right of center.does not extend into the right margin. In this example, the date begins to the right of center.

The attention line here is at the left margin, two lines below the inside address, and underlined. It could also have been ce The attention line here is at the left margin, two lines below the inside address, and underlined. It could also have been cenntered and typed in alltered and typed in allcapital letters without underscoring. If you wanted Ms. Fenottus· name in the salutation, you would type her first name or tw capital letters without underscoring. If you wanted Ms. Fenottus· name in the salutation, you would type her first name or two io initials and her surnamenitials and her surnameabove ́ Research & Development Department.µ Then you would omit the attention line and use ́ Dear Ms. Fenottusµ in the salutatiabove ́ Research & Development Department.µ Then you would omit the attention line and use ́ Dear Ms. Fenottusµ in the salutation.on.

Like the date, the complimentary close begins at the center of the page. The company name is omitted, but it could have beenLike the date, the complimentary close begins at the center of the page. The company name is omitted, but it could have been iincluded. Also, thencluded. Also, thesigner·s name, instead of being at the left, could have been typed in the usual placesigner·s name, instead of being at the left, could have been typed in the usual place--or just move above Ćreative Director,µ anor just move above Ćreative Director,µ and reference initials could thend reference initials could thenhave been used at the left margin.have been used at the left margin.

The term énclosure 3µ in the reference section shows that three additional items are being enclosed in the envelope. Each di The term énclosure 3µ in the reference section shows that three additional items are being enclosed in the envelope. Each dif fferent item isferent item iscounted as one regardless of the number of pages it has. The notation ćµ indicates that a copy is being sent to Mr. Solomon.counted as one regardless of the number of pages it has. The notation ćµ indicates that a copy is being sent to Mr. Solomon. If If you have more than oneyou have more than onename, you can list them alphabetically or by rank.name, you can list them alphabetically or by rank.

The right The right--hand margins are not ´justifiedµ (even) in this letter, but that is an option you have for this and all other letterhand margins are not ´justifiedµ (even) in this letter, but that is an option you have for this and all other letter styles.styles.

Very truly yours, Very truly yours,

George WellsGeorge Wells

Creative DirectorCreative DirectorEnclosure 3Enclosure 3

c: Mr. James Solomonc: Mr. James SolomonFigure 1.3Figure 1.3 M odified M odified- -block letter style, with paragra ph indentation and mixed punctuation. Length: long block letter style, with paragra ph indentation and mixed punctuation. Length: long


A M S ( Administrative M anagement Society) sim plified A M S ( Administrative M anagement Society) sim plified ll AMS h b i i h 1950 b iAMS h b i i h 1950 b i



( g y) p f( g y) p fstyle style . AMS has been in use since the 1950s, but is. AMS has been in use since the 1950s, but isnot widely used.not widely used.

The typist initials are at the left margin two lines below the signer·s name. The typist initials are at the left margin two lines below the signer·s name.Enclosures and names of persons receiving copies are on separate lines below Enclosures and names of persons receiving copies are on separate lines below the initials.the initials.

Mr. St. John, the simplified letter not only saves time but also avoidsMr. St. John, the simplified letter not only saves time but also avoidsthe risk of selecting an inappropriate salutationthe risk of selecting an inappropriate salutation ² ² or using ´Dearor using ´Dear

(name)µ when the reader is in no way ́ dear.µ It is also helpful when(name)µ when the reader is in no way ́ dear.µ It is also helpful wheni i d d d · k ·i i d d d · k ·



you are writing a department and don·t know anyone·s name oryou are writing a department and don·t know anyone·s name or whether its members include men, women, or both. whether its members include men, women, or both.

For most business letters, correspondents prefer to use theFor most business letters, correspondents prefer to use thetraditional forms with salutations and complimentary closes.traditional forms with salutations and complimentary closes.

JANICE C, PETINA JANICE C, PETINA--PUBLIC RELATIONS DIRECTOR PUBLIC RELATIONS DIRECTOR

momoEnclosureEnclosureCC: Jon Sanchez, Jennifer WaitsCC: Jon Sanchez, Jennifer Waits

Figure 1.4Figure 1.4 A M

S sim plified style; full A M

S sim plified style; full- -block; o pen punctuation. Length: medium; Side margins: 11/2 block; o pen punctuation. Length: medium; Side margins: 11/2 inches; line length: 51/2 inches.inches; line length: 51/2 inches.


Optional Parts of the Letter:Optional Parts of the Letter:h f h l bh f h l b



pp When appropriate, any of these optional parts can be When appropriate, any of these optional parts can beincluded: (1) attention line, (2) subject line, (3)included: (1) attention line, (2) subject line, (3)enclosure(s), (4) copy notation, (5) file or accountenclosure(s), (4) copy notation, (5) file or account

number and mailing notation, and (6) postscript.number and mailing notation, and (6) postscript.


Attention Line Attention Line :: An attention line is useful when you want your message to go to An attention line is useful when you want your message to go to

d ddd dd



a certain department or when someone other than the addresseea certain department or when someone other than the addressee will take care of your message. Placement of the attention line is will take care of your message. Placement of the attention line isusually between the inside address and salutation, with a blank usually between the inside address and salutation, with a blank line before and after it.line before and after it.

Subject LineSubject Line::Considered part of the body of the letter, the subject line helpsConsidered part of the body of the letter, the subject line helpstell your reader at a glance what your letter is about. It also helpstell your reader at a glance what your letter is about. It also helpsin filing. The subject line may include or omit the word subject.in filing. The subject line may include or omit the word subject.It is usually placed on the second line below the salutation andIt is usually placed on the second line below the salutation and

cantered, or it may be placed flush with left margin.cantered, or it may be placed flush with left margin.


Enclosure NotationEnclosure Notation

An enclosure or attachment notation is included to remind your An enclosure or attachment notation is included to remind your



yyreader to check for additional pages of information. To remindreader to check for additional pages of information. To remind

whoever prepares your envelope for mailing that something is to whoever prepares your envelope for mailing that something is tobe enclosed, the enclosure notation is usually typed a single orbe enclosed, the enclosure notation is usually typed a single or

double space under the reference initials.double space under the reference initials.Co p y NotationCo p y Notation

When persons other than the addressee will receive a copy of When persons other than the addressee will receive a copy of your message, you note by writing ć,µ ´pc,· ćopy,µ or ćcµyour message, you note by writing ć,µ ´pc,· ćopy,µ or ćcµfollowed by the names of these persons just below the referencefollowed by the names of these persons just below the reference

initials or the enclosure notation.initials or the enclosure notation.


File or A

ccount Number and Mailing NotationFile or A

ccount Number and Mailing Notation To aid To aidin filing and quick retrieval for both the senders andin filing and quick retrieval for both the senders and



g qg qreader·s company, some firms require that file, loan, orreader·s company, some firms require that file, loan, oraccount number be typed above the body of the letter.account number be typed above the body of the letter.

Postscri ptPostscri pt

To emphasize a point already in your letter or to To emphasize a point already in your letter or toinclude a brief personal message unrelated to the letter,include a brief personal message unrelated to the letter,a postscript, typed or handwritten may be added below a postscript, typed or handwritten may be added below everything else typed on the page.everything else typed on the page.


Letter LayoutLetter Layout::Most American business letters use mixed punctuation, with aMost American business letters use mixed punctuation, with a

l f ll i h l i d f hl f ll i h l i d f h



colon following the salutation and a comma after thecolon following the salutation and a comma after thecomplimentary close.complimentary close.

Punctuation StylesPunctuation Styles

Open and mixed punctuation are the two forms most used inOpen and mixed punctuation are the two forms most used in American business letters. In open punctuation, no line of any American business letters. In open punctuation, no line of any letter part (except the body) has any punctuation at the endletter part (except the body) has any punctuation at the endunless an abbreviation requires a period. In mixed punctuation, aunless an abbreviation requires a period. In mixed punctuation, acolon follows the complimentary close. Foreign writers,colon follows the complimentary close. Foreign writers,especially those in Asia and Great Britain, use a comma in placeespecially those in Asia and Great Britain, use a comma in place

of a colon after the salutation.of a colon after the salutation.


Letter writing checklist: a faultfinderLetter writing checklist: a faultfinder

The rules of letter writing: has the writer used them properly? The rules of letter writing: has the writer used them properly?



g p p yg p p y Are the formalities (e.g. salutation and close) suitable for this Are the formalities (e.g. salutation and close) suitable for thiskind of letter?kind of letter?

Contents: Does the writer stick to the point?Contents: Does the writer stick to the point?

The way the letter is written: Too free The way the letter is written: Too free--andand--easy? Too stiff?easy? Too stiff?Pompous? Clear? Simple/ Direct? Brief? Long Pompous? Clear? Simple/ Direct? Brief? Long--winded? Too winded? Tooexcitable? Sounds the right/wrong note?excitable? Sounds the right/wrong note?

Plan of Letter: Clear and logical? Does each part follow onPlan of Letter: Clear and logical? Does each part follow onsensibly, or is the writer going around in circles?sensibly, or is the writer going around in circles?


Paragraphs and sentences: Well made/Paragraphs and sentences: Well made/Clumsy?Clumsy?



g pg pClumsy?Clumsy?

Punctuation and spelling: Accurate? Careless?Punctuation and spelling: Accurate? Careless?

The master questions: Is this letter likely to get The master questions: Is this letter likely to getthe result that its writer wants?the result that its writer wants?


The faults to be avoided: (i) Popular and over The faults to be avoided: (i) Popular and over--worked workedexpressions. E.g. Ít is anticipated thatµ instead of Í expect«µ;expressions. E.g. Ít is anticipated thatµ instead of Í expect«µ;í hi d d · i d f ´ d µ (ii) W ldí hi d d · i d f ´ d µ (ii) W ld bb



ín this day and age· instead of ńowadaysµ. (ii) Wouldín this day and age· instead of ńowadaysµ. (ii) Would--bebeímportantµ words. E.g. ´purchaseµ instead of ´buyµ; ´resideµímportantµ words. E.g. ´purchaseµ instead of ´buyµ; ´resideµinstead of ´liveµ. (iii) Roundabout expressions. E.g. Ín theinstead of ´liveµ. (iii) Roundabout expressions. E.g. Ín theregion ofµ instead of áboutµ; ´with all due expeditionµ insteadregion ofµ instead of áboutµ; ´with all due expeditionµ instead

of ´ as quickly as possibleµ. Hoping to hear from you soon, weof ´ as quickly as possibleµ. Hoping to hear from you soon, webeg to remain. Instead, say: We hope to hear from you soon. Try beg to remain. Instead, say: We hope to hear from you soon. Try to be simple, direct, and brief. Ask yourself: Have I put this into be simple, direct, and brief. Ask yourself: Have I put this inthe shortest and clearest possible way?the shortest and clearest possible way?


If you·re starting or initiating the correspondence: (a) InIf you·re starting or initiating the correspondence: (a) Inyour opening sentence or paragraph, you shouldyour opening sentence or paragraph, you should



your opening sentence or paragraph, you shouldyour opening sentence or paragraph, you shouldidentify yourself (tell who you are, give your reason foridentify yourself (tell who you are, give your reason for writing this letter, or mention your point of contact. (b) writing this letter, or mention your point of contact. (b)

Identify your letter (c) Start right off with your firstIdentify your letter (c) Start right off with your firstmain point (d) Open your letter so as to attract yourmain point (d) Open your letter so as to attract yourreader·s attention, arouse his interest, and make himreader·s attention, arouse his interest, and make him want to read the rest of your letter. want to read the rest of your letter.


In the body or middle of your letter, (a) startIn the body or middle of your letter, (a) startwith your first main point and complete thiswith your first main point and complete this



y y ( )y y ( ) with your first main point and complete this with your first main point and complete thispoint before going to your next one. Presentpoint before going to your next one. Present

your second and third main point in separateyour second and third main point in separate

paragraphs. The ending of your letter may beparagraphs. The ending of your letter may beone sentence or one short paragraph. It must beone sentence or one short paragraph. It must be

clear, be courteous, be concise, and be complete.clear, be courteous, be concise, and be complete.


MemorandumsMemorandumsThe memorandum is an intra organization written document. ItThe memorandum is an intra organization written document. It



The memorandum is an intra organization written document. It The memorandum is an intra organization written document. Itis the most common form of written communication betweenis the most common form of written communication betweenpeople or departments. For memorandums (internalpeople or departments. For memorandums (internalcommunication) the stationery, parts, layout, and envelopes arecommunication) the stationery, parts, layout, and envelopes are

different from those of letters.different from those of letters.


Parts of the MemorandumParts of the Memorandum

Standard memos consist of a heading with TO, FROM,Standard memos consist of a heading with TO, FROM,



SUBJECT, and DATE. On preprinted office forms, the wordSUBJECT, and DATE. On preprinted office forms, the wordMESSAGE may also appear. These parts can be programmed toMESSAGE may also appear. These parts can be programmed toappear automatically with just a keystroke in a word processing appear automatically with just a keystroke in a word processing system. Optional parts are such items as reference initials,system. Optional parts are such items as reference initials,enclosures, file number, routing information, and the sender·senclosures, file number, routing information, and the sender·sdepartment and telephone number. Unlike the letter, the memodepartment and telephone number. Unlike the letter, the memorequires no inside address, salutation, complimentary close,requires no inside address, salutation, complimentary close,telephone or full signature.telephone or full signature.


It is not unusual to sign the memorandum at the endIt is not unusual to sign the memorandum at the endalong with a personal handwritten note. That is morealong with a personal handwritten note. That is more



g pg pthe case with Britishthe case with British--influenced writing, in which ainfluenced writing, in which acomplimentary close is added. Some companies havecomplimentary close is added. Some companies have

combination messagecombination message--reply form that provide lines forreply form that provide lines forboth the writer·s and the reader·s signatures. Using theboth the writer·s and the reader·s signatures. Using thecombination messagecombination message--andand--reply memorandum form isreply memorandum form isan especially good time and expense saver for bothan especially good time and expense saver for both

sender and receiver.sender and receiver.

MEMOR A NDUMMEMOR A NDUM (Com pany name)(Com pany name)

D ATED ATE: ___________________ : ___________________ FROMFROM:: __________________ __________________

TO TO: ______________________ : ______________________ TELEPHONE TELEPHONE: _____________ : _____________

DEP TDEP T: ____________________ : ____________________

SUBJEC TSUBJEC T: _________________ : _________________



For yourFor your

Message, Comment, or Reply Message, Comment, or Reply APPROVAL INFORMATION APPROVAL INFORMATION COMMENTCOMMENT

WR I TE I T WR I TE I T DATE I TDATE I T SIGN I TSIGN I T

Oral messages waste time, cause annoying Oral messages waste time, cause annoying

Interruptions, and are likely to be misunderstood orInterruptions, and are likely to be misunderstood or

forgottenforgotten

Figure 1.5 Figure 1.5 O ffice interde partmental memorandum.O ffice interde partmental memorandum.


HeadingsHeadings

Whether to include a courtesy title after your ¶TO· Whether to include a courtesy title after your ¶TO·



y yy yheading depends on your relationship with yourheading depends on your relationship with yourreceiver; you omit your title before your own name.receiver; you omit your title before your own name. What you write after the TO, FROM, and DATE will What you write after the TO, FROM, and DATE will vary with the situation and your organization·s vary with the situation and your organization·spractices. A courtesy title such as Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms.practices. A courtesy title such as Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms.Before your reader·s name may be used, depending onBefore your reader·s name may be used, depending onyour relationship with the reader (superior oryour relationship with the reader (superior or

subordinate) and the degree of formality within yoursubordinate) and the degree of formality within yourorganization.organization.


You omit the title before your name. Also, if the You omit the title before your name. Also, if themessage is a temporary message, not to be filed, and if message is a temporary message, not to be filed, and if



you and the writer work together regularly, you may you and the writer work together regularly, you may merely use initials, first name, or nickname after TOmerely use initials, first name, or nickname after TOand FROM, and use all figures or abbreviations for theand FROM, and use all figures or abbreviations for the

date. Whether you use initials, first names, or wholedate. Whether you use initials, first names, or wholenames, you must sign or initial your memo. Usually names, you must sign or initial your memo. Usually your signature is written above or to the right of youryour signature is written above or to the right of yourprinted name. Occasionally, the signature is put at theprinted name. Occasionally, the signature is put at the

bottom of the memo.bottom of the memo.


Subject LineSubject LineA subject line must make the content of theA subject line must make the content of the



A subject line must make the content of the A subject line must make the content of thememorandum instantly clear. Onememorandum instantly clear. One--word subject lines word subject linescommunicate little. The reader does not know whethercommunicate little. The reader does not know whether

he or she will be informed or persuaded, asked to dohe or she will be informed or persuaded, asked to dosomething, or simply to read for information. Thesomething, or simply to read for information. Thedeductive, early statement of intent, often including adeductive, early statement of intent, often including a verb, gives early understanding of later contents, such verb, gives early understanding of later contents, such

as:as:


Informative Subject Lines Informative Subject Lines (use of qualifiers)(use of qualifiers) ² ² Changes in VacationChanges in VacationSchedules, Requesting Leaves of Absence, Family Events During Schedules, Requesting Leaves of Absence, Family Events During the Coming Year & Announcement of Newly Promotedthe Coming Year & Announcement of Newly Promoted



the Coming Year & Announcement of Newly Promotedthe Coming Year & Announcement of Newly PromotedColleague.Colleague. Persuasive Subject Lines Persuasive Subject Lines (use of verbs)(use of verbs) ² ² EmployeesEmployeesMust Determine Vacation Schedule by March 1. ViceMust Determine Vacation Schedule by March 1. Vice--PresidentsPresidentsShould Submit Material for Annual Report & Leave of AbsenceShould Submit Material for Annual Report & Leave of Absence

needed. In brief, the subject line should give immediate directionneeded. In brief, the subject line should give immediate directionto the memorandum. Later, of course, the specific aim of theto the memorandum. Later, of course, the specific aim of thememo will appear. But having clarity immediately increases thememo will appear. But having clarity immediately increases thechance of a reader·s understanding.chance of a reader·s understanding.

A BC Com pany A BC Com pany IN TEROFFICE COMMUNIC ATIONIN TEROFFICE COMMUNIC ATION

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________

TO TO PL A N T/DEP A R TMEN TPL A N T/DEP A R TMEN T

___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________

FROMFROM PL A N T/DEP A R TMEN TPL A N T/DEP A R TMEN T

___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________

SUBJEC TSUBJEC T D ATED ATE

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________

MessageMessage



_____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________ ________________________________________

SIGNEDSIGNED

___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________

R e plyR e ply

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________

D ATED ATE SIGNEDSIGNED

PERSON R ECEI V INGCOMMUNIC ATION R E TA IN THIS COPY FOR Y OUR R ECOR DS (Ist page: white)PERSON R ECEI V INGCOMMUNIC ATION R E TA IN THIS COPY FOR Y OUR R ECOR DS (Ist page: white)ORIGIN ATOR : DE TA CH THIS COPY, SEND R EM A INING SE T, C A R BON IN TA C T, FOR USE OR R EPLIER (2nd page: yellow)ORIGIN ATOR : DE TA CH THIS COPY, SEND R EM A INING SE T, C A R BON IN TA C T, FOR USE OR R EPLIER (2nd page: yellow)

R EPLIER : R E TUR N THIS COPY TO SENDER R EPLIER : R E TUR N THIS COPY TO SENDER (3rd page: pink)(3rd page: pink)

Figure 1.6 Figure 1.6 Interoffice memorandum pocket containing either carbons under sheets of pa per or carbon Interoffice memorandum pocket containing either carbons under sheets of pa per or carbon- -treated pa per with sections treated pa per with sections for both message and for both message and re pl re pl y.y.


Layout of the Memorandum BodyLayout of the Memorandum Body The body of the memo is its most important because it The body of the memo is its most important because it



b dy s s s p b c sb dy s s s p b c scontains your message. In general, we can use the samecontains your message. In general, we can use the sameguidelines, principles, and organizational plans for theguidelines, principles, and organizational plans for the

memos as for the letter. Unlike that of a letter, thememos as for the letter. Unlike that of a letter, thememo body is not centered on the page and is lined upmemo body is not centered on the page and is lined upevenly on the left, with a triple space between the lastevenly on the left, with a triple space between the lastof the memo headings and the first line of the body of the memo headings and the first line of the body

regardless of message length.regardless of message length.


Single spacing with double spacing between paragraphsSingle spacing with double spacing between paragraphsis conventional. For memo pages beyond the first,is conventional. For memo pages beyond the first,headings are the same as those for the business letter:headings are the same as those for the business letter:



headings are the same as those for the business letter:headings are the same as those for the business letter:reader·s name, page number, and date. Referencereader·s name, page number, and date. Referenceinitials are typed a double space below the body at theinitials are typed a double space below the body at theleft margin. Copy notations may be placed after theleft margin. Copy notations may be placed after thereference initials or near the top of the memo betweenreference initials or near the top of the memo betweenthe TO and FROM. If only your business title appearsthe TO and FROM. If only your business title appearsin the FROM line, or if the FROM line is omitted, youin the FROM line, or if the FROM line is omitted, youshould sign your name a few spaces below the memoshould sign your name a few spaces below the memo

body.body.

Short reportsShort reports

Short reports, inform and analyze; they are oftenShort reports, inform and analyze; they are oftenpresented in memorandum form. A short report ispresented in memorandum form. A short report is

i bi d ll i f d dii bi d ll i f d di



concise, accurate, unbiased, all inferences depending onconcise, accurate, unbiased, all inferences depending onsupporting evidence to help readers make an informedsupporting evidence to help readers make an informeddecision. Short reports need less detailed introductions,decision. Short reports need less detailed introductions,

numerous transitions, abundant visuals, elaboratenumerous transitions, abundant visuals, elaborateheadings, involved appendixes, micro subdivisions, andheadings, involved appendixes, micro subdivisions, andexcessive formality. Short reports therefore are oftenexcessive formality. Short reports therefore are oftenused in business communication; some are even sentused in business communication; some are even sent

via E via E--mail.mail.


Develo ping the Main Sections of ShortDevelo ping the Main Sections of ShortR e portsR e ports



pp

As with oral communication, the short report As with oral communication, the short report

includes an introduction, body (or discussion, orincludes an introduction, body (or discussion, ortext), and terminal section (summary,text), and terminal section (summary,

conclusions, recommendations)conclusions, recommendations)


Outlining the major SectionsOutlining the major Sections

Report outlines may be the basis for headings withinReport outlines may be the basis for headings within



the report. Once the major sections of our report arethe report. Once the major sections of our report aredecided, we need to devote time to our headings anddecided, we need to devote time to our headings andsubheadings. Our outline will help us see thesubheadings. Our outline will help us see therelationship between topics, enable us to comparerelationship between topics, enable us to compareproportions and headings, and let us check forproportions and headings, and let us check forloopholes and logical order. In organizing an outline,loopholes and logical order. In organizing an outline, we must determine the types of headings, the degrees we must determine the types of headings, the degrees

of headings, and the parallelism in the headings we willof headings, and the parallelism in the headings we willuse.use.


Formats of OutlinesFormats of Outlines::After you determine the wording for yourAfter you determine the wording for your



After you determine the wording for your After you determine the wording for yourheadings, next choose a way to show the degreesheadings, next choose a way to show the degrees

of importance for your ideas. The three optionsof importance for your ideas. The three optionsavailable are: Numeralavailable are: Numeral--letter combination,letter combination,

decimal system & letterdecimal system & letter--numerical combination.numerical combination.

(Ref fig 11.1, Pg 285)(Ref fig 11.1, Pg 285)


Parallelism in HeadingsParallelism in Headings

For parallelFor parallel ² ² and consistentand consistent ² ² construction, all headings of theconstruction, all headings of thesame degree within any part of an outline should be parallel tosame degree within any part of an outline should be parallel to



g y p pg y p pone another. That is, they should have the same grammaticalone another. That is, they should have the same grammaticalform (Ref Checklist 11.2 regarding headings)form (Ref Checklist 11.2 regarding headings)

Including Other Desirable SectionsIncluding Other Desirable Sections

Many short reports are in memorandum format, the mostMany short reports are in memorandum format, the most--usedusedform in international business communication. Other forms may form in international business communication. Other forms may be a letter or a shortened form of a long report. Memorandumbe a letter or a shortened form of a long report. Memorandumand letter reports often use a subject line, often restated in theand letter reports often use a subject line, often restated in theintroduction, before moving to the body of the report.introduction, before moving to the body of the report.


Subject LineSubject Line

Short, precise, subject lines often includes a verb to giveShort, precise, subject lines often includes a verb to giveimmediate sense of direction to the reader. (Ref Pg 286)immediate sense of direction to the reader. (Ref Pg 286)



( g )( g )Using VisualsUsing Visuals

Including some visual elements of a long report can improve theIncluding some visual elements of a long report can improve the visual persuasion of a short report. Often, the longer the report, visual persuasion of a short report. Often, the longer the report,

the more visuals. However, if you have extensive statistics in athe more visuals. However, if you have extensive statistics in ashort report, some of the data may be clarified by using theshort report, some of the data may be clarified by using thetraditional three types of charts: pie, bar, and line. In a shorttraditional three types of charts: pie, bar, and line. In a shortreport, use visuals sparingly. If you do use them, it is your choicereport, use visuals sparingly. If you do use them, it is your choice

whether to include them in the text proper or as supplementary whether to include them in the text proper or as supplementary material.material.


IntroductionIntroductionSome of these elements may be included if desirable:Some of these elements may be included if desirable:



yypurpose or aim (always), authorization, sources, scope,purpose or aim (always), authorization, sources, scope,definition, background, limits, brief mention of results,definition, background, limits, brief mention of results,

list of topics (layout) to be discussed.list of topics (layout) to be discussed.If a report·s introductory elements are stated in one orIf a report·s introductory elements are stated in one ortwo short paragraphs at the beginning, the titletwo short paragraphs at the beginning, the title´Introductionµ is usually omitted.´Introductionµ is usually omitted.


Body (discussion, text)Body (discussion, text) Present all relevant facts accurately andPresent all relevant facts accurately and



Present all relevant facts accurately andPresent all relevant facts accurately andimpartially. Do not let your personal feelingsimpartially. Do not let your personal feelings

and prejudices after the facts.and prejudices after the facts.

Organize your report by the inductive plan orOrganize your report by the inductive plan or

the deductive plan; western businesspeoplethe deductive plan; western businesspeopleprefer the deductive method.prefer the deductive method.


Emphasize important ideas by showing details, placing Emphasize important ideas by showing details, placing them in prominent positions (with the highest degreesthem in prominent positions (with the highest degrees



of headings that are appropriate), and using stylisticof headings that are appropriate), and using stylisticmeans such as capitalization, underscoring, boldface,means such as capitalization, underscoring, boldface,

italics, more space, and repetition.italics, more space, and repetition. Include visual aidsInclude visual aids ² ² graphs, tables, picturesgraphs, tables, pictures ² ² whenever whenever

they will help clarify information for your readers (orthey will help clarify information for your readers (orlisteners).listeners).


Use headings to guide the reader through the report,Use headings to guide the reader through the report,but write your sentences and paragraphs so they canbut write your sentences and paragraphs so they candd f d d df d d d



stand alonestand alone ² ² as if the headings did not exist. In shortas if the headings did not exist. In shortreports use no more than two or three degrees (levels)reports use no more than two or three degrees (levels)

of headings.of headings. Use topic sentences for most paragraphs, and use anUse topic sentences for most paragraphs, and use an

introductory paragraph at the beginning of a majorintroductory paragraph at the beginning of a majorsection that contains two or more subdivisions.section that contains two or more subdivisions.


Apply the seven Apply the seven--C writing principles.C writing principles. Throughout make your writing easy to read. Use Throughout make your writing easy to read. Use



g y g yg y g yunderstandable words, sentences averaging 16 tounderstandable words, sentences averaging 16 to

20 words in length, concrete nouns, few 20 words in length, concrete nouns, few

adverbs, few adjectives, and paragraphs whoseadverbs, few adjectives, and paragraphs whoseaverage length is about seven typewritten lines.average length is about seven typewritten lines.


Terminal section (summary, conclusions, Terminal section (summary, conclusions,

recommendations)recommendations)



Remember that a summary condenses the text,Remember that a summary condenses the text,conclusions evaluate and infer from the text, andconclusions evaluate and infer from the text, andrecommendations offer specific courses of action.recommendations offer specific courses of action.

Do not include any new material in the terminal sectionDo not include any new material in the terminal sectionof the report.of the report.

Usually list summary points in the same order as topicsUsually list summary points in the same order as topics

as topics are discussed in the text.as topics are discussed in the text.


Informational Memorandum R e portsInformational Memorandum R e ports

The central purpose of informational reports is to The central purpose of informational reports is toi f d t i i f ti i il t thi f d t i i f ti i il t th



inform and to summarize information, similar to theinform and to summarize information, similar to thespeech to inform. Obviously these reports vary widely speech to inform. Obviously these reports vary widely in content, depending on type of business, purpose,in content, depending on type of business, purpose,

topics discussed, and readers· needs. Although there aretopics discussed, and readers· needs. Although there aremany kinds of informational reports, the following many kinds of informational reports, the following examples illustrate three general kinds often used inexamples illustrate three general kinds often used inorganizations: conference reports, progress reports, andorganizations: conference reports, progress reports, and

periodic reports.periodic reports.


Conference R e portsConference R e ports

Topics for conference reports range from summaries of Topics for conference reports range from summaries of personal sales call conferences or writepersonal sales call conferences or write--ups of meetingsups of meetings



personal sales call conferences or writepersonal sales call conferences or write ups of meetingsups of meetingsattended by hundreds of persons. For example, anattended by hundreds of persons. For example, anadvertising account executive may write a conferenceadvertising account executive may write a conference

report (contact report) after every meeting or phonereport (contact report) after every meeting or phonecall between the ad agency and a client. Its purpose is tocall between the ad agency and a client. Its purpose is torecord all decisions and discussions. A credit orrecord all decisions and discussions. A credit orcollection manager or account executive may makecollection manager or account executive may makesimilar reports after conferences with clients.similar reports after conferences with clients.


Likewise many other employees as well as executivesLikewise many other employees as well as executivesmay be responsible for writing reports after any may be responsible for writing reports after any significant conferences with individuals or committees.significant conferences with individuals or committees.



gg The text of such reports is usually organized by topics The text of such reports is usually organized by topicsdiscussed or presented simply in a chronologicaldiscussed or presented simply in a chronologicalprogression. Some firms have standardized headingsprogression. Some firms have standardized headingsfor the oftenfor the often--written reports to ensure that the same written reports to ensure that the sameinformation or main topics are recorded in all of them.information or main topics are recorded in all of them.*How you organize your material is closely related to*How you organize your material is closely related toyour content; try to link content and form. (Ref pg 289,your content; try to link content and form. (Ref pg 289,290)290)


Communication probeCommunication probeMemorandum and letter carry the burden of Memorandum and letter carry the burden of



written business communication. These two written business communication. These twoforms are the most used in onforms are the most used in on--thethe--job writing,job writing,

followed by stepfollowed by step--by by--step instructions, generalstep instructions, generalinstructions, forms to be filled out, andinstructions, forms to be filled out, andproposals. It is inferred that the memorandum,proposals. It is inferred that the memorandum,is heavily used as the major format for shorteris heavily used as the major format for shorter

reports.reports.


Progress R e portsProgress R e ports

As the name implies, progress reports show ´progress,· As the name implies, progress reports show ´progress,·accomplishments, or activity over time or at a given stage of aaccomplishments, or activity over time or at a given stage of a



p , y g gp , y g gmajor assignment. The organizational plan is usually inductive,major assignment. The organizational plan is usually inductive,including topics similar to these: (i) Introduction (purpose,including topics similar to these: (i) Introduction (purpose,nature of project);nature of project);

(ii) Description of accomplishments during the reporting period;(ii) Description of accomplishments during the reporting period;unanticipated problems if any); (iii) Plans for the next reporting unanticipated problems if any); (iii) Plans for the next reporting period, and (iv) Summary (overall appraisal of progress to date).period, and (iv) Summary (overall appraisal of progress to date).Most progress reports move inductively, via the organizationalMost progress reports move inductively, via the organizationalstructure of what is topical or chronological. (Ref Pg 291structure of what is topical or chronological. (Ref Pg 291--293)293)


Periodic R e portsPeriodic R e ports

Some periodic reports are written to correspond to theSome periodic reports are written to correspond to thecompany·s fiscal year. Others may be written weekly,company·s fiscal year. Others may be written weekly,



company s fiscal year. Others may be written weekly,company s fiscal year. Others may be written weekly,monthly, quarterly, or annually, or in other regularmonthly, quarterly, or annually, or in other regularrecurring periods. Periodic reports are as numerous asrecurring periods. Periodic reports are as numerous as

there are business organizations; it is more important tothere are business organizations; it is more important toknow what they do rather than what they are called.know what they do rather than what they are called. When a memorandum report is written each month When a memorandum report is written each monthabout the same department and to the same readers, anabout the same department and to the same readers, anintroduction and terminal section are unnecessary.introduction and terminal section are unnecessary.


Many business firms use printed forms andMany business firms use printed forms andstandardized headings for the text section of standardized headings for the text section of



such reports. A periodic report could be done insuch reports. A periodic report could be done in

half a page if the news was favorable; if half a page if the news was favorable; if

unfavorable, one page. And then writers are tounfavorable, one page. And then writers are toinclude only the reasons for the unfavorableinclude only the reasons for the unfavorable

situation and the way it is being handled.situation and the way it is being handled.


Most organizationsMost organizations ² ² business, government,business, government,religious, athletic, and even business schoolsreligious, athletic, and even business schools ² ²



write annual reports to summarize activities and write annual reports to summarize activities and

financial affairs. For small concerns the report isfinancial affairs. For small concerns the report is

exceptionally short, consisting of perhaps a brief exceptionally short, consisting of perhaps a brief transmitted letter with on or two pages of transmitted letter with on or two pages of

financial statements.financial statements.


For other organizations, especially corporationsFor other organizations, especially corporationsthat must report to their stockholders, thethat must report to their stockholders, the



annual report may begin with a top official·sannual report may begin with a top official·s

letter report. Sometimes the letter is the entireletter report. Sometimes the letter is the entire

report (perhaps eight or more pages). If not,report (perhaps eight or more pages). If not,then the report body discusses operations andthen the report body discusses operations and

activities.activities.


Guidelines for Pre paring Informational R e portsGuidelines for Pre paring Informational R e ports

Be aware of the purpose: determine whether the personBe aware of the purpose: determine whether the personrequesting your report wants to make the decision of arequesting your report wants to make the decision of a



q g y pq g y precommendation from you. (a) You offer norecommendation from you. (a) You offer norecommendation. (b) You offer a recommendation.recommendation. (b) You offer a recommendation.

Know how to conclude: Ask yourself: Will I simply Know how to conclude: Ask yourself: Will I simply summarize (a) review of what was covered), or will I summarize (a) review of what was covered), or will I end with judgments, conclusions (inferences from theend with judgments, conclusions (inferences from thepresented data)?presented data)?(a) You summarize. (b) You conclude(a) You summarize. (b) You conclude


Use neutral, unbiased language: is yourUse neutral, unbiased language: is yourlanguage nonjudgmental, or does it betray alanguage nonjudgmental, or does it betray a



firm point of view? (a) You are neutral in wordfirm point of view? (a) You are neutral in word

choice. (b) You choose persuasive words,choice. (b) You choose persuasive words,

sentences.sentences.


A nalytical Memorandum R e ports A nalytical Memorandum R e ports

Informational memorandum reports search outInformational memorandum reports search outd k k h d d dd k k h d d d



and make known to the reader data andand make known to the reader data andevidence. Those reports clarify; the try to omit aevidence. Those reports clarify; the try to omit a

recommendation. Anan analytical memorandumrecommendation. Anan analytical memorandumreport has one central purpose: it seeks toreport has one central purpose: it seeks toanalyze a situation or problem/issue; it may endanalyze a situation or problem/issue; it may end

with or without a specific recommendation. with or without a specific recommendation.




Body ( T ext, D iscussion)Body ( T ext, D iscussion)

Do not move too quickly toward a solution orDo not move too quickly toward a solution ord ti Fi t l th it tid ti Fi t l th it ti



recommendation. First, analyze the situation orrecommendation. First, analyze the situation orproblem. Second, don·t presume that everyone agreesproblem. Second, don·t presume that everyone agrees

that a problem truly exists. Thus your opening that a problem truly exists. Thus your opening information may include evidence on the currentinformation may include evidence on the currentsituation, along with undesirable effects. Only aftersituation, along with undesirable effects. Only afteryou·ve proved the existence of a problem can you moveyou·ve proved the existence of a problem can you move

toward recommendation.toward recommendation.


Headings such as the following are popular inHeadings such as the following are popular intext sections:text sections:



Current state of the problem; (ii) Effects andCurrent state of the problem; (ii) Effects and

causes of the problem; (iii) Possible options tocauses of the problem; (iii) Possible options toremove the problem; (iv) Criteria in evaluating aremove the problem; (iv) Criteria in evaluating a

solution, and (iv) Recommended solution (if solution, and (iv) Recommended solution (if

requester of report desires this)requester of report desires this)


T

erminal Section ( C

onclusion, Recommendation)T

erminal Section ( C

onclusion, Recommendation): Be: Bebrief in this section. Include a short summary of brief in this section. Include a short summary of j i d h d i llj i d h d i ll



major points and the recommendations, usually major points and the recommendations, usually

numbered consecutively. Know the wishes of numbered consecutively. Know the wishes of

your report requester: Does he or she want theyour report requester: Does he or she want therecommendation up front or near the end? Mostrecommendation up front or near the end? Most

prefer up front.prefer up front.


RecommendationRecommendation--justification reports may bejustification reports may beorganized in one of two ways. Deductive andorganized in one of two ways. Deductive andInductive approach can be used if the readerInductive approach can be used if the reader



Inductive approach can be used if the readerInductive approach can be used if the readermay react negatively toward a recommendation;may react negatively toward a recommendation;

in that case, present your facts first, then thein that case, present your facts first, then therecommendation. A deductive plan; note uprecommendation. A deductive plan; note up--front recommendation. Recommendation forfront recommendation. Recommendation forchange in communication procedure (inductivechange in communication procedure (inductive

plan).plan).


Guidelines for pre paring A nalytical Memorandum R e ports:Guidelines for pre paring A nalytical Memorandum R e ports:

IntroductionIntroduction::

(a) Determine whether you·re to recommend a solution or simply analyze a(a) Determine whether you·re to recommend a solution or simply analyze a



series of alternatives; (b) Determine whether your reader desires the deductiveseries of alternatives; (b) Determine whether your reader desires the deductive(recommendation first) or the inductive (recommendation last) approach to(recommendation first) or the inductive (recommendation last) approach toreports.reports.


Body ( Text, Discussion)Body ( Text, Discussion)

(a) Use the suggestions for the seven(a) Use the suggestions for the seven--CCprinciples; (b) Use sentences abo t 16 to 20principles; (b) Use sentences abo t 16 to 20



principles; (b) Use sentences about 16 to 20principles; (b) Use sentences about 16 to 20 words in length; sentences should consist of words in length; sentences should consist of

concrete nouns, few adjectives and adverbs.concrete nouns, few adjectives and adverbs.Paragraphs should be about seven typed lines inParagraphs should be about seven typed lines inlength. (c) Use a structure similar to thelength. (c) Use a structure similar to thetraditional problemtraditional problem--solution format.solution format.


Terminal (Closing) Section Terminal (Closing) Section

(a) If you·re asked for more than one conclusion(a) If you·re asked for more than one conclusionor recommendation number them; (b) If youror recommendation number them; (b) If your



or recommendation, number them; (b) If youror recommendation, number them; (b) If yourevidence is well thought out, your conclusionsevidence is well thought out, your conclusions

should logically follow from that evidence; 9c) If should logically follow from that evidence; 9c) If you know or do not know the receivers of youryou know or do not know the receivers of yourreport, end with courtesy: You would be willing report, end with courtesy: You would be willing to meet for further oral discussions.to meet for further oral discussions.

Long ReportsLong Reports

Long (Formal) R e portsLong (Formal) R e ports

A A long re port long re port is simply an expansion of a shorter report. Majoris simply an expansion of a shorter report. Majordifferences in the long report involve greater length and depth of differences in the long report involve greater length and depth of di i f l bl S l t t ddi i f l bl S l t t d



discussion of more complex problems. Some long reports extenddiscussion of more complex problems. Some long reports extendfrom a few pages to several hundredfrom a few pages to several hundred--even into several volumeseven into several volumesof information. Consequently, long reports demand moreof information. Consequently, long reports demand more

preliminary collecting, sorting, interpreting, writing, and editing preliminary collecting, sorting, interpreting, writing, and editing and creation of visuals than short reports. Long reports are a mixand creation of visuals than short reports. Long reports are a mixof informative and persuasive information. A long report may of informative and persuasive information. A long report may also be called ´formal· but not formal in the sense of languagealso be called ´formal· but not formal in the sense of languageusage.usage.


We label a report formal when it includes more detail, We label a report formal when it includes more detail,

more prefatory information, more visuals, and moremore prefatory information, more visuals, and moresupplementary forms of support. Topics are oftensupplementary forms of support. Topics are ofteninvolved and complex A formal report does not meaninvolved and complex A formal report does not mean



involved and complex. A formal report does not meaninvolved and complex. A formal report does not meanmore formal language; it means the report is moremore formal language; it means the report is moredetailed, more complex in structure. The distinguishing detailed, more complex in structure. The distinguishing

features of the long report: cover and external title, titlefeatures of the long report: cover and external title, titlefly and internal title, letter or memo of transmittal, tablefly and internal title, letter or memo of transmittal, tableof contents, and executive summary.of contents, and executive summary.


Prefatory (forming a preface or introduction)Prefatory (forming a preface or introduction)

Sections of a Long R e portSections of a Long R e port

Cover and External TitleCover and External Title



Many reports combine the cover page and title page asMany reports combine the cover page and title page asthe first page. Most reports have a simple hard cover,the first page. Most reports have a simple hard cover, with the title typed on a gummed label. A report title with the title typed on a gummed label. A report titleshould indicate briefly and clearly what the reportshould indicate briefly and clearly what the reportcovers. Here are five suggestions: 1.covers. Here are five suggestions: 1. Remember the five Remember the five W ·s W ·s : who, what, when, where, why.: who, what, when, where, why.


Keep titles short. Eight to ten words is desirable. Try to omitKeep titles short. Eight to ten words is desirable. Try to omit

articlesarticles ² ² the, a, and anthe, a, and an ² ² whenever possible. Your readers get an whenever possible. Your readers get aninitial impression in the title: Give careful thought to being initial impression in the title: Give careful thought to being concise and clearconcise and clear



concise and clear.concise and clear.

Consider a subtitle, often indicated with a colon. For instance:Consider a subtitle, often indicated with a colon. For instance:Drug use in the workplace: Options for Decreasing the ProblemDrug use in the workplace: Options for Decreasing the Problem

4. Avoid titles that are vague, extremely short.4. Avoid titles that are vague, extremely short.5.5. Eliminate judgment Eliminate judgment terms terms: : Errors Errors in Accounting Procedures in the Past T wo Years; W hy in Accounting Procedures in the Past T wo Years; W hy Overseas Personnel D oOverseas Personnel D o Badly; Badly; Issues T hat Issues T hat Hinder Hinder Our Acce ptance in Our Acce ptance in

Jakarta Jakarta


Title Title FlyFly andand InternalInternal Title Title::

By By definitiondefinition thethe titletitle fly fly isis simply simply thethe sheetsheet of of paperpaperbetweenbetween thethe covercover andand thethe internalinternal titletitle pagepage



betweenbetween thethe covercover andand thethe internalinternal titletitle pagepage..Immediately Immediately following following thatthat pagepage isis thethe internalinternal titletitle

page,page, which which hashas fourfour partsparts:: thethe titletitle asas statedstated onon thetheexteriorexterior cove,cove, thethe recipientrecipient of of thethe report,report, thethe preparer,preparer,andand thethe datedate.. InIn fact,fact, Title, Title, forfor whom, whom, by by whom, whom, andanddatedate areare thethe fourfour partsparts of of aa titletitle pagepage..


Letter or Memorandum of T

ransmittalLetter or Memorandum of T

ransmittal A cover letter or cover memorandum are names A cover letter or cover memorandum are namesf h fi d ff h fi d f



for the first prose document of a report.for the first prose document of a report.

Regardless of the formality of the report, it isRegardless of the formality of the report, it is

conventional to address the receiver of theconventional to address the receiver of thereportreport ² ² as if you·re writing a letteras if you·re writing a letter ² ² as ́ Dear.µas ´Dear.µ

Most transmittal messages have five parts:Most transmittal messages have five parts:


Authorization Authorization

Unless your re port is self Unless your re port is self--initiated, someone has asked youinitiated, someone has asked youto produce a re port.to produce a re port. Hence, your o pening words in theHence, your o pening words in thetransmittal document refer to that request Include thetransmittal document refer to that request Include the



transmittal document refer to that request. Include thetransmittal document refer to that request. Include thedate. R emember that much time may have passed (somedate. R emember that much time may have passed (somere ports take several months to com plete) since the initialre ports take several months to com plete) since the initial

request and that even the requester may have forgotten therequest and that even the requester may have forgotten thedetails. Some re port writers include in the a ppendix thedetails. Some re port writers include in the a ppendix theactual re port request as su pplementary information.actual re port request as su pplementary information.*Include the name of the grou p or individual who*Include the name of the grou p or individual whorequested the re port.requested the re port.


T ransmittal D etails T ransmittal D etails

Simply put your transmittal; message says, ´ Here·s the reportSimply put your transmittal; message says, ´ Here·s the reportyou requested.µ But politeness demands more. Useyou requested.µ But politeness demands more. Useconversational language (with firstconversational language (with first and secondand second person pronounsperson pronouns



conversational language (with firstconversational language (with first-- and secondand second--person pronounsperson pronounsas Í,µ ýou,µ ´meµ) as you would if you were handling theas Í,µ ýou,µ ´meµ) as you would if you were handling thereport to the recipient in person. A formal, distinguished groupreport to the recipient in person. A formal, distinguished group ² ²

such as a top government official or departmentsuch as a top government official or department ² ² might usemight usemore formal language. Also, you may combine both themore formal language. Also, you may combine both theauthorization and the transmittal details within the sameauthorization and the transmittal details within the sameparagraph.paragraph.


Background, M ethodology Background, M ethodology

One could call this information ´throat clearing.µ You briefly One could call this information ´throat clearing.µ You briefly suggest the research methods you employed, giving the readersuggest the research methods you employed, giving the readersome feel for the breadth (also known as the scope or limits ofsome feel for the breadth (also known as the scope or limits of



some feel for the breadth (also known as the scope or limits of some feel for the breadth (also known as the scope or limits of the report) of your investigation. This also gives you thethe report) of your investigation. This also gives you theopportunity to build your credibility as senior author of theopportunity to build your credibility as senior author of the

report: who you are and what your qualifications are as well asreport: who you are and what your qualifications are as well asthose of your committee members. In short, you forestall thethose of your committee members. In short, you forestall theinevitable questions of how conscientious you and yourinevitable questions of how conscientious you and yourassociates were in gathering information.associates were in gathering information.


HighlightsHighlights

You should include information that briefly mentions You should include information that briefly mentionsyour conclusions. Here you must make a judgment: If your conclusions. Here you must make a judgment: If your reader is friendly potentially inclined to acceptyour reader is friendly potentially inclined to accept



your reader is friendly, potentially inclined to acceptyour reader is friendly, potentially inclined to acceptyour conclusions, you could be precise as to theyour conclusions, you could be precise as to therecommendations; if your reader is less inclined,recommendations; if your reader is less inclined,consider being a bit more general. * As in short reports,consider being a bit more general. * As in short reports,here too consider whether your reader is favorably here too consider whether your reader is favorably disposed to your recommendation. If yes, put thedisposed to your recommendation. If yes, put therecommendation up front.recommendation up front.


CourteousCourteous EndingEnding

Think Think aboutabout doing doing any any of of thethe following following inin youryour ending ending statementstatement:: (i)(i) Acknowledging Acknowledging thosethose who who assistedassisted;; (ii)(ii) Indicating,Indicating,ifif necessarynecessary thatthat laterlater reportsreports willwill bebe forthcomingforthcoming;; (iii)(iii) VerifyingVerifying



if if necessary,necessary, thatthat laterlater reportsreports will will bebe forthcoming forthcoming;; (iii)(iii) Verifying Verifying thatthat thethe efforteffort inin completing completing thethe reportreport was was worthwhile worthwhile;; (iv)(iv)Suggesting Suggesting aa personalpersonal willingness willingness toto respondrespond toto furtherfurther questionsquestions

oror completecomplete furtherfurther searchsearch if if thatthat isis necessary necessary;; (v)(v) Including Including ² ² if if youyou areare distantdistant fromfrom thethe reportreport readersreaders ² ² where where youyou cancan bebereachedreached personally personally oror via via electronicelectronic meansmeans..


Table of Contents Table of Contents

C ontents of the Re port C ontents of the Re port :: Suggestion: Prepare the table of Suggestion: Prepare the table of contents lastcontents last ² ² after you have assigned the headings andafter you have assigned the headings andfinal page numbers Place the table of contents justfinal page numbers Place the table of contents just



final page numbers. Place the table of contents justfinal page numbers. Place the table of contents justbefore the report body, being sure that all headingsbefore the report body, being sure that all headingsparallel those in the text. You need not include allparallel those in the text. You need not include allheadings in the body of the report. Usually you show headings in the body of the report. Usually you show no more than two degrees (first, second, and only no more than two degrees (first, second, and only occasionally the third). Going beyond that level resultsoccasionally the third). Going beyond that level resultsin micro, unnecessary detail.in micro, unnecessary detail.


Table of Tables Table of Tables

A long report will include illustrations, statistical A long report will include illustrations, statisticald t l rif i d t i ld t l rif i d t i l



data, clarifying endnotes, visuals, evendata, clarifying endnotes, visuals, even

bibliographic citations. What you choose tobibliographic citations. What you choose to

include depends on the kind of formal visualsinclude depends on the kind of formal visualsshown throughout the body of the report.shown throughout the body of the report.


Visuals or Figures Visuals or Figures

Detailed figures or drawings, especially in highly technicalDetailed figures or drawings, especially in highly technicalreports, are frequently placed in the appendix. Such visuals arereports, are frequently placed in the appendix. Such visuals arethere for the reader·s use: to see more micro and detailedthere for the reader·s use: to see more micro and detailed



there for the reader s use: to see more micro and detailedthere for the reader s use: to see more micro and detailedgraphics, as supplements to the prose discussion. Likewisegraphics, as supplements to the prose discussion. Likewiseexplicit visual aids may also be given their own section of aexplicit visual aids may also be given their own section of a

report, particularly when those visuals supplemented the oralreport, particularly when those visuals supplemented the oralpresentation as support for the report. (See Appendix A, pg 564presentation as support for the report. (See Appendix A, pg 564--577). *Visuals may be included in the body of the report or577). *Visuals may be included in the body of the report orincluded as a section in the appendix.included as a section in the appendix.


Executive Summary, A bstract, S yno psisExecutive Summary, A bstract, S yno psis

Executive summaries are often the most read page in a report.Executive summaries are often the most read page in a report.Companies differ where the éxecutive summary,µ ábstract,µCompanies differ where the éxecutive summary,µ ábstract,µ´synopsis,µ ´précis,µ ´digestµ should be placed. Some boards´synopsis,µ ´précis,µ ´digestµ should be placed. Some boards



synopsis, précis, digest should be placed. Some boardssynopsis, précis, digest should be placed. Some boardsand chairpersons desire it right after the transmittal letter orand chairpersons desire it right after the transmittal letter ormemorandum. Regardless of its position within a report, it ismemorandum. Regardless of its position within a report, it is

often the most read pieceoften the most read piece ² ² occasionally torn outoccasionally torn out ² ² of a report.of a report.Busy mangers, and even those tangentially interested, canBusy mangers, and even those tangentially interested, candetermine whether they wish to read the entire report simply by determine whether they wish to read the entire report simply by reading the executive summary.reading the executive summary.


Su pplementalSu pplemental SectionsSections

Long Long reportsreports havehave numerousnumerous headingsheadings andand sectionssections;; they they arearemoremore detaileddetailed;; they they includeinclude moremore visuals, visuals, moremore evidence,evidence, andandinvolveinvolve moremore collaborationcollaboration thanthan aa shortshort reportreport.. Furthermore,Furthermore, aa



involveinvolve moremore collaborationcollaboration thanthan aa shortshort reportreport.. Furthermore,Furthermore, aalong long reportreport may may alsoalso includeinclude various various kindskinds of of supplementary supplementary informationinformation.. That That materialmaterial isis forfor readersreaders who who desiredesire additionaladditional

detailsdetails relatedrelated to,to, butbut nono requiredrequired within, within, thethe reportreport itself itself.. SuchSuchsupplementary supplementary may may includeinclude aa bibliography,bibliography, aa collectioncollection of of endnotesendnotes (or(or footnotes),footnotes), appendixes,appendixes, aa glossary,glossary, anan index,index, andandeveneven visual visual aidsaids..


Bibliogra phyBibliogra phy

A bibliography is a list of sources you cited as A bibliography is a list of sources you cited asdocumentation for relevant content in your report.documentation for relevant content in your report.



y py p These sources range from articles to electronic These sources range from articles to electronic

databases. Such precision is more characteristic of databases. Such precision is more characteristic of scholarly writing but may on occasion be included in ascholarly writing but may on occasion be included in aformal business report. Business report use citationsformal business report. Business report use citations(endnotes or footnotes) sparingly.(endnotes or footnotes) sparingly.


In fact, many business reports omit both fullIn fact, many business reports omit both full--citation footnotes and bibliography. On thecitation footnotes and bibliography. On theother hand, some do include a generalother hand, some do include a general



bibliography but without any footnote sourcebibliography but without any footnote source

citations. *Bibliographies are often not a part of citations. *Bibliographies are often not a part of business reports. Know whether your company business reports. Know whether your company desires them. The appropriate ways to insertdesires them. The appropriate ways to insertbibliographic information are as follows:bibliographic information are as follows:


Placement Placement

Bibliographic information is usually included atBibliographic information is usually included atthe end of the document It is for additionalthe end of the document It is for additional



the end of the document. It is for additionalthe end of the document. It is for additional

reading, additional sources to which the readerreading, additional sources to which the reader

may wish to turn. Some reports includemay wish to turn. Some reports includebibliographic information at the end of eachbibliographic information at the end of each

section or chapter.section or chapter.


Bibliogra phic Bibliogra phic Format Format

You You havehave twotwo mainmain choiceschoices forfor bibliographicbibliographic formform:: thethe ModernModernLanguageLanguage Association Association (MLA)(MLA) formatformat oror thethe American AmericanPsychologicalPsychological Association Association.. Your Your choicechoice may may dependdepend onon which which



y gy g yy ppformform youryour company company prefersprefers.. OrOr lacking lacking any any guidance,guidance, choosechooseoneone with with which which youyou feelfeel mostmost comfortablecomfortable.. Regardless,Regardless, bebe

consistentconsistent throughoutthroughout youryour reportreport.. OnceOnce youyou decidedecide onon youryourformat,format, youyou cancan presentpresent bibliographicbibliographic entriesentries inin aa singlesinglealphabeticalphabetic listlist oror underunder various various headingsheadings..


Footnotes and endnotes (Citations)Footnotes and endnotes (Citations)

Kinds of Footnotes and endnotesKinds of Footnotes and endnotes FootnotesFootnotesand endnotes are of twoand endnotes are of two main types: those thatmain types: those that



and endnotes are of twoand endnotes are of two main types: those thatmain types: those that

explain contentexplain content and those that identify and those that identify

sources of sources of content, or citations.content, or citations.


Footnotes and Endnotes That Ex plainFootnotes and Endnotes That Ex plain

An explanatory endnote or footnote should provide additional An explanatory endnote or footnote should provide additionalinformation, discuss, or explain the contents within the text.information, discuss, or explain the contents within the text.Footnotes may appear at the rear end of a report or at theFootnotes may appear at the rear end of a report or at the



y pp py pp pbottom of a page. The term footnote is somewhat confusing. Itbottom of a page. The term footnote is somewhat confusing. Itcan mean the inclusion of a superscript number in the text thatcan mean the inclusion of a superscript number in the text that

refers the reader to an explanatory statement or a sourcerefers the reader to an explanatory statement or a sourcecitations To refer your reader to explanatory footnotes orcitations To refer your reader to explanatory footnotes orendnotes and to number them, you may use superscriptendnotes and to number them, you may use superscriptnumerals, easily inserted with today·s word processing systems.numerals, easily inserted with today·s word processing systems.


Superscripts are small Arabic numbers placedSuperscripts are small Arabic numbers placed

slightly above the line. You can number theseslightly above the line. You can number thesesuperscripts consecutively throughout report orsuperscripts consecutively throughout report or



p p y g pp p y g p

begin a new series with each chapter.begin a new series with each chapter.


Footnotes and endnotes that Identify sourceFootnotes and endnotes that Identify source SomeSome

footnotes or endnotes give credit to sources you used.footnotes or endnotes give credit to sources you used. Any quotation or important factual information that is Any quotation or important factual information that isnot common knowledge or that is based on yournot common knowledge or that is based on your



experience must be supported by a reference to yourexperience must be supported by a reference to yoursources. Citing sources does three things: It improvessources. Citing sources does three things: It improves

your own credibility as a writer; it helps convince youryour own credibility as a writer; it helps convince yourreaders that your data are trustworthy, and it givesreaders that your data are trustworthy, and it givesreaders an opportunity to examine your sources.readers an opportunity to examine your sources.


A ppendix A ppendix

You You putput materialmaterial inin thethe appendixappendix when when youyou needneed totoincludeinclude themthem somewheresomewhere inin thethe reportreport butbut they they areare notnotessentialessential inin de elopingde eloping anan partpart ofof thethe te tte t TheThe



essentialessential inin developing developing any any partpart of of thethe texttext.. The Theappendixappendix letslets youyou avoidavoid cluttering cluttering thethe body body (discussion,(discussion,

text)text) with with exhibits,exhibits, copiescopies of of questionnaires,questionnaires, ororpamphletspamphlets thatthat areare unnecessary unnecessary forfor understanding understanding thethereportreport butbut thatthat may may bebe usefuluseful frofro referencereference oror asassupporting supporting informationinformation..


With short reports, you merely add the appendix sheets With short reports, you merely add the appendix sheets

directly to the report. But for a formal report, you placedirectly to the report. But for a formal report, you placea sheet of paper (the appendix title page) between thea sheet of paper (the appendix title page) between thel f h b d d h fi f h dil f h b d d h fi f h di



last page of the body and the first page of the appendix.last page of the body and the first page of the appendix.If you have enough material in the appendix to justify aIf you have enough material in the appendix to justify aseparate table of contents, show the contents below theseparate table of contents, show the contents below thetitle on the appendix dividing sheets.title on the appendix dividing sheets.


Each separate entry (sample forms, detailed data for reference,Each separate entry (sample forms, detailed data for reference,

tables, pictures, questionnaires, charts, maps, graphictables, pictures, questionnaires, charts, maps, graphicrepresentations, blueprints) in the appendix naturally requires anrepresentations, blueprints) in the appendix naturally requires anidentifying title. As a rule, you should refer the reader to every identifying title. As a rule, you should refer the reader to every

i h di i h b d ( i hi h di ii h di i h b d ( i hi h di i



entry in the appendix in the report body (within the discussionentry in the appendix in the report body (within the discussionitself or in a footnote). The last page of the appendix is the ideal;itself or in a footnote). The last page of the appendix is the ideal;

place for any table or illustration the reader will need to refer toplace for any table or illustration the reader will need to refer tothroughout the report. You can set up this table on a pulloutthroughout the report. You can set up this table on a pulloutsheet and tell the reader about the sheet in the letter of sheet and tell the reader about the sheet in the letter of transmittal or introduction.transmittal or introduction.


GlossaryGlossary

When When youryour reportreport includesincludes any any termsterms thatthat havehave severalseveralpossiblepossible interpretations,interpretations, definitionsdefinitions shouldshould bebe insertedinserted ² ² ininoneone ofof threethree placesplaces IfIf youyou havehave manymany definitionsdefinitions (for(for



oneone of of threethree placesplaces.. If If youyou havehave many many definitionsdefinitions (for(forinstance,instance, inin aa technicaltechnical report),report), aa glossary glossary atat thethe endend isis

preferablepreferable.. MentionMention inin youryour introductionintroduction thatthat thethe reportreportincludesincludes aa glossary,glossary, which which will will bebe usefuluseful toto readersreaders who who wish wishtoto check check onon somesome meaningsmeanings eveneven thoughthough thethe termsterms areare notnotessentialessential forfor understanding understanding thethe reportreport..


IndexIndex

The index lists topic alphabetically and guides the reader to The index lists topic alphabetically and guides the reader to various laces that discuss certain subject matter in the report. various laces that discuss certain subject matter in the report.Only in very long report will you need an index.Only in very long report will you need an index.

Checklist for Bibliographic Citations:Checklist for Bibliographic Citations:



Checklist for Bibliogra phic Citations:Checklist for Bibliogra phic Citations:

(i) D(i) Determine which format is used within your company; (ii)etermine which format is used within your company; (ii)

Know these facts about the book, periodical, or newspaperKnow these facts about the book, periodical, or newspaperregardless of the format: (a) Author(s) names; (b) Authorregardless of the format: (a) Author(s) names; (b) Authorcapacity: editor, translator, compiler; (iii) Date of publication; (iv)capacity: editor, translator, compiler; (iii) Date of publication; (iv)

Title of article book; (v) Edition; (vi) Page numbers; (vii) Volume Title of article book; (v) Edition; (vi) Page numbers; (vii) Volumenumber, and (viii) Publisher.number, and (viii) Publisher.


PR ESEN TATION OF THE LONG R EPOR TPR ESEN TATION OF THE LONG R EPOR T

Presume for the moment that you have completed allPresume for the moment that you have completed allyour preliminary work: You have defined the problem,your preliminary work: You have defined the problem,



collected all needed material, sorted and interpretedcollected all needed material, sorted and interpreted

data, organized the final outline, and prepared visualdata, organized the final outline, and prepared visualaids. Now your steps are writing, editing, revising, andaids. Now your steps are writing, editing, revising, andtyping the report.typing the report.


Writing Writing thethe FirstFirst draftdraft

You You may may likelike toto beginbegin with with aa sectionsection youyou considerconsidereasiesteasiest.. Nothing Nothing wrong wrong with with thatthat.. FeelFeel comfortablecomfortable with withthethe jobjob facingfacing youyou UseUse youryour outlineoutline andand getget youryour ideasideas



thethe jobjob facing facing youyou.. UseUse youryour outlineoutline andand getget youryour ideasideasintointo word word processorprocessor without without stopping stopping toto correctcorrect every every

spelling,spelling, punctuationpunctuation oror grammargrammar errorerror.. SomeSome peoplepeopleinitially initially overwrite,overwrite, laterlater finding finding itit easiereasier toto deletedeletematerialmaterial thanthan toto locatelocate additionaladditional andand new new informationinformation..


IntroductionIntroduction

You can begin with the introduction, or You can begin with the introduction, or

leave it until last. Either way is acce ptable.leave it until last. Either way is acce ptable.



y py p

Be sure to include o pening statements thatBe sure to include o pening statements that

orient the reader to the rest of the re port.orient the reader to the rest of the re port.


BodyBody oror texttext

Three Three oror fourfour mainmain divisionsdivisions areare appropriateappropriate forfor aareportreport thatthat isis 1515 toto 2525 pagespages inin length,length, if if youryour reportreport isislongerlonger thanthan that,that, look look critically critically atat youryour outlineoutline toto



determinedetermine whether whether youyou cancan regroupregroup sectionssections ororcombinecombine sectionssections.. Of Of course,course, aa reportreport consisting consisting of of oneonehundredhundred oror severalseveral hundredhundred pagespages will will havehaveproportionately proportionately moremore mainmain divisionsdivisions;; inin fact,fact, thethe reportreportmay may containcontain ćhapters,µćhapters,µ with with eacheach chapterchapter having having itsitsownown mainmain divisionsdivisions..


Conclusion, Summary (terminal section)Conclusion, Summary (terminal section)

The terminal section may be labeled as ´Summary,µ The terminal section may be labeled as ´Summary,µĆonclusions,µ or Ćonclusions and recommendations.µ BesidesĆonclusions,µ or Ćonclusions and recommendations.µ Besidescompleting a first draft of the report body, you should also writecompleting a first draft of the report body, you should also write

d f f h i l f i ld f f h i l f i l



a draft of the executive summary, letter or memo of transmittal,a draft of the executive summary, letter or memo of transmittal,and bibliography or endnotes list, if you will have one. You canand bibliography or endnotes list, if you will have one. You can

also set up the table of contents and the table of tables (if any) inalso set up the table of contents and the table of tables (if any) inrough draft, but only after the final typing is finished can yourough draft, but only after the final typing is finished can youknow correct page numbers for these tables.know correct page numbers for these tables.


Editing and R evising the R ough DraftsEditing and R evising the R ough Drafts

After you have finished the first draft, lay it aside for at After you have finished the first draft, lay it aside for atleast 1 day. Doing so will help you look objectively atleast 1 day. Doing so will help you look objectively atthe material and see more clearly the weaknesses in thethe material and see more clearly the weaknesses in the



the material and see more clearly the weaknesses in thethe material and see more clearly the weaknesses in thedraft. Editing requires objective self draft. Editing requires objective self--criticism. Whatcriticism. What

seemed right in the first writing may seem seriously outseemed right in the first writing may seem seriously outof place upon second reading. Remember too that theof place upon second reading. Remember too that thebest writers revise and rewrite several times.best writers revise and rewrite several times.


Text editing and revising functions are easily Text editing and revising functions are easily

accomplished on a word processor. As you know, a few accomplished on a word processor. As you know, a few keystrokes permit condensing, changing or adding keystrokes permit condensing, changing or adding words rearranging paragraphs adjusting marginswords rearranging paragraphs adjusting margins



words, rearranging paragraphs, adjusting margins, words, rearranging paragraphs, adjusting margins,detecting spelling errors, and a host of other functionsdetecting spelling errors, and a host of other functions

unimaginable several years ago.unimaginable several years ago.

*Editing and rewriting forces you to review your prose*Editing and rewriting forces you to review your prosefor added clarity.for added clarity.


T y ping the Final Document T y ping the Final Document

Be consistent. This statement suggests that when selecting one of Be consistent. This statement suggests that when selecting one of the many ways of physically putting together a report, you shouldthe many ways of physically putting together a report, you shouldbe in harmony with the style others have used to prepare reportsbe in harmony with the style others have used to prepare reportsf S l it h ld b id df S l it h ld b id d



for your company. Several items should be considered.for your company. Several items should be considered.

O verall A ppearanceO verall A ppearance

Laser printers; various type fonts, and different sizes of typeLaser printers; various type fonts, and different sizes of typeallow reports to be highly attractive. Spacing, margins, andallow reports to be highly attractive. Spacing, margins, andpagination all contribute to a favorable impression of a report.pagination all contribute to a favorable impression of a report.


SpacingSpacing

Reports may be typewritten with double or single spacing.Reports may be typewritten with double or single spacing. Those who prefer double spacing feel it is easy to read. Single Those who prefer double spacing feel it is easy to read. Single--spaced reports have become popular in recent years not only spaced reports have become popular in recent years not only b th p p r b t lb th p p r b t l ith f r p f r th mith f r p f r th m



because they save paper but alsobecause they save paper but also ² ² with fewer pages for the same with fewer pages for the sameamount of report dataamount of report data ² ² because they save (1) typing time, (2)because they save (1) typing time, (2)

filing space, (3) expense of both duplicating time and materialsfiling space, (3) expense of both duplicating time and materials when multiple copies of a report are needed, and (4) reading time when multiple copies of a report are needed, and (4) reading time when turning fewer pages. when turning fewer pages.


If you doubleIf you double--space the report, the first word of space the report, the first word of

each paragraph should be indented (usually fiveeach paragraph should be indented (usually fivespaces). In a singlespaces). In a single--spaced report, paragraphsspaced report, paragraphs



may be indented or begin at the left margin.may be indented or begin at the left margin.

However, always doubleHowever, always double--space betweenspace betweenparagraphs and both before and after long paragraphs and both before and after long

quotations, visual aids, and footnotes.quotations, visual aids, and footnotes.


Regardless of whether the report is typed in double or singleRegardless of whether the report is typed in double or single

spacing, the following parts should be singlespacing, the following parts should be single--spaced:spaced: Transmittal document Transmittal document ² ² typed on company letterhead if you aretyped on company letterhead if you are writing it as an employee of the firm. And, of course, the letter writing it as an employee of the firm. And, of course, the lettershould be centered attractively on the page.should be centered attractively on the page.



y p gy p gQuotations and examplesQuotations and examples ² ² of three or more typewritten lines. If of three or more typewritten lines. If this material consists of three or more paragraphs, doublethis material consists of three or more paragraphs, double--spacespace(leave a blank line) between them. Also, indent margins of the(leave a blank line) between them. Also, indent margins of thequote five spaces to the right and left of the doublequote five spaces to the right and left of the double-- or singleor single--spaced text material.spaced text material.


Use ellipsis («) to indicate omissions if you are quoting Use ellipsis («) to indicate omissions if you are quoting

only parts of an author·s paragraph. In long quotationsonly parts of an author·s paragraph. In long quotationsyou can show lengthy omissions by either a full line of you can show lengthy omissions by either a full line of periods or by four periods at the end of the paragraphperiods or by four periods at the end of the paragraph



periods or by four periods at the end of the paragraph.periods or by four periods at the end of the paragraph.(3) A list of items you want to set off or emphasize. (4)(3) A list of items you want to set off or emphasize. (4)

Footnotes (but doubleFootnotes (but double--space between them). (5) Somespace between them). (5) Sometables and other visual aids.tables and other visual aids.


MarginsMargins

In addition to the following suggested margins, you need to addIn addition to the following suggested margins, you need to add½ inch for binding on each page. The report is usually bound on½ inch for binding on each page. The report is usually bound onthe leftthe left--hand side. Acceptable margins are as follows:hand side. Acceptable margins are as follows:First part of each prefatory part (preface or letter of transmittal,First part of each prefatory part (preface or letter of transmittal,



p p y p (p ,p p y p (p ,table of contents, table of tables, abstract), body, andtable of contents, table of tables, abstract), body, andsupplemental parts (appendix, bibliography or endnotes, index):supplemental parts (appendix, bibliography or endnotes, index):top margin of ½ or 2 inches. All other pages: Top, bottom, andtop margin of ½ or 2 inches. All other pages: Top, bottom, andside margins are 1 or 1 ½ inches (plus the ½side margins are 1 or 1 ½ inches (plus the ½--inch allowances forinch allowances forbinding at either left side or top.binding at either left side or top.


PaginationPagination

Every Every pagepage inin thethe reportreport ² ² exceptexcept thethe covercover andand titletitle fly fly ² ² shouldshouldhavehave aa number,number, butbut notnot allall numbersnumbers areare actually actually typedtyped onon eacheachpagepage.. ForFor thethe prefatory prefatory sheetsheet useuse smallsmall RomanRoman numerals,numerals, forfor thethebodybody andand supplementalsupplemental sheetssheets useuse ArabicArabic numbersnumbers accordingaccording toto



body body andand supplementalsupplemental sheetssheets useuse Arabic Arabic numbers,numbers, according according totothesethese guidelinesguidelines:: 11.. Prefatory Prefatory partsparts pagepage numbersnumbers areare centeredcentered

andand placedplaced ½½ inchinch below below thethe imaginary imaginary lineslines thatthat framesframes thethebottombottom of of thethe typewrittentypewritten materialmaterial.. CountCount andand numbernumber thetheprefatory prefatory pagespages asas shownshown below below::


Cover and title fly Cover and title fly Do not count orDo not count or

numbernumber Title page Title page Count (i) but do notCount (i) but do notinsert number.insert number.

Transmittal document Transmittal document Count, butCount, but



, ,usually do not insert number.usually do not insert number.

A one A one--page letter is page ii at the bottom; a second page of thepage letter is page ii at the bottom; a second page of thetransmittal is page iiitransmittal is page iii Table of contents Table of contents Count and numberCount and numbereach pageeach page

Table of tables Table of tables Count andCount andnumbernumberExecutive summary Executive summary Count and numberCount and number


Body and supplemental parts page numbers. (a) If yourBody and supplemental parts page numbers. (a) If your

report is bound at the left, page numbers are usually report is bound at the left, page numbers are usually placed near the upperplaced near the upper--right corner of the page, alignedright corner of the page, aligned with the right margin and ½ inch (or a double space) with the right margin and ½ inch (or a double space)above the top imaginary line that frames the typewrittenabove the top imaginary line that frames the typewritten



above the top imaginary line that frames the typewrittenabove the top imaginary line that frames the typewrittenmaterial. The exception is that the numbers for firstmaterial. The exception is that the numbers for first

pages of parts are either omitted (though counted) orpages of parts are either omitted (though counted) orpaced ½ inch (or double space) below the imaginary paced ½ inch (or double space) below the imaginary line that frames the bottom of the typed material.line that frames the bottom of the typed material.


They are centered with the typing on the page They are centered with the typing on the page

(as for prefatory) parts pages). (b) If your report(as for prefatory) parts pages). (b) If your reportis bound at the top, page numbers are usually is bound at the top, page numbers are usually

l d i h h b f hl d i h h b f h



placed in the center at the bottom of the page,placed in the center at the bottom of the page,

½ inch, or a double space, below the imaginary ½ inch, or a double space, below the imaginary line that frames the bottom of the typewrittenline that frames the bottom of the typewritten

text.text.


EX A MPLES OF P AGES FROM A LONG A N A LY TIC A LEX A MPLES OF P AGES FROM A LONG A N A LY TIC A L

R EPOR T (refer to pg 338R EPOR T (refer to pg 338-- 346)346)

The sections of the report are: (i) Title page; (ii) transmittal The sections of the report are: (i) Title page; (ii) transmittalmemorandum; (iii) Table of contents; (iii) Executive summary;memorandum; (iii) Table of contents; (iii) Executive summary;



( ) ( ) y( ) ( ) y

(iv) Selected pages from the report, and (v) Sample attachment(iv) Selected pages from the report, and (v) Sample attachment --

appendixappendix


Communication ProbeCommunication Probe

A significant portion of any report is its recommendation. There A significant portion of any report is its recommendation. Theremay be one; there may be several. Many of thesemay be one; there may be several. Many of theserecommendations demand a process or procedure forrecommendations demand a process or procedure forimplementing the recommendations. Actions desired orimplementing the recommendations. Actions desired orinstructions to implement must be clear to the reader. Highinstructions to implement must be clear to the reader. High--



instructions to implement must be clear to the reader. Highinstructions to implement must be clear to the reader. Highimpact writing (clear purpose, layout of direction, shortimpact writing (clear purpose, layout of direction, short

paragraphs, simple sentences, subject and verb close together,paragraphs, simple sentences, subject and verb close together,active verbs, and others), as applied to communicationactive verbs, and others), as applied to communicationinstructions, made instructions clearer. Additionally, highinstructions, made instructions clearer. Additionally, high--impactimpactstyle may also elicit more timely responses than other styles of style may also elicit more timely responses than other styles of

writing. Finally, using the deductive structure of organization writing. Finally, using the deductive structure of organization(recommendation, conclusion first) is also effective in bringing (recommendation, conclusion first) is also effective in bringing

about a higher rate of compliance and understanding.about a higher rate of compliance and understanding.


SummarySummary

The formal business report is formal because of its The formal business report is formal because of itsmany parts, not because it uses formal language. A long many parts, not because it uses formal language. A long report generally covers more complex issues and isreport generally covers more complex issues and isconsiderably longer than the short reports In additionconsiderably longer than the short reports In addition



considerably longer than the short reports. In additionconsiderably longer than the short reports. In additionto the body (text, discussion) of the reportto the body (text, discussion) of the report ² ² where where

details are fleshed outdetails are fleshed out ² ² prefatory parts include theprefatory parts include thecover and external title, title fly and internal title, lettercover and external title, title fly and internal title, letteror memorandum of transmittal, table of contents, andor memorandum of transmittal, table of contents, andan executive summary.an executive summary.


Supplementary parts of a long report include (if Supplementary parts of a long report include (if

needed) a bibliography, footnotes or endnotesneeded) a bibliography, footnotes or endnotes(citations), if they are necessary; appendixes; a(citations), if they are necessary; appendixes; a

l if d d d i d if h il if d d d i d if h i



glossary, if needed; and an index, if the report isglossary, if needed; and an index, if the report is

especially long.especially long.


Documentation within the report is of two types:Documentation within the report is of two types:

explaining (referring to context) or citing the sources of explaining (referring to context) or citing the sources of your information. Important here is your decision as toyour information. Important here is your decision as tothe format of your citations. Make a decision early tothe format of your citations. Make a decision early to

bli h i l h f ll i hbli h i l h f ll i h



establish a consistent style, perhaps following theestablish a consistent style, perhaps following the

format of the Modern language Association (MLA) orformat of the Modern language Association (MLA) orthat of the American Psychological Association (AP A).that of the American Psychological Association (AP A).Be aware, however, that many business reports haveBe aware, however, that many business reports havefew or no citations.few or no citations.


Finally, effective presentation of your long Finally, effective presentation of your long

report is easier today with word processors.report is easier today with word processors. When using a word processor, writing, editing, When using a word processor, writing, editing,

i i d i h i fi l ki i d i h i fi l k



revising, and typing the report is your final task.revising, and typing the report is your final task.

Also, be sure to apply the seven C·s to your Also, be sure to apply the seven C·s to your writing. writing.


Communication ProbeCommunication Probe

Some companies make an inordinate effort to putSome companies make an inordinate effort to puttogether a detailed document that summarizes itstogether a detailed document that summarizes itscorporate and mission statement: to guide behavior, tocorporate and mission statement: to guide behavior, toexpress an organizational culture and to inspireexpress an organizational culture and to inspire



express an organizational culture, and to inspireexpress an organizational culture, and to inspirecommitment. Such reports may be short or long.commitment. Such reports may be short or long.

Regardless of length, determining the company Regardless of length, determining the company philosophy from the written document demandsphilosophy from the written document demandsseveral things: a compelling philosophical statement, anseveral things: a compelling philosophical statement, aneffective communication and implementation process,effective communication and implementation process,and a process for ongoing affirmation and renewal.and a process for ongoing affirmation and renewal.

Oral CommunicationOral Communication




Give a choice, people would rather talk to each otherGive a choice, people would rather talk to each other

than write to each other. Talking takes less time andthan write to each other. Talking takes less time andneeds no composing, keyboarding, rewriting,needs no composing, keyboarding, rewriting,duplicating, or distributing. More important, oralduplicating, or distributing. More important, oral



p g, g p ,p g, g p ,communication provides the opportunity for feedback.communication provides the opportunity for feedback.

When people communicate orally, they can ask When people communicate orally, they can ask questions and test their understanding of the message;questions and test their understanding of the message;they can share ideas and work together to solvethey can share ideas and work together to solveproblems.problems.


They can also covey and absorb nonverbal information, They can also covey and absorb nonverbal information,

which reveals far more than words alone. By which reveals far more than words alone. By communicating with facial expressions, eye contact,communicating with facial expressions, eye contact,tone of voice, gestures, and postures, people can sendtone of voice, gestures, and postures, people can sendsubtle messages that add another dimension to spokensubtle messages that add another dimension to spoken



g pg p words. Oral communication satisfies our common need words. Oral communication satisfies our common need

to be [part of the human community and makes us feelto be [part of the human community and makes us feelgood. Talking things over helps people in organizationsgood. Talking things over helps people in organizationsbuild morale and establish a group identity.build morale and establish a group identity.


Nonetheless, oral communication also has its dangers.Nonetheless, oral communication also has its dangers.

Under most circumstances, oral communication occursUnder most circumstances, oral communication occursspontaneously. You have far less opportunity to revisespontaneously. You have far less opportunity to reviseyour spoken words than to revise your written words.your spoken words than to revise your written words.You can·t cross out what you just said and start all overYou can·t cross out what you just said and start all over



You can t cross out what you just said and start all over. You can t cross out what you just said and start all over.

Your dumbest comments will be etched in the other Your dumbest comments will be etched in the otherperson·s memory, regardless of how much you try toperson·s memory, regardless of how much you try toexplain that you really meant something else entirely.explain that you really meant something else entirely.


Moreover, if you let your attention wander whileMoreover, if you let your attention wander while

someone else is speaking, you miss the point. Yousomeone else is speaking, you miss the point. Youeither have to muddle along without knowing what theeither have to muddle along without knowing what theother person said or admit you were daydreaming andother person said or admit you were daydreaming andtake the person to repeat the comment One othertake the person to repeat the comment One other



take the person to repeat the comment. One othertake the person to repeat the comment. One other

problem is that oral communication is personal.P

eopleproblem is that oral communication is personal.P

eopletend to confuse your message with you as an individual.tend to confuse your message with you as an individual. They·re likely to judge the content of what you say by They·re likely to judge the content of what you say by your appearance and delivery style.your appearance and delivery style.


Intercultural barriers can also be as much aIntercultural barriers can also be as much a

problem in oral communication as in writtenproblem in oral communication as in writtencommunication. Naturally, it·s best to know communication. Naturally, it·s best to know

your audience including any cultural differencesyour audience including any cultural differences



your audience, including any cultural differencesyour audience, including any cultural differences

they may have. Then communicate yourthey may have. Then communicate yourmessage in the tone, manner, and situation yourmessage in the tone, manner, and situation your

audience will feel most comfortable with.audience will feel most comfortable with.


Whether you·re using the telephone, engaging in a quick Whether you·re using the telephone, engaging in a quick

conversation with a colleague, participating in a formalconversation with a colleague, participating in a formalinterview, or attending a meeting, oral communicationinterview, or attending a meeting, oral communicationis the vehicle you use to get your message across. Whenis the vehicle you use to get your message across. Whencommunicating orally make it your goal to takecommunicating orally make it your goal to take



communicating orally, make it your goal to takecommunicating orally, make it your goal to take

advantage of the positive characteristics whileadvantage of the positive characteristics whileminimizing the dangers. To achieve that goal, work onminimizing the dangers. To achieve that goal, work onimproving two key skills; speaking and listening.improving two key skills; speaking and listening.

Speaking and ListeningSpeaking and Listening



Speaking and Listening Speaking and Listening


Speaking: Because speaking is such an imaginedSpeaking: Because speaking is such an imagined

activity, we tend to do it without much thought,activity, we tend to do it without much thought,but that casual approach can be a problem inbut that casual approach can be a problem in

business Be more aware of using speech as abusiness Be more aware of using speech as a



business. Be more aware of using speech as abusiness. Be more aware of using speech as a

tool for accomplishing your objectives in atool for accomplishing your objectives in abusiness context.business context.


To do this, break the habit of talking To do this, break the habit of talking

spontaneously, without planning what you arespontaneously, without planning what you aregoing to say or how you·re going to say it. Learngoing to say or how you·re going to say it. Learnto manage the impression you creates by to manage the impression you creates by



g p y yg p y yconsciously tailoring your remarks and delivery consciously tailoring your remarks and delivery style to suit the situation. Become as aware of style to suit the situation. Become as aware of the consequences of what you say as you are of the consequences of what you say as you are of the consequences of what you write.the consequences of what you write.


With a little effort, you can learn to apply the With a little effort, you can learn to apply the

composition process to oral communication.composition process to oral communication.Before you speak, think about your purpose,Before you speak, think about your purpose,your main idea, and your audience. Organizeyour main idea, and your audience. Organize



your thoughts in a logical way, decide on a styleyour thoughts in a logical way, decide on a stylethat suits the occasion (for example, formal orthat suits the occasion (for example, formal orinformal, lecture or conversation), and edit yourinformal, lecture or conversation), and edit yourremarks mentally.remarks mentally.


Try to predict how the other person will react, Try to predict how the other person will react,

and organize the message accordingly. Yourand organize the message accordingly. Youraudience may not react the way you expect, soaudience may not react the way you expect, sohave alternative approaches ready. As you speak,have alternative approaches ready. As you speak,



watch the other person, judging from verbal and watch the other person, judging from verbal andnonverbal feedback whether your message isnonverbal feedback whether your message ismaking the desired impression, if it isn·t, revisemaking the desired impression, if it isn·t, reviseand try again.and try again.


Just as various writing assignments call for different Just as various writing assignments call for different

writing styles, various situations call for different writing styles, various situations call for differentspeaking styles. Your speaking style depends on thespeaking styles. Your speaking style depends on thelevel of intimacy between you and the other person andlevel of intimacy between you and the other person andon the nature of your conversation. When you·reon the nature of your conversation. When you·re

lki i h f i d ll k f kllki i h f i d ll k f kl



talking with a friend, you naturally speak more frankly talking with a friend, you naturally speak more frankly

than when you·re talking with your boss or a stranger.than when you·re talking with your boss or a stranger. When you·re talking about a serious subject, you use a When you·re talking about a serious subject, you use aserious tone. As you think about which speaking style isserious tone. As you think about which speaking style isappropriate, also think about the nonverbal messageappropriate, also think about the nonverbal messageyou want to convey.you want to convey.


People derive less meaning from your words than they People derive less meaning from your words than they

do from your facial expressions, vocal characteristics,do from your facial expressions, vocal characteristics,and body language. The nonverbal message shouldand body language. The nonverbal message shouldreinforce your words. Perhaps the most important thing reinforce your words. Perhaps the most important thing you can do to project yourself more effectively is toyou can do to project yourself more effectively is to

b h ´ µ i d i h l ·b h ´ µ i d i h l ·



remember the ´youµ attitude, earning other people·sremember the ´youµ attitude, earning other people·s

attention and goodwill by focusing on them. In fact, weattention and goodwill by focusing on them. In fact, wecan elicit opinions from others not only by asking themcan elicit opinions from others not only by asking thempointed questions but also by paying attention to theirpointed questions but also by paying attention to theirresponses.responses.


An important tool of oral communication, the telephone can An important tool of oral communication, the telephone can

extend your reach across town and around the world. However,extend your reach across town and around the world. However,if your telephone skills are lacking, you may waste valuable timeif your telephone skills are lacking, you may waste valuable timeand appear rude. You can minimize your time on the phonesand appear rude. You can minimize your time on the phones

while raising your phone productivity by delivering one while raising your phone productivity by delivering one--way way information by fax or einformation by fax or e mail jotting down an agenda beforemail jotting down an agenda before



information by fax or einformation by fax or e--mail, jotting down an agenda beforemail, jotting down an agenda before

making a call, saving social chitmaking a call, saving social chit--chat for the end of a call (incasechat for the end of a call (incaseyour conversation is cut short), saving up all the short calls youyour conversation is cut short), saving up all the short calls youneed to make to one person during a given day, and making sureneed to make to one person during a given day, and making sureyour assistant has a list of people whose calls you will acceptyour assistant has a list of people whose calls you will accepteven if you·re in a meeting.even if you·re in a meeting.


Much telephone communication now happens throughMuch telephone communication now happens through

voice mail rather than directly person to person. voice mail rather than directly person to person.Organize your thoughts before you make the phone callOrganize your thoughts before you make the phone callso that your message will be concise and accurate. Beso that your message will be concise and accurate. Besure to take advantage of the system·s review andsure to take advantage of the system·s review andditi f t t k ff tiditi f t t k ff ti



editing features to make your message as effective asediting features to make your message as effective as

possible. And keep in mind that voice mail messagespossible. And keep in mind that voice mail messagesaren·t necessary private. Many systems make it easy toaren·t necessary private. Many systems make it easy toforward messages to other people, so be careful whenforward messages to other people, so be careful whenrecording sensitive or personal messages..recording sensitive or personal messages..


ListeningListening: If you·re typical, you append over half your: If you·re typical, you append over half your

communication time listening. Listening supports effectivecommunication time listening. Listening supports effectiverelationships within the organization, enhances the organization·srelationships within the organization, enhances the organization·sdelivery of products, alerts the organization to the innovationdelivery of products, alerts the organization to the innovationgrowing from both internal and external forces, and allowsgrowing from both internal and external forces, and allowsorganization to manage the growing diversity both in the workorganization to manage the growing diversity both in the work



organization to manage the growing diversity both in the work organization to manage the growing diversity both in the work

force and in the customers they serve. An individual with goodforce and in the customers they serve. An individual with goodlistening ability is likely to succeed; good listening enhanceslistening ability is likely to succeed; good listening enhancesperformance, leading to raises, promotions, status, and power.performance, leading to raises, promotions, status, and power.However, no one is born with the ability to listen; the skill isHowever, no one is born with the ability to listen; the skill islearned and improved through practice.learned and improved through practice.


Cultural barrier presents a potential challenge withCultural barrier presents a potential challenge with

listening as well as with speaking. You mightlistening as well as with speaking. You mightmisinterpret what you hear if you fail to consider any misinterpret what you hear if you fail to consider any cultural differences between you and the speaker. Evencultural differences between you and the speaker. Evenh h f lik hi k f l b ih h f lik hi k f l b i



though most of us like to think of ourselves as being though most of us like to think of ourselves as being

good listeners, the average person remembers only good listeners, the average person remembers only about half of what·s said during a 10about half of what·s said during a 10--minuteminuteconversation and forgets half of that within 48 hours.conversation and forgets half of that within 48 hours.

Importance of Listening Importance of Listening




What Ha ppens When You Listen What Ha ppens When You Listen

Listening involves five related activities,Listening involves five related activities,

which most often occur in sequence. which most often occur in sequence.

SensingSensing is physically hearing the message andis physically hearing the message and



Sensing Sensing is physically hearing the message andis physically hearing the message and

taking note of it. This reception can be blockedtaking note of it. This reception can be blockedby interfering noises, impaired hearing, orby interfering noises, impaired hearing, orinattention. Tune out distractions by focusing inattention. Tune out distractions by focusing

on the message.on the message.


Inter preting Inter preting

is decoding and absorbing what you hear. As you listen, youis decoding and absorbing what you hear. As you listen, youassign meaning to the words according to your own values,assign meaning to the words according to your own values,beliefs, ideas, expectations, roles, needs, and personal history.beliefs, ideas, expectations, roles, needs, and personal history.

The speaker·s frame of reference may be quite different from The speaker·s frame of reference may be quite different fromyours so you may need to determine what the speaker reallyyours so you may need to determine what the speaker really



yours, so you may need to determine what the speaker really yours, so you may need to determine what the speaker really

means. Pay attention to nonverbal cuesmeans. Pay attention to nonverbal cues ² ² things such as gestures,things such as gestures,body language, and facial expressionsbody language, and facial expressions ² ² but be careful not tobut be careful not toassign meanings that aren·t there. For example, a speaker whoassign meanings that aren·t there. For example, a speaker whonervously stumbles over his or her words might be guiding nervously stumbles over his or her words might be guiding something or might simply be nervous.something or might simply be nervous.


Evaluating Evaluating

is forming an opinion about the message. Sorting is forming an opinion about the message. Sorting through the speaker·s remarks, separating fact fromthrough the speaker·s remarks, separating fact fromopinion, and evaluating the quality of the evidenceopinion, and evaluating the quality of the evidencerequire a good deal of effort particularly if the subjectrequire a good deal of effort particularly if the subject



require a good deal of effort, particularly if the subjectrequire a good deal of effort, particularly if the subject

is complex or emotionally charged. Avoid theis complex or emotionally charged. Avoid thetemptations to dismiss ideas offered by people who aretemptations to dismiss ideas offered by people who areunattractive or abrasive and to embrace ideas offered by unattractive or abrasive and to embrace ideas offered by people who are charismatic speakers.people who are charismatic speakers.


Remembering Remembering

is storing a message for future reference. As youis storing a message for future reference. As youlisten, retain what you hear by taking notes or by listen, retain what you hear by taking notes or by

making a mental outline of the speaker·s keymaking a mental outline of the speaker·s key



making a mental outline of the speaker s key making a mental outline of the speaker s key

points.points.


Res ponding Res ponding

is acknowledging the message by reacting to theis acknowledging the message by reacting to thespeaker in some fashion. If you arespeaker in some fashion. If you are

communicating one on one or in a small groupcommunicating one on one or in a small group



communicating one on one or in a small group,communicating one on one or in a small group,

the initial response generally takes the form of the initial response generally takes the form of verbal feedback. verbal feedback.


If you·re one of many in the audiences, yourIf you·re one of many in the audiences, your

initial response may take the form of applause,initial response may take the form of applause,laughter, or silence. Later on, you may act onlaughter, or silence. Later on, you may act on

what you have heard, Actively provide feedback what you have heard, Actively provide feedback h l h k fi hh l h k fi h



to help the speaker refine the message.to help the speaker refine the message.

Listening requires a mix of physical and mentalListening requires a mix of physical and mentalactivities and is subject to a mix of physical andactivities and is subject to a mix of physical andmental barriers.mental barriers.


The Three T y pes of Listening The Three T y pes of Listening

Various situations call for different listening skills. Various situations call for different listening skills. When you attend a briefing on the company·s new When you attend a briefing on the company·s new medical insurance, you listen mainly for content. Youmedical insurance, you listen mainly for content. You want to know what the policy is. As the speaker want to know what the policy is. As the speakerd ib th i ti d l b i t li td ib th i ti d l b i t li t



describes the prescription drug plan, you begin to listendescribes the prescription drug plan, you begin to listen

more critically, assessing the benefits of the new planmore critically, assessing the benefits of the new planrelative to your own needs. Later, as a friend talks torelative to your own needs. Later, as a friend talks toyou about his medical problems, you listenyou about his medical problems, you listenempathetically, trying to understand his feelings.empathetically, trying to understand his feelings.


The three types of listening differ not only in purpose The three types of listening differ not only in purpose

but also in the amount of feedback or interaction thatbut also in the amount of feedback or interaction thatoccurs. The goal of occurs. The goal of content listeningcontent listening is to understandis to understandand retain information imparted by a speaker. You may and retain information imparted by a speaker. You may ask questions, but basically information flows from theask questions, but basically information flows from thespeaker to you Your job is to identify the key points ofspeaker to you Your job is to identify the key points of



speaker to you. Your job is to identify the key points of speaker to you. Your job is to identify the key points of

the message, so be sure to listen for clues to itsthe message, so be sure to listen for clues to itsstructure: previews, transitions, summaries, enumeratedstructure: previews, transitions, summaries, enumeratedpoints. In your mind create an outline of the speaker·spoints. In your mind create an outline of the speaker·sremarks, afterward silently review what you·ve learned.remarks, afterward silently review what you·ve learned.


You may take notes, but you do this sparingly so You may take notes, but you do this sparingly so

that you can concentrate on the key points. Itthat you can concentrate on the key points. Itdoesn·t matter whether you disagree or disagree,doesn·t matter whether you disagree or disagree,approve or disapproveapprove or disapprove ² ² only that youonly that you

d r t d Wh li t t r i l ld r t d Wh li t t r i l l



understand. When you listen to regional salesunderstand. When you listen to regional sales

manager·s monthly report on how many of yourmanager·s monthly report on how many of yourproducts sold that month, you are listening forproducts sold that month, you are listening forcontent.content.


The goal of The goal of critical listening critical listening is to evaluate the message atis to evaluate the message at

several levels: the logic of the argument, strength of theseveral levels: the logic of the argument, strength of theevidence, and validity of the conclusions; theevidence, and validity of the conclusions; theimplications of the message for you or yourimplications of the message for you or yourorganization; the speaker·s intentions and motives; theorganization; the speaker·s intentions and motives; the



omission of any important or relevant points. Becauseomission of any important or relevant points. Becauseit·s hard to absorb information and evaluate it at theit·s hard to absorb information and evaluate it at thesame time, reserve judgment until the speaker hassame time, reserve judgment until the speaker hasfinished.finished.


Critical listening generally involves interaction as youCritical listening generally involves interaction as you

try to uncover the speaker·s point of view. You aretry to uncover the speaker·s point of view. You arebound to evaluate the speaker·s credibility as well.bound to evaluate the speaker·s credibility as well.Nonverbal signals are often your best clue. When theNonverbal signals are often your best clue. When theregional sales manager presents sales projections for theregional sales manager presents sales projections for the



regional sales manager presents sales projections for theregional sales manager presents sales projections for the

next few months, you listen critically, evaluationnext few months, you listen critically, evaluation whether the estimates are valid and what the whether the estimates are valid and what theimplications are for your manufacturing department.implications are for your manufacturing department.


The goal of The goal of active active , or, or em phatic listening em phatic listening is to understandis to understand

the speaker·s feelings, needs and wants so that you canthe speaker·s feelings, needs and wants so that you canappreciate his or her point of view, regard less of appreciate his or her point of view, regard less of whether you share that perspective. By listening in an whether you share that perspective. By listening in anactive or emphatic way you help the individual vent theactive or emphatic way you help the individual vent the



active or emphatic way, you help the individual vent theactive or emphatic way, you help the individual vent the

emotion that prevents a dispassionate approach to theemotion that prevents a dispassionate approach to thesubject. Avoid the temptation to give advice.subject. Avoid the temptation to give advice.


Try not to judge the individual·s feelings. Just let Try not to judge the individual·s feelings. Just let

the other person talk. You listen emphatically the other person talk. You listen emphatically when your regional sales manager tells you about when your regional sales manager tells you aboutthe problems he had with his recreationalthe problems he had with his recreationalvehicle while vacationing with his familyvehicle while vacationing with his family



vehicle while vacationing with his family. vehicle while vacationing with his family.

All three types of listening can be useful in All three types of listening can be useful in work work--related situations, so it pays to learn how related situations, so it pays to learn how to apply them.to apply them.


How to Be a Better ListenerHow to Be a Better Listener

Regardless of whether the situation calls for content,Regardless of whether the situation calls for content,critical, or active listening, you can improve yourcritical, or active listening, you can improve yourlistening ability by becoming more aware of the habitslistening ability by becoming more aware of the habitsthat distinguish good listeners from bad (refer to table).that distinguish good listeners from bad (refer to table).In addition use nonverbal skills to help you focus:In addition use nonverbal skills to help you focus:



In addition, use nonverbal skills to help you focus:In addition, use nonverbal skills to help you focus:

maintain eye contact, react responsively with head nodsmaintain eye contact, react responsively with head nodsor spoken signals, and pay attention to the speaker·sor spoken signals, and pay attention to the speaker·sbody language. You might even test yourself from timebody language. You might even test yourself from timeto time.to time.


When someone else is talking, ask yourself whether When someone else is talking, ask yourself whether

you·re actually listening to the speaker or mentally you·re actually listening to the speaker or mentally rehearsing how you·ll respond. Above all, try to berehearsing how you·ll respond. Above all, try to beopen to the information that will lead to higher quality open to the information that will lead to higher quality decisions and try to accept the feelings that will builddecisions and try to accept the feelings that will build



decisions, and try to accept the feelings that will builddecisions, and try to accept the feelings that will build

understanding and mutual respect. If you do, you·ll beunderstanding and mutual respect. If you do, you·ll be well on the way to becoming a good listener well on the way to becoming a good listener ² ² ananimportant quality when conducting interviews on theimportant quality when conducting interviews on thejob.job.

Conduct of meeting Conduct of meeting




As in interviews, your speaking and listening skills are As in interviews, your speaking and listening skills are

put to the test during meetings. Moreover, the skills youput to the test during meetings. Moreover, the skills youdevelop to handle difficult interpersonal situations anddevelop to handle difficult interpersonal situations andinterviews are just as helpful when operating in smallinterviews are just as helpful when operating in smallgroups. Meetings can be an extremely useful forum forgroups. Meetings can be an extremely useful forum for

ki k d i i d di i h i i i fki k d i i d di i h i i i f



making key decisions and coordinating the activities of making key decisions and coordinating the activities of people and departments. Theoretically, the interactionpeople and departments. Theoretically, the interactionof the participants should lead to good decisions basedof the participants should lead to good decisions basedon the combined intelligence of the group.on the combined intelligence of the group.


Whether the meeting is held to solve a problem Whether the meeting is held to solve a problem

or to share information, the participants gain aor to share information, the participants gain asense of involvement and importance from theirsense of involvement and importance from their

attendance. Because they share in the decision,attendance. Because they share in the decision,



they accept it and are committed to seeing itthey accept it and are committed to seeing itsucceed.succeed.


At their worst, meetings are unproductive and At their worst, meetings are unproductive and

frustrating. They waste everyone·s time and they frustrating. They waste everyone·s time and they are expensive. More important, poor meetingsare expensive. More important, poor meetingsmay actually be counterproductive, because they may actually be counterproductive, because they may result in bad decisions When people aremay result in bad decisions When people are



may result in bad decisions. When people aremay result in bad decisions. When people are

pressured to conform, they abandon their sensepressured to conform, they abandon their senseof personal responsibility and agree to illof personal responsibility and agree to ill--founded plans.founded plans.


A rranging the Meeting A rranging the Meeting

By being aware of how small groups of people interact,By being aware of how small groups of people interact,meeting leaders can take steps to ensure that theirmeeting leaders can take steps to ensure that theirmeetings are productive. The three most frequently meetings are productive. The three most frequently reported problems with meetings are (1) getting off thereported problems with meetings are (1) getting off thesubject (2) not having an agenda and (3) meeting forsubject (2) not having an agenda and (3) meeting for



subject, (2) not having an agenda, and (3) meeting forsubject, (2) not having an agenda, and (3) meeting for

too long. The key to productive meeting is carefultoo long. The key to productive meeting is carefulplanning of purpose, participants, agenda, and location.planning of purpose, participants, agenda, and location. The trick is to bring the right people together in the The trick is to bring the right people together in theright place for just enough time to accomplish yourright place for just enough time to accomplish yourgoals.goals.


D etermining the pur pose D etermining the pur pose ::

In general, the purpose of a meeting is either to getIn general, the purpose of a meeting is either to getinformation or to make a decision, although many information or to make a decision, although many meetings comprise both purposes. An informationalmeetings comprise both purposes. An informationalmeeting is called so that the participants can sharemeeting is called so that the participants can share



information and, possibly coordinate actions. This typeinformation and, possibly coordinate actions. This typeof meeting may involve individual briefings by eachof meeting may involve individual briefings by eachparticipant or a speech by the leader followed by participant or a speech by the leader followed by questions from the attendees.questions from the attendees.


DecisionDecision--making meetings are mainly concernedmaking meetings are mainly concerned

with persuasion, analysis, and problem solving. with persuasion, analysis, and problem solving. They often include a brain storming session that They often include a brain storming session that

is followed by a debate on the alternatives.is followed by a debate on the alternatives.



These meetings tend to be somewhat less These meetings tend to be somewhat lesspredictable than informational meetings.predictable than informational meetings.


Selecting the partici pants Selecting the partici pants ::

Try to invite only those whose presence is essential. The number Try to invite only those whose presence is essential. The numberof participants should reflect the purpose of the meeting If theof participants should reflect the purpose of the meeting If thesession is purely informational and one person will be doing session is purely informational and one person will be doing most of the talking, you can include a relatively large group.most of the talking, you can include a relatively large group.However, if you·re trying to solve a problem, develop a plan, orHowever, if you·re trying to solve a problem, develop a plan, or



reach a decision, try to limit participation to between 6 and 12reach a decision, try to limit participation to between 6 and 12people. Of course, be sure to include those who can make anpeople. Of course, be sure to include those who can make animportant contribution and those who are key decision makers.important contribution and those who are key decision makers.


Setting the agenda Setting the agenda ::

Although the nature of a meeting may sometimes Although the nature of a meeting may sometimesprevent you from developing a fixed agenda, at leastprevent you from developing a fixed agenda, at leastprepare a list of matters to be discussed. Distribute theprepare a list of matters to be discussed. Distribute theagenda to the participants several days before theagenda to the participants several days before the



agenda to the participants several days before theagenda to the participants several days before the

meeting. The more participants know ahead of timemeeting. The more participants know ahead of timeabout the purpose of the meeting, the better preparedabout the purpose of the meeting, the better preparedthey·ll be to respond to the issues at hand.they·ll be to respond to the issues at hand.


Pre paring the location Pre paring the location ::

Decide where you·ll hold the meeting, and reserve theDecide where you·ll hold the meeting, and reserve thelocation. For work sessions, morning meetings arelocation. For work sessions, morning meetings areusually more productive than afternoon sessions. If youusually more productive than afternoon sessions. If youwork for an organization with technological capabilitieswork for an organization with technological capabilities



work for an organization with technological capabilities, work for an organization with technological capabilities,

you may want to use teleconferencing oryou may want to use teleconferencing or videoconferencing for your meeting. Also, consider the videoconferencing for your meeting. Also, consider theseating arrangements.seating arrangements.


CHECKLIS T FOR MEE TINGSCHECKLIS T FOR MEE TINGS

Preparation: (i). Determine the meeting·s objectives; (ii)Preparation: (i). Determine the meeting·s objectives; (ii) Work out an agenda that will achieve your objective; Work out an agenda that will achieve your objective;(iii) select participants; (iv) Determine the location, and(iii) select participants; (iv) Determine the location, andreserve a room; (v) Arrange for light refreshments, if reserve a room; (v) Arrange for light refreshments, if



appropriate; (vi) Determine whether the lighting,appropriate; (vi) Determine whether the lighting, ventilation, acoustics, and temperature of the rooms are ventilation, acoustics, and temperature of the rooms areadequate; (vii) Determine seating needs: chairs only oradequate; (vii) Determine seating needs: chairs only ortable and chairs.table and chairs.


Conduct: (i) Begin and end the meeting on time; (ii)Conduct: (i) Begin and end the meeting on time; (ii)

Control the meeting by following the announcedControl the meeting by following the announcedagenda; (iii) Encourage full participation, and eitheragenda; (iii) Encourage full participation, and eitherconfront or ignore those who seem to be working atconfront or ignore those who seem to be working atcrosscross--purposes with the group; (iv) Sum up decisions,purposes with the group; (iv) Sum up decisions,actions and recommendations as you move throughactions and recommendations as you move through



the agenda and restate main pints at the end.the agenda and restate main pints at the end. Follow Follow--up: (i) Distribute the meeting·s notes orup: (i) Distribute the meeting·s notes orminutes on a timely basis; (ii) Take the follow minutes on a timely basis; (ii) Take the follow--upupaction agreed to.action agreed to.


Contributing to a Productive Meeting: WhetherContributing to a Productive Meeting: Whether

the meeting is conducted electronically orthe meeting is conducted electronically orconventionally, the success depends largely onconventionally, the success depends largely on

how effective the leader is. If the leader ishow effective the leader is. If the leader is



prepared and has selected the participantsprepared and has selected the participantscarefully, the meeting will probably becarefully, the meeting will probably be

productive.productive.


UnderstandingGrou p DynamicsUnderstandingGrou p Dynamics

A meeting is called for some purpose, and this purpose A meeting is called for some purpose, and this purposegives from to the meeting. In addition, however, thegives from to the meeting. In addition, however, theinteractions and processes that take place during ainteractions and processes that take place during ameeting, the group dynamics, affect the outcome.meeting, the group dynamics, affect the outcome.



meeting, the group dynamics, affect the outcome.meeting, the group dynamics, affect the outcome.

People are assembled to achieve a work People are assembled to achieve a work--related task,related task,but at the same time each person has a hidden agenda,but at the same time each person has a hidden agenda,private motives that affect the group·s interaction.private motives that affect the group·s interaction.


Each person·s hidden agenda either contributesEach person·s hidden agenda either contributes

to or detracts from the group·s ability toto or detracts from the group·s ability toperform its task. Although it would be unethicalperform its task. Although it would be unethical

for any group member to make decisions solely for any group member to make decisions solely



on the basis of his or her hidden agenda, aon the basis of his or her hidden agenda, aperson·s private motives cannot be left on a coatperson·s private motives cannot be left on a coat

rack outside the conference.rack outside the conference.


R oleR ole--PlayingPlaying::

The roles people play in meetings fall into three The roles people play in meetings fall into threecategories. Members who assumecategories. Members who assume self self- -oriented roles oriented roles arearemotivated mainly to fulfill personal needs, and they motivated mainly to fulfill personal needs, and they tend to be less productive than the other two types. Fartend to be less productive than the other two types. Farmore likely to contribute to group goals are those whomore likely to contribute to group goals are those who



y g p gy g p g

assumeassume grou p maintenance roles grou p maintenance roles to help members work to help members work well together and those who assume well together and those who assume talktalk- -facilitating roles facilitating roles to help members solve the problem or make theto help members solve the problem or make thedecision.decision.


Grou p NormsGrou p Norms::Some groups are more cohesive than others. When the groupSome groups are more cohesive than others. When the grouphas a strong identity, the members all observe the normshas a strong identity, the members all observe the normsreligiously. They·re upset by any deviation, and individuals feel areligiously. They·re upset by any deviation, and individuals feel agreat deal of pressure to conform. The sense of group loyalty cangreat deal of pressure to conform. The sense of group loyalty canbe positive: Members generally have a strong commitment tobe positive: Members generally have a strong commitment toone another, and they·re highly motivated to see that the groupone another, and they·re highly motivated to see that the group



succeeds. However, such groups loyalty can also lead memberssucceeds. However, such groups loyalty can also lead membersinto groupthink, the willingness of individual members to setinto groupthink, the willingness of individual members to setaside their personal opinions and go along with everyone else,aside their personal opinions and go along with everyone else,even if everyone else is wrong, simply because belonging to theeven if everyone else is wrong, simply because belonging to thegroup is important to them.group is important to them.


Because decisions based on groupthink are moreBecause decisions based on groupthink are more

a result of group loyalty and conformity than of a result of group loyalty and conformity than of carefully considered opinion and fact finding,carefully considered opinion and fact finding,

groupthink can lead to poorgroupthink can lead to poor--quality decisionsquality decisions



and illand ill--advised actions. Groupthink can evenadvised actions. Groupthink can eveninduce people to act against their own sense of induce people to act against their own sense of

ethicsethics


Grou p decision MakingGrou p decision Making::

Groups usually reach their decisions in aGroups usually reach their decisions in apredictable pattern. The process can be viewedpredictable pattern. The process can be viewedas passing through four phases. In theas passing through four phases. In the orientation orientation phasephase group members socialize establish theirgroup members socialize establish their



phase phase , group members socialize, establish their, group members socialize, establish theirroles, and agree on their reason for meeting. Inroles, and agree on their reason for meeting. Inthethe conflict phase conflict phase members begin to discuss theirmembers begin to discuss theirpositions on the problem.positions on the problem.


In theIn the emergence phase emergence phase members reach a decision.members reach a decision.

Finally, in theFinally, in the reinforcement phase reinforcement phase group feeling isgroup feeling isbuilt, and the solution is summarized. Thesebuilt, and the solution is summarized. Thesefour phases almost always occur, regardless of four phases almost always occur, regardless of

what type of decision is being considered. what type of decision is being considered.



yp gyp g

Group members naturally employ this decisionGroup members naturally employ this decisionprocess, even when they lack experience orprocess, even when they lack experience ortraining in group communication.training in group communication.

Interview Interview



Interview Interview

Interview Interview ::

An interview is any pleasant conversation with a An interview is any pleasant conversation with aspecific purpose involving two or more people.specific purpose involving two or more people.

When both the interviewer and the interviewee When both the interviewer and the interviewee



achieve their purpose, the interview is a success.achieve their purpose, the interview is a success.

Interview Interview

Conducting Interviewees on the jobConducting Interviewees on the job::

In addition to handling difficult interpersonal situations,In addition to handling difficult interpersonal situations,planning what to say and developing good listening planning what to say and developing good listening skills will also help you participate in onskills will also help you participate in on--thethe--jobjobinterviews. In a typical interview the action is controlledinterviews. In a typical interview the action is controlledby the interviewer, the person who scheduled theby the interviewer, the person who scheduled the



session. The individual poses a series of questionssession. The individual poses a series of questionsdesigned to elicit information from the interviewee.designed to elicit information from the interviewee.Interviews sometimes involve several interviewers orInterviews sometimes involve several interviewers orseveral interviewees, but more often only two peopleseveral interviewees, but more often only two peopleparticipate.participate.

Interview Interview

The conversation bounces back and forth from The conversation bounces back and forth from

interviewer to interviewee. Although the interviewerinterviewer to interviewee. Although the interviewerguides the conversation, the interviewee may also seek guides the conversation, the interviewee may also seek to accomplish a purpose, perhaps to obtain or provideto accomplish a purpose, perhaps to obtain or provideinformation, to solve a problem, to create goodwill, orinformation, to solve a problem, to create goodwill, or



to persuade the other person to take action. If theto persuade the other person to take action. If theparticipants establish rapport and stick to the subject atparticipants establish rapport and stick to the subject athand, both parties have a chance of achieving theirhand, both parties have a chance of achieving theirobjectives.objectives.

Interview Interview

Categorizing InterviewsCategorizing Interviews::

The various types of interviews call for different The various types of interviews call for differentcommunication skills. A structured interview iscommunication skills. A structured interview iscontrolled by the interviewer to gather facts. Incontrolled by the interviewer to gather facts. Inan openan open--ended interview, the recruiterended interview, the recruiter



pp ,,encourages the candidate to speak freely. Groupencourages the candidate to speak freely. Groupinterviews help recruiters see how candidatesinterviews help recruiters see how candidatesinteract with one another.interact with one another.

Interview Interview

Job Interviews Job Interviews ::

The job candidate wants to learn about the position and The job candidate wants to learn about the position andthe organization; the employer wants to learn about thethe organization; the employer wants to learn about theapplicant·s abilities and experience. Both hope to makeapplicant·s abilities and experience. Both hope to makea good impression and to establish rapport. Initial joba good impression and to establish rapport. Initial job



interviews are usually fairly formal and structured, butinterviews are usually fairly formal and structured, butlater interviews may be relatively spontaneous as thelater interviews may be relatively spontaneous as theinterviewer explores the candidate·s responses.interviewer explores the candidate·s responses.

Interview Interview

Information Interviews Information Interviews ::

The interviewer seeks facts that bear on a decision or contribute The interviewer seeks facts that bear on a decision or contributeto basic understanding. Information flows mainly in oneto basic understanding. Information flows mainly in onedirection: One person asks a list of questions that must bedirection: One person asks a list of questions that must becovered and listens to the answers supplied by the other person.covered and listens to the answers supplied by the other person.

This kind of interview is a valuable form of primary research. Of This kind of interview is a valuable form of primary research. Of course the person you interview must be credible andcourse the person you interview must be credible and



course, the person you interview must be credible andcourse, the person you interview must be credible andknowledgeable about the subject. It is also important to decide inknowledgeable about the subject. It is also important to decide inadvance what kind of information you want and how you willadvance what kind of information you want and how you willyou use it; this planning will save time and build goodwill.you use it; this planning will save time and build goodwill.

Interview Interview

Persuasive Interviews Persuasive Interviews ::

One person tells another about a new idea, product, orOne person tells another about a new idea, product, orservice and explains why the other should act on theservice and explains why the other should act on therecommendations. Persuasive interviews are oftenrecommendations. Persuasive interviews are oftenassociated with, but are not certainly limited to, selling.associated with, but are not certainly limited to, selling.The persuader asks about the other person·s needs andThe persuader asks about the other person·s needs and



The persuader asks about the other person s needs and The persuader asks about the other person s needs andshows how the product or concept is able to meetshows how the product or concept is able to meetthose needs. Thus persuasive interviews require skill inthose needs. Thus persuasive interviews require skill indrawing out and listening to others as well as the ability drawing out and listening to others as well as the ability to impart information.to impart information.

Interview Interview

Exit Interviews Exit Interviews ::

The interviewer tries to understand why the interviewee is The interviewer tries to understand why the interviewee isleaving the organization or transferring to another department orleaving the organization or transferring to another department ordivision. A departing employee can often provide insight intodivision. A departing employee can often provide insight into

whether the business is being handled efficiently or whether whether the business is being handled efficiently or whetherthings could be improved. The interviewer tends to ask all thethings could be improved. The interviewer tends to ask all thequestions while the interviewee provides answers Encouragingquestions while the interviewee provides answers Encouraging



questions while the interviewee provides answers. Encouraging questions while the interviewee provides answers. Encouraging the employee to focus on events and processes rather than onthe employee to focus on events and processes rather than onpersonal gripes will elicit more useful information for thepersonal gripes will elicit more useful information for theorganization.organization.

Interview Interview

Evaluation Interviews Evaluation Interviews ::

a supervisor periodically gives an employee feedback ona supervisor periodically gives an employee feedback onhis or her performance. The supervisor and thehis or her performance. The supervisor and theemployee discuss progress toward predeterminedemployee discuss progress toward predeterminedstandards or goals and evaluate areas that requirestandards or goals and evaluate areas that require



improvement. They may also discuss goals for theimprovement. They may also discuss goals for thecoming year, as well as the employee·s longercoming year, as well as the employee·s longer--termtermaspirations and general concerns.aspirations and general concerns.

Interview Interview

Counseling Interviews:Counseling Interviews:

A supervisor talks with an employee about personal A supervisor talks with an employee about personalproblems that are interfering with work performance.problems that are interfering with work performance. The interviewer is concerned with the welfare of both The interviewer is concerned with the welfare of boththe employee and the organization. The goal is tothe employee and the organization. The goal is toestablish the facts covey the company·s concern andestablish the facts covey the company·s concern and



establish the facts, covey the company s concern, andestablish the facts, covey the company s concern, andsteer the person toward a source of help. (Only asteer the person toward a source of help. (Only atrained professional should offer advice on suchtrained professional should offer advice on suchproblems as substance abuse, marital tension, andproblems as substance abuse, marital tension, andfinancial trouble.)financial trouble.)

Interview Interview

C onflict C onflict- -resolution Interviews: resolution Interviews:

Two competing people or groups of people (such as Two competing people or groups of people (such asSmith versus Jones, day shift versus night shift, GeneralSmith versus Jones, day shift versus night shift, GeneralMotors versus the United Auto Workers) explore theirMotors versus the United Auto Workers) explore theirproblems and attitudes. The goal is to bring the twoproblems and attitudes. The goal is to bring the two



parties closer together, cause adjustments inparties closer together, cause adjustments inperceptions and attitudes, and create a more productiveperceptions and attitudes, and create a more productiveclimate.climate.

Interview Interview

D isci plinary Interviews: D isci plinary Interviews:

A supervisor tries to correct the behavior of an A supervisor tries to correct the behavior of anemployee who has ignored the organization·s rules andemployee who has ignored the organization·s rules andregulations. The interviewer tries to get the employee toregulations. The interviewer tries to get the employee tosee the reason for the rules and to agree to comply. Thesee the reason for the rules and to agree to comply. The



interviewer also reviews the facts and explores theinterviewer also reviews the facts and explores theperson·s attitude. Because of the emotional reactionperson·s attitude. Because of the emotional reactionthat is likely, neutral observations are more effectivethat is likely, neutral observations are more effectivethan critical comments.than critical comments.

Interview Interview

T ermination Interviews T ermination Interviews ::

A supervisor informs an employee of the reasons for A supervisor informs an employee of the reasons forthe termination. The interviewer tries to avoid involving the termination. The interviewer tries to avoid involving the company in legal action and tries to maintain asthe company in legal action and tries to maintain aspositive a relationship as possible with the interviewee.positive a relationship as possible with the interviewee.



To accomplish these goals, the interviewer gives To accomplish these goals, the interviewer givesreasons that are specific, accurate and verifiable.reasons that are specific, accurate and verifiable.

Interview Interview

Planning InterviewsPlanning Interviews::

The interviewer assumes the main responsibility for planning the The interviewer assumes the main responsibility for planning theinterview. Planning an interview is similar to planning any otherinterview. Planning an interview is similar to planning any otherform of communication. You begin by stating your purpose,form of communication. You begin by stating your purpose,analyzing the other person, and formulating your main idea.analyzing the other person, and formulating your main idea.

Then you decide on the length, style, and organization of the Then you decide on the length, style, and organization of theinterview. Even as an interviewee, you·ve some control over theinterview. Even as an interviewee, you·ve some control over the



te v ew. ve as a te v ewee, you ve so e co t o ove t ete v ew. ve as a te v ewee, you ve so e co t o ove t econversation by anticipating the interviewer·s questions and thenconversation by anticipating the interviewer·s questions and thenplanning your answers so that the points you want to make willplanning your answers so that the points you want to make willbe covered. You can also introduce questions and topics of yourbe covered. You can also introduce questions and topics of yourown.own.

Interview Interview

In addition, by your comments and nonverbal cues, youIn addition, by your comments and nonverbal cues, you

can affect the relationship between you and thecan affect the relationship between you and theinterviewer. Think about your respective roles. Whatinterviewer. Think about your respective roles. Whatdoes this person expect from you? Is it to yourdoes this person expect from you? Is it to youradvantage to confirm those expectations? Will you beadvantage to confirm those expectations? Will you bemore likely to accomplish your objective by being more likely to accomplish your objective by being



friendly and open or by conveying an impression of friendly and open or by conveying an impression of professional detachment? Should you allow theprofessional detachment? Should you allow theinterviewer to dominate the exchange, or should you try interviewer to dominate the exchange, or should you try to take control?to take control?

Interview Interview

If you·re the interviewer, responsibility for planning theIf you·re the interviewer, responsibility for planning thesession falls on you. On the simplest level, your job issession falls on you. On the simplest level, your job isto schedule the interview and see that it·s held in ato schedule the interview and see that it·s held in acomfortable and convenient location. Goodcomfortable and convenient location. Goodinterviewers are good at collecting information,interviewers are good at collecting information,listening and probing. So you·ll will also develop a setlistening and probing. So you·ll will also develop a setof interview questions and decide on their sequence.of interview questions and decide on their sequence.



q qq qHaving a plan will enable you to conduct the interview Having a plan will enable you to conduct the interview more efficiently, even if you find it advantageous tomore efficiently, even if you find it advantageous todeviate from the plan during the interview.deviate from the plan during the interview.

Interview Interview

If your questions might require research or extensiveIf your questions might require research or extensive

thinking, or if you·d like to quote the interviewee inthinking, or if you·d like to quote the interviewee in writing, consider providing a list of questions a day or writing, consider providing a list of questions a day ortwo before the interview so that the person will havetwo before the interview so that the person will havetime to prepare more complete (and therefore moretime to prepare more complete (and therefore more



helpful) answers. You might also want to tape recordhelpful) answers. You might also want to tape recordthe interview if the topic is complex or if you plan tothe interview if the topic is complex or if you plan toquote or paraphrase the interviewee in a writtenquote or paraphrase the interviewee in a writtendocument.document.

Interview Interview

Interview QuestionsInterview Questions::

The purpose of the interview and the nature of the The purpose of the interview and the nature of theparticipants determine the types of questions that areparticipants determine the types of questions that areasked. When you plan the interview, bear in mind thatasked. When you plan the interview, bear in mind thatyou ask questions (1) to get information, (2) to motivateyou ask questions (1) to get information, (2) to motivatethe interviewee to respond honestly and appropriately,the interviewee to respond honestly and appropriately,



p y pp p y,p y pp p y,and (3) to create a good working relationship with theand (3) to create a good working relationship with theother person. To obtain both factual information andother person. To obtain both factual information andunderlying feelings, you·ll probably use various types of underlying feelings, you·ll probably use various types of questions.questions.

Interview Interview

O pen O pen- -ended questions: ended questions: They invite the interviewee to offer an opinion, not just a yes, They invite the interviewee to offer an opinion, not just a yes,no, or oneno, or one--word answer: ´What do you think your company word answer: ´What do you think your company

wants most from its suppliers?µ This kind of question is useful wants most from its suppliers?µ This kind of question is useful when you want to learn the reasons behind a decision rather than when you want to learn the reasons behind a decision rather thanjust the facts. You can learn some interesting and unexpectedjust the facts. You can learn some interesting and unexpectedthings from openthings from open--ended questions, but they diminish yourended questions, but they diminish your



control of the interview. The other person·s idea of what·scontrol of the interview. The other person·s idea of what·srelevant may not coincide with yours, and you may waste somerelevant may not coincide with yours, and you may waste sometime getting the interview back on track. Use opentime getting the interview back on track. Use open--endedendedquestions to warm up the interviewee and to look forquestions to warm up the interviewee and to look forinformation when you·ve plenty of time to conduct theinformation when you·ve plenty of time to conduct theconversation.conversation.

Interview Interview

D irect D irect- -ended questions: ended questions:

To suggest a response, use To suggest a response, use direct direct- -ended questions ended questions . For example,. For example,asking ´What have you done about: assumes that something hasasking ´What have you done about: assumes that something hasbeen done and calls for an explanation. With direct openbeen done and calls for an explanation. With direct open--endedendedquestions you·ve somewhat more control over the interview, butquestions you·ve somewhat more control over the interview, butyou still give the other person some freedom in framing ayou still give the other person some freedom in framing a



response. This form is good to use when you want to get aresponse. This form is good to use when you want to get aspecific conclusion or recommendation from someone: forspecific conclusion or recommendation from someone: forexample, ´What would you do to improve customer satisfactionexample, ´What would you do to improve customer satisfactionin the southern region?µ Take care to avoid biasing the responsein the southern region?µ Take care to avoid biasing the response

with the way you word the question, however. with the way you word the question, however.

Interview Interview

Asking ´What should Roger Vanque do to improve Asking ´What should Roger Vanque do to improvecustomer satisfaction in his region? ´ implies thatcustomer satisfaction in his region? ´ implies that Vanque is doing something wrong, which may not be Vanque is doing something wrong, which may not bethe case.the case.

C losed C losed- -ended questions ended questions :: They require yes or no answers or call for short They require yes or no answers or call for short



responses: ´Did you make a reservation for the flight?µresponses: ´Did you make a reservation for the flight?µ´What is your grade´What is your grade--point average; 3.5 to 4.0, 3.0 to 3.5,point average; 3.5 to 4.0, 3.0 to 3.5,2.5 to 3.0, 2.0 to 2.5?µ Questions like these produce2.5 to 3.0, 2.0 to 2.5?µ Questions like these producespecific information, save time, require little effort fromspecific information, save time, require little effort fromthe interviewee, and eliminate bias and prejudice inthe interviewee, and eliminate bias and prejudice in

answers.answers.

Interview Interview

The disadvantage is that they limit the respondent·s initiative and The disadvantage is that they limit the respondent·s initiative andmay prevent important information from being revealed. They·remay prevent important information from being revealed. They·re

better for gathering information than for prompting an exchangebetter for gathering information than for prompting an exchangeof feelings.of feelings.

Restatement questions: Restatement questions: Questions that mirror a respondent·s answer are called rQuestions that mirror a respondent·s answer are called restatement estatement



questions questions . They invite the respondent to expand an answer: ´You. They invite the respondent to expand an answer: ´Yousaid you dislike completing travel vouchers. Is that correct?µsaid you dislike completing travel vouchers. Is that correct?µ They also signal to the interviewee that you·re paying attention. They also signal to the interviewee that you·re paying attention.Restatements provide opportunities to clarify points and toRestatements provide opportunities to clarify points and tocorrect misunderstandings.correct misunderstandings.

Interview Interview

Use them to pursue a subject further or toUse them to pursue a subject further or to

encourage the other person to explain aencourage the other person to explain astatement. You can also use restatementstatement. You can also use restatement

questions to soothe upset customers or coquestions to soothe upset customers or co--



workers. The simple act of acknowledging the workers. The simple act of acknowledging theother person·s complaint provides a wealth of other person·s complaint provides a wealth of

gains in information, rapport, and mutual trustgains in information, rapport, and mutual trustand respect.and respect.

Interview Interview

Interview StructureInterview Structure::

Good interviews have anGood interviews have an o pening o pening , a, a body body and aand a close close . The. The o peningo peningestablishes rapport and orients the interviewee to the remainderestablishes rapport and orients the interviewee to the remainderof the session. You might begin by introducing yourself, asking aof the session. You might begin by introducing yourself, asking afew polite questions, and the explaining the purpose and groundfew polite questions, and the explaining the purpose and groundrules of the interview. The question in the body of the interview rules of the interview. The question in the body of the interview reflect the nature of your relationship with the interviewee. Forreflect the nature of your relationship with the interviewee. For



an informational session, such as a market research interview,an informational session, such as a market research interview,you may want to structure the interview and prepare a detailedyou may want to structure the interview and prepare a detailedlist of specific questions. This approach enables you to controllist of specific questions. This approach enables you to controlthe interview and use your time efficiently.the interview and use your time efficiently.

Interview Interview

It also facilitates repeating the interview with otherIt also facilitates repeating the interview with otherparticipants. On the other hand, if the interview isparticipants. On the other hand, if the interview isdesigned to explore problems to persuade thedesigned to explore problems to persuade theinterviewee, you may prefer a less structured approach.interviewee, you may prefer a less structured approach. You might simply prepare a checklist of general You might simply prepare a checklist of generalsubjects and then let the interview evolve on the basissubjects and then let the interview evolve on the basisof the participant·s responses. In theof the participant·s responses. In the bodybody of theof the



interview, use a mix of question types. One goodinterview, use a mix of question types. One goodtechnique is to use closedtechnique is to use closed--ended questions to pin downended questions to pin downspecific facts that emerge during an openspecific facts that emerge during an open--endedendedresponse.response.

Interview Interview

You might follow up an open You might follow up an open--ended response by ended response by

asking, ´How many people did you contact to get thisasking, ´How many people did you contact to get thisinformation?µ or ´Can we get this product in stock information?µ or ´Can we get this product in stock before May 15?µ Thebefore May 15?µ The closeclose of the interview is whenof the interview is whenyou summarize the outcome, preview what comes next,you summarize the outcome, preview what comes next,and underscore the rapport that has been established.and underscore the rapport that has been established.



To signal that the interview is coming to an end, you To signal that the interview is coming to an end, youmight lean back in your chair, smile, and use an open,might lean back in your chair, smile, and use an open,palmspalms--up gesture as you say, ´Well, I guess that takesup gesture as you say, ´Well, I guess that takescare of all my questions.care of all my questions.

Interview Interview

Would you like to add anything? If the interviewee has Would you like to add anything? If the interviewee hasno comments, you might go on to say, Thank you sono comments, you might go on to say, Thank you somuch for your help. You·ve given me all themuch for your help. You·ve given me all theinformation I need to finish my report. I should have itinformation I need to finish my report. I should have itcompleted within two weeks; I·ll send you a copy.µcompleted within two weeks; I·ll send you a copy.µ Then you might rise, shake hands, and approach the Then you might rise, shake hands, and approach thedoor. In parting, you could add a friendly comment todoor. In parting, you could add a friendly comment to



reaffirm your interest in the other person. From areaffirm your interest in the other person. From astatistical standpoint, you need to be certain that yourstatistical standpoint, you need to be certain that yourinterview outline is about the right length for the timeinterview outline is about the right length for the timeyou·ve scheduled.you·ve scheduled.

Interview Interview

People can speak at the rate of about 125 to 150 wordsPeople can speak at the rate of about 125 to 150 wordsa minute. If you·ve using a mix of various types of a minute. If you·ve using a mix of various types of questions, you can probably handle about 20 questionsquestions, you can probably handle about 20 questionsin half an hour (or about the same amount of in half an hour (or about the same amount of information that you would cover in 10information that you would cover in 10-- to 12to 12--pagepagesinglesingle--spaced document). However, you may want tospaced document). However, you may want toallow more or less time for each question and response,allow more or less time for each question and response,



depending on the subject matter and the complexity of depending on the subject matter and the complexity of the questions. Bear in mind that openthe questions. Bear in mind that open--ended questionsended questionstake longer to answer than other types do.take longer to answer than other types do.

Interview Interview

When you·ve concluded the interview, take a When you·ve concluded the interview, take a

few moments to write down your thoughts. If itfew moments to write down your thoughts. If it was an information was an information--gathering session, go overgathering session, go overyour notes. Fill in any blanks while the interview your notes. Fill in any blanks while the interview is fresh in your mind. In addition, you mightis fresh in your mind. In addition, you might



right a short letter or memo that thanks theright a short letter or memo that thanks theinterviewee for cooperating, confirmsinterviewee for cooperating, confirmsunderstandings between you, and if appropriate,understandings between you, and if appropriate,outlines the next steps.outlines the next steps.

Giving S peeches and Oral Presentation Giving S peeches and Oral Presentation




Giving S peeches and Oral Presentation Giving S peeches and Oral Presentation can be an integral part of can be an integral part of your business career. Chances are you·ll have an opportunity toyour business career. Chances are you·ll have an opportunity todeliver a number of speeches and presentations throughout yourdeliver a number of speeches and presentations throughout yourcareer. For most speeches and formal presentations, you·ll follow career. For most speeches and formal presentations, you·ll follow three general steps: (i) prepare to speak (by defining yourthree general steps: (i) prepare to speak (by defining yourpurpose, analyze your audience, and planning your speech·spurpose, analyze your audience, and planning your speech·scontent, length, and style); (ii) develop your speech orcontent, length, and style); (ii) develop your speech or

i (i l di h i d i b d l ii (i l di h i d i b d l i



presentation (including the introduction, body, close, questionpresentation (including the introduction, body, close, question--andand--answer period, and visual aids), and (iii) deliver your speechanswer period, and visual aids), and (iii) deliver your speechor presentation.or presentation.


Pre paring to S peakPre paring to S peak::

Preparing speeches and oral presentations is much like preparing Preparing speeches and oral presentations is much like preparing any other message. You define your purpose, analyze yourany other message. You define your purpose, analyze youraudience, and plan how to present your points. However,audience, and plan how to present your points. However,because speeches and presentations are delivered orally underbecause speeches and presentations are delivered orally underrelatively public circumstances, they require a few specialrelatively public circumstances, they require a few specialcommunication techniques. A speech is a onecommunication techniques. A speech is a one--shot event; yourshot event; your

di · l f b k h h i hidi · l f b k h h i hi



audience can·t leaf back through pages to review something youaudience can·t leaf back through pages to review something yousaid earlier. For this reason, you must make sure audiencesaid earlier. For this reason, you must make sure audiencemembers will hear what you say and remember it.members will hear what you say and remember it.


D efine your pur pose D efine your pur pose ::

Speeches and presentations can be categorizedSpeeches and presentations can be categorizedaccording to their purpose, which helps you determineaccording to their purpose, which helps you determinecontent, style, and audience participation. The fourcontent, style, and audience participation. The fourbasic categories are to inform, to persuade, to motivate,basic categories are to inform, to persuade, to motivate,and to entertain. Many of your business speeches andand to entertain. Many of your business speeches and

i ill b i f i d if · i l di ill b i f i d if · i l d



presentations will be informative, and if you·re involvedpresentations will be informative, and if you·re involvedin a marketing or sales position, you·ll need to doin a marketing or sales position, you·ll need to dopersuasive presentations as well.persuasive presentations as well.


Motivational speeches tend to be more specialized.Motivational speeches tend to be more specialized.

Many companies bring in outside speakers whoMany companies bring in outside speakers whospecialize in motivational speaking. Entertainmentspecialize in motivational speaking. Entertainmentspeeches are perhaps the rarest in the business world,speeches are perhaps the rarest in the business world,and they are usually limited to afterand they are usually limited to after--dinner speechesdinner speeches

d h i B hi h ki dd h i B hi h ki d



and speeches at conventions. But no matter which kindand speeches at conventions. But no matter which kindof speech you plan to make, it will always start withof speech you plan to make, it will always start withunderstanding your audience.understanding your audience.


Analyze your audience: Analyze your audience:

Once you·ve your purpose firmly in mind, you should think Once you·ve your purpose firmly in mind, you should think about another basic element of your speech or presentation, yourabout another basic element of your speech or presentation, youraudience. Analyzing your audience is an important step becauseaudience. Analyzing your audience is an important step becauseyou·ll be gearing the style and content of your speech to youryou·ll be gearing the style and content of your speech to youraudience·s needs and interests. If you·re involved in selecting theaudience·s needs and interests. If you·re involved in selecting theaudience, you·ll certainly have information about theiraudience, you·ll certainly have information about theirh i i H ·ll f b ki fh i i H ·ll f b ki f



characteristics. However, you·ll often be speaking to a group of characteristics. However, you·ll often be speaking to a group of people you know very little about. You·ll have a much betterpeople you know very little about. You·ll have a much betterchance of achieving your purpose if you investigate thechance of achieving your purpose if you investigate theaudience·s characteristics before you show up to speak.audience·s characteristics before you show up to speak.


C hecklist for Audience Analysis C hecklist for Audience Analysis ::

A . A . Audience Size and C om position Audience Size and C om position ..

B.B. Probable Audience Reaction Probable Audience Reaction ..

C.C. Level of Audience U nderstanding Level of Audience U nderstanding ..

D.D. Audience Relationshi p with the S peaker. Audience Relationshi p with the S peaker.




Plan your s peech or presentation Plan your s peech or presentation : Planning an oral: Planning an oral

message is similar to planning a written message.message is similar to planning a written message. You establish the main idea, organize an outline, You establish the main idea, organize an outline,

estimate the appropriate length, and decide onestimate the appropriate length, and decide onthe most effective style.the most effective style.




Establishing the main idea: Establishing the main idea:

What is the main idea or theme that you want to What is the main idea or theme that you want toconvey to the audience? Look for a oneconvey to the audience? Look for a one--

sentence generalization that links your subjectsentence generalization that links your subject

d h di · f fd h di · f f



and purpose to the audience·s frame of and purpose to the audience·s frame of reference. The main idea points up how thereference. The main idea points up how the

audience can benefit from your message.audience can benefit from your message.


Organizing an outline: Organizing an outline:

With a well With a well--crafted main idea to guide you, you can begin tocrafted main idea to guide you, you can begin tooutline your speech or presentation. This outline will be affectedoutline your speech or presentation. This outline will be affectedby your subject, your purpose, and your audience, as well as by by your subject, your purpose, and your audience, as well as by the time allotted for your presentation. If you·ve 10 minutes orthe time allotted for your presentation. If you·ve 10 minutes orless to deliver your message (a short speech or presentation),less to deliver your message (a short speech or presentation),organize your thoughts much as you would for a letter or a brief organize your thoughts much as you would for a letter or a brief

U th di t h if th bj t i l tiU th di t h if th bj t i l ti



memo. Use the direct approach if the subject involves routinememo. Use the direct approach if the subject involves routineinformation or good news; use the indirect approach if theinformation or good news; use the indirect approach if thesubject involves bad news or persuasion. Plan your introductionsubject involves bad news or persuasion. Plan your introductionto arouse interest and to give a preview of what·s to come.to arouse interest and to give a preview of what·s to come.


For the body of the presentation, be prepared toFor the body of the presentation, be prepared toexplain the who, what, when, where, why, and how of explain the who, what, when, where, why, and how of your subject. In the final paragraph or two, review theyour subject. In the final paragraph or two, review thepoints you·ve made, and close with a statement that willpoints you·ve made, and close with a statement that willhelp your audience remember the subject of yourhelp your audience remember the subject of yourspeech. Long speeches and presentations are organizedspeech. Long speeches and presentations are organizedlike formal reports. If the purpose is to entertain,like formal reports. If the purpose is to entertain,

ti t i f di t d d t tti t i f di t d d t t



motivate, or inform, use direct order and a structuremotivate, or inform, use direct order and a structureimposed naturally by the subject (importance, sequence,imposed naturally by the subject (importance, sequence,chronology, spatial orientation, geography & category).chronology, spatial orientation, geography & category).


If the purpose is to analyze, persuade, or collaborate,If the purpose is to analyze, persuade, or collaborate,organize your material around conclusions andorganize your material around conclusions andrecommendations or around a logical argument. Userecommendations or around a logical argument. Usedirect order if the audience is receptive and indirect if direct order if the audience is receptive and indirect if you expect resistance. A carefully prepared outline may you expect resistance. A carefully prepared outline may be more than just the starting point for composing abe more than just the starting point for composing a

h t ti If l t d lih t ti If l t d li



speech or presentation. If you plan to deliver yourspeech or presentation. If you plan to deliver yourpresentation from notes rather than from a written text,presentation from notes rather than from a written text,your outline can also become your final ´script.µyour outline can also become your final ´script.µ


Estimating length: Estimating length:

Time for speeches and presentations is often strictly regulated, Time for speeches and presentations is often strictly regulated,

so you·ll need to tailor your material to the available time. Youso you·ll need to tailor your material to the available time. Youcan use your outline to estimate how much time your speech orcan use your outline to estimate how much time your speech orpresentation will take. Which is better, the 10presentation will take. Which is better, the 10--minute speech orminute speech orthe hourthe hour--long presentation? If your speech doesn·t have to fitlong presentation? If your speech doesn·t have to fitinto a specified time slot, the answer depends on your subject,into a specified time slot, the answer depends on your subject,your audience·s attitude and knowledge, and the relationship youyour audience·s attitude and knowledge, and the relationship youhave with your audience For a simple easily accepted messagehave with your audience For a simple easily accepted message



have with your audience. For a simple, easily accepted message,have with your audience. For a simple, easily accepted message,10 minutes may be enough. On the other hand, if your subject is10 minutes may be enough. On the other hand, if your subject iscomplex or your audience is skeptical, you·ll will probably needcomplex or your audience is skeptical, you·ll will probably needmore time.more time.


D eciding on style: D eciding on style:

Another important element in your planning is the style you Another important element in your planning is the style you

choose. The size of the audience, the subject, your purpose,choose. The size of the audience, the subject, your purpose,your budget and the time available for preparation all determineyour budget and the time available for preparation all determinethe style. Use a casual style for small groups; use a formal stylethe style. Use a casual style for small groups; use a formal stylefor large groups and important events. In general, if you·refor large groups and important events. In general, if you·respeaking to a relatively small group, you can use a casual stylespeaking to a relatively small group, you can use a casual stylethat encourages audience participation. Use simple visual aids.that encourages audience participation. Use simple visual aids.Invite the audience to interject comments Deliver your remarksInvite the audience to interject comments Deliver your remarks



Invite the audience to interject comments. Deliver your remarksInvite the audience to interject comments. Deliver your remarksin a conversational tone. On the other hand, if you·re addressing in a conversational tone. On the other hand, if you·re addressing a large audience and the event is an important one, you·ll want toa large audience and the event is an important one, you·ll want toestablish a more formal atmosphere.establish a more formal atmosphere.

D evelo ping your s peech or presentation D evelo ping your s peech or presentation




D evelo ping your s peech or presentation: D evelo ping your s peech or presentation:

Developing a major speech or presentations is much like writing Developing a major speech or presentations is much like writing a formal report, with one important difference You need toa formal report, with one important difference You need toadjust your technique to an oral communication channel. Thisadjust your technique to an oral communication channel. Thischannel presents both an opportunity and a challenge. Thechannel presents both an opportunity and a challenge. Theopportunity lies in the interaction that is possible between youopportunity lies in the interaction that is possible between youand the audience. When you speak before a group, you canand the audience. When you speak before a group, you can

receive information as well as transmit it So you can adjust bothreceive information as well as transmit it So you can adjust both



receive information as well as transmit it. So you can adjust bothreceive information as well as transmit it. So you can adjust boththe content and the delivery of your message as you go along,the content and the delivery of your message as you go along,editing your speech or presentation to make it clearer and moreediting your speech or presentation to make it clearer and morecompelling.compelling.


T he Introduction: T he Introduction:

The introduction captures attention, inspires The introduction captures attention, inspiresconfidence, and previews the contents. You·ll have a lotconfidence, and previews the contents. You·ll have a lotto accomplish during the first few minutes of yourto accomplish during the first few minutes of yourspeech or presentation, including arousing yourspeech or presentation, including arousing youraudience·s interest in your topic, establishing youraudience·s interest in your topic, establishing yourcredibility and preparing the audience for what willcredibility and preparing the audience for what will



credibility, and preparing the audience for what willcredibility, and preparing the audience for what willfollow. That·s why preparing the introduction oftenfollow. That·s why preparing the introduction oftenrequires a disproportionate amount of your attention.requires a disproportionate amount of your attention.


Arousing Interest: Arousing Interest:

Some subjects are naturally more interesting than others. If you·llSome subjects are naturally more interesting than others. If you·llbe discussing a matter of profound significance that willbe discussing a matter of profound significance that willpersonally affect the members of your audience, chances arepersonally affect the members of your audience, chances arethey·ll listen regardless of how you begin. All you really have tothey·ll listen regardless of how you begin. All you really have todo is to announce your topic. The best approach to dealing withdo is to announce your topic. The best approach to dealing withan uninterested audience is to appeal to human nature.an uninterested audience is to appeal to human nature.

Encourage people to take the subject personally Show themEncourage people to take the subject personally Show them



Encourage people to take the subject personally. Show themEncourage people to take the subject personally. Show themhow they·ll be affected as individuals. Make sure yourhow they·ll be affected as individuals. Make sure yourintroduction matches the tone of your speech or presentation.introduction matches the tone of your speech or presentation.


Building credibility: Building credibility:

A speaker with high credibility is more persuasive than a speaker A speaker with high credibility is more persuasive than a speaker with low credibility. So it·s important to establish your with low credibility. So it·s important to establish yourcredentialscredentials ² ² and quickly; people will decide within a few minutesand quickly; people will decide within a few minutes

whether you·re worth listening to. You want the audience to like whether you·re worth listening to. You want the audience to likeyou as a person and to respect your opinion, and you have toyou as a person and to respect your opinion, and you have toplan for this while you·re developing your speech. Establishing plan for this while you·re developing your speech. Establishing

credibility is relatively easy if you·re speaking to a familiar opencredibility is relatively easy if you·re speaking to a familiar open



credibility is relatively easy if you re speaking to a familiar, opencredibility is relatively easy if you re speaking to a familiar, open--minded audience. The difficulty comes when you try to earn theminded audience. The difficulty comes when you try to earn theconfidence of strangers, especially those predisposed to beconfidence of strangers, especially those predisposed to beskeptical or antagonistic.skeptical or antagonistic.


One way to handle the problem is to let someone else introduceOne way to handle the problem is to let someone else introduceyou. That person can present your credentials so that you won·tyou. That person can present your credentials so that you won·t

appear boastful, but make sure the person introducing youappear boastful, but make sure the person introducing youdoesn·t exaggerate your qualifications. If you plan to introducedoesn·t exaggerate your qualifications. If you plan to introduceyourself, keep your comments simple. At the same time, don·t beyourself, keep your comments simple. At the same time, don·t beafraid to mention your accomplishments. Your listeners will beafraid to mention your accomplishments. Your listeners will becurious about your qualifications, so tell them briefly who youcurious about your qualifications, so tell them briefly who you

are and why you·re there Generally speaking one or two aspectsare and why you·re there Generally speaking one or two aspects



are and why you re there. Generally speaking, one or two aspectsare and why you re there. Generally speaking, one or two aspectsof your background are all you need to mention: your position inof your background are all you need to mention: your position inan organization, your profession, and the name of youran organization, your profession, and the name of yourcompany.company.


Previewing the presentation: Previewing the presentation:

Giving your audience a preview a what·s ahead adds to yourGiving your audience a preview a what·s ahead adds to yourauthority and, more important, helps people understand yourauthority and, more important, helps people understand yourmessage. In an oral presentation, the speaker provides themessage. In an oral presentation, the speaker provides theframework. Your introduction will summarize the main idea,framework. Your introduction will summarize the main idea,identify the supporting pints, and indicate the order in whichidentify the supporting pints, and indicate the order in whichyou·ll develop those points. Once you·ve established theyou·ll develop those points. Once you·ve established the

framework you can move into the body of the presentationframework you can move into the body of the presentation



framework, you can move into the body of the presentation,framework, you can move into the body of the presentation,confident that the audience will understand how the individualconfident that the audience will understand how the individualfacts and figures relate to your main idea.facts and figures relate to your main idea.


T he Body: T he Body:

The bulk of your speech or presentation is devoted to a The bulk of your speech or presentation is devoted to adiscussion of the three or four main points in yourdiscussion of the three or four main points in youroutline. Use the same organizational patterns you·d useoutline. Use the same organizational patterns you·d usein a letter, memo, or report, but keep things simple.in a letter, memo, or report, but keep things simple.

Your goals are (i) to make sure the structure of yourYour goals are (i) to make sure the structure of your



Your goals are (i) to make sure the structure of your Your goals are (i) to make sure the structure of yourspeech or presentation will be clear and (ii) to makespeech or presentation will be clear and (ii) to makesure your speech will keep your audience·s attention.sure your speech will keep your audience·s attention.


Em phasizing Structure: Em phasizing Structure:

To show how ideas are related in an oral To show how ideas are related in an oralpresentation, you rely more on words than youpresentation, you rely more on words than you

do in a written report. For the small linksdo in a written report. For the small links

between sentences and paragraphs one or twobetween sentences and paragraphs one or twoi i l d hi i l d h



between sentences and paragraphs, one or twobetween sentences and paragraphs, one or twotransitional words are enough.transitional words are enough.


Holding the audience·s attention: Holding the audience·s attention: To communicate your points effectively, you·ve to maintain the To communicate your points effectively, you·ve to maintain the

audience·s attention by: (i) relating your subject to the audience·saudience·s attention by: (i) relating your subject to the audience·sneeds; (ii) use clear, vivid language, and (iii) explain theneeds; (ii) use clear, vivid language, and (iii) explain therelationship between your subject and familiar idea. You can alsorelationship between your subject and familiar idea. You can alsohold the audience·s interest by introducing variety into yourhold the audience·s interest by introducing variety into yourpresentation. One useful technique is to pause occasionally forpresentation. One useful technique is to pause occasionally forquestions or comments from the audience. This technique helpsquestions or comments from the audience. This technique helpsyou determine whether the audience understands key pointsyou determine whether the audience understands key points



you determine whether the audience understands key pointsyou determine whether the audience understands key pointsbefore you launch into another section; it also gives the audiencebefore you launch into another section; it also gives the audiencea chance to switch for a time from listening to participating.a chance to switch for a time from listening to participating.

Visual aids will also help clarify points and stimulate interest. Visual aids will also help clarify points and stimulate interest.


T he C lose: T he C lose:

The close of a speech or presentation is almost as The close of a speech or presentation is almost asimportant as the beginning because audience attentionimportant as the beginning because audience attentionpeaks at this point. Plan to devote about 10 percent of peaks at this point. Plan to devote about 10 percent of the total time to the ending. When developing yourthe total time to the ending. When developing your

conclusion begin by telling listeners that you·re aboutconclusion begin by telling listeners that you·re about



conclusion, begin by telling listeners that you re aboutconclusion, begin by telling listeners that you re aboutto finish so that they·ll make one final effort to listento finish so that they·ll make one final effort to listenintently.intently.


Restating the main points: Restating the main points:

Once you·ve planned how to get everyone·s attention,Once you·ve planned how to get everyone·s attention,you·ll repeat your main idea. Be sure to emphasize whatyou·ll repeat your main idea. Be sure to emphasize whatyou want the audience to do or think. Then state theyou want the audience to do or think. Then state thekey motivating factor. Reinforce your theme by key motivating factor. Reinforce your theme by

repeating the three or four main supporting points Arepeating the three or four main supporting points A



repeating the three or four main supporting points. Arepeating the three or four main supporting points. Afew sentences are generally enough o refresh people·sfew sentences are generally enough o refresh people·smemories.memories.


D escribing the next ste ps: D escribing the next ste ps: Some speeches and presentations require the audienceSome speeches and presentations require the audienceto reach a decision or agree to take specific action. Into reach a decision or agree to take specific action. Insuch cases the close provides a clear wrapsuch cases the close provides a clear wrap--up. If theup. If theaudience agrees on an issue covered in the presentation,audience agrees on an issue covered in the presentation,plan to review the consensus in a sentence or two. If plan to review the consensus in a sentence or two. If you expect any action to occur, you must explain who isyou expect any action to occur, you must explain who isresponsible for doing what One effective technique isresponsible for doing what One effective technique is



responsible for doing what. One effective technique isresponsible for doing what. One effective technique isto list the action items, with an estimated completionto list the action items, with an estimated completiondate and the name of the person responsible.date and the name of the person responsible.


If the required action is likely to be difficult, make sureIf the required action is likely to be difficult, make sureeveryone understands the problems involved. Youeveryone understands the problems involved. You

don·t want people to leave the presentation thinking don·t want people to leave the presentation thinking their tasks will be easy, only to discover later that thetheir tasks will be easy, only to discover later that thejobs are quite demanding. If that happens, they becomejobs are quite demanding. If that happens, they becomediscouraged and fail to complete their assignments.discouraged and fail to complete their assignments. You·ll want everyone to have a realistic attitude and to You·ll want everyone to have a realistic attitude and to

be prepared to handle whatever arises So whenbe prepared to handle whatever arises So when



be prepared to handle whatever arises. So whenbe prepared to handle whatever arises. So whenplanning your presentation, use the close to alert peopleplanning your presentation, use the close to alert peopleto potential difficulties.to potential difficulties.


Ending on a positive note: Ending on a positive note:

Make sure that your final remarks are enthusiastic andMake sure that your final remarks are enthusiastic and

memorable. Even if parts of your speech are downbeat, plan tomemorable. Even if parts of your speech are downbeat, plan toclose on a positive note. You might stress the benefit of actionclose on a positive note. You might stress the benefit of actionor express confidence in the listeners· ability to accomplish theor express confidence in the listeners· ability to accomplish the

work ahead. An alternative is to end with a question or a work ahead. An alternative is to end with a question or astatement that will leave your audience thinking. Remember thatstatement that will leave your audience thinking. Remember that

your final words round out the presentation. You·ll want to leaveyour final words round out the presentation. You·ll want to leave



yo a wo ds o d o t t e p ese tat o . o wa t to eaveyo a wo ds o d o t t e p ese tat o . o wa t to eavethe audience with a satisfied feeling, a feeling of completeness.the audience with a satisfied feeling, a feeling of completeness.

The close is not the place to introduce new ideas or to alter the The close is not the place to introduce new ideas or to alter themood of the presentation.mood of the presentation.


T he Question T he Question- -and and- - Answer Period: Answer Period:

Along with the introduction, body, and close, include in Along with the introduction, body, and close, include inyour speech and presentation an opportunity foryour speech and presentation an opportunity forquestions and answers. Otherwise, you might just asquestions and answers. Otherwise, you might just as well write a report. If you aren·t planning to interact well write a report. If you aren·t planning to interact with the audience, you·re wasting the chief advantage of with the audience, you·re wasting the chief advantage of

an oral format. In general the important things toan oral format. In general the important things to



an oral format. In general, the important things toan oral format. In general, the important things toconsider when you·re developing your speech are theconsider when you·re developing your speech are thenature and timing of audience interaction.nature and timing of audience interaction.


Responding to questions and comments during theResponding to questions and comments during thepresentation can interrupt the flow of your argumentpresentation can interrupt the flow of your argument

and reduce your control of the situations If you·ll beand reduce your control of the situations If you·ll beaddressing a large group, particularly a hostile or anaddressing a large group, particularly a hostile or anunknown group, questions can be dangerous. You bestunknown group, questions can be dangerous. You bestbet in this case is to ask people to hold their questionsbet in this case is to ask people to hold their questionsuntil after you have concluded your remarks. On theuntil after you have concluded your remarks. On the

other hand, if you·re working with a small group andother hand, if you·re working with a small group and



other hand, if you re working with a small group andother hand, if you re working with a small group andneed to draw out ideas, encourage comments from theneed to draw out ideas, encourage comments from theaudience throughout the presentation.audience throughout the presentation.


M astering the Art of D elivery: M astering the Art of D elivery:

When you·ve planned all parts of your presentation and When you·ve planned all parts of your presentation andhave your visual aids in hand, you·re ready to beginhave your visual aids in hand, you·re ready to beginpracticing your delivery. Of the four main delivery practicing your delivery. Of the four main delivery methods, some are easier to handle than others: (i)methods, some are easier to handle than others: (i)

memorizing: Unless you·re a trained actor, avoidmemorizing: Unless you·re a trained actor, avoid



memorizing: Unless you re a trained actor, avoidmemorizing: Unless you re a trained actor, avoidmemorizing an entire speech, particularly a long one.memorizing an entire speech, particularly a long one. You·re likely to forget your lines. You·re likely to forget your lines.


Furthermore, a memorized speech often sounds stiff and stilted.Furthermore, a memorized speech often sounds stiff and stilted. And in many business speaking situations, you·ll need to address And in many business speaking situations, you·ll need to address

questions and comments from the audience during your speech,questions and comments from the audience during your speech,so you·ve to be flexible and sometimes adjust your speech as youso you·ve to be flexible and sometimes adjust your speech as yougo. On the other hand, memorizing a quotation, an opening go. On the other hand, memorizing a quotation, an opening paragraph, or a few concluding remarks can bolster yourparagraph, or a few concluding remarks can bolster yourconfidence and strengthen your delivery. (ii) Reading: If you·reconfidence and strengthen your delivery. (ii) Reading: If you·re

delivering a technical or complex presentation, you may want todelivering a technical or complex presentation, you may want tod it If h t d p h p ti hd it If h t d p h p ti h



g p p , y yg p p , y yread it. If you choose to read your speech, practice enough soread it. If you choose to read your speech, practice enough sothat you can still maintain eye contact with the audience.that you can still maintain eye contact with the audience.


(iii) Speaking from notes: Making a presentation with the help of (iii) Speaking from notes: Making a presentation with the help of an outline, note cards or visual aids is probably the mostan outline, note cards or visual aids is probably the most

effective and easiest delivery mode. It gives you something toeffective and easiest delivery mode. It gives you something torefer to and still allows for eye contact and interaction with therefer to and still allows for eye contact and interaction with theaudience. (iv) Impromptu speaking: You might give anaudience. (iv) Impromptu speaking: You might give animpromptu, or unrehearsed speech in two situations: whenimpromptu, or unrehearsed speech in two situations: whenyou·ve agreed to speak but have neglected to prepare youryou·ve agreed to speak but have neglected to prepare your

remarks or when you·re called on to speak unexpectedly. Avoidremarks or when you·re called on to speak unexpectedly. Avoidsp kin npr p r d nl ss · sp k n ntl ss tim s nsp kin npr p r d nl ss · sp k n ntl ss tim s n



y p p yy p p yspeaking unprepared unless you·ve spoken countless times onspeaking unprepared unless you·ve spoken countless times onthe same topic or are an extremely good public speaker.the same topic or are an extremely good public speaker.


S peech: S peech:

When it·s time to deliver the speech, you may feel a bit of stage When it·s time to deliver the speech, you may feel a bit of stage

fright. A good way to overcome your fears is to rehearse untilfright. A good way to overcome your fears is to rehearse untilyou·re thoroughly familiar with your material. Suggested tips inyou·re thoroughly familiar with your material. Suggested tips inthis regard are: (a) Prepare more material than necessary. Extrathis regard are: (a) Prepare more material than necessary. Extraknowledge, combined with a genuine interest in the topic, willknowledge, combined with a genuine interest in the topic, willboost your confidence. (b) Think positively about your audienceboost your confidence. (b) Think positively about your audience

yourself, and what you·ve to say. (c) Be realistic about stageyourself, and what you·ve to say. (c) Be realistic about stagef i h (d) U h f i hil · if i h (d) U h f i hil · i



y , y y ( ) gy , y y ( ) gfright. (d) Use the few minutes while you·re arranging yourfright. (d) Use the few minutes while you·re arranging yourmaterials, before you actually begin speaking, to tell yourself materials, before you actually begin speaking, to tell yourself you·re on and you·re ready.you·re on and you·re ready.


(e) Have your first sentence memorized and on(e) Have your first sentence memorized and on

the tip of your tongue. (f) If you feel that you·rethe tip of your tongue. (f) If you feel that you·relosing your audience during the speech, don·tlosing your audience during the speech, don·t

panic. Try to pull them back by involving thempanic. Try to pull them back by involving themin the action. ( G ) Keep going. Things usually getin the action. ( G ) Keep going. Things usually get

better and your audience will silently be wishingbetter and your audience will silently be wishing



better, and your audience will silently be wishing better, and your audience will silently be wishing

you success.you success.


Handling Questions: Handling Questions:

Preparation is the key to handling questions effectively. SpendPreparation is the key to handling questions effectively. Spend

time before your speech thinking about the question that mighttime before your speech thinking about the question that mightarisearise ² ² including abrasive or difficult questions. Then be ready including abrasive or difficult questions. Then be ready

with answers. In fact, some experts recommend that you hold with answers. In fact, some experts recommend that you holdback some dramatic statistics as ammunition for the questionback some dramatic statistics as ammunition for the question--andand--answer session. When the time allotted for your presentationanswer session. When the time allotted for your presentation

is up, call up a halt to the questionis up, call up a halt to the question--andand--answer session, even if answer session, even if l lk P h di f h d bl lk P h di f h d b



p p qp p qmore people want to talk. Prepare the audience for the end by more people want to talk. Prepare the audience for the end by saying: ´Our time is almost up.saying: ´Our time is almost up.


Let·s have one more question.µ After you·veLet·s have one more question.µ After you·ve

made your reply, summarize the main idea of themade your reply, summarize the main idea of thepresentation and thank people for theirpresentation and thank people for their

attention. Conclude the way you opened: by attention. Conclude the way you opened: by looking around the room and making eyelooking around the room and making eye

contact. Then gather your notes and leave thecontact. Then gather your notes and leave the



contact. Then gather your notes and leave thecontact. Then gather your notes and leave the

podium, shoulders straight, head up.podium, shoulders straight, head up.

Job A pplication Process Job A pplication Process




The job application is an important document in one·s The job application is an important document in one·s

life, as it is essential for presenting one·s suitability of alife, as it is essential for presenting one·s suitability of adesirable position in any type of career. The ability todesirable position in any type of career. The ability to write this document requires certain understanding of write this document requires certain understanding of rules and conventions, accepted in the job market. Torules and conventions, accepted in the job market. To

understand the importance of this document, a studentunderstand the importance of this document, a studentshould realize the proper background and the positionshould realize the proper background and the position



p ,p ,should realize the proper background and the positionshould realize the proper background and the positionof the candidate for any given post.of the candidate for any given post.


It is easy to say that its writer is a candidate forIt is easy to say that its writer is a candidate for

a vacant position or employment opportunity ina vacant position or employment opportunity inany organization, but are all the candidates of any organization, but are all the candidates of

jobs in the same position when they write a jobjobs in the same position when they write a jobapplication? Or, should a student practise toapplication? Or, should a student practise to

solve this question by keeping the differentsolve this question by keeping the different



q y p gq y p g

types of candidates in mind? Yes, they should.types of candidates in mind? Yes, they should.


Types of Job candidates: A job candidate is Types of Job candidates: A job candidate is

differentiated on three grounds: (a) Onedifferentiated on three grounds: (a) Oneresponding to any job advertisement or writing responding to any job advertisement or writing

without any invitation; (b) One having either without any invitation; (b) One having eithergreater, little or no previous experience, and (c)greater, little or no previous experience, and (c)

One working in a particular field/industry.One working in a particular field/industry.



g p / yg p / y


The first type of difference among job The first type of difference among job

applicants is dealt as two different formats forapplicants is dealt as two different formats forcover letters: (a) Solicited cover lettercover letters: (a) Solicited cover letter ² ² A cover A coverletter used only when the employers have invitedletter used only when the employers have invitedapplications through an advertisement. (b)applications through an advertisement. (b)

Unsolicited cover letterUnsolicited cover letter ² ² A cover letter used A cover letter usedwhen a job candidate desires to apply inawhen a job candidate desires to apply ina



when a job candidate desires to apply ina when a job candidate desires to apply inaparticular organization and writes persuasively,particular organization and writes persuasively,

without an advertisement. without an advertisement.


The second difference based on type of experience is dealt in the The second difference based on type of experience is dealt in thedifferent formats for the resume. (a) Chronological Resumedifferent formats for the resume. (a) Chronological Resume ² ² A A

resume format used by highly qualified professionals, withresume format used by highly qualified professionals, withextensive work experience in their field of expertise. (b)extensive work experience in their field of expertise. (b)

Traditional resume Traditional resume ² ² a resume format used by suitably qualifieda resume format used by suitably qualifiedprofessionals, with little experience, suitable for medium orprofessionals, with little experience, suitable for medium orlower management posts. (c) Functional resumelower management posts. (c) Functional resume ² ² A resume A resume

format used by suitably qualified professionals, but with noformat used by suitably qualified professionals, but with noprofessional experience mostly fro entryprofessional experience mostly fro entry--level or trainee postslevel or trainee posts



professional experience, mostly fro entry professional experience, mostly fro entry level or trainee posts.level or trainee posts.


The job application is a combination of two The job application is a combination of twodocuments: (a) Cover letter. (b) Resume/Curriculumdocuments: (a) Cover letter. (b) Resume/Curriculum Vitae (C.V.) The cover letter serves as the introductory Vitae (C.V.) The cover letter serves as the introductory summary about the skills and qualification of thesummary about the skills and qualification of thecandidate. Here the candidate mentions the personalcandidate. Here the candidate mentions the personaland professional traits, which cannot be explained inand professional traits, which cannot be explained in

one·s resume, in a persuasive manner. The writer triesone·s resume, in a persuasive manner. The writer triesto convince the reader (the employer/recruiter) aboutto convince the reader (the employer/recruiter) about



ppto convince the reader (the employer/recruiter) aboutto convince the reader (the employer/recruiter) aboutone·s suitability for the position in reader·sone·s suitability for the position in reader·sorganization.organization.


Parts of a Cover Letter: Heading, InsideParts of a Cover Letter: Heading, Inside

Address, Subject Line, Salutation, Body of Address, Subject Line, Salutation, Body of Letter, Complimentary Close, and Signature.Letter, Complimentary Close, and Signature.

Organization of Messages: The organization of Organization of Messages: The organization of the message or ´Body of the Letterµ requires thethe message or ´Body of the Letterµ requires the

knowledge of the basic principle first, ´Weknowledge of the basic principle first, ´Weh ld ·t t id i C L tt fh ld ·t t id i C L tt f



g p p ,g p p ,shouldn·t repeat any idea in Cover Letter fromshouldn·t repeat any idea in Cover Letter fromthe resumeµ.the resumeµ.


Solicited Cover LetterSolicited Cover Letter ² ² (i) The opening contains the reference(i) The opening contains the referenceto advertisement, along with the assertion about one·s suitability;to advertisement, along with the assertion about one·s suitability;

(ii) Relevant qualification & skills, (iii) Professional work (ii) Relevant qualification & skills, (iii) Professional work experience, and (iv) Request for an interview appointment.experience, and (iv) Request for an interview appointment.

Unsolicited Cover LetterUnsolicited Cover Letter: The opening contains a persuasive: The opening contains a persuasivereference to one·s best skill and suitability for the organization;reference to one·s best skill and suitability for the organization;(ii) Relevant qualification & skills; (iii) Implying benefits to the(ii) Relevant qualification & skills; (iii) Implying benefits to the

reader, by reference to the experience, and (iv) Requesting reader, by reference to the experience, and (iv) Requesting consideration for the candidate in the firmconsideration for the candidate in the firm



consideration for the candidate in the firm.consideration for the candidate in the firm.


This pattern doesn·t need to be followed rigidly and can be This pattern doesn·t need to be followed rigidly and can bemodified, particularly when the candidate has a greatermodified, particularly when the candidate has a greater

experience and can mention work experience before theexperience and can mention work experience before thequalification and skills.qualification and skills.

Job A pplication Process: Job A pplication Process: Companies market themselves toCompanies market themselves topotential employees via handsome brochures that summarizepotential employees via handsome brochures that summarizetheir missions, products, and services. These representativetheir missions, products, and services. These representative

statements from company recruiting brochures lead to severalstatements from company recruiting brochures lead to severalconclusions: Companies are widening their search for promisingconclusions: Companies are widening their search for promising



conclusions: Companies are widening their search for promising conclusions: Companies are widening their search for promising job applicants, companies are marketing themselves, companiesjob applicants, companies are marketing themselves, companiesare aware of the significant decisions you make when searching are aware of the significant decisions you make when searching for a job.for a job.


The next task is yours: How should you decide The next task is yours: How should you decide

whether you are interested and qualified to whether you are interested and qualified toapproach a particular company. For a job? As aapproach a particular company. For a job? As a

matter of fact, you, as new graduate or currently matter of fact, you, as new graduate or currently employed worker, can expect to hold severalemployed worker, can expect to hold several

jobs over your lifetime.jobs over your lifetime.



j yj y


Communication Probe:Communication Probe: Historically, threeHistorically, three

approaches to career assessments have beenapproaches to career assessments have beendiscussed in books and articles: individual careerdiscussed in books and articles: individual careerassessment, group session assessment, andassessment, group session assessment, andbooks and tapes for self books and tapes for self--assessment. Recently,assessment. Recently,

an additional approach was suggested: a threean additional approach was suggested: a three--step longstep long--distance support model Thisdistance support model This



pp ggpp ggstep long step long distance support model. Thisdistance support model. Thisapproach involves the following steps:approach involves the following steps:


A professional counselor meets with client employees; several A professional counselor meets with client employees; severalquestionnaires are completed at home or during the workshop;questionnaires are completed at home or during the workshop;

the counselor scores and interprets the questionnaires; a personalthe counselor scores and interprets the questionnaires; a personalreport for each of the employees is prepared. The result was thatreport for each of the employees is prepared. The result was thatemployees felt better about themselves, felt they knew employees felt better about themselves, felt they knew themselves better, and felt renewed.themselves better, and felt renewed.Self Self-- A ssessment for a Job: A ssessment for a Job: Who are you? This is not a simple Who are you? This is not a simplequestion. A cursory answer is that you already know who youquestion. A cursory answer is that you already know who you

are. But beyond your surface awareness lie deeper qualities,are. But beyond your surface awareness lie deeper qualities,which when evaluated, prepare you for landing a job: your skills,which when evaluated, prepare you for landing a job: your skills,



which when evaluated, prepare you for landing a job: your skills, which when evaluated, prepare you for landing a job: your skills,achievements, interests, and even personal values. Being aware of achievements, interests, and even personal values. Being aware of these qualities allows you to better sell your productthese qualities allows you to better sell your product ² ² yourself.yourself.


K now Your Skills: K now Your Skills: Verbs are core in relating to your reader what Verbs are core in relating to your reader whatyou have accomplished and where your skills lie. Verbs suggestyou have accomplished and where your skills lie. Verbs suggest

action; using them to describe your skills gives the impressionaction; using them to describe your skills gives the impressionthat you are a dynamic person. But before choosing these actionthat you are a dynamic person. But before choosing these action verbs, you have to assess your interest in and support for ideas verbs, you have to assess your interest in and support for ideasthat follow those verbs. For example, you might write a list forthat follow those verbs. For example, you might write a list forskills under each of the given verbs: (i) Enjoy skills under each of the given verbs: (i) Enjoy analyzing analyzing financialfinancialdata; (ii) Prepareddata; (ii) Prepared consulting consulting proposals in response to tenderproposals in response to tender

offers; (iii) Helped prepare theoffers; (iii) Helped prepare the evaluating evaluating document for coredocument for corecourses in our school; (iv) Discovered that I like tocourses in our school; (iv) Discovered that I like to negotiate negotiate ,,



( )( ) ggpreparing the written document and the oral defense as based onpreparing the written document and the oral defense as based onthat document;that document;


(v)(v) C reated C reated three new [products for our smallthree new [products for our small

company from initial idea to productcompany from initial idea to productmanufacture and assembly, and (vi) Delighted tomanufacture and assembly, and (vi) Delighted tos peaks peak before groupsbefore groups ² ² both in house and toboth in house and tooutside groups. Of course, these statements areoutside groups. Of course, these statements are

illustrative, but just by illustrative, but just by beginning beginning with a verb with a verb ² ² andandincluding more laterincluding more later ²² forces you to focus on aforces you to focus on a



jjincluding more laterincluding more later forces you to focus on aforces you to focus on aspecific skill following that verb. Take time inspecific skill following that verb. Take time incompiling such a personal lost.compiling such a personal lost.


K now Your Accom plishments: K now Your Accom plishments: No matter how young No matter how young ² ² oror ---- you are,you are,you·ve already accomplished something. Again stating thoseyou·ve already accomplished something. Again stating those

accomplishments following a verb is a good way to profile youraccomplishments following a verb is a good way to profile youraccomplishments; show the result of your specific achievement.accomplishments; show the result of your specific achievement.Record accomplishments as the ones that may be trivial to youRecord accomplishments as the ones that may be trivial to youmay be important to someone else. Some of the relevantmay be important to someone else. Some of the relevantexamples are: (i)examples are: (i) Winning Winning the scholarship award allowed me tothe scholarship award allowed me to

travel to Europe [education]; (ii)travel to Europe [education]; (ii) Reducing Reducing the laborthe labor--hourshoursrequired for product changeover resulted in a savings of 5%required for product changeover resulted in a savings of 5%



q p g gq p g g[work [work--related project]; (iii)related project]; (iii) Joining Joining the regional community groupthe regional community groupended with my being elected Chairperson [extracurricularended with my being elected Chairperson [extracurricularactivities];activities];


(iv)(iv) Winning Winning the outstanding student investor awardthe outstanding student investor awardallowed me to invest new capital into the marketallowed me to invest new capital into the market

[awards, honors]; (v)[awards, honors]; (v) Traveling Traveling resulted in a majorresulted in a majorpaper and proposal for entering the east Europeanpaper and proposal for entering the east Europeanmarket [intellectual exposure]; (vi)market [intellectual exposure]; (vi) Starting Starting my ownmy ownbusiness taught me practical experience and introducedbusiness taught me practical experience and introducedme to basic fundamentals of entrepreneurial businessme to basic fundamentals of entrepreneurial business

[business ventures], and (vii)[business ventures], and (vii) Speaking Speaking French andFrench andSpanish allowed me to head a student study group toSpanish allowed me to head a student study group to



Spanish allowed me to head a student study group toSpanish allowed me to head a student study group toEurope [knowledge of foreign languages].Europe [knowledge of foreign languages].


K now Your Interests: K now Your Interests: Analyzing your interests, Analyzing your interests,preferences, and attitudes can help you determine inpreferences, and attitudes can help you determine in what type of job you can use your skills such as: (i) what type of job you can use your skills such as: (i) Which jobs have I enjoyed the most? (ii) Do I prefer to Which jobs have I enjoyed the most? (ii) Do I prefer to work with figures, machines, people, or ideas? (iii) What work with figures, machines, people, or ideas? (iii) What

doI

like to do with my free time? (iv) Which thingsdoI

like to do with my free time? (iv) Which thingshave brought me high satisfaction? (v) Which hobbieshave brought me high satisfaction? (v) Which hobbies



g g ( )g g ( )do I enjoy the most? And (vi) many other self do I enjoy the most? And (vi) many other self--analysisanalysisquestions.questions.


K now Your Personal Values K now Your Personal Values : Often your decision is based: Often your decision is basedon your own value judgments. Values can also beon your own value judgments. Values can also be

applied to jobs and what you seek to get from them.applied to jobs and what you seek to get from them.Each of the following descriptions has a value attachedEach of the following descriptions has a value attachedto them: (i) A desire to help people, a desire to work to them: (i) A desire to help people, a desire to work with them in a personal manner. A concern to make with them in a personal manner. A concern to makethe world a better place in which to live, (ii) A positionthe world a better place in which to live, (ii) A position

of major responsibility. You would also receive aof major responsibility. You would also receive asizable salary and high recognition; (iii) a wish to facesizable salary and high recognition; (iii) a wish to face



sizable salary and high recognition; (iii) a wish to facesizable salary and high recognition; (iii) a wish to facerisk. You would have to be willing to travel and berisk. You would have to be willing to travel and beconcerned with exciting tasks;concerned with exciting tasks;


(iv) An ideal place in which to work; people would know one(iv) An ideal place in which to work; people would know oneanother. The atmosphere would be friendly and warm; (v) Aanother. The atmosphere would be friendly and warm; (v) A

desire to accomplish much on your own. A keen interest in being desire to accomplish much on your own. A keen interest in being your own boss; (vi) A wish to control events and people. Whileyour own boss; (vi) A wish to control events and people. Whileconsensus would be desirable, you would make many decisionsconsensus would be desirable, you would make many decisionsalone, and (vii) A dislike for a desk; you would rather be involvedalone, and (vii) A dislike for a desk; you would rather be involvedin outdoor or physical activity. {Respectively, the order of thein outdoor or physical activity. {Respectively, the order of the

values connected with the above descriptions are altruism, values connected with the above descriptions are altruism,

prestige, adventure, association, independence, power, variety,prestige, adventure, association, independence, power, variety,physical activity, and money. You can add to this list for otherphysical activity, and money. You can add to this list for otherl f l i } V l diffi ll f l i } V l diffi l



values you feel are important.} Values are difficult to measure. values you feel are important.} Values are difficult to measure.Each person carries in his or her own head those thingsEach person carries in his or her own head those thingsconsidered of prime importance.considered of prime importance.


Checklist for Self Checklist for Self-- A ssessment: A ssessment: ( I )( I ) Skills Skills : (a) My strongest skills: (a) My strongest skillsare in this area (b) I must work further on this skill;are in this area (b) I must work further on this skill;

( II )( II ) Accom plishments Accom plishments ² ² Rank from 1 (high) to 9 (low) yourRank from 1 (high) to 9 (low) youraccomplishments in the following areas; education, work accomplishments in the following areas; education, work--relatedrelatedprojects, military service, extracurricular activities, awards,projects, military service, extracurricular activities, awards,honors, travel, business ventures, international culturalhonors, travel, business ventures, international culturalawareness, or others; ( III )awareness, or others; ( III ) Interests Interests ² ² (a) I most enjoy ______ , (b)(a) I most enjoy ______ , (b)

I least enjoy _____ ; ( I V)I least enjoy _____ ; ( I V) Values Values ² ² Rank from 1 (high) to 9 (low)Rank from 1 (high) to 9 (low)your values in the following areas: altruism, adventure,your values in the following areas: altruism, adventure,



y g , ,y g , ,association, independence, power, variety, physical activity, andassociation, independence, power, variety, physical activity, andmoney.money.


Communication Probe:Communication Probe: Self Self--assessment is notassessment is not

limited only to obtaining a job. Self limited only to obtaining a job. Self--assessmentassessmentcan occur while even holding a present position.can occur while even holding a present position.

Some companies have an ongoing self Some companies have an ongoing self--assessment program for the good of theassessment program for the good of the

individual and for the good of the company.individual and for the good of the company.



Often, companies create their own assessmentOften, companies create their own assessmentprograms, often called career enrichmentprograms, often called career enrichment

programs.programs.


Market A ssessment:Market A ssessment: you now have to ask these questions.you now have to ask these questions. Which jobs and employers need what I have to offer/ In which Which jobs and employers need what I have to offer/ In which

business market (company) wouldI

like to work/business market (company) wouldI

like to work/W ritten Source of C areer and Job Information: W ritten Source of C areer and Job Information: Innumerable sourcesInnumerable sourcesexist. Trade publications, libraries, placement offices are principalexist. Trade publications, libraries, placement offices are principalplaces to locate information on possible functional job areas.places to locate information on possible functional job areas.

Additionally, many company directories and employment guides, Additionally, many company directories and employment guides,industry directories, books relating to geographic job searches,industry directories, books relating to geographic job searches,

costcost--of of ² ²living directories, and search firms are available. For theliving directories, and search firms are available. For themost upmost up--toto--date information concerning a company, consult itsdate information concerning a company, consult its



annual report and recruiting booklets.annual report and recruiting booklets.


Hel p ful Persons regarding Em ployers and Jobs: Hel p ful Persons regarding Em ployers and Jobs: Networking (remaining Networking (remaining in contact with individuals or groups) allows you to make knownin contact with individuals or groups) allows you to make known

your job wishes. Or, your network lets you know of potential jobyour job wishes. Or, your network lets you know of potential jobpositions. Network is the current buzzword for linking yourpositions. Network is the current buzzword for linking yourinterests with a position or company through the help of anotherinterests with a position or company through the help of anotherperson or group. In all parts of the world, the family oftenperson or group. In all parts of the world, the family oftennourishes those connections, from generation to generation. If nourishes those connections, from generation to generation. If

you do not possess such familial network relationships, you mustyou do not possess such familial network relationships, you mustturn to other people to help you assess job opportunities such as;turn to other people to help you assess job opportunities such as;(i)(i) Al iAl i Ob i li f i i l i f dOb i li f i i l i f d



(i)(i) Alumni Alumni -- Obtain a list of your university alumni from aroundObtain a list of your university alumni from aroundthe world;the world;


(ii)(ii) Business friends Business friends ² ² Ask for an informational interview Ask for an informational interview with local business persons for advice and even a with local business persons for advice and even a

reference; (iii)reference; (iii) C ounselors C ounselors ² ² Your school or placement Your school or placementoffice staff people who are turned into the latest areasoffice staff people who are turned into the latest areas where jobs and opportunities are growing; where jobs and opportunities are growing;(iv)(iv) Em ployment A gencies Em ployment A gencies ² ² Make an appointment with aMake an appointment with asearch firm; get on their list; ask for a review of search firm; get on their list; ask for a review of opportunities in your area of expertise; (v)opportunities in your area of expertise; (v) Former Former employers and coworkersemployers and coworkers; (vi); (vi) Friends relatives acquaintancesFriends relatives acquaintances



em ployers and coworkers em ployers and coworkers ; (vi); (vi) Friends, relatives, acquaintances,Friends, relatives, acquaintances,and (vii)and (vii) Labor unions Labor unions ..


R esume:R esume: Having completed your self Having completed your self--analysis andanalysis andmarket analysis, you must now focus on writing yourmarket analysis, you must now focus on writing your

resume. Briefly, a resume is an organized summary of resume. Briefly, a resume is an organized summary of the applicant·s background, qualifications and intendedthe applicant·s background, qualifications and intendedcareer path. It lists the applicant·s education, work career path. It lists the applicant·s education, work experience, talents, skills, etc. It should be a vividexperience, talents, skills, etc. It should be a vividaccount of the person applying for the job. It must beaccount of the person applying for the job. It must be

organized in such a way that the prospective employerorganized in such a way that the prospective employercan see at a glance whether the applicant has thecan see at a glance whether the applicant has the



g ppg ppnecessary skills for the job.necessary skills for the job.


The content and format of a resume may vary The content and format of a resume may vary

slightly, but generally all resumes contain:slightly, but generally all resumes contain:Personal Data, Employment Objective,Personal Data, Employment Objective,

Educational Background, Work experience,Educational Background, Work experience,Other Experience (volunteer work, clubs etc),Other Experience (volunteer work, clubs etc),

Special Skills, knowledge of interests,Special Skills, knowledge of interests,A li h O h i ( lA li h O h i ( l



Accomplishments, Other Experience (volunteer Accomplishments, Other Experience (volunteer work, professional membership, clubs, etc.), work, professional membership, clubs, etc.),


and References (ona separate sheet) Resumes are usually requiredand References (ona separate sheet) Resumes are usually requiredby some schools to be consistent in form as such consistency by some schools to be consistent in form as such consistency

allows companies using a school resume book to quickly review allows companies using a school resume book to quickly review many graduates and, on that basis, invite some to a personalmany graduates and, on that basis, invite some to a personalinterview. Content and layout of resumes vary; there is no bestinterview. Content and layout of resumes vary; there is no besttype. Present your information under headings in phrases insteadtype. Present your information under headings in phrases insteadof full sentences as phrases or incomplete sentences areof full sentences as phrases or incomplete sentences are

acceptable in a resume. While thinking about the possibleacceptable in a resume. While thinking about the possiblecontents of a resume, choose those parts that best fit yourcontents of a resume, choose those parts that best fit yourb k d d h h i d i bl db k d d h h i d i bl d



background, and then arrange them in any desirable order.background, and then arrange them in any desirable order.


Opening SectionOpening Section:: Heading Heading : Information in the: Information in the

heading tells the reader where you can beheading tells the reader where you can becontacted. Some students, and particularly contacted. Some students, and particularly

persons currently in a job position, also includepersons currently in a job position, also includetheir etheir e--mail and fax number along with themail and fax number along with the

name, address & phone number. Such anname, address & phone number. Such ani i i kl i l fi i i kl i l f



insertion quickly suggests you are in control of insertion quickly suggests you are in control of recent technological means of communication.recent technological means of communication.


Communication probe:Communication probe: Consistently, writers andConsistently, writers andresearchers suggest similar inclusions in a resume. Theresearchers suggest similar inclusions in a resume. Theinformation below is based on a recent survey of steps:information below is based on a recent survey of steps:(i) Preparation is essential, (ii) Identification of self (i) Preparation is essential, (ii) Identification of self-- andandcompany interests; (iii) Work experience; (iv)company interests; (iii) Work experience; (iv)Professional objectives; (v) Educational qualifications;Professional objectives; (v) Educational qualifications;

(vi) Achievements; (vii) Personal information, and (viii)(vi) Achievements; (vii) Personal information, and (viii)



References.References.


Job or C areer Objective: Job or C areer Objective: Based on your self Based on your self--assessment and anassessment and ananalysis of the job market, you should try for a singleanalysis of the job market, you should try for a single--sentencesentence

statement of your goal. Such a statement may be general orstatement of your goal. Such a statement may be general orspecific, General, if you know your functional area of interest;specific, General, if you know your functional area of interest;specific, if you desire more precision, combining the functionalspecific, if you desire more precision, combining the functionalarea with an industry.area with an industry. General goal General goal- -statement: statement: (a) An entry (a) An entry--levellevelsales position; (b) An assistant in a brand management area, andsales position; (b) An assistant in a brand management area, and

(c) An entry (c) An entry--level position in institutional lending.level position in institutional lending. S pecific goal S pecific goal statement: statement: (a) An entry (a) An entry--level sales position in automotive parts; (b)level sales position in automotive parts; (b)An i t nt in br nd m n m nt in th f d ind tr ndAn i t nt in br nd m n m nt in th f d ind tr nd



An assistant in brand management in the food industry, and An assistant in brand management in the food industry, and


(c) An entry (c) An entry--level position in the lending section of the savingslevel position in the lending section of the savingsand loan industry. Some resumes at this point includes a brief and loan industry. Some resumes at this point includes a brief statement of your basic qualifications. Such a statement is a ministatement of your basic qualifications. Such a statement is a minisummary of what you can offer to the job. It is your decision;summary of what you can offer to the job. It is your decision;some persons opt to include such information in the cover lettersome persons opt to include such information in the cover letteraccompanying the resume. People tend to remember ´firstµaccompanying the resume. People tend to remember ´firstµthings; therefore, after the heading select your most importantthings; therefore, after the heading select your most importantselling point. You now face another decision; which area shouldselling point. You now face another decision; which area should

be in second position in the resume? A general rule in put thebe in second position in the resume? A general rule in put themost important qualification immediately after the heading. If most important qualification immediately after the heading. If you have superior job experience put that next; if educationyou have superior job experience put that next; if education ²²



you have superior job experience, put that next; if educationyou have superior job experience, put that next; if education the category most often in the second positionthe category most often in the second position ² ² is important,is important,position it next.position it next.


Education: Education: Some recommendations regarding what to includeSome recommendations regarding what to includeunder the heading education are; (i) Include school names,under the heading education are; (i) Include school names,

locations, dates attended, and degrees of certificates earned. Highlocations, dates attended, and degrees of certificates earned. Highschools are usually not included. But if you did something schools are usually not included. But if you did something outstanding there, such information may be added; (ii) Insertoutstanding there, such information may be added; (ii) Insertabbreviations for your degrees; most employees or their humanabbreviations for your degrees; most employees or their humanresources department are familiar with major degree citations;resources department are familiar with major degree citations;

(iii) decide whether to include your GP A. Certainly if it is high, it(iii) decide whether to include your GP A. Certainly if it is high, itshould be included. If your GP A is low, omit it.should be included. If your GP A is low, omit it.




Later in your resume you may indicate, forLater in your resume you may indicate, for

example, that you worked fullexample, that you worked full--time to financetime to financeyour education and still managed to earn ayour education and still managed to earn a

degree; (iv) Determine whether to includedegree; (iv) Determine whether to includespecific courses completed. In a detailed resume,specific courses completed. In a detailed resume,

such information may be unnecessary;such information may be unnecessary;i t d k th b i i di t d k th b i i d



companies today know the basic requiredcompanies today know the basic requiredcourses for most degrees, and (v) Note honorscourses for most degrees, and (v) Note honors

and scholarships.and scholarships.


W ork Ex perience: W ork Ex perience: The third section of a resume is usually The third section of a resume is usually devoted to work experience. Here you includedevoted to work experience. Here you include

information that helps employers evaluate whetherinformation that helps employers evaluate whetheryou·ve the necessary background for a current position.you·ve the necessary background for a current position.Clearly, work experience similar to that for whichClearly, work experience similar to that for whichyou·re applying indicates you like the type of work inyou·re applying indicates you like the type of work in

question. List your jobs in reverse chronological order;question. List your jobs in reverse chronological order;put the present or most recent one first. Keep in mindput the present or most recent one first. Keep in mind



the following points;the following points;


(i) Give the name, location, and dates of (i) Give the name, location, and dates of employment for each company; (ii) Insert youremployment for each company; (ii) Insert yourposition and title, if any, beside each company,position and title, if any, beside each company,and (iii) Use verbs that show your majorand (iii) Use verbs that show your majoraccomplishments while working for eachaccomplishments while working for each

company; be precise as to the results of yourcompany; be precise as to the results of your work experience. Arrange the facts for each job work experience. Arrange the facts for each job



in the best ´sellingµ order. Put the mostin the best ´sellingµ order. Put the mostimportant fact first following your opening verb.important fact first following your opening verb.


Achievements, Awards, Service Activities: Achievements, Awards, Service Activities: Try to limit your resume to Try to limit your resume toone page, if you·ve received few noteworthy awards, thisone page, if you·ve received few noteworthy awards, this

information may be omitted or included in sections on educationinformation may be omitted or included in sections on educationand work experience. Regardless, this is not the time to beand work experience. Regardless, this is not the time to behumble. Receiving any award deserves mention in a resume.humble. Receiving any award deserves mention in a resume.

Additional items often include offices held, athletic Additional items often include offices held, athleticaccomplishments, published materials, fluency in foreignaccomplishments, published materials, fluency in foreign

languages, speaking awards (debate, extemporaneous contests),languages, speaking awards (debate, extemporaneous contests),professional fraternities, student organizations, and community professional fraternities, student organizations, and community services that involve working with peopleservices that involve working with people



services that involve working with people.services that involve working with people.


Personal D ata ( O ptional): Personal D ata ( O ptional): Including personal informationIncluding personal informationis now entirely optional. Civil rights laws clearly is now entirely optional. Civil rights laws clearly

prohibit discrimination in hiring on the basis of race,prohibit discrimination in hiring on the basis of race,age, religion, sex, marital status, or national origin.age, religion, sex, marital status, or national origin.Exceptions include occupational restrictions that areExceptions include occupational restrictions that arereasonably necessary to the normal operation of reasonably necessary to the normal operation of

particular businesses, enterprises, or occupations. Forparticular businesses, enterprises, or occupations. Forexample, some jobs, such as playing professionalexample, some jobs, such as playing professionalf b ll bl i i h i lf b ll bl i i h i l



football, may reasonably require certain physicalfootball, may reasonably require certain physicalattributes.attributes.


Although no law forbids you from volunteering Although no law forbids you from volunteering personal information, you must be careful aboutpersonal information, you must be careful aboutincluding information that could accuse you of being including information that could accuse you of being discriminatory. Bias and prejudice still exist; omit any discriminatory. Bias and prejudice still exist; omit any information that might be considered negativelyy1information that might be considered negativelyy1Common inclusions under personal data include health,Common inclusions under personal data include health,hobbies, physical skills, travel, and, if not includedhobbies, physical skills, travel, and, if not includedl h ilit i d t il th ti ll h ilit i d t il th ti l



elsewhere, military service details, or other nationalelsewhere, military service details, or other nationalservice organizations.service organizations.


References: References: Employers today often ask prior to or just after anEmployers today often ask prior to or just after aninterview for a list of references. Including a long list of interview for a list of references. Including a long list of

individuals in a resume is becoming less usual. Potentialindividuals in a resume is becoming less usual. Potentialemployers know will select persons who will evaluate youemployers know will select persons who will evaluate youpositively. Often the phrase ´references available on requestµ ispositively. Often the phrase ´references available on requestµ isthe last statement at he end of a resume. However, your schoolthe last statement at he end of a resume. However, your schoolmay suggest including references. If that is the case, consider themay suggest including references. If that is the case, consider the

following: (i0 Limit your list to three individuals, complete withfollowing: (i0 Limit your list to three individuals, complete withinformation about where they may be reached via phone, fax,information about where they may be reached via phone, fax,letter or eletter or e--mail;mail;



letter, or eletter, or e mail;mail;


(ii) Avoid including relatives as references, and(ii) Avoid including relatives as references, and

(iii) Choose individuals such as former work (iii) Choose individuals such as former work supervisors, professors, teachers, colleagues, orsupervisors, professors, teachers, colleagues, or

business friends, and (iv) be sure you·ve thebusiness friends, and (iv) be sure you·ve thepermission of the individual whose name youpermission of the individual whose name you

use as a reference.use as a reference.




ChecklistChecklist ² ² review of Major Sections of a Resume: (1)review of Major Sections of a Resume: (1)Opening SectionOpening Section ² ² (a) Your name (school and/ or(a) Your name (school and/ or

home), telephone numbers, fax numbers, or ehome), telephone numbers, fax numbers, or e--mailmailaddress; (b) Your job or career objective, and (c) Youraddress; (b) Your job or career objective, and (c) Yourbasic qualification (optional). (2) Educationbasic qualification (optional). (2) Education ² ² (a)(a)Schooling beyond high school: names and locations,Schooling beyond high school: names and locations,dates attended, degrees and certificate; (b) Major,dates attended, degrees and certificate; (b) Major,

significant pertinent courses; academic honors; GP A [if significant pertinent courses; academic honors; GP A [if high], and (c) Positions, such as assistant to anhigh], and (c) Positions, such as assistant to aninstr ctor grader or research assistantinstr ctor grader or research assistant



instructor, grader, or research assistant.instructor, grader, or research assistant.


(3) Work experience(3) Work experience ² ² (a) Employer names, dates,(a) Employer names, dates,location; titles and positions held; specificlocation; titles and positions held; specific

accomplishments preceded by a verb, (b) Volunteeraccomplishments preceded by a verb, (b) Volunteer work. work.

(4) Achievements, Awards, Service Activities(4) Achievements, Awards, Service Activities ² ² (a)(a)School and community achievements, honors, offices,School and community achievements, honors, offices,

publications, (b) travel, languages, self publications, (b) travel, languages, self--support, othersupport, otherfacts, (5) Personal Data (Optional)facts, (5) Personal Data (Optional) ² ² (a) Date of (a) Date of



availability, (b) Health, military service, hobbies, and (6)availability, (b) Health, military service, hobbies, and (6)References (optional)References (optional)


All the above guides for completing a resume are just as All the above guides for completing a resume are just asapplicable to creating your material for electronic resumeapplicable to creating your material for electronic resume

transmission. There, however, your material can be read by many transmission. There, however, your material can be read by many readers, particularly on line resume service organizations hired by readers, particularly on line resume service organizations hired by human resource departments of corporations. Remember:human resource departments of corporations. Remember:Electronic screening is efficient for large corporations that may Electronic screening is efficient for large corporations that may use sorting systems, scanners, or onuse sorting systems, scanners, or on--line data pools. Yourline data pools. Your

resume, particularly your goal or objective statement, will beresume, particularly your goal or objective statement, will bemore general than directed at a specific company, for a specificmore general than directed at a specific company, for a specificposition.position.



position.position.


Cover Letter to resume:Cover Letter to resume: Also called the ´cold Also called the ´coldcontactµ letter or the job application letter, the resumecontactµ letter or the job application letter, the resume

cover letter has one purpose: to attract the interest of cover letter has one purpose: to attract the interest of your prospective employer to give you a job interview.your prospective employer to give you a job interview. A resume could be called the shotgun approach A resume could be called the shotgun approach ² ² ititcovers much material; a resume cover letter could becovers much material; a resume cover letter could becalled the rifle approachcalled the rifle approach ² ² it focuses on precisionit focuses on precision

points. You basically have only about 30 seconds topoints. You basically have only about 30 seconds tocapture the attention of your reader in the cover letter.capture the attention of your reader in the cover letter.A short covering letter is required when you use aA short covering letter is required when you use a



A short covering letter is required when you use a A short covering letter is required when you use aresume to apply for a job.resume to apply for a job.

Job A pplication Process Job A pplication Process The covering letter should not simply repeat information given The covering letter should not simply repeat information givenin the resume. It should begin by identifying the job you·rein the resume. It should begin by identifying the job you·re

applying for and how you came to know about it. Add ay otherapplying for and how you came to know about it. Add ay otherinformation not included in the resume that might be importantinformation not included in the resume that might be importantfor this particular job. Finally, request an interview.for this particular job. Finally, request an interview.

Try to write a one Try to write a one--page job application letter composed of thepage job application letter composed of thefollowing points: opening, middle paragraphs, and lastfollowing points: opening, middle paragraphs, and last

paragraph. This tripartite approach should also continue to beparagraph. This tripartite approach should also continue to bereaderreader--centered and should include evidence (data) to supportcentered and should include evidence (data) to supportyour claimsyour claims



your claims.your claims.


Communication Probe:Communication Probe: Obviously, the nonverbalObviously, the nonverbalappearance of the resume must catch the eye of theappearance of the resume must catch the eye of theprospective employer. Thus neatness, accurate spelling,prospective employer. Thus neatness, accurate spelling,and acceptable grammar are given in a resume. Andand acceptable grammar are given in a resume. Andonly after reading the resumeonly after reading the resume ² ²along with the coveralong with the coverletterletter ² ² can an employer make a decision whether tocan an employer make a decision whether tointerview the candidate. Four factors in the content of ainterview the candidate. Four factors in the content of aresume presumably work against its success:resume presumably work against its success:



resume, presumably work against its success:resume, presumably work against its success:


candidate had too many lateral job moves; candidatecandidate had too many lateral job moves; candidatedid not include a cover letter; candidate held too many did not include a cover letter; candidate held too many jobs in a short period of time; and the candidate lackedjobs in a short period of time; and the candidate lackedrelated experience.related experience.

O pening O pening ² ² For favorable attention: be business likeFor favorable attention: be business like ² ²

indicate you·re applying for a job. Four possibleindicate you·re applying for a job. Four possibleopening styles are recommended: summary, name,opening styles are recommended: summary, name,ti d it iti d it i



question, and news item openings.question, and news item openings.


Summary O pening: Summary O pening: An effective opening is a summary of An effective opening is a summary of your two or three outstanding qualifications related toyour two or three outstanding qualifications related to

the job you seek. For instance: (a) Orion Picture, Slavicthe job you seek. For instance: (a) Orion Picture, Slavicpictures. Both these companies gave me thepictures. Both these companies gave me theopportunity to apply the financial skills learned inopportunity to apply the financial skills learned inschool. For two years I also worked for turnerschool. For two years I also worked for turnerBroadcasting; there I headed an international marketing Broadcasting; there I headed an international marketing team searching for broadcast opportunities in Southernteam searching for broadcast opportunities in Southern



team searching for broadcast opportunities in Southernteam searching for broadcast opportunities in SouthernEurope. [Extensive work experience]Europe. [Extensive work experience]


(b) Your international expansion plans have(b) Your international expansion plans havebeen cited in many major business publications.been cited in many major business publications.

Your desire to expand into India caught my Your desire to expand into India caught my attention. I am of Indian descent. I·ve visitedattention. I am of Indian descent. I·ve visitedIndia with my parents extensively and haveIndia with my parents extensively and have

interned with an international oil explorationinterned with an international oil explorationfirm. My background suggests I can be a worthy firm. My background suggests I can be a worthy candidate for your expansion plans [Has culturalcandidate for your expansion plans [Has cultural



candidate for your expansion plans. [Has culturalcandidate for your expansion plans. [Has culturalawareness knowledge]awareness knowledge]


Name O pening: Name O pening: To use this kind of cover letter opening To use this kind of cover letter opening requires networking, learning about opportunities fromrequires networking, learning about opportunities from

another person or group. If a networking reference, oranother person or group. If a networking reference, oranyone well known to you, has suggested you apply foranyone well known to you, has suggested you apply fora position, you can use that person·s name in thea position, you can use that person·s name in theopening opening ² ² unless he or she has asked you to keep itunless he or she has asked you to keep it

confidential. Name cardsconfidential. Name cards ² ² kept on filekept on file ² ² are constantare constantreminders of persons on whom you might call forreminders of persons on whom you might call forfuture reference in cover letter (ref pg 522)future reference in cover letter (ref pg 522)



future reference in cover letter (ref pg 522).future reference in cover letter (ref pg 522).

Job A pplication Process Job A pplication Process Question o pening: Question o pening: A bit more difficult to write, but just as effective, A bit more difficult to write, but just as effective,is the question that shows understanding of a company problemis the question that shows understanding of a company problemor significant need. You as an applicant desire to help.or significant need. You as an applicant desire to help. News Item News Item O pening: O pening: Read publications not only for content, but also forRead publications not only for content, but also forfuture job opportunities. Any young person or seasonedfuture job opportunities. Any young person or seasonedbusinessperson should frequently read business publications.businessperson should frequently read business publications.Not to do so may cost you a job opportunity. A plannedNot to do so may cost you a job opportunity. A plannedexpansion, a newly released product, a refinancing program, andexpansion, a newly released product, a refinancing program, and

a new accounta new account ² ² all are possible motivators for sending a joball are possible motivators for sending a jobapplication letter. Often you send such a letter without a specificapplication letter. Often you send such a letter without a specificjob in mind; you·re interested in letting your readers know you·vejob in mind; you·re interested in letting your readers know you·ve

lifi i h i i i h h i f l ( f 522lifi i h i i i h h i f l ( f 522 523)523)



qualifications that tie in with their future plans (ref pg 522qualifications that tie in with their future plans (ref pg 522--523).523).


Middle Paragra phsMiddle Paragra phs ² ² For Data, Details:For Data, Details: Two Two

or at most three paragraphs is all the spaceor at most three paragraphs is all the spaceyou·ve to persuade your reader you·ve theyou·ve to persuade your reader you·ve the

necessary job qualifications. Support yournecessary job qualifications. Support yourclaims; use truthful data, evidence, supports thatclaims; use truthful data, evidence, supports that

both clarify and sustain your conclusions.both clarify and sustain your conclusions.




Education: Education: Many of you will consider education yourMany of you will consider education yourmost important qualification, especially if you·remost important qualification, especially if you·re

applying for a first job. But avoid the impression that aapplying for a first job. But avoid the impression that acollege degree overshadows all achievements. (i)college degree overshadows all achievements. (i)Emphasize how your overall education prepared youEmphasize how your overall education prepared youfor the work or area you seek; (ii) show that you·vefor the work or area you seek; (ii) show that you·ve

both a broad background in business (and arts andboth a broad background in business (and arts andsciences) and depth in certain major courses, and 9iii)sciences) and depth in certain major courses, and 9iii)Explain how additional electives supplemented yourExplain how additional electives supplemented your



Explain how additional electives supplemented yourExplain how additional electives supplemented yourmajor (ref pg 523).major (ref pg 523).


W ork Ex perience: W ork Ex perience: FullFull-- or part timer job responsibilitiesor part timer job responsibilitiesadd valuable data to your resume cover letter. Suggestadd valuable data to your resume cover letter. Suggest

that in your responsibilities in previous jobs you: (i)that in your responsibilities in previous jobs you: (i)gained practical experience to accompany yourgained practical experience to accompany youreducation;education;

(ii) adapted to different work environments; (iii)(ii) adapted to different work environments; (iii)

supervised other people with positive results; (iv)supervised other people with positive results; (iv)administered large expendable funds honestly andadministered large expendable funds honestly andcorrectly and (v) negotiated major tender offers withcorrectly and (v) negotiated major tender offers with



correctly, and (v) negotiated major tender offers withcorrectly, and (v) negotiated major tender offers withforeign suppliers. [Ref pg 5foreign suppliers. [Ref pg 5

Job A pplication Process Job A pplication ProcessPersonal Attitudes, interests, Activities, Qualities: Personal Attitudes, interests, Activities, Qualities: Simply Simply listing your abilities is not enough; show how thoselisting your abilities is not enough; show how those

abilities relate to the position for which you·re applying.abilities relate to the position for which you·re applying.Relating your personal attitudes, interests, activities, orRelating your personal attitudes, interests, activities, orpersonal qualities to the job requirements may also bepersonal qualities to the job requirements may also beincluded. Your Ability to Work with people: (i) Usedincluded. Your Ability to Work with people: (i) Usedgood judgment in working with senior people; (ii)good judgment in working with senior people; (ii)

Known to be a conscientious listener to new membersKnown to be a conscientious listener to new membersof the firm; (iii) Led student groups of variousof the firm; (iii) Led student groups of variousnationalities and cultural interests, andnationalities and cultural interests, and



nationalities and cultural interests, andnationalities and cultural interests, and


(iv) Won applause for using good judgment with(iv) Won applause for using good judgment with

incomplete information. Your Attitude Towardincomplete information. Your Attitude Towardemployment: (i) Long have held an interest inemployment: (i) Long have held an interest in

[functional area]; (ii) Even in spare time I have[functional area]; (ii) Even in spare time I havedevoted effort to furthering my interest indevoted effort to furthering my interest in

[functional area], and 9iii) For a long time I·ve[functional area], and 9iii) For a long time I·veshown enthusiasm fro this field; my intent is toshown enthusiasm fro this field; my intent is to



; y; ymake it my fullmake it my full--time occupation.time occupation.


Your Personal Qualities: Your Personal Qualities: (i) My schooling was funded(i) My schooling was fundedthrough scholarships and my own outsidethrough scholarships and my own outside--of of--schoolschool

work [determination]; (ii) Each day was tightly planned work [determination]; (ii) Each day was tightly plannedin order to meet all commitments for the day in order to meet all commitments for the day [organized, time control]; (iii) Wining the undergraduate[organized, time control]; (iii) Wining the undergraduateschool investment award taught me the value of inschool investment award taught me the value of in--

depth research before making a decision [analyticaldepth research before making a decision [analyticalmind], and (iv) Two suggestions that led to completedmind], and (iv) Two suggestions that led to completedprojects were under my supervision [initiative].projects were under my supervision [initiative].



projects were under my supervision [initiative].projects were under my supervision [initiative].

Job A pplication Process Job A pplication ProcessLast paragra phLast paragra ph ² ² For easy action: In the finalFor easy action: In the finalparagraph you ask for action; here, more than in otherparagraph you ask for action; here, more than in other

parts of your job application letter, use the first personparts of your job application letter, use the first personsingular ´I.µ Some suggestions are: make the actionsingular ´I.µ Some suggestions are: make the actioneasy; be precise as to times you can be reached by easy; be precise as to times you can be reached by phone; include phone number, if you·ve an answering phone; include phone number, if you·ve an answering machine, and whether you·re available by fax or emachine, and whether you·re available by fax or e--mail,mail,

suggest that it is possible for you to come to thesuggest that it is possible for you to come to theemployer·s office, and ask for a local representative·semployer·s office, and ask for a local representative·sname if the central office is extremely distant.name if the central office is extremely distant.



yy


ChecklistChecklist ² ² Cover Letter to resume: (1) ObtainCover Letter to resume: (1) Obtainfavorable attentionfavorable attention ² ² (a) summary (a) summary ² ² select two or threeselect two or three

outstanding qualifications; (b) nameoutstanding qualifications; (b) name ² ² choose a knownchoose a knownindividual with whom the reader is familiar or theindividual with whom the reader is familiar or thepublication in which the reader·s notice appeared; (c)publication in which the reader·s notice appeared; (c)QuestionQuestion ² ² state one or two questions that suggeststate one or two questions that suggest

you·re familiar with the company, and (d) News itemyou·re familiar with the company, and (d) News item ² ² relate your opening comment to an item that appearedrelate your opening comment to an item that appearedin the national press. (2) Give effort to data, details inin the national press. (2) Give effort to data, details in



in the national press. (2) Give effort to data, details inin the national press. (2) Give effort to data, details inthe middle paragraphsthe middle paragraphs --

Job A pplication Process Job A pplication Process(a) Education(a) Education ² ² be truthful as to degrees, majors, andbe truthful as to degrees, majors, andminors; (b) Work experienceminors; (b) Work experience ² ² be precise about how be precise about how

previous experience trained you fro the currentprevious experience trained you fro the currentposition, and (c) Personal attitudes, interests, activities,position, and (c) Personal attitudes, interests, activities,qualities: relate, show how your qualities can improvequalities: relate, show how your qualities can improveyour performance with the announce job. (3) Focus onyour performance with the announce job. (3) Focus oneasy action in the last paragrapheasy action in the last paragraph ² ² (a) state when you·re(a) state when you·re

available on the phone or in person; (b) ask if a localavailable on the phone or in person; (b) ask if a localrepresentative is in the area whom you could contact if representative is in the area whom you could contact if the hoe office is extremely distant.the hoe office is extremely distant.



yy

Job A pplication Process Job A pplication ProcessSUMM A R Y SUMM A R Y : the first thing you should do in the job application: the first thing you should do in the job applicationprocess is pursuing a self process is pursuing a self--assessmentassessment ² ² that means knowing yourthat means knowing your

self. Take time to list your skills, accomplishments, and personalself. Take time to list your skills, accomplishments, and personal values as you and others see them. Thousands of companies and values as you and others see them. Thousands of companies andfunctional areas of work make up the world·s workplace. Yourfunctional areas of work make up the world·s workplace. Yourschool career counseling center or placement office is the placeschool career counseling center or placement office is the placeto start. The move to reviewing some of the many writtento start. The move to reviewing some of the many writtensources on careers and job information. Do not neglect tosources on careers and job information. Do not neglect tocontact persons already in the field or persons who can likewisecontact persons already in the field or persons who can likewisebe helpful in landing a job. Edit, rewrite; have other persons look be helpful in landing a job. Edit, rewrite; have other persons look

h i f hh i f h



at the centerpiece of who you are: your resume.at the centerpiece of who you are: your resume.

Job A pplication Process Job A pplication ProcessNo agreedNo agreed--upon organization for a resume and its content isupon organization for a resume and its content isforthcoming. Notwithstanding that comment, we recommendforthcoming. Notwithstanding that comment, we recommend

focusing on three central topics: a goal statement, educationfocusing on three central topics: a goal statement, educationexperience, and work experience. The other important documentexperience, and work experience. The other important documentaccompanying your resume is the cover letter. Here too, edit,accompanying your resume is the cover letter. Here too, edit,rewrite, review, and have other persons look at this piece of rewrite, review, and have other persons look at this piece of persuasive writing that seeks to obtain an interview for you.persuasive writing that seeks to obtain an interview for you.Likewise give thought to three steps: the opening paragraph forLikewise give thought to three steps: the opening paragraph forgetting favorable attention, the middle paragraphs for supply getting favorable attention, the middle paragraphs for supply data and evidence, and the last paragraph for suggesting easy data and evidence, and the last paragraph for suggesting easy

ii



action.action.


C urriculum vitae C urriculum vitae (abbr CV) 1 (BrE) NAamE resume) a(abbr CV) 1 (BrE) NAamE resume) a written record of your education and the jobs you·ve written record of your education and the jobs you·ve

done, that you send when you·re applying for a job. 2done, that you send when you·re applying for a job. 2(also vita) (US) a record of a university/college(also vita) (US) a record of a university/collegeteacher·s education and where they·ve worked, alsoteacher·s education and where they·ve worked, alsoincluding a list of books and articles that they haveincluding a list of books and articles that they have

published and courses that they have taught, used whenpublished and courses that they have taught, used whenthey are applying for a job.they are applying for a job.



y pp y g jy pp y g j

Précis WritingPrécis Writing



Précis WritingPrécis WritingW hat is a Précis? W hat is a Précis? The term ¶Précis· is derived from a French word, The term ¶Précis· is derived from a French word,

which means ´preciseµ or ´accurately expressedµ. Roughly which means ´preciseµ or ´accurately expressedµ. Roughly

speaking, it means an ¶abstract· or a ¶gist· of a longer passage orspeaking, it means an ¶abstract· or a ¶gist· of a longer passage ordocument. Thus to make a précis of a given passage amounts todocument. Thus to make a précis of a given passage amounts toextracting its main points and expressing them as clearly and inextracting its main points and expressing them as clearly and inas few words as possible. Précis writing is an exercise inas few words as possible. Précis writing is an exercise incompression. It is the main theme of a passage in as concise acompression. It is the main theme of a passage in as concise aform as possible. It should be lucid, succinct and complete. Itform as possible. It should be lucid, succinct and complete. Itshould include all the important points so that one may be ableshould include all the important points so that one may be ableto grasp the main idea and the general effect of the passageto grasp the main idea and the general effect of the passage

mm riz dmm riz d



summarized.summarized.

Précis WritingPrécis WritingPrécis writing differs essentially from paraphrasing. A paraphrase mustPrécis writing differs essentially from paraphrasing. A paraphrase mustreproduce not only the substance of the passage but also all its details. It will,reproduce not only the substance of the passage but also all its details. It will,therefore, necessarily be longer than the original. But précis must always betherefore, necessarily be longer than the original. But précis must always be

shorter than the original.It expresses as tersely as possible, only the mainshorter than the original.It expresses as tersely as possible, only the maintheme, shorn of all unimportant details. No strict rules can be laid downtheme, shorn of all unimportant details. No strict rules can be laid down

regarding the length of a précis. On the average a précis should contain aregarding the length of a précis. On the average a précis should contain athird of the number of words in the original passage. A précis must fulfill thethird of the number of words in the original passage. A précis must fulfill thefollowing three requirements:following three requirements:(i) It must be in the form of a continuous narrative, that is, it must not consist(i) It must be in the form of a continuous narrative, that is, it must not consistof disjointed sentences; (ii) It should include all the important ideas expressedof disjointed sentences; (ii) It should include all the important ideas expressed

in the original passage, and (iii) It should rigidly exclude all that isin the original passage, and (iii) It should rigidly exclude all that isunimportant and irrelevant.unimportant and irrelevant.



Précis WritingPrécis WritingPrécis W riting: Précis W riting: A précis is a concise summary in your own words of the A précis is a concise summary in your own words of theessential points of a longer piece of writing, usually oneessential points of a longer piece of writing, usually one--fourth to onefourth to one--third asthird aslong as the original. Learning how to do this provides excellent training inlong as the original. Learning how to do this provides excellent training in

reading for comprehension and in mastering the technique of clear, concise,reading for comprehension and in mastering the technique of clear, concise,and accurate writing.and accurate writing. We need to recognize first of all that a précis is not a paraphrase, which is a We need to recognize first of all that a précis is not a paraphrase, which is arestatement in different words of what the original said, often of the samerestatement in different words of what the original said, often of the samelength as or longer than the original. A précis, unlike a paraphrase, cutslength as or longer than the original. A précis, unlike a paraphrase, cuts wordage to the minimum, simplifying and getting to the essential meaning in wordage to the minimum, simplifying and getting to the essential meaning in very few words. It contains no details, examples, or illustrations, and it does very few words. It contains no details, examples, or illustrations, and it does

not allow any comment or interpretation on your part. The steps required tonot allow any comment or interpretation on your part. The steps required tobe followed while writing a précis are: (i) Read the selection quickly for abe followed while writing a précis are: (i) Read the selection quickly for ageneral overview;general overview;



Précis WritingPrécis Writing(ii) Reread it paragraph by paragraph several times very (ii) Reread it paragraph by paragraph several times very thoughtfully; (iii) In each paragraph look for the topic sentencethoughtfully; (iii) In each paragraph look for the topic sentence

and restate it, first to yourself, then write it down in your ownand restate it, first to yourself, then write it down in your own words; (iv) Combine these ideas into a statement of the whole. words; (iv) Combine these ideas into a statement of the whole.Eliminate any that do not directly bear on the main idea of theEliminate any that do not directly bear on the main idea of thepaper; (v) Revise your version, checking to see that it ispaper; (v) Revise your version, checking to see that it isabsolutely accurate in accordance with the author·s version andabsolutely accurate in accordance with the author·s version andthat it follows the original in the same sequence of thoughts andthat it follows the original in the same sequence of thoughts andfacts, and (vi) Go through your précis and cut it onefacts, and (vi) Go through your précis and cut it one--fourth orfourth oroneone--third of the original length by tightening each sentence,third of the original length by tightening each sentence,cutting any extra words Substitute a phrase for a clause of onecutting any extra words Substitute a phrase for a clause of one



cutting any extra words. Substitute a phrase for a clause of onecutting any extra words. Substitute a phrase for a clause of one word for a phrase. word for a phrase.


Examples:Examples: W ordy W ordy ² ² If you do your studying rightIf you do your studying right

after school, you will be able to watch televisionafter school, you will be able to watch televisionat night.at night.

T erse: T erse: Afternoon studying leaves Afternoon studying leavesnighttime free for TV watching.nighttime free for TV watching.

W ordy: W ordy: Mr. Salman spoke to me in aMr. Salman spoke to me in apleasant mannerpleasant manner



pleasant mannerpleasant manner

T erse: T erse:

Précis WritingPrécis WritingT he Goal/Pur pose of Précis W riting: T he Goal/Pur pose of Précis W riting: The main objective of précis The main objective of précis

writing is to find out whether, from a straightforward passage, writing is to find out whether, from a straightforward passage, we can unearth a central theme and trace its development we can unearth a central theme and trace its development

through a series of clearly defines stages. The précis of a giventhrough a series of clearly defines stages. The précis of a givenpassage helps us getting to the essential meaning in as few wordspassage helps us getting to the essential meaning in as few wordsas possible. Practice in précis writing is of great value in practicalas possible. Practice in précis writing is of great value in practicallife. It teaches us to express our thoughts in as few words aslife. It teaches us to express our thoughts in as few words aspossible and to express them clearly and effectively. The regularpossible and to express them clearly and effectively. The regularpractice of condensation will give us unusual skill in expressing practice of condensation will give us unusual skill in expressing ourselves with brevity and cleverness. Furthermore, it will rapidly ourselves with brevity and cleverness. Furthermore, it will rapidly develop our concentration, memory and mental power by develop our concentration, memory and mental power by compelling us to fix our attention upon the important points of acompelling us to fix our attention upon the important points of a



p g p p pp g p p psubject.subject.

Précis WritingPrécis WritingPrécis writing is a very helpful exercise in reading. Most peoplePrécis writing is a very helpful exercise in reading. Most peopleread carelessly and retain only a vague idea of what they haveread carelessly and retain only a vague idea of what they haveread. Nothing provides a stronger corrective to such a habit of read. Nothing provides a stronger corrective to such a habit of cursory reading than the practice of putting down briefly thecursory reading than the practice of putting down briefly thesubstance of what has been just read.substance of what has been just read.

Précis is also a very good exercise in writing. It teaches one toPrécis is also a very good exercise in writing. It teaches one toexpress one·s thoughts clearly, concisely and effectively. Habitsexpress one·s thoughts clearly, concisely and effectively. Habits

of vague and disorderly thinking and diffuse writing areof vague and disorderly thinking and diffuse writing arecorrected by précis writing. By précis writing we learn to choosecorrected by précis writing. By précis writing we learn to chooseour words carefully, to construct our sentences completely andour words carefully, to construct our sentences completely andb i fl d t t tt i t i tl l i l db i fl d t t tt i t i tl l i l d



briefly and to put our matter in a strictly logical order.briefly and to put our matter in a strictly logical order.


Essentials of Précis W riting: Essentials of Précis W riting: A précis is an essence A précis is an essenceof main ideas of a passage, of a speech, of aof main ideas of a passage, of a speech, of a

chapter, even of a book, expressed in as few chapter, even of a book, expressed in as few words as possible. Its language should be clear, words as possible. Its language should be clear,simple, having continuity of thought andsimple, having continuity of thought andexpression. It is not a summing up of disjointedexpression. It is not a summing up of disjointedpoints but a connected and readable piece of points but a connected and readable piece of composition excluding no important ideas andcomposition excluding no important ideas and



p g pp g pincluding no unimportant ones.including no unimportant ones.

Précis WritingPrécis WritingHow to make a good précis: How to make a good précis: In order to write a good précis, bearing all theIn order to write a good précis, bearing all thequalities mentioned above, the following points are to be borne in mind.qualities mentioned above, the following points are to be borne in mind.(i)(i) Read the original passage thoroughly and attentively till you gras p it.Read the original passage thoroughly and attentively till you gras p it. SometimesSometimes

more than one reading is needed to understand the passage; (ii)more than one reading is needed to understand the passage; (ii) It is always It is always advisable to select a suitable title after having read the passage carefully as it will hel p to get advisable to select a suitable title after having read the passage carefully as it will hel p to get at the main theme or subject.at the main theme or subject. Generally, the title is provided by some key word,Generally, the title is provided by some key word,phrase or sentence which is ordinarily found either at the beginning or at thephrase or sentence which is ordinarily found either at the beginning or at theend of the passage; (iii)end of the passage; (iii) Pick out the im portant points or ideas and underline them in Pick out the im portant points or ideas and underline them in the original passage.the original passage. If there is more than one paragraph, important ideas of eachIf there is more than one paragraph, important ideas of eachone of them should be noted down separately;one of them should be noted down separately;




(iv)(iv) Next, arrange the ideas or points thus marked out Next, arrange the ideas or points thus marked out into a connected readable whole with coherence of ideas; into a connected readable whole with coherence of ideas;

(v)(v) A fter rearranging all the points, pre pare an outline A fter rearranging all the points, pre pare an outline précis of the passage; précis of the passage; (vi)(vi) T here should be no re petition of T here should be no re petition of the same idea. As far as possible, the language of the the same idea. As far as possible, the language of the précis should be your own, bearing in mind that no précis should be your own, bearing in mind that nocomment from your own side is there.comment from your own side is there.



Précis WritingPrécis Writing(vii)(vii) Figurative language should be avoided; Figurative language should be avoided; (viii)(viii) A good précis should be a A good précis should be a continuous and com pact piece of prose.continuous and com pact piece of prose. It should not leave anIt should not leave animpression on the reader that it is merely a series of disjointedimpression on the reader that it is merely a series of disjointed

sentences; (ix)sentences; (ix) A précis should be precise and brief. A précis should be precise and brief. Précis writing Précis writing means giving the essential in fewest possible words. Thus brevity means giving the essential in fewest possible words. Thus brevity is the very soul of a précis. The summary should not beis the very soul of a précis. The summary should not beencumbered with unnecessary figures of speech, illustrations orencumbered with unnecessary figures of speech, illustrations orquotations. A successful précis should give the reader a full andquotations. A successful précis should give the reader a full andadequate idea of the original passage. Brevity is useful only so faradequate idea of the original passage. Brevity is useful only so faras it is compatible with completeness and clearness. A précisas it is compatible with completeness and clearness. A précismust not only be brief but also exact, and (x)must not only be brief but also exact, and (x) A précis should not be A précis should not be sketchy. It should be com plete and contain all that is im portant in the sketchy. It should be com plete and contain all that is im portant in the



y p py p poriginal.original.

Précis WritingPrécis Writing The following things should be avoided while preparing a précis: The following things should be avoided while preparing a précis:(i) Avoid borrowing phrases and sentences from the original. It(i) Avoid borrowing phrases and sentences from the original. Itshould be in your own words as far as possible; (ii) Avoidshould be in your own words as far as possible; (ii) Avoidemphasizing the wrong points. This is often due to anemphasizing the wrong points. This is often due to aninadequate understanding of the original or to preconceivedinadequate understanding of the original or to preconceivednotions. (iii) Avoid exceeding the prescribed length by more thannotions. (iii) Avoid exceeding the prescribed length by more thanfive words; (iv) Avoid bad style. See that your sentences do notfive words; (iv) Avoid bad style. See that your sentences do notlack unity. The following types of details are generally notlack unity. The following types of details are generally not

included in the précis: All introductory remarks, (b)Illustrations;included in the précis: All introductory remarks, (b)Illustrations;(c) Examples, anecdotes, stories; (d) Side(c) Examples, anecdotes, stories; (d) Side--remarks; (e)remarks; (e)

Similes/Metaphors, and (f) Any element that has been repeated.Similes/Metaphors, and (f) Any element that has been repeated.



Précis WritingPrécis Writing A Model Précis: A Model Précis: Several times in the history of theSeveral times in the history of the world, particular countries and cities have attained a world, particular countries and cities have attained a

high degree of civilization. Yet none of thesehigh degree of civilization. Yet none of thesecivilizations has lasted. One of the reasons why they didcivilizations has lasted. One of the reasons why they didnot last was that they were confined to a very few not last was that they were confined to a very few people. Now it is no good being civilized if everybody people. Now it is no good being civilized if everybody

round or about you is barbarous, rather it is very risky.round or about you is barbarous, rather it is very risky. The barbarians are always liable to break in on you, and The barbarians are always liable to break in on you, and with their greater numbers scatter your civilization to with their greater numbers scatter your civilization to

h i dh i d



the winds.the winds.

Précis WritingPrécis WritingOver and over again in history civilized people dwelling in citiesOver and over again in history civilized people dwelling in citieshave been conquered in this way by barbarians coming downhave been conquered in this way by barbarians coming downfrom the hills and burning and killing and destroying whateverfrom the hills and burning and killing and destroying whateverthey found in the plains. In the thirteenth century most of they found in the plains. In the thirteenth century most of Europe was overEurope was over--run in this way by the Mongols from centralrun in this way by the Mongols from central

Asia, and such civilization as then existed was nearly destroyed. Asia, and such civilization as then existed was nearly destroyed. Thus any person who has advanced in civilization, too far Thus any person who has advanced in civilization, too farbeyond its neighbors, has always been liable to be set upon andbeyond its neighbors, has always been liable to be set upon andpulled back by the others.pulled back by the others.

W ord count W ord count 176176

Write down three Main Ideas: Suggest an appropriate headingWrite down three Main Ideas: Suggest an appropriate heading



Write down three Main Ideas: Suggest an appropriate heading Write down three Main Ideas: Suggest an appropriate heading and make a précis of around 60 words.and make a précis of around 60 words.

Essay WritingEssay Writing



Essay WritingEssay Writing What is an Essay? What is an Essay? The word The word essay essay is defined as ´ ais defined as ´ aliterary composition (usually prose and short) on a any literary composition (usually prose and short) on a any

subject.In its modern sense the term ¶essay· is used forsubject.In its modern sense the term ¶essay· is used fora wella well--arranged and wellarranged and well--ordered piece of compositionordered piece of composition

within certain limits of time and space. Properly within certain limits of time and space. Properly speaking, it is a written composition giving expressionspeaking, it is a written composition giving expressionto one·s own personal ideas or opinions on some topic;to one·s own personal ideas or opinions on some topic;

but the term usually covers also any writtenbut the term usually covers also any writtencomposition, whether it expresses personal opinions, orcomposition, whether it expresses personal opinions, orgives information on any given subject, or details of agives information on any given subject, or details of anarrative or descriptionnarrative or description



narrative or description.narrative or description.


An essay should neither be too long nor too short. To An essay should neither be too long nor too short. Tomake the essay attractive and interesting, thought,make the essay attractive and interesting, thought,

should be illustrated by means of simple examples.should be illustrated by means of simple examples.People lacking originality of ideas and a sense of People lacking originality of ideas and a sense of arrangement can never be successful essayists. An essay arrangement can never be successful essayists. An essay should be written in plain and simple English. To writeshould be written in plain and simple English. To write

an essay calls for general information, good knowledgean essay calls for general information, good knowledgeof subjects and rich vocabulary. Style differs fromof subjects and rich vocabulary. Style differs from

i ii i



writer to writer. writer to writer.

Essay WritingEssay WritingC haracteristics of a good essay C haracteristics of a good essay : Every essay is concerned with the: Every essay is concerned with thefollowing:following:

U nity

U nity : An essay must be a unity, developing one theme with a: An essay must be a unity, developing one theme with adefinite purpose. The subject must be clearly defined in the minddefinite purpose. The subject must be clearly defined in the mind

and kept in view throughout.and kept in view throughout.

Order Order : The essay should follow a certain ordered line of thought: The essay should follow a certain ordered line of thoughtand come to a definite conclusion. It should not consist of and come to a definite conclusion. It should not consist of

haphazard reflections put down anyhow. There should not only haphazard reflections put down anyhow. There should not only be unity of subject but also unity of treatment. Hence thebe unity of subject but also unity of treatment. Hence thenecessity of thinking out a line of thought before beginning tonecessity of thinking out a line of thought before beginning towritewrite



write. write.

Essay WritingEssay Writing M atter M atter : The content or body should be relevant to the topic or: The content or body should be relevant to the topic orsubject.subject.

Brevity Brevity : Essays should not be very long. Although there can be no: Essays should not be very long. Although there can be nostrict rule as to length that depends a good deal on the nature of strict rule as to length that depends a good deal on the nature of the subject. But an essay should be a brief exercise, concisely the subject. But an essay should be a brief exercise, concisely expressed.expressed.

Style Style : The style of an essay must be more dignified and literary.: The style of an essay must be more dignified and literary.

Slang, colloquial terms and free and easy constructions are notSlang, colloquial terms and free and easy constructions are notproper in an essay. At the same time it is a mistake to attemptproper in an essay. At the same time it is a mistake to attemptany flights of fine writing. The language and sentenceany flights of fine writing. The language and sentenceconstruction should be simple direct and naturalconstruction should be simple direct and natural



construction should be simple, direct and natural.construction should be simple, direct and natural.

Essay WritingEssay WritingPersonal touch Personal touch : An essay should reveal the personal feelings and opinions of the: An essay should reveal the personal feelings and opinions of the writer. It should have his/her individuality in it. Strictly speaking, an essay is a writer. It should have his/her individuality in it. Strictly speaking, an essay is a written composition to one·s personal ideas or opinions on a subject. written composition to one·s personal ideas or opinions on a subject.C

a pacity to please C

a pacity to please :It should be able to arouse the interest of the reader and:It should be able to arouse the interest of the reader andsatisfy his curiosity.satisfy his curiosity.

In short, an essay must be a unity, treating in an orderly manner of oneIn short, an essay must be a unity, treating in an orderly manner of onesubject; it should be concisely written and not too long, and the style shouldsubject; it should be concisely written and not too long, and the style shouldbe simple, direct and clear; and it should have individuality, or show thebe simple, direct and clear; and it should have individuality, or show thepersonal touch of the writer. Three features are necessary in a good essay personal touch of the writer. Three features are necessary in a good essay ² ² suitable subject matter, pro per arrangement, and adequate power of ex pression.suitable subject matter, pro per arrangement, and adequate power of ex pression.



Essay WritingEssay WritingHints on Essay writing Hints on Essay writing :: I. General Pre paration I. General Pre paration : One of the chief : One of the chief difficulties people feel in essay writing is lack of matter. They dodifficulties people feel in essay writing is lack of matter. They donot easily find anything to say about a subject. This may benot easily find anything to say about a subject. This may be

remedied by extensive reading, and by training the power of remedied by extensive reading, and by training the power of observation. (a)observation. (a) Reading Reading : If you want to write good essays you: If you want to write good essays youmust acquire a love of reading must acquire a love of reading ² ² not simply reading fornot simply reading foramusement, but reading good books of history, travel, biography amusement, but reading good books of history, travel, biography and science. Fill your mind with finer thoughts and accurateand science. Fill your mind with finer thoughts and accurateinformation. (b)information. (b) Observation Observation : All knowledge does not come from: All knowledge does not come frombooks. We may learn much from the life around usbooks. We may learn much from the life around us ² ² what we what wesee and hear and observe for ourselves. (c)see and hear and observe for ourselves. (c) C onversation C onversation : A writer: A writerreads, observes, and gets people to talk; and in these ways he isreads, observes, and gets people to talk; and in these ways he isl i hi hi i d ith id d k l dl i hi hi i d ith id d k l d



always enriching his mind with ideas and knowledge.always enriching his mind with ideas and knowledge.

Essay WritingEssay WritingII. S pecial Pre paration II. S pecial Pre paration : The special preparation needed for writing : The special preparation needed for writing an essay on some particular subject includes: (a)an essay on some particular subject includes: (a) D efining the D efining the subject subject : It is very important that you should have a clear and: It is very important that you should have a clear andaccurate conception of the subject of the essay before youaccurate conception of the subject of the essay before youattempt to write on itattempt to write on it ² ² what exactly it is and (equally important) what exactly it is and (equally important)

what it is not. (b) what it is not. (b) C ollecting materials C ollecting materials -- Reading up the subject &Reading up the subject &Collect (c)Collect (c) Selection Selection : When you think you have collected enough: When you think you have collected enoughmaterial for your essay, or you can·t think of any more points,material for your essay, or you can·t think of any more points,read over the notes you have jotted down to select the pointsread over the notes you have jotted down to select the pointsmost suitable for your purpose.most suitable for your purpose.



Essay WritingEssay WritingIII. Logical Arrangements III. Logical Arrangements : You should be ready at this: You should be ready at thisstage to decide on the line of thought of the essay, i.e.,stage to decide on the line of thought of the essay, i.e.,

the logical order in which you can arrange the pointsthe logical order in which you can arrange the pointsyou have selected. (a)you have selected. (a) M aking the outline M aking the outline : Bearing your: Bearing yoursubject definitely in your mind and with your purposesubject definitely in your mind and with your purposeclearly before you, sketch out a bare outline of the mainclearly before you, sketch out a bare outline of the mainheads, under which you will arrange your variousheads, under which you will arrange your variousmaterials in a natural, logical and convincing ordermaterials in a natural, logical and convincing order ² ² from a brief introduction to an effective conclusion.from a brief introduction to an effective conclusion.



Essay WritingEssay Writing(b)(b) Filling in the outline Filling in the outline : Having thus mapped out the: Having thus mapped out themain points with which you are going to deal, arrangemain points with which you are going to deal, arrange

the ideas you have collected each under its proper mainthe ideas you have collected each under its proper mainhead, rejecting all those not really relevant to yourhead, rejecting all those not really relevant to yoursubject or which simply repeat other thoughts, andsubject or which simply repeat other thoughts, andtaking care that each really belongs to the division intaking care that each really belongs to the division in

which you place it. You will now have full outline, which you place it. You will now have full outline, which is to be a guide to you in writing the essays. which is to be a guide to you in writing the essays.



Essay WritingEssay Writinginto paragra phs into paragra phs .. V. Stick to the main point.V. Stick to the main point. VI. Observe a sense of VI. Observe a sense of pro portion. pro portion. VII. K ee p the reader·s interest to the end.VII. K ee p the reader·s interest to the end. VIII. T he essay VIII. T he essay should be written in sim ple English.should be written in sim ple English. IX. T he style must be clear and lucid.IX. T he style must be clear and lucid.

X. Brevity of style should always be aimed at. X. Brevity of style should always be aimed at. XII. On the use of words XII. On the use of words : (i): (i)Have a good vocabulary. (ii) Use only such words as may expressHave a good vocabulary. (ii) Use only such words as may expressthe idea you intend to express. (iii) Be simple and exact. (iv)the idea you intend to express. (iii) Be simple and exact. (iv)Don·t be too general. Don·t use obsolete, slang and obscureDon·t be too general. Don·t use obsolete, slang and obscure

words and expressions. (v) Do not coin words and phrases. words and expressions. (v) Do not coin words and phrases. XIII. XIII.On the construction of sentences On the construction of sentences : (a) Unity; (b) Clearness; (c): (a) Unity; (b) Clearness; (c)Emphasis, and (d) Variety Emphasis, and (d) Variety



Essay WritingEssay Writing Writing the essay Writing the essay:: Paragra ph Paragra ph : Every essay should be: Every essay should bedivided into paragraphs, and each heading should havedivided into paragraphs, and each heading should have

at least one paragraph to itself. A paragraph is a groupat least one paragraph to itself. A paragraph is a groupof related sentences that develop a single point. In theof related sentences that develop a single point. In theconstruction of a paragraph the following principlesconstruction of a paragraph the following principlesshould be kept in view.should be kept in view.

UnityUnity: The paragraph must treat of one subject only.: The paragraph must treat of one subject only. Variety Variety: Paragraphs should not be of the same length: Paragraphs should not be of the same lengthor of the same monotonous structure.or of the same monotonous structure.




Logical sequence of thoughtLogical sequence of thought:: To pical To pical

sentencesentence: The most important sentences of a: The most important sentences of aparagraph are the first and the last. In many paragraph are the first and the last. In many

paragraphs the first sentence states the subject,paragraphs the first sentence states the subject,and is called the topical sentence (or key and is called the topical sentence (or key

sentence). The concluding sentence may sum upsentence). The concluding sentence may sum upeffectively what has been said in the paragraph.effectively what has been said in the paragraph.



Essay WritingEssay WritingStructure (parts) of an essayStructure (parts) of an essay: We may divide an essay into: We may divide an essay intothree partsthree parts ² ² the Introduction, the Body of the Essay, and thethe Introduction, the Body of the Essay, and theConclusion.Conclusion.

The Introduction The Introduction: The introductory paragraph should be brief : The introductory paragraph should be brief as well as arresting and pertinent to the subject. It should alsoas well as arresting and pertinent to the subject. It should alsocontain the thesis statement. Finding and limiting a subject,contain the thesis statement. Finding and limiting a subject,getting ideas, and grouping those ideas are steps on the way togetting ideas, and grouping those ideas are steps on the way todetermining the main idea of your writing. The parts in a piece of determining the main idea of your writing. The parts in a piece of

writing must be focused on, controlled by, and related to that writing must be focused on, controlled by, and related to thatone main idea. If they aren·t, the parts will probably fail toone main idea. If they aren·t, the parts will probably fail tocohere, and the writing will almost certainly fail to interest orcohere, and the writing will almost certainly fail to interest or



g yg yconvince a reader. The central idea is called the thesis.convince a reader. The central idea is called the thesis.

Essay WritingEssay WritingIt contains your own approach to your topic, your reason forIt contains your own approach to your topic, your reason for

writing, and your goal. Your thesis not only names the topic but writing, and your goal. Your thesis not only names the topic butalso asserts something about it. An essay·s thesis is oftenalso asserts something about it. An essay·s thesis is oftenexpressed in a single sentence, called the thesis sentence or thesisexpressed in a single sentence, called the thesis sentence or thesisstatement. As an expression of the thesis, the thesis sentencestatement. As an expression of the thesis, the thesis sentenceserves three crucial functions: (i) It narrows your topic to a singleserves three crucial functions: (i) It narrows your topic to a singleidea. (ii) In asserting something about the topic, it conveys youridea. (ii) In asserting something about the topic, it conveys yourown outlook own outlook ² ² the special perspective you are taking. (iii) It may the special perspective you are taking. (iii) It may

provide a specific, concise preview of your ideas and suggestprovide a specific, concise preview of your ideas and suggesthow you will arrange them in the essay.how you will arrange them in the essay.



Essay WritingEssay Writing The Body of the Essay The Body of the Essay: This is really the essay itself. In: This is really the essay itself. Inarranging the body of the essay, observe proportion; that is, letarranging the body of the essay, observe proportion; that is, leteach part have due weight given to it. If the subject is ´The goodeach part have due weight given to it. If the subject is ´The goodand bad influence of Newspapers,µ do not devote threeand bad influence of Newspapers,µ do not devote three--quartersquartersof the essay to good influences and so leave only a quarter forof the essay to good influences and so leave only a quarter forthe bad. Closely follow your full outline throughout. Thethe bad. Closely follow your full outline throughout. Theparagraphs should be well constructed and should be related toparagraphs should be well constructed and should be related toone another according to the direction of your outline; and as farone another according to the direction of your outline; and as far

as possible, the connection between one and another should beas possible, the connection between one and another should beshown. In the body, the main arguments should be set outshown. In the body, the main arguments should be set outlogically in welllogically in well--structures paragraphs.structures paragraphs.



Essay WritingEssay Writing The Conclusion or Concluding Paragra ph The Conclusion or Concluding Paragra ph: As the: As theintroduction should arouse interest, the conclusionintroduction should arouse interest, the conclusion

should satisfy it. An effective and satisfying end to anshould satisfy it. An effective and satisfying end to anessay is as important as an arresting beginning. A goodessay is as important as an arresting beginning. A goodconclusion may consist of: (a) a summing up of theconclusion may consist of: (a) a summing up of thearguments of the essay; (b) final conclusion drawn fromarguments of the essay; (b) final conclusion drawn from

the subject matter; (c) a suitable quotation, and (d) athe subject matter; (c) a suitable quotation, and (d) asentence that strikingly expresses the main point yousentence that strikingly expresses the main point youwant to drive homewant to drive home



want to drive home. want to drive home.

Essay WritingEssay WritingOpening an essay/ com posing an IntroductoryOpening an essay/ com posing an IntroductoryParagra phParagra ph: Most essays open with a paragraph that: Most essays open with a paragraph that

draws readers from their world into the writer·s world.draws readers from their world into the writer·s world. An opening paragraph should arouse the reader·s An opening paragraph should arouse the reader·scuriosity about what the writer has to say. The safestcuriosity about what the writer has to say. The safestkind of introduction opens with a statement of thekind of introduction opens with a statement of theessay·s general subject, clarifies or limits the subject inessay·s general subject, clarifies or limits the subject inone or more sentences, and then, in the thesis sentence,one or more sentences, and then, in the thesis sentence,asserts the topic of the essay.asserts the topic of the essay.




The basic attributes of good introductions are The basic attributes of good introductions are

that they are concise, they are direct becausethat they are concise, they are direct becausethey tell us specifically what the writer willthey tell us specifically what the writer will

discuss and what his or her viewpoint is. They discuss and what his or her viewpoint is. They are sincere, so we believe the author will talk toare sincere, so we believe the author will talk to

us honestly. And they are interesting withoutus honestly. And they are interesting withoutbeing misleading about the content of the essay being misleading about the content of the essay that followsthat follows



that follows.that follows.

Essay WritingEssay Writing Thesis Sentence vis Thesis Sentence vis--àà--vis To pic Sentence vis To pic Sentence: In an: In anessay the thesis sentence contains the man idea. In aessay the thesis sentence contains the man idea. In a

paragraph the topic sentence alerts readers to the mainparagraph the topic sentence alerts readers to the mainpoint of the paragraph by stating the central idea andpoint of the paragraph by stating the central idea andexpressing the writer·s attitude toward it. In an essay of expressing the writer·s attitude toward it. In an essay of 500 to 700 words, each paragraph is likely to be about500 to 700 words, each paragraph is likely to be about

one aspect of the thesis sentence. In that case the topicone aspect of the thesis sentence. In that case the topicsentences may be restatements and elaborations of sentences may be restatements and elaborations of parts of the thesis.parts of the thesis.



parts of the thesis.parts of the thesis.

Essay WritingEssay Writing A topic sentence will not, of course, guarantee a unified A topic sentence will not, of course, guarantee a unifiedparagraphparagraph ² ² any more than a thesis sentence guaranteesany more than a thesis sentence guarantees

a unified essay. Checking length: In an essay of 500 toa unified essay. Checking length: In an essay of 500 to750 words, the average paragraph may be between 100750 words, the average paragraph may be between 100and 150 words, or between four and eight sentences.and 150 words, or between four and eight sentences. These numbers are averages, of course; the actual These numbers are averages, of course; the actuallength of a paragraph will depend on its topic, its role inlength of a paragraph will depend on its topic, its role inthe development of the thesis sentence, and its positionthe development of the thesis sentence, and its positionin the essay.in the essay.




Develo ping the essayDevelo ping the essay: You develop your essay : You develop your essay

by using sound generalizations to support yourby using sound generalizations to support yourthesis, generalizations that are supported by thesis, generalizations that are supported by

details, examples, and reasons. Avoid filling outdetails, examples, and reasons. Avoid filling outyour essay by repetition. Avoid substituting your essay by repetition. Avoid substituting

purely subjective feelings about the topic for realpurely subjective feelings about the topic for realanalysis of it.analysis of it.



Essay WritingEssay WritingClosing an Essay or Com posing a Concluding Paragra phClosing an Essay or Com posing a Concluding Paragra ph::Most essays end with a closing statement of some kindMost essays end with a closing statement of some kind ² ² a signala signalto readers that the writer has not simply stopped writing but hasto readers that the writer has not simply stopped writing but hasactually finished. The closing statementactually finished. The closing statement ² ² usually set off in itsusually set off in itsown paragraphown paragraph ² ² may be a single sentence or a group of may be a single sentence or a group of sentences. It may summarize the evidence presented in the essay,sentences. It may summarize the evidence presented in the essay,restate the thesis with a fresh emphasis, suggest a course of restate the thesis with a fresh emphasis, suggest a course of action, ask a question, strike a note of hope or despair, introduceaction, ask a question, strike a note of hope or despair, introduce

a startling fact, quote an authority, or tell anecdote.a startling fact, quote an authority, or tell anecdote.



Essay WritingEssay Writing There are certain things that we need to avoid in a concluding There are certain things that we need to avoid in a concluding paragraph, such as restating the introduction, statement of paragraph, such as restating the introduction, statement of object, thesis sentence, etc. Presumably the paragraphs in theobject, thesis sentence, etc. Presumably the paragraphs in the

body of your essay have contributed something to the opening body of your essay have contributed something to the opening statements, and it·s that something you want to capture in yourstatements, and it·s that something you want to capture in yourconclusion. We should not start off in a new direction, with aconclusion. We should not start off in a new direction, with asubject different from or broader than the one the essay hassubject different from or broader than the one the essay hasbeen about. We should also not conclude more than webeen about. We should also not conclude more than wereasonably can from the evidence we have presented. And lastly,reasonably can from the evidence we have presented. And lastly,

the conclusion should not be used to apologize for one·s essay orthe conclusion should not be used to apologize for one·s essay orotherwise cast doubt on it. We should avoid saying, ´ Evenotherwise cast doubt on it. We should avoid saying, ´ Eventhough I am no expert,µ or ´This may not be convincing, but I though I am no expert,µ or ´This may not be convincing, but I believe it·s true,µ or anything similar. Rather, to win our readers·believe it·s true,µ or anything similar. Rather, to win our readers·



, y g ,, y g ,confidence, one should display confidence.confidence, one should display confidence.

Essay WritingEssay WritingReview Review ² ² T he essay T he essay : Every composition has a clearly defined: Every composition has a clearly definedintroduction, body, and conclusion. The introduction should (1)introduction, body, and conclusion. The introduction should (1)arouse the reader·s interest; (2) state the main idea of thearouse the reader·s interest; (2) state the main idea of thecomposition; and (3) possibly preview the main topics. Itcomposition; and (3) possibly preview the main topics. Itcontains your thesis statement and a number of other sentencescontains your thesis statement and a number of other sentencesdesigned to introduce your topics and let the reader know what itdesigned to introduce your topics and let the reader know what itis all about. The body of the composition must develop, support,is all about. The body of the composition must develop, support,and explain the main ideas stated in your introduction or thesisand explain the main ideas stated in your introduction or thesis

paragraph. It should include appropriate, specific examples andparagraph. It should include appropriate, specific examples anddetails to back up your thesis.details to back up your thesis.



Essay WritingEssay Writing An outline is essential for a well An outline is essential for a well--constructedconstructedcomposition. The conclusion of the paper should clinchcomposition. The conclusion of the paper should clinch

the main points made in the body of the composition.the main points made in the body of the composition.It pulls together the details of the essay into a finalIt pulls together the details of the essay into a finalstatement, giving a feeling of completeness. It shouldstatement, giving a feeling of completeness. It shouldnot contain any new evidence. Depending on yournot contain any new evidence. Depending on your

objective, the conclusion may simply summarize yourobjective, the conclusion may simply summarize yourposition, emphasize a main point, or draw a conclusion.position, emphasize a main point, or draw a conclusion.



Types of Meetings Types of Meetings T y pes of Meetings T y pes of Meetings

A meeting is an assembly of members gathered to conduct A meeting is an assembly of members gathered to conductbusiness during which there is no separation of the membersbusiness during which there is no separation of the membersexcept for a short recess. A session is a meeting or a series of except for a short recess. A session is a meeting or a series of connected meetings, as in a convention.connected meetings, as in a convention.

R egular MeetingR egular Meeting: A business meeting of a permanent group: A business meeting of a permanent groupthat is held at regular intervals (weekly, monthly, quarterly, andthat is held at regular intervals (weekly, monthly, quarterly, and

so on). Each meeting is a separate session. The meetings are heldso on). Each meeting is a separate session. The meetings are held when prescribed in the bylaws, the standing rules, or through a when prescribed in the bylaws, the standing rules, or through amotion of the group that is usually adopted at the beginning of motion of the group that is usually adopted at the beginning of the administrative year.the administrative year.



Types of Meetings Types of Meetings

Special MeetingSpecial Meeting: A meeting called at a specific time: A meeting called at a specific timefor a specific purpose. The time, place, and purpose of for a specific purpose. The time, place, and purpose of the meeting must be included in the information sent tothe meeting must be included in the information sent toall of the members regarding the meeting all of the members regarding the meeting ² ² referred toreferred toas the call of the meeting. Only business that wasas the call of the meeting. Only business that wasspecified in the call of the meeting can be transacted atspecified in the call of the meeting can be transacted atthe meeting. A group cannot hold a special meeting the meeting. A group cannot hold a special meeting unless it·s authorized in the bylaws. Special meetings areunless it·s authorized in the bylaws. Special meetings areusually held for emergency purposes, things that wereusually held for emergency purposes, things that werenot, nor could be, planned for in advance.not, nor could be, planned for in advance.



Types of Meetings Types of Meetings A nnual Meeting A nnual Meeting: A meeting held yearly, usually for the purpose: A meeting held yearly, usually for the purpose

of electing officers and receiving the annual reports of currentof electing officers and receiving the annual reports of currentofficers. The annual meeting is usually specified in the bylaws.officers. The annual meeting is usually specified in the bylaws.

A djourned Meeting A djourned Meeting: A meeting that is a continuous of a: A meeting that is a continuous of aprevious meeting. It occurs when the work wasn·t completed at aprevious meeting. It occurs when the work wasn·t completed at aregular or special meeting and there was a motion to continueregular or special meeting and there was a motion to continuethe meeting at a different time (called a motion to fix a time tothe meeting at a different time (called a motion to fix a time toadjourn). The original meeting and the adjourned meeting makeadjourn). The original meeting and the adjourned meeting makeup a single session. Because it is a continuation of a previousup a single session. Because it is a continuation of a previousmeeting, special notice of the meeting doesn·t need to be sentmeeting, special notice of the meeting doesn·t need to be sentout to the membership. The adjourned meeting begins where theout to the membership. The adjourned meeting begins where themeeting it is continuing left off.meeting it is continuing left off.



Types of Meetings Types of Meetings Mass MeetingMass Meeting: An open meeting of a group of people with a: An open meeting of a group of people with a

common interest but not formally organized.common interest but not formally organized.

Board of Directors MeetingBoard of Directors Meeting: A meeting of a specified group of : A meeting of a specified group of members who make decisions on behalf of the organization. Themembers who make decisions on behalf of the organization. Themembership, authority, and limitations of this group aremembership, authority, and limitations of this group arespecified in the bylaws. Meetings of the board are usually only specified in the bylaws. Meetings of the board are usually only open to members of the board and the board·s invitees.open to members of the board and the board·s invitees.

ConventionConvention: An assembly of delegates usually chosen for one: An assembly of delegates usually chosen for onesession. The participants frequently attend as representatives of session. The participants frequently attend as representatives of local, state, or regional associations. The convention participantslocal, state, or regional associations. The convention participantscome together to make decisions on behalf of the entirecome together to make decisions on behalf of the entire

i ii i



organization.organization.

Types of Meetings Types of Meetings Committee MeetingCommittee Meeting: A meeting of a group of members who: A meeting of a group of members who

have been elected or appointed to carry out a task. They havehave been elected or appointed to carry out a task. They haveonly the power given to them by the body that created themonly the power given to them by the body that created them

(members, board, president, bylaws.(members, board, president, bylaws. Executive sessionExecutive session: A meeting or a portion of a meeting in: A meeting or a portion of a meeting in

which the proceedings are secret and the only attendees are which the proceedings are secret and the only attendees aremembers and invited guests. All or part of any of the othermembers and invited guests. All or part of any of the othermeetings in this list may be held in executive sessionmeetings in this list may be held in executive sessiondeliberations of an executive session are secret and all attendeesdeliberations of an executive session are secret and all attendeesare honor bound to maintain confidentiality. Meetings of boardare honor bound to maintain confidentiality. Meetings of boardof directors are usually held in executive session.of directors are usually held in executive session.



Types of Meetings Types of Meetings Formal vs. Informal MeetingFormal vs. Informal Meeting

The size of the group plays a large part in determining how formal the The size of the group plays a large part in determining how formal themeeting needs to be. As a general rule, the larger the group, the greater themeeting needs to be. As a general rule, the larger the group, the greater theamount of formality there should be. A meeting of ten committee membersamount of formality there should be. A meeting of ten committee members

can be conducted very casually. A meeting of 100 at the same level of can be conducted very casually. A meeting of 100 at the same level of informality could be highly ineffective. A meeting of 1,000 at the same levelinformality could be highly ineffective. A meeting of 1,000 at the same levelof informality could be an out and out disaster.of informality could be an out and out disaster.

The level of formality that you use at your meeting depends on how many The level of formality that you use at your meeting depends on how many people are involved; the purpose of the meeting, and how much time andpeople are involved; the purpose of the meeting, and how much time andmoney is available. The size of the group, the purpose of the meeting, and themoney is available. The size of the group, the purpose of the meeting, and thecost in time and money of the meeting are the three things that need to becost in time and money of the meeting are the three things that need to be

considered in determining the level of formality of the group.considered in determining the level of formality of the group. The meeting·s purpose should also be taken into account when determining The meeting·s purpose should also be taken into account when determining

how formal or informal to make it. If one is getting together with somehow formal or informal to make it. If one is getting together with somecommittee members simply to discuss an issue, an informal approach mightcommittee members simply to discuss an issue, an informal approach mightbe the best bet. If you have very difficult and controversial issues to resolve, abe the best bet. If you have very difficult and controversial issues to resolve, a



b b b y v v y d d v v ,b b b y v v y d d v v ,more formal format might help keep the group focused on the issues.more formal format might help keep the group focused on the issues.

Types of Meetings Types of Meetings Electronic MeetingsElectronic Meetings :: EE--meetings can take place during a set time, just likemeetings can take place during a set time, just like

regular meetings, or they can take place at different times. Meetings that takeregular meetings, or they can take place at different times. Meetings that takeplace at the same time are called synchronous meetings. So, if you are on aplace at the same time are called synchronous meetings. So, if you are on aconference call with members from Karachi, Lahore, Islamabad, andconference call with members from Karachi, Lahore, Islamabad, and

Peshawar, you are in a synchronous meeting. You are interacting in real time.Peshawar, you are in a synchronous meeting. You are interacting in real time.So, synchronous meetings occur when participants are in different places atSo, synchronous meetings occur when participants are in different places atthe same time.the same time. Asynchronous meetings Asynchronous meetings are meetings that occur with theare meetings that occur with theparticipants in different places at different times. So if your bylaws allow youparticipants in different places at different times. So if your bylaws allow youto debate and take a vote by fax, you are participating in an asynchronousto debate and take a vote by fax, you are participating in an asynchronousmeeting.meeting.

EE--meetings have become increasingly popular due to the following reasons:meetings have become increasingly popular due to the following reasons:



Types of Meetings Types of Meetings Time Time--sensitive issue. Some issues need to be addressed before the group cansensitive issue. Some issues need to be addressed before the group can

come together for an income together for an in--person meeting. Sometimes, if an issue isn·t dealtperson meeting. Sometimes, if an issue isn·t dealt with immediately, it becomes a moot point. For example, if a group wants to with immediately, it becomes a moot point. For example, if a group wants totake a stand against a bill that is scheduled to be voted on by the statetake a stand against a bill that is scheduled to be voted on by the state

legislators in two weeks. The next inlegislators in two weeks. The next in--person meeting is three weeks away. If person meeting is three weeks away. If we take a stand on the issue at our next in we take a stand on the issue at our next in--person meeting, it will be after theperson meeting, it will be after thebill has been voted on and, therefore a moot point.bill has been voted on and, therefore a moot point.

If all of the people in a group live in the same area, the cost of conducting aIf all of the people in a group live in the same area, the cost of conducting ameeting is minimalmeeting is minimal

But, the attendees are from all over the country or even the world, we canBut, the attendees are from all over the country or even the world, we can

save everyone·s money by conducting an esave everyone·s money by conducting an e--meeting.meeting.



Types of Meetings Types of Meetings

Any kind of meeting that is not an in Any kind of meeting that is not an in--person meeting person meeting must be authorized in the bylaws or the governing must be authorized in the bylaws or the governing

documents. If the bylaws don·t authorize an electronicdocuments. If the bylaws don·t authorize an electronicmeeting, any action taken during an electronic meeting meeting, any action taken during an electronic meeting is not a legal action taken by the group. If, in anis not a legal action taken by the group. If, in anextreme emergency, we conduct a meeting extreme emergency, we conduct a meeting

electronically that is not authorized in the bylaws, theelectronically that is not authorized in the bylaws, thebest thing to do is to ratify those actions at the nextbest thing to do is to ratify those actions at the nextlegal meeting.legal meeting.



Types of Meetings Types of Meetings The different formats for electronic meetings are: The different formats for electronic meetings are: Asynchronous meetings include «.. Asynchronous meetings include «.. EE--mail. All members of the meeting are listed in the ´toµ part of the email. All members of the meeting are listed in the ´toµ part of the e--mail.mail.

When we reply to a message in the e When we reply to a message in the e--mail, we should reply to all, so all of themail, we should reply to all, so all of theparticipants receive the same information.participants receive the same information. EE--mail lists. These are sometimes referred to as email lists. These are sometimes referred to as e--mail groups or List serves.mail groups or List serves.

All of the participants in the meeting are on the electronic list and therefore All of the participants in the meeting are on the electronic list and thereforeget all of the eget all of the e--mails. We send an emails. We send an e--mail to the email to the e--mail list and it ismail list and it isautomatically sent out too all of the participants in the group.automatically sent out too all of the participants in the group.

Facsimile/fax. Although the fax machine is used most frequently as a way of Facsimile/fax. Although the fax machine is used most frequently as a way of

voting electronically, it is sometimes also used as a method of having a voting electronically, it is sometimes also used as a method of having a´discussionµ within a group.´discussionµ within a group.



Types of Meetings Types of Meetings Synchronous meetings include «.Synchronous meetings include «. Telephone conferencing. This is probably the most frequently used e Telephone conferencing. This is probably the most frequently used e--meeting venue.meeting venue.

Each participant in the phone conference is on a telephone at his or her location. TheEach participant in the phone conference is on a telephone at his or her location. Theadvantage of this format is that all members can hear each other; the disadvantage isadvantage of this format is that all members can hear each other; the disadvantage is

that they can·t see each other. That doesn·t seem like much of a disadvantage until youthat they can·t see each other. That doesn·t seem like much of a disadvantage until yourealize that nonverbal communication constitutes more than half of what werealize that nonverbal communication constitutes more than half of what wecommunicate.communicate.

Video conferencing. This format gives the participants the advantage of being able to Video conferencing. This format gives the participants the advantage of being able tohear and see the other meeting participants. It can be quite expensive.hear and see the other meeting participants. It can be quite expensive.

Chat rooms. Some groups use chat rooms and instant messaging to conduct meetings.Chat rooms. Some groups use chat rooms and instant messaging to conduct meetings.In order for it to be a synchronous meeting, all attendees must be in the chat room orIn order for it to be a synchronous meeting, all attendees must be in the chat room or

on instant messaging at the same time. The group must have rules for how memberson instant messaging at the same time. The group must have rules for how membersare recognized. For instance, they might require members to type in ´handµ when they are recognized. For instance, they might require members to type in ´handµ when they want to speak, and the chair might recognize a member by typing the word ´goµ with want to speak, and the chair might recognize a member by typing the word ´goµ withthat individual·s name next to it.that individual·s name next to it.



Types of Meetings Types of Meetings R ules for Conference CallsR ules for Conference Calls

Some of the rules that we might consider including in a set of rules writtenSome of the rules that we might consider including in a set of rules writtenfor conference calls include «for conference calls include «

A conference meeting must be arranged at least 48 hours in advance of the A conference meeting must be arranged at least 48 hours in advance of thecall.call. Each member should seek recognition from the chair before beginning toEach member should seek recognition from the chair before beginning to

speak.speak. Each member should identify himself or herself prior to speaking.Each member should identify himself or herself prior to speaking. Motion will be voted on by voice vote. If the chair has a problem determining Motion will be voted on by voice vote. If the chair has a problem determining

the vote, he or she may call from a roll call vote. The role call vote is forthe vote, he or she may call from a roll call vote. The role call vote is fordetermination of the outcome of the vote and shall not be recorded in thedetermination of the outcome of the vote and shall not be recorded in theminutes.minutes.

The minutes of the meeting shall be approved at the next in The minutes of the meeting shall be approved at the next in--person meeting.person meeting.



Types of Meetings Types of Meetings Grou p or EGrou p or E--mail List Meeting R ules:mail List Meeting R ules: There appears to be at least two different There appears to be at least two different

approaches to eapproaches to e--mail list meetings. The first approach is to have a start and stopmail list meetings. The first approach is to have a start and stoptime/date for the meeting. This start and stop time is similar to the start and stop timetime/date for the meeting. This start and stop time is similar to the start and stop timeof an inof an in--person meeting, but it is much longer because there is no guarantee thatperson meeting, but it is much longer because there is no guarantee that

people will check their epeople will check their e--mail at the same time. The second approach is to have themail at the same time. The second approach is to have themeeting by an ongoing process. In that case, the group establishes a time period formeeting by an ongoing process. In that case, the group establishes a time period forprocessing each motion. With this approach, it would be possible to have more thanprocessing each motion. With this approach, it would be possible to have more thanone motion being processed at a time. While that is not desirable, it may be the only one motion being processed at a time. While that is not desirable, it may be the only practical way to be able to deal with multiple motions in a timely manner.practical way to be able to deal with multiple motions in a timely manner.

Bylaws are rules that, for the most part, can not be suspended (unless the bylawsBylaws are rules that, for the most part, can not be suspended (unless the bylawsthemselves provide for a method of suspending them, which is somewhat self themselves provide for a method of suspending them, which is somewhat self defeating). So an organization·s bylaws should include all of the rules that the groupdefeating). So an organization·s bylaws should include all of the rules that the group

considers to be so important that they cannot be changed at the whim of the membersconsiders to be so important that they cannot be changed at the whim of the memberspresent at a single meeting and cannot be suspended.present at a single meeting and cannot be suspended.



Types of Meetings Types of Meetings The rights and responsibilities of members when they meet together as a The rights and responsibilities of members when they meet together as a

group and of individuals as members of the organization should be includedgroup and of individuals as members of the organization should be includedin the bylaws. This is a basic concept of bylaws. It helps to think of thein the bylaws. This is a basic concept of bylaws. It helps to think of thebylaws as a contract between the members and the organization. If abylaws as a contract between the members and the organization. If a

responsibility is not spelled out in the bylaws, members cannot be held to thatresponsibility is not spelled out in the bylaws, members cannot be held to thatresponsibility. Once by laws are written, they must be distributed to theresponsibility. Once by laws are written, they must be distributed to themembership, who must then vote on whether to accept them. The adoptionmembership, who must then vote on whether to accept them. The adoptionof the original bylaws requires a majority vote. Once bylaws are adopted,of the original bylaws requires a majority vote. Once bylaws are adopted,there are basically two ways to change them: by amendment or by revision.there are basically two ways to change them: by amendment or by revision.Either change method usually requires previous notice and a twoEither change method usually requires previous notice and a two--thirds vote.thirds vote. The following table indicates what kind of vote is necessary for various The following table indicates what kind of vote is necessary for various

changes.changes.



Types of Meetings Types of Meetings Minutes of a MeetingMinutes of a Meeting:: Minutes are the written record of theMinutes are the written record of the

proceedings of a deliberative assembly. They are a record of proceedings of a deliberative assembly. They are a record of what was done at the meeting, not what was said at the meeting. what was done at the meeting, not what was said at the meeting.

Minutes serve as the institutional memory for the organization.Minutes serve as the institutional memory for the organization.Because you have them to refer back to, they prevent a groupBecause you have them to refer back to, they prevent a groupfrom doing the same thing over and over. In addition, minutesfrom doing the same thing over and over. In addition, minutesserve as a record of what was decided at the meeting. If theserve as a record of what was decided at the meeting. If theorganization gets involved in a lawsuit, the minutes are one of organization gets involved in a lawsuit, the minutes are one of

the first documents that all parties will request. And when ruling,the first documents that all parties will request. And when ruling,a judge or jury will give much more weight to the official minutesa judge or jury will give much more weight to the official minutesof the meeting than to what any particular individual recallsof the meeting than to what any particular individual recallshappening.happening.



pp gpp g

Types of Meetings Types of Meetings The following items are recommended to be contained as part of the minutes: The following items are recommended to be contained as part of the minutes: Kind of meeting (regular, special, and so on).Kind of meeting (regular, special, and so on). Name of the organizationName of the organization

Date, time, and place of the meeting.Date, time, and place of the meeting. Name of the presiding officer and secretary, or in their absence, the names of Name of the presiding officer and secretary, or in their absence, the names of

their substitutes.their substitutes. The approximate number of members present (optional). The approximate number of members present (optional). The establishment of a quorum (optional). The establishment of a quorum (optional). Record of the action taken on the minutes of the previous meeting.Record of the action taken on the minutes of the previous meeting.

The exact wording of each main motion as it was voted on, and whether it The exact wording of each main motion as it was voted on, and whether itpassed or failed, along with the name of the maker. In addition, if the votepassed or failed, along with the name of the maker. In addition, if the vote was counted, the count should be included, as well as the tellers· reports, if was counted, the count should be included, as well as the tellers· reports, if any; in roll call votes, the record of each person·s vote is included.any; in roll call votes, the record of each person·s vote is included.



Types of Meetings Types of Meetings Any notice given at the meeting. Previous notices is Any notice given at the meeting. Previous notices is

sometimes required, such as with amendments to thesometimes required, such as with amendments to thebylaws; if any such notice was given at the meeting, itbylaws; if any such notice was given at the meeting, itshould be included in the minutes.should be included in the minutes.

Points of order and appealsPoints of order and appeals For committee reports, the name of the committee, andFor committee reports, the name of the committee, and

the reporting member. If the committee provides athe reporting member. If the committee provides a

printed report, attach it to the minutes and note that itprinted report, attach it to the minutes and note that itis attached.is attached. The hour of adjournment. The hour of adjournment.



Types of Meetings Types of Meetings The following should not be included in the minutes: The following should not be included in the minutes: The opinion or interpretation of the secretary. The opinion or interpretation of the secretary. Judgmental phrases such as ´heated debateµ or ´valuable commentµ. Judgmental phrases such as ´heated debateµ or ´valuable commentµ.

Discussion. Minutes are a record of what was done at the meeting, not whatDiscussion. Minutes are a record of what was done at the meeting, not what was said at the meeting. was said at the meeting. Motions that were withdrawn.Motions that were withdrawn. Name of person who seconded a motion.Name of person who seconded a motion. Flowery language.Flowery language. Reports in detail.Reports in detail.

Transcripts of the meeting. While some groups choose to have a transcript of Transcripts of the meeting. While some groups choose to have a transcript of the meeting, it shouldthe meeting, it should

never substitute as the minutes of the meeting.never substitute as the minutes of the meeting.



Types of Meetings Types of Meetings Getting the Minutes A pproved:Getting the Minutes A pproved: The minutes are made official only after The minutes are made official only after

they are approved, which usually takes place at the next meeting. If yourthey are approved, which usually takes place at the next meeting. If yourorganization frequently makes changes to the minutes, you might want toorganization frequently makes changes to the minutes, you might want tosend out the initial, unapproved set with the word ´draftµ clearly printed onsend out the initial, unapproved set with the word ´draftµ clearly printed on

them. The, when the minutes have been changed and approved, the officialthem. The, when the minutes have been changed and approved, the officialminutes can be sent out. After the minutes have been corrected and approvedminutes can be sent out. After the minutes have been corrected and approvedby the membership, they should be signed by the secretary (the president·sby the membership, they should be signed by the secretary (the president·ssignature is not required). The word ´approved: and the date of the approvalsignature is not required). The word ´approved: and the date of the approvalshould also be included. The official copy of the minutes is the property of should also be included. The official copy of the minutes is the property of the organization. They should be entered in thethe organization. They should be entered in the minutes bookminutes book and kept by theand kept by thesecretary if the organization doesn·t have a headquarters office. Thesecretary if the organization doesn·t have a headquarters office. The minutes minutes

bookbook is usually a three ring binder that contains a complete copy of all theis usually a three ring binder that contains a complete copy of all theminutes. If there is an office, the official copy of the minutes should be keptminutes. If there is an office, the official copy of the minutes should be keptthere.there.



Types of Meetings Types of Meetings The official copy of the minutes should have attached to it the original signed The official copy of the minutes should have attached to it the original signed

copies of each of the following:copies of each of the following: (i) Committee reports; (ii) Officers· reports; (iii) Written motions; (iv) Tellers·(i) Committee reports; (ii) Officers· reports; (iii) Written motions; (iv) Tellers·

reports, and (v) Correspondencereports, and (v) Correspondence If the secretary distributes copies of the minutes to the members, it isn·tIf the secretary distributes copies of the minutes to the members, it isn·t

necessary to include all of the attachments with them. Instead, you cannecessary to include all of the attachments with them. Instead, you caninclude a brief summary of the attachments or at least a reference to them.include a brief summary of the attachments or at least a reference to them.Members can get a copy of them from the secretary if they wish to review Members can get a copy of them from the secretary if they wish to review them.them.

The following suggestions can make the minutes easier to read. The following suggestions can make the minutes easier to read.

Set off each section with a boldfaced heading.Set off each section with a boldfaced heading. After each motion, bold the words that indicate if it passed or failed. After each motion, bold the words that indicate if it passed or failed. Turn on the line numbering feature so that each line of the minutes is Turn on the line numbering feature so that each line of the minutes is

numbered.numbered.



Types of Meetings Types of Meetings Sam ple Minutes Tem plateSam ple Minutes Tem plate

MINUTES of (OrganizationMINUTES of (Organizationname)name)

Meeting date:Meeting date:

______________ ______________ Call to order: A ________________ [kind of meeting] meeting of theCall to order: A ________________ [kind of meeting] meeting of the

_______________ [organization name], was held in _____________ [place, city, _______________ [organization name], was held in _____________ [place, city,state] on ______________ [date], 20 ___ . The meeting convened at ________ [time],state] on ______________ [date], 20 ___ . The meeting convened at ________ [time],President _______________ [name] presiding, and ____________ [name], secretary.President _______________ [name] presiding, and ____________ [name], secretary.

[Some small organizations choose to list attendees. This works well for boards of [Some small organizations choose to list attendees. This works well for boards of directors.]directors.]

Members in attendance: [optional item]Members in attendance: [optional item] Members not in attendance: [optional item]Members not in attendance: [optional item] Approval of minutes: Motion was made by [name], and seconded to approve the Approval of minutes: Motion was made by [name], and seconded to approve the

minutes of the ____________ [date] meeting. Motion carried.minutes of the ____________ [date] meeting. Motion carried.



Types of Meetings Types of Meetings Officers· reports:Officers· reports:

PresidentPresident

Vice P resident Vice P resident

Secretary Secretary

Treasurer Treasurer

Board and committee reports:Board and committee reports: Unfinished business:Unfinished business:

[Subject title][Subject title]

Motion: Moved by [name] that [state motion].Motion: Moved by [name] that [state motion].

Motion carried. Motion failed, [leave only one of these]Motion carried. Motion failed, [leave only one of these] New business:New business:

[Subject title][Subject title] Motion; Moved by [name] that [state motion].Motion; Moved by [name] that [state motion].

Motion carried. Motion failed. [leave only one of these]Motion carried. Motion failed. [leave only one of these] Announcements: Announcements:

Adjournment; The meeting was adjourned at __________________ [time]. Adjournment; The meeting was adjourned at __________________ [time].

_________________________ _________________________

____________________ ____________________

Secretary Secretary D f lD f l



Date of approvalDate of approval

[Organization Name][Organization Name]

T f M tiT f M ti

1COMPLETE Presentation Business Communication

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