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Emotion Regulation: Past, Present, Future

Ja m es J. G ro ssStanford University, California, USA

M ode rn e m ot i on t he ori e s e m pha s i s e t he a da pt i ve va l ue of e m ot i ons . E m o-

tio n s a r e by n o m ean s always helpful, however. They often must be regulated.

T h e st u d y o f em o t io n reg u la tio n h a s it s o r igin s in t h e psy ch oa n a lytic a n d

stress and coping traditions. Recently, increased interest in emotion regula-

tio n h a s led t o cr u cia l b o u n d a r y a m b igu it ies t h at n ow t h rea t en p rogr es s inth is d o m a in . I t is a rgu ed t h at d ist in ct io n s n eed t o b e m ad e b et we en

(1) regulation of e m ot i on a nd regula t i on by emotion; (2) emotion regulation

in self and emotion regulation in others; and (3) conscious and nonconscious

emot ion r egulation. U sing a p rocess m od el of emo tion gen eration , this review

considers promising research on basic processes and individual differences in

emotion regulation and poses ve theoretical challenges.

INTRODUCTION

C o n t e m p o r a r y c o n c e p t io n s o f e m o t i o n e m p h a s is e em o t i o n s p o s i t iv e r o l e in

a d a p t a t i o n ( e . g . L a z a r u s , 1 9 9 1 ; T o o b y & C o s m i d e s , 1 9 9 0 ) . E m o t i o n s a r e

said to tailor cognitive style to situational demands (Clore, 1994), to facil-

it a t e d e cisio n - m a k in g ( O a t ley & J o h n so n - L a ir d , 198 7), t o p r ep a r e t h e

in d iv id u a l fo r r a p i d m o t o r r e s p o n s e s ( Fr ij d a , 19 8 6) , a n d t o p r o m o t e le a r n -

in g ( C a h i ll, P r i n s, We b e r, & M c G a u g h , 1 9 94 ) . I n a d d i t io n t o t h e se i n t r a -

o r ga n i sm i c f u n ct i o n s, e m o t i o n s a ls o a r e t h o u gh t t o h a ve i m p o r t a n t s o cia l

f u n c t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , e m o t i o n s a r e h e l d t o p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t b e h avio u r a l in t en t io n s ( E k m a n , F r ies en , & E llswo r t h , 19 72; F r id lu n d ,

199 4 ), t o giv e c lu e s a s t o w h et h er so m e t h in g is go o d o r b a d ( Wa ld e n ,

199 1 ), a n d t o ex ib ly scr i p t co m p l ex so c ia l b e h av io u r ( Ave r il l, 1 980 ).

A t t e n t io n t o t h e fu n c t io n s e m o t io n s s er ve h a s p r o vid e d a fo r ce fu l a n d

m u ch -n eed ed co u n t er p o in t t o t h e lo n g-st a n d in g view o f em o t io n s a s

C O G N I T I O N A N D E M O T I O N , 1 99 9, 13 (5), 551573

R eq u est s fo r re p r in ts sh o u ld b e sen t to D r. Ja m es J. G ro ss, D ep ar tm ent o f P sy ch o lo gy,

Stanford U niversity, Stanford, CA 94305-2130; E-ma il: [email protected] ford.edu .

Prepar ation o f this article was supp orted by G rant M H 53859 from the N ational In stitute of

M en t al H ealt h . Th e au t h o r w o u ld li ke t o t h an k Br am F r i d h an d ler, Ju d y M o sk o wi t z, Jer r y

P ar r o t t , t w o an o n y m o u s r ev iewer s, an d m em b er s o f t h e S t an f o r d P sych o p h y sio l o gy L ab o r a-

to r y fo r h elp fu l co m m en ts o n an ea r lier d r a ft o f th is a r ticle.

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d ysf u n ct io n a l a n d d is ru p t ive (Yo u n g , 194 3 ). I n d e ed , t h e t r en d t o w a r d

fu n c t io n a l a p p r o a c h es h a s g a t h er ed su c h m o m e n t u m t h a t it n o w m u s t b e

a s k ed : A r e e m o t i o n s ever t o b e r e g u l a t e d ?

I n t h e p a s t t w o d e c a d e s , a n e w r e s e a r c h d o m a i n h a s e m e r g e d t h a t i s

c o n c e r n e d w i t h j u s t t h i s q u e s t i o n . T h e c o r e c o n s t r u c t i n t h i s d o m a i n

e m o t i o n r e gu l a t io n r st c a m e i n t o u s e in t h e d e ve lo p m e n t a l l it e ra t u r ein t h e ea r ly 198 0s (C a m p o s, B a r ret t , L a m b , G o l dsm i th , & S ten b er g,

19 83 ; G a e n s b a u e r, 1982 ) . S in c e t h i s t i m e, em o t io n r e gu l a t o r y p r o c ess es

h av e en jo ye d in cr ea sin g a t t en t io n in b o t h d ev elo p m en t a l (C a m p o s,

C a m p o s, & B ar r et t , 1989 ) a n d a d u lt (G ro ss, 199 8b ) lit er a tu r es, a s

r e sea r c h er s fr o m a va r iet y o f t r a d i t io n s h a ve exa m in e d h o w in d i vi d u a ls

i n u e n ce w h ic h em o t io n s t h e y h a ve, w h e n t h e y h a ve t h e m , a n d h o w t h e y

e xp e r i en c e a n d e xp r e s s t h e s e e m o t io n s. I n t h i s a r t i cl e, I r s t d e sc r ib e t w o

m a j o r p r e c u r s o r s t o t h e s t u d y o f e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n : T h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i ct r a d it io n a n d t h e st r ess a n d co p in g t r a d it io n . I t h en u se a p ro cess m o d el

o f em o t io n ge ner a tio n t o p r ov id e a fr a m ewo r k fo r st u d yin g em o t io n

r e gu l a t io n , a n d c o n s id e r s eve r a l b o u n d a r y i ss u es. To il lu s t r a t e c o n t e m -

p o r a r y r ese a r ch in t h is a r ea , I r ev iew p ro m is in g wo r k o n b a sic p ro cess es

a n d in d ivid u a l d iffer en c es in a d u l t e m o t io n r eg u la t io n . I co n c lu d e b y

co n sid er in g sever a l t h eo r et ica l ch a llen ge s a n d d ir ect io n s fo r fu t u r e

research.

HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS

R esea r ch sp ec i ca lly co n ce r n ed with em o t io n r egu la t io n is a r ela t ively

r ecen t in n o va t io n , b u t a n in t er est in h o w em o t i on s ca n a n d sh o u ld b e

r e gu l a t e d i s a n y t h i n g b u t n e w ( Ave r il l, 1 98 2 ). Ph ilo s o p h e r s f r o m So c r a t e s

o n h ave grapp led with t he role em ot ion shou ld p lay in everyd ay affairs, and

t o t h is d ay o n e o f t h e co r e t h em es in We st er n p h ilo so p hy is t h e co n t est

b e t w e en r e a s o n a n d t h e p a s s io n s ( So l o m o n , 1 9 7 6) . I n t h e p a s t c en t u r y, t h i sl o n g - s t a n d i n g i n t e r e s t i n e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n h a s b e e n p l a y e d o u t i n t w o

p r in cip a l a r en a s. To ge t h er, t h ese h av e set t h e st a ge fo r co n t em p o r a r y

r e s e a r c h o n e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n .

The Psychoanalytic Tradition

O n e im p o r t a n t p r e cu r s o r t o t h e c o n t em p o r a r y st u d y o f em o t i o n r e gu l a t io n

is t h e p syc h o a n a lyt ic t r a d it io n . T h is t r a d it io n e m p h a s ise s t h e c o n ict b e t w e en b i o lo g ic a lly b a s e d i m p u l se s a n d i n t er n a l a n d e xt e r n a l r e st r a i n i n g

factors. H owever, the association between psychoanalytic approaches and

e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n i s m o r e i n t i m a t e t h a n a s h a r e d c o n c e r n w i t h i m p u l s e

regulation. Indeed, by the end of Freuds career, psychoanalytic theorising

r e lie d h e avi ly o n t h e n o t i o n o f a n x iet y r e gu l a t io n ( F r e u d , 192 6 /195 9 ).

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F r eu d u se d a n xiet y a s a ca t ch -a ll t er m fo r n eg a t ive em o t io n s (E r d elyi,

1 9 9 3 ) , a n d a d i s c u s s i o n o f h i s v i e w s o n a n x i e t y r e g u l a t i o n i d e a l l y w o u l d

b e c o u c h e d i n a g en e r a l p s yc h o a n a ly t i c t h e o r y o f a f fe ct . U n fo r t u n a t e ly, a s

o n e c o m m e n t a t o r p u t it , a n y a t t e m p t a t fo r m u l a tin g s u c h a c o m p r e h e n siv e

p syc h o a n a lyt ic t h eo r y is ` ill -a dvis ed , if n o t im p o ss ib le d u e t o t h e co m p lex

an d conicting d iscussio ns o f affect in F reuds writings (Ra pa po rt, 1953, p.1 9 3 ) . O f c o u r s e , t h i s h a s n o t p r e v e n t e d a n u m b e r o f a t t e m p t s a t d e v i s i n g

s u ch a p s yc h o a n a l yt i c t h e o r y o f a f fe ct ( e. g. B a s ch , 1 97 6 ; B r e n n e r, 1 98 2 ;

K rystal, 1977; Schwa rt z, 1987; Sp ezzano, 1993). G iven th e cur rent lack of

agreement, I focus on anxiety.

I n i t ia l ly, F r e u d b e li eve d t h a t a n x i et y r e su l t e d w h e n l ib i d i n a l i m p u l se s

were denied expression (Freud, 1900/1950; 1915/1976). He saw anxiety as

e p i p h e n o m e n a l , l i k e s t e a m e s c a p i n g f r o m a s t u c k t u r b i n e . Wi t h t h e d e v e l -

o p m e n t o f t h e s tr u c t u r a l m o d e l o f p e rs o n a lit y, F r eu d d eve lo p ed a ve ryd i ffe r en t co n c ep t i o n o f a n x ie ty (F r eu d , 19 26 /19 59) . F r e u d (1 933 /19 6 4)

a r g u e d t h a t t h e e g o a l o n e c a n p r o d u c e a n d e x p e r i e n c e a n x i e t y , a n d t h a t

realistic, neurotic, and moral anxiety derived from the egos relations with

r e a li t y, t h e i d , a n d t h e s u p e r e go , r e sp e ct iv ely. R e a l it y - b a s ed a n x iet y w a s

t h o u gh t t o r es u lt wh en t h e eg o wa s ove r wh elm ed b y sit u a t io n a l d em a n d s.

In th is case, an xiety regu lation to ok th e for m of avoiding such situ ation s in

t h e fu t u r e, ev en if t h is m ea n t se ve r e cu r t a ilm en t o f b eh avio u r, a s in

a g o r a p h o b i a . B y c o n t r a s t , Fr e u d h e l d t h a t i d - a n d s u p e r e g o - b a s e d a n x i e t yr e s u l t e d w h e n i m p u l s e s p r e s s e d f o r a c t i o n a n d t h e e g o a n t i c i p a t e d h o w i t

wo u ld fe el i f s u c h i m p u l ses w e r e ex p r ess ed . I f t h e e go s im a gin a l r u n -

t h r o u gh led t o h ig h le ve ls o f a n xiet y, su f cien t u n p lea su r e wa s gen er at ed

t o su p p r ess t h e im p u lse (F r eu d , 19 26 /19 59). I n t h is ca se, a n xiet y r egu la t io n

t o o k t h e fo r m o f cu r t a ilin g im p u lses t h a t wer e ju d ge d likely t o cr ea t e fu t u r e

anxiety.

A s t h i s s u m m a r y s u g ge st s, a n x iet y r eg u la t i o n p l ays a ce n t r a l r o le in

p syc h o a n a lyt ic t h eo r isin g. T h is is p a r t icu la r ly t r u e in t h e st r u ct u r a lm o d e l , w h e r e e go d e f en c e s m a y b e s ee n a s p r o c es se s t h a t r eg u la t e a n x i et y

(Freud, 1926/1959). These processes typically are not consciousbut they

m ay be an d th ey involve differing levels of reality distor tion , behavio ura l

im p a ir m e n t, e n er gy co n s u m p t i o n , a n d u n n e cessa r y n o n g r a t i ca t io n o f

i m p u l s e s ( F e n i c h e l , 1 9 4 5 ; A . F r e u d , 1 9 4 6 ; H a a n , 1 9 7 7 , V a i l l a n t , 1 9 7 7 ) .

M a l a d a p t i ve d e fe n ce s a r e t h o u g h t t o d e v elo p a s c h ild r e n a s s o ci at e s it u a -

t io n s o r im p u lses with h igh lev els o f a n x iet y, a n d lea r n t o r egu la te t h is

a n x i et y t h r o u g h i d io s yn c r a t i c a n d p r o b le m a t i c fo r m s o f a n x iet y r e g u l a t io n (Schwar tz, 1987). F o r exam ple, in th e face of wildly incon sistent p aren ting,

c h ild r e n l ea r n t o s h ie ld t h e m s el ve s f ro m i n t o l er a b l e a n x i et y a n d p r o t e c t

t h eir vi t a l lin k s wit h ca r eg ive r s (H o fer, 19 9 4). I n so d o in g, t h ey m ay

d evelo p a vo i da n t s tr a t egies t h a t h a ve life lo n g r a m i c at io n s fo r s o cia l

a d j u s t m e n t . T r e a t m e n t c o n s i s t s o f l e a r n i n g n e w w a y s t o r e g u l a t e a n x i e t y ,

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in part through a ``corrective emotional experience (Alexander, 1950) in

w h ich d r ea d e d co n s eq u e n ces o f im p u l se ex p re ssio n f a il t o m a t e ria lise

(Basch, 1976).

Continuities and Discontinuities. C o n t em p o r a r y em o t io n r egu la t io n

r e sea r c h r em a in s co n c er n e d w it h r ed u c in g n e g at iv e e m o t i o n exp e r ie n cet h ro u gh b eh avio u r a l o r m en t a l co n t r o l. T h e eld o f st u d y h a s b ro a d en ed ,

h owev er, t o in clu d e t h e wa ys in wh ich in d ivid u a ls in cr ea se a n d d ecr ea se

t h e exp er ie n ce a n d ex p r ess io n o f a r a n ge o f n ega t ive a n d p o sit ive em o -

t io n s (P a r ro t t , 19 9 3). T h er e a lso is a grow in g awa r en es s o f t h e d if fer en ces

b et ween co n scio u s a n d n o n co n scio u s em o t io n r egu la t o r y p r o cesses

(M a ye r & S a lov ey, 1995 ). E m o t io n r eg u la t o r y st yl es st ill a r e seen a s

c en t r a l t o p s yc h o p a t h o l o gy ( C i cc h et t i, A c ke r m a n , & I z a r d , 1995 ; G r o ss

& M u no z, 1995), bu t t here n ow is greater interest in directly assessing th ef u l l r a n g e o f n o r m a l f u n c t i o n i n g a s w e l l ( e . g . C a t a n z a r o , 1 9 9 6 ) . P e r h a p s

t h e m o st str ik ing d isc o n t in u it y, h o wever, is co n t em p o r a r y r esea r ch er s

r e lia n ce o n c o r r ela t io n a l a n d exp e r im e n t a l m et h o d s r a t h e r t h a n c lin i ca l

reports.

The Stress and Coping Tradition

T h e se co n d im p o r t a n t p r ecu r so r t o co n t em p o r a r y em o t io n r eg u la t io nr e sea r c h is t h e s t r ess a n d co p i n g t r a d i t io n . T h i s t r a d i t io n o r i gi n a t ed in

t h e wo r k o f C a n n o n (1 914 ), a lt h o u gh it wa s Selye wh o p o p u la r ise d t h e

n o t io n t h a t o r ga n ism s p ro d u ce sim ila r ` st r ess r esp o n ses t o d ive r se ch a l-

l e n g e s ( Se l y e , 1 9 5 6 , 1 9 7 4 ) . T h i s v i e w d r a w s u p o n a n a n a l o g y t o p h y s i c a l

l o a d s t h a t exe r t a fo r c e o n n a t u r a l o r m a n - m a d e s t r u c t u r es, r e su l t in g i n a

s tr a in , o r d e fo r m a t io n o f t h e st r u ct u r e d u e t o t h e s tr ess ( H i n k le, 197 4 ).

I m p o r t i n g t h e s e n o t io n s t o t h e b i o l o g ic a l r ea l m , Sely e a r gu e d t h a t s t r es so r s

i m p i n g e u p o n t h e o r g a n i s m , w h i c h r e s p o n d s b y p r o d u c i n g a s t e r e o t y p e dstress respon se, who se prole va ries accord ing t o whether th e stressor is of

s h o r t d u r a t i o n ( a l a r m ) , m o d e r a t e d u r a t i o n ( r e s i s t a n c e ) , o r l o n g d u r a t i o n

(exhaustion).

I n t e r est in s t r ess r e s ea r c h gr e w d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I , a s r e se a r ch e r s

exp lo red t h e co n seq u en ces o f w ar o n gh t in g m en (e.g. G r in k er &

S p i e g e l , 1 9 4 5 ) , a n d c o n t i n u e d t o g a i n m o m e n t u m a f t e r t h e w a r a s a t t e n -

t io n sh ift ed t o t h e st r es se s o f p ea cet im e. A lth o u gh ea r ly st r ess r es ea r ch

f o c u s e d o n r e s p o n s e s t o physical ch a l le n ge s su c h a s c ro w d in g a n d c o ld ,r e sea r c h er s s o o n b e ga n t o ex p lo r e r e sp o n se s t o psychological s t r es so r s a s

well. The study of psychological stress led to an emphasis on the cognitive

p ro cess es r eq u ired t o t r a n sfo r m a n ext er n a l ev en t in t o so m et h in g wit h

a d a p t i v e s i g n i c a n c e f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l ( L a z a r u s , 1 9 6 6 ) . T h i s l e d t o d i s -

t in ct io n s a m o n g: (a ) h ow t h e sit u a t io n wa s ev a lu a t ed (p r im a r y a p p r a is a l);

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( b ) h o w t h e o r g a n ism vi ew ed it s o wn ca p a c it ie s t o r es p o n d ( sec o n d a r y

a p p r a isa l); a n d (c) h o w t h e o r ga n i sm a t t em p t e d t o m a n a ge t h e t ro u b led

o r g a n i s m - e n v i r o n m e n t r e l a t i o n t h a t o c c a s i o n e d t h e s t r e s s ( c o p i n g ) . St r e s s

w a s d e n e d a s ` ` a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p e r s o n a n d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t

t h a t is a p p r a ise d b y t h e p er so n a s r el eva n t t o h is o r h er well-b ein g a n d in

w h ic h t h e p e r so n s r e so u r c es a r e t a x ed o r exce ed e d , a n d co p i n g wa sd e n e d a s ``c o gn i t iv e a n d b e h a vi o r a l e ffo r t s t o m a n a g e ( m a s t e r, r e d u c e,

o r t o ler a t e) a t r o u b led p e r so n - en vir o n m e n t r ela t io n s h ip (F o l k m a n &

Lazarus, 1985, p. 152).

Initially, commonalties were emphasised across situations ranging from

t h e o r d in a r y, su ch a s t a k in g a n ex a m (M ech a n ic, 19 62 ) t o t h e ex t r a o r -

d in a r y, su c h a s b e in g t r a p p ed in a co a l m i n e ( L u c a s, 1 969 ). W i th t im e ,

r e s e a r c h e r s b e g a n t o d i s t i n g u i s h a m o n g s t r e s s o r s . L a z a r u s ( 1 9 6 6 ) d e n e d

harm a s a fo r m o f st r ess a sso cia t ed w it h d a m a ge t h a t h a s b een d o n e,threat a s a fo r m o f s t r es s a ss o cia t e d w it h fu t u r e h a r m , a n d challenge a s a

form of stress associated with positive responding. Likewise, Selye (1974)

distinguished b etween eustress a fo r m o f st r es s a ss o cia t io n wit h go o d

feelings, an d distress a fo r m o f st r ess a ss o cia t ed wit h b a d feelin gs.

D ist in ct io n s a lso w er e m a d e a m o n g c o p in g r esp o n s es, s u ch a s L a z a r u s

a n d c o ll ea g u e s d i st i n c t io n b e t w ee n problem-focused coping, w hich wa s

a im ed a t xin g t h e p ro b lem , a n d emotion-focused coping, w hich wa s

a im e d a t lessen in g n e ga t ive e m o t io n exp e r ien c e. I t wa s t h is la st co n -s t r u c t , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h a t l a i d t h e g r o u n d w o r k f o r t h e s t u d y o f e m o t i o n

regulation.

Continuities and Discontinuities. R e sea r ch er s lo n g h ave b em o a n e d th e

c o n cep t u a l c o n fu s io n a s so c ia t e d w it h t h e t e r m s t r es s ( e.g . H a a n , 199 3 ;

H o b f o ll, 1 98 9) . T h e p r o b le m i s t h a t ``st r e ss c o ve r s s u c h a n e xt r a o r d i n -

a r y r a n g e o f p h e no m e n a t h a t m a n y h ave co n clu d ed t h a t ` t h e t er m is

m e a n in g l es s ( L e vi n e & U r s in , 19 9 1, p. 3 ). L i k ew i se, c o p i n g n o w s ee m st o in clu d e t h e fu ll r a n ge o f b eh av io u r em it t ed b y a n in d iv id u a l in t a xi n g

c ir c u m s t a n c es ( C o s t a , So m e r eld , & M c C r a e , 1 9 9 6) . E m o t i o n r e gu l a t i o n

r e sea r c h er s h a ve so u g h t n er -g r a in e d d i st in c t io n s a m o n g en v ir o n m en t -

o r g a n i s m i n t e r a c t i o n s t h a n a r e p o s s i b l e u n d e r t h e b r o a d r u b r i c o f s t r e s s ,

u sin g eit h er d im e n sio n a l (D avid so n , 1992 ; L a n g , 1 995 ) o r d iscr et e

( E k m a n , 1 9 9 2 ) a p p r o a c h e s . O n t h e c o p i n g s i d e , t o o , e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n

r esea r ch e r s a r e fo cu s in g in cr ea s in gly o n sp e ci c e m o t io n r egu l at o r y

p ro ce sses su ch a s r u m in a t io n (N o len -H o ek sem a , 19 93 ), su p p r ess io n( G r o ss, 1998 a ) , a n d d o w n w a r d so c ia l c o m p a r i so n (A s p in w a ll & T ayl o r,

1 9 9 3 ) . O f t h e t w o t e r m s c o p i n g a n d e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n c o p i n g i s t h e

b r o a d er ca t ego r y, a s it in clu d e s n o n e m o t i on a l a ct io n s t a k en t o a c h ieve

n o n em o t io n a l go a ls (Sch eier, Wein b t r a u b , & C a r ve r, 19 86), su ch a s

b u yin g a m a p in o rd er t o n aviga te a n ew cit y. C o p in g a lso d iffer s


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f r o m e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n i n t h a t t h e u n i t o f a n a l y s i s i s t y p i c a l l y l o n g e r

ext en d ed p er io d s o f h o u rs, d ays, o r m o n t h s r at h er t h a n seco n d s o r

m i n u t e s . T h u s , f o r e x a m p l e , o n e m i g h t s p e a k o f c o p i n g w i t h a d j u s t m e n t

t o fr es h m a n ye a r o f co lle ge, o r co p in g with t h e lo ss o f o n es sp o u se.

H o w ev er, c o p i n g d o e s n o t e n t i r ely s u b s u m e e m o t i o n r e gu l a t i o n : E m o t i o n

r egu l a tio n in c lu d e s p r o cesses n o t t yp i ca lly c o n sid e red in t h e c o p in gl it e r a t u r e , s u c h a s r e gu l a t i n g e xp r e s siv e o r p h y si o lo gi ca l a s p e ct s o f e m o -

t io n , o r in u en cin g p o sit ivel y va len ced em o t io n s.

CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS

W it h p sych o a n a lyt ic a n d st r ess a n d co p in g t r a d it io n s a s a b a ck d ro p ,

e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n r e s e a r c h h a s e m e r g e d a s a r e l a t i v e l y d i s t i n c t d o m a i n

o ve r t h e p a s t t wo d e ca d e s ( G r o ss, 1 998 b ). P a r a m o u n t co n c er n s in c lu d ed e n in g em o t i o n a n d em o t io n r egu l a tio n , a n d d elin e a tin g in d ivid u a ls

e m o t i o n r e gu la t o r y go a l s a n d s t r a t eg ie s.

Dening Emotion

F ro m a n ev o lu t io n a r y p er sp ec t ive, em o t io n s lik e m a n y o f o u r p hy sica l

attributes and psychological processesrepresent t ime-tested solutions to

a d a p t i v e p r o b l e m s ( T o o b y & C o s m i d e s , 1 9 9 0 ) . I n p a r t i c u l a r , e m o t i o n s a r et h o u gh t t o h av e a r isen b eca u se t h ey efcien t ly co -o r d in at e d iver se r esp o n se

s y s t e m s , t h e r e b y h e l p i n g u s r e s p o n d t o i m p o r t a n t c h a l l e n g e s o r o p p o r t u -

n it ies (L ev en so n , 199 4). Ta ke fea r, fo r ex a m p le. W h en we a r e a fr a id , o u r

s e n s e s a r e s h a r p e n e d , o u r m u s c l e s a r e p r i m e d t o m o v e u s q u i c k l y o u t o f

h a r m s way, a n d o u r ca r d io va scu la r sys t em is t u n ed t o p rovi d e in cr ea sed

oxygen an d energy to lar ge m uscle gro up s that will be called u po n wh en we

ee. T h e se em o t i o n a l r ea c tio n s t yp i ca lly a r e s h o r t -lived , a n d in vo lve

changes in subjective experience, expressive behaviour, and central, auto-n o m ic a n d en d o cr in e r esp o n se sy st em s (L a n g, 19 95) . D iffe r en t em o t io n s

a r e t h o u g h t t o a d d r e ss d iffer en t a d a p t ive p r o b lem s (e. g. E k m a n , 19 92;

I z ar d , 19 77; P l u t ch ik , 19 80), a lt h o u g h t h e re is c u rr en t ly lively d e b a te

a b o u t t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h e a c h e m o t i o n c a l l s f o r t h d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e , c r o s s -

situationally consistent physiological (Cacioppo, K lein, Berntson, & H at-

eld , 199 3 ; L eve n so n , 19 92 ; Z a j o n c & M cI n t o s h , 19 92 ) a n d b e h avi o u r a l

(E km an , 1994; F rijd a, 1986; R ussell, 1994) resp on ses. I f ``a ffect is u sed t o

r e f e r t o v a l e n c e d ( ` ` g o o d - b a d ) r e a c t i o n s t o s t i m u l i o r s i t u a t i o n s t h a t a r em e a n in gf u l t o t h e in d iv id u a l (Sc h er er, 1 984 ), e m o t io n s a r e p a r t o f t h e

l a r ge r a f fec t iv e f a m ily t h a t a l so in c lu d e s: ( a ) stress responses t o t a xin g

circum stan ces; (b) emotion episodes s u c h a s a b a r - r o o m b r a w l a n d d e l i v e r -

in g b a d n ew s t o a clo se fr ien d ; a n d (c) moods su c h a s d e p r essio n a n d

e u p h o r i a .

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Dening Emotion Regulation

T h e p h r a se ``em o t io n r eg u la t io n is a m b igu o u s, a s it m ig h t refe r eq u a lly

w e l l t o h o w e m o t i o n s r e g u l a t e s o m e t h i n g e l s e s u c h a s t h o u g h t s o r b e h a -

vi o u r o r t o h o w e m o t i o n s a r e t h e m s el ves r e gu l a t ed ( D o d g e & G a r b e r,

1991). H owever, if a primary function of emotion is to co-ordinate diverser e s p o n s e s y s t e m s ( C a m p o s e t a l . , 1 9 8 3 ) , t h e r s t s e n s e o f e m o t i o n r e g u l a -

t io n is la r ge ly r ed u n d a n t wit h em o t io n . F o r t h is r ea so n , I b elieve t h a t t h e

seco n d u s a ge is p r efer a b le, in w h ich e m o t io n r eg u la t io n r efer s t o t h e

h et erogen eo u s se t o f p ro cess es b y wh ich em o t io n s a r e t h em selves r eg u -

la t e d . B e ca u s e vi rt u a l ly a l l g o a l -d i re ct e d b e h a vio u r c a n b e co n s t r u e d a s

m a x im i sin g p l ea s u r e o r m i n im i sin g p a i n a n d t h u s a f fe ct r eg u la t o r y in

s o m e b r o a d s e n s e i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o p r e v e n t o v e r - i n c l u s i v i t y b y n a r r o w -

in g t h e fo c u s t o p r o c e ss es wh o s e p r o x im a l f u n c t i o n i s t o r e g u l a t e e m o t i o n .A s eco n d im p o r t a n t d ist in c t io n is su g gest ed b y r esea r ch e rs u s e o f

e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n t o r e f e r b o t h t o h o w i n d i v i d u a l s i n u e n c e t h e i r o w n

e m o t io n s a n d t o h o w t h e y in u e n c e o t h e r p e o p l e s e m o t i o n s. T h i s p r a c t i ce

le a d s t o d i sc u s sio n s i n w h ic h s t iin g o n e s o w n t e a r s a n d t e ll in g s o m e o n e

e ls e t o s t o p a c t i n g lik e a c r yb a b y a r e b o t h c o n s id e r ed i n s t a n c es o f e m o t i o n

r e gu l a t io n . T h i s u s a ge is p a r t ic u la r l y co m m o n i n t h e d e ve lo p m e n t a l l it e r a -

t u r e (e.g. M a st er s, 19 91 ; T h o m p so n , 19 9 4), b u t it is a lso ev id en t in t h e

ad u lt lit eratu re (G ro ss & L evenson , 1993; Salovey, H see, & M ayer, 1993). In o w b el ieve t h is d o u b le u sa ge is u n fo r t u n a t e, a s it m ixes t wo p o t en t ia lly

qu ite d ifferent sets of m ot ives, goa ls, an d stra tegies. Bot h k inds of em o tion

r e g u l a t i o n m u s t b e e x a m i n e d , b u t i n d o i n g s o , t h e t w o s h o u l d b e c l e a r l y

distinguished. In th e following, I focus on emo tion regulation in t h e self, by

w h ic h I m ea n t h e w a ys in d i vid u a l s in u e n ce w h i ch em o t io n s t h e y h ave,

when th ey have them , an d h ow th ey experience an d express these emo tion s.

I n c o llo q u ia l u s a ge, e m o t i o n is o f t en u s ed in t e r ch a n ge ab ly w it h t h e su b -

ject ive ex p er ien ce o f em o t io n , a n d em o t io n r eg u lat io n t h u s m igh t b et h o u gh t t o n ece ssa r ily invo lve ch a n ge s in su b ject ive ex p er ien ce. H o weve r,

t h er e is ge n er a l co n se n su s a m o n g em o t io n r es ea r ch er s t h a t em o t io n s a r e

multicomponentialspanning experiential, behavioural, and physiological

d o m a i n s. E m o t i o n r e gu l a t io n t h u s i n vo l ves c h a n g es in o n e o r m o r e o f t h e se

r e sp o n s e s s ys t em s a n d n e ed n o t ( b u t ce r t a in ly ca n ) i nvo l ve a t t e m p t s t o

c h a n g e t h e s u b j e ct i ve e xp e r i en c e o f e m o t i o n .

A t h i r d d i st in c t i o n c o n c er n s w h e t h e r e m o t i o n r e gu l a t io n is c o n s ci o u s o r

n o n co n scio u s (M a st er s, 19 91; M aye r & Sa lo ve y, 199 5). P ro t o t yp ic ex a m p leso f e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n a r e c o n s c i o u s , s u c h a s d e c i d i n g t o c h a n g e a n u p s e t -

t in g t o p ic, o r sq u elch in g la u gh t er a t a ch ild s in a p p ro p r iat e a n t ics. O n e

m ig h t im a gi n e, h o w eve r, e m o t i o n r eg u la t o r y a c t iv it y o c cu r r i n g w it h o u t

c o n s c i o u s a w a r e n e s s , s u c h a s w h e n w e l l - p r a c t i s e d r o u t i n e s b e c o m e a u t o -

m a t i se d . E x a m p le s in c lu d e h i d i n g o n e s d i sa p p o i n t m e n t a t a n u n a t t r a c t iv e


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p r ese n t (C o le, 198 6) , li gh t in g a cig a r et t e wh en a n x io u s (B r a n d o n , 19 94 ), o r

e v e n c r a c k i n g a j o k e t o r e l i e v e t e n s i o n ( Fr e d r i c k s o n & L e v e n s o n , 1 9 9 8 ) .

Previous discussions have favoured a categorical distinction between con-

sciou s a nd un consciou s p rocesses, but i t pro bably is m ore u seful to th ink of

a co n tinu u m o f p ro cesses t h a t va r y in t h e d egr ee t o w hich t h ey a r e

c o n t ro lled , e ffo r t f u l, a n d co n s cio u s ve r su s a u t o m a t ic, effo r t less, a n du n c o n s c i o u s . C l a r i t y a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f p r o c e s s e s u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s

essent ial because there may be impo rta nt d ifferences in the an tecedents and

c o n s e q u e n c es o f e m o t i o n r e gu l a t o r y p r o c e ss es c h a r a c t er i se d b y d i ffe r in g

levels o f con sciousness (Wegner & Ba rgh, 1998).

Emotion Regulatory Goals

A n e vo l u t i o n a r y p e r s p e ct iv e h o l d s t h a t e m o t io n s e n c o d e s it u a t io n - r es p o n s ed ependen cies tha t have proven va lu able over the sweep of m illenn ia (Too by

& Cosmides, 1990). This in no way imples, however, that emotion response

t en d en cies a r e a lw ays o r ev en u su a lly a p p r o p r ia t e t o t h e sit u a t io n s we

n ow fa ce. P hy sica l a n d so cia l en vi ro n m en t s h av e ch a n ge d o u t o f a ll r eco g-

n it io n fro m t h o se t h a t sh a p ed o u r em o t io n s, a n d t ec h n o lo gi ca l a d va n ces

h av e d r a m a tica lly m a gn i ed t h e co n seq u en ces t h a t o u r em o t io n a l

r e sp o n s es m a y h a v e fo r o u r s e lv es a n d o t h e r s. A n i r r it a b l e sw ip e t h a t o n c e

s ca r c ely r a i se d a w e lt , i s n o w t r a n s l at e d w i t h t h e g r e a t es t e a s e in t o a f a t a lc a r a c ci d en t o r g u n - r ela t e d h o m i c id e .

H o w ev er r e a l t h e m a n y b e n e t s o f em o t i o n , t h e n , it i s im p o r t a n t n o t t o

o ve r st a t e t h e a d va n t a ge s o f a ct in g in a c co r d w it h u n t r a m m e led e m o t i o n a l

i m p u l se s ( P a r r o t t , 19 9 5) . I n d e ed , wh e n o n e s u r ve ys t h e c a u s es o f h u m a n

d y s f u n c t i o n a n d s u f f e r i n g , o n e i s s t r u c k b y t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h e m o t i o n s

l e a d u s t o d o t h i n g s t h a t c a u s e s u f f e r i n g t o o u r s e l v e s a n d t h o s e a r o u n d u s ,

whether through impulsive aggressive action, hasty business decisions, or

deceitful sexual l iaisons. Particularly when emotions are viewed as arisinga t m o m e n t s o f ch a l le n ge o r o p p o r t u n i t y, t h e im p o r t a n c e o f p r o p e r r e gu l a -

t io n is u n m ist a k a ble.

We k n o w r e la t iv ely lit t l e a b o u t i n d i vi d u a l s e m o t i o n r e gu l a t o r y g o a l s,

b u t it see m s in cr ea s in gly c lea r t h a t em o t i o n r egu l a tio n in vo l ves b o t h

d e cr ea s in g a n d in c re a sin g n e ga t ive a n d p o s it ive em o t io n s (L a n gs t o n ,

19 94 ; M a s t er s, 19 9 1; P a r r o t t , 1 993) . E m o t i o n r e gu l a t io n t h a t in vo l ves

decreasing e m o t i o n s m a y o c c u r w h e n : ( a ) e m o t i o n s p r o m p t b e h a v i o u r a l

r e sp o n s es t h a t a r e n o lo n g er u s e fu l , s u c h a s p h ys ic a lly a t t a c k in g a n i r r it a t -i n g s u b o r d i n a t e ; ( b ) e m o t i o n s a r is e fr o m a n o ve r ly s im p le a p p r a is a l o f t h e

s i t u a t i o n , s u c h a s m i s t a k i n g a s t i c k f o r a s n a k e ; o r ( c ) e m o t i o n r e s p o n s e

t en d en cies co n ict wit h o t h er im p o r t a n t go a ls, su ch a s sav in g o n es sk in by

eein g a g h t ver su s savin g fa ce b y s ta n d in g o n es gr o u n d . E m o t i on

r e gu l a t io n t h a t in vo l ves initiating or increasing em o t io n s m a y o ccu r

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w h e n : ( a ) e m o t i o n r e sp o n s e t e n d e n c ies a r e l a c k in g b e c a u s e o n e s m i n d i s

elsewhere, but one wishes to muster an appropriately enthusiastic response

t o a n o t h er s go o d n ew s; o r (b ) o n e d es ir es t o r ep la ce o n e em o t io n with

a n o t h e r , s u c h a s w h e n o n e i s f e e l i n g d o w n , a n d o n e w a n t s t o s u m m o n a

m o r e p o s it ive e m o t io n a l st a t e b efo r e c a llin g o n fr ien d s. O n e r esea r ch

p r io r it y is t o d evelo p a b et t er u n d er st a n d in g o f wh at in d iv id u a ls a r e t r yi n gt o a cc o m p li sh wh en t h ey r eg u la t e t h eir em o t io n s, k eep in g in m in d t h a t

e m o t io n r e gu l a t o r y g o a l s m a y b e n o n c o n s c io u s, a n d t h a t t h e y a r e l ik e ly t o

b e h i g h l y c o n t e x t - s e n s i t i v e s u c h a s m a t c h i n g t h e e m o t i o n a l s t a t e o f a n

a n t ic ip a t e d in t e r a c t i o n p a r t n e r ( E r b e r, Weg n e r, & T h e r r ia u lt , 1 99 6) .

Emotion Regulatory Processes

W h a t in d iv id u a l s w a n t t o a c h ieve a s t h e y i n u e n ce t h e ir e m o t i o n s t h e ir e m o t i o n r e g u l a t o r y g o a l s m u s t b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e p r o c e s s e s t h e y

in vo k e i n o r d e r t o a c h i eve t h e se g o a l s. O n e w a y t o o r g a n i se t h e se e m o t io n

r egu l a to r y p r o cesses is b y d r a win g o n a co n s en s u a l p r o cess m o d e l o f

e m o t i o n g e n e r a t i o n . T h i s m o d e l i s a d i s t i l l a t i o n o f m a j o r p o i n t s o f c o n -

v e r g e n c e a m o n g e m o t i o n r e s e a r c h e r s w h o e m p h a s i s e b i o l o g i c a l b a s e s o f

e m o t io n ( m a jo r c o n t r i b u t o r s t o t h i s t r a d it i o n i n c lu d e : A r n o l d , 1 96 0; B u c k ,

1 9 8 5 ; E k m a n , 1 9 7 2 ; F r i j d a , 1 9 8 6 ; I z a r d , 1 9 7 7 ; L a z a r u s , 1 9 9 1 ; P l u t c h i k ,

198 0 ; S ch e r er, 19 84 ; T o m k i n s, 196 2 ). A c co r d i n g t o t h i s m o d e l, em o t io n b e g i n s w i t h a n e v a l u a t i o n o f e x t e r n a l o r i n t e r n a l e m o t i o n c u e s . C e r t a i n

ev a lu a t io n s t r i gg er a co - o r d in a t e d s et o f b e h avi o u r a l , ex p er ien t i a l, a n d

p hy sio log ica l em o t io n r esp o n se t en d en cies. T h ese r esp o n se t en d en cies

m a y b e m o d u la t ed , a n d it is t h is m o d u l a tio n t h a t gives n a l sh a p e t o

m a n i fe st e m o t i o n a l r e sp o n s e s.

U sin g t h is sch em e, em o t io n r egu la t o r y p ro cesses m ay b e se en a s t a r ge t -

in g o n e o r m o r e o f ve p o i n t s in t h e e m o t i o n -g en e r a t ive p r o c es s ( G r o ss,

1998b). F irst , regulato ry stra tegies may act o n t he situa tion itself. T h e mo st fo r w a r d - lo o k i n g a p p r o a c h m ig h t b e c a lle d situation selection . T his refers to

a p p r o a c h i n g o r a v o i d i n g c e r t a i n p e o p l e o r s i t u a t i o n s o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r

likely emo tiona l impa ct; Scar r a n d M cC art ney (1983) h ave called this niche

p ick in g. O n ce o n e is in a n em o t io n -elicit in g sit u a t io n , situation modifica-

tion is still po ssible. T his refers to m od ifying t he local environ m ent so as t o

a l t e r i t s e m o t i o n a l i m p a c t . Si t u a t i o n s e l e c t i o n a n d s i t u a t i o n m o d i c a t i o n

h elp sh a p e t h e in d ivid u a ls sit u a t io n . H o wev er, it a lso is p o ss ib le t o r egu la t e

e m o t io n s w it h o u t a ct u a lly ch a n g in g t h e en vi ro n m en t . Sit u a t io n s h a vem a n y a s p ect s, a n d attentional deployme nt r e fe r s t o h o w i n d iv id u a l s d i r ec t

t h eir a t t en t io n w it h in a given sit u a t io n in o r d er t o in u en ce t h eir em o t io n s.

T h is in clu d es a tt en t io n a l st r a t eg ies r a n gi n g fr o m d ist r a ct io n , wh ich fo cu ses

o n n o n e m o t i o n -r ele va n t a s p ec ts o f t h e s it u a t i o n , o r sh i ft s a t t e n t io n a wa y

f ro m t h e im m e d ia t e s it u a t i o n a l t o ge t h e r ( D e r r yb e r r y & R o t h b a r t , 1 9 88 ) t o


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r u m in a t io n , w h ich fo c u ses a t t en t io n o n t h e s it u a t io n a n d it s e m o t i o n a l

im p l ic a tio n s (N o l en - H o ek s em a , 1993 ). E v en a ft er a s it u a t io n h a s b een

s e l e c t e d , m o d i e d , a n d s e l e c t i v e l y a t t e n d e d t o , i t s t i l l i s p o s s i b l e t o a l t e r

i t s e m o t i o n a l i m p a c t . Cognitive change r e f e r s t o e v a l u a t i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n

o n e i s i n s o a s t o a l t e r i t s e m o t i o n a l s i g n i c a n c e , e i t h e r b y c h a n g i n g h o w

o n e t h in k s a b o u t t h e sit u a tio n o r a b ou t o n e s ca p a cit y t o m a n a ge t h ed em a n d s it p o ses. Response modulation r efer s t o in u en cin g e m o t io n

r e s p o n s e t e n d e n c i e s o n c e t h e y a r i s e . E v e r y d a y e x p e r i e n c e i s r e p l e t e w i t h

effor ts to m an ipulate emo tion -expressive behaviou r, such a s hiding an ger at

a n o f fen s iv e r e m a r k , a s w e ll a s p h ys io l o gi ca l r e sp o n d in g , s u c h a s s lo w in g

o n e s b r e a t h i n g r a t e. I t is l es s c er t a i n w h e t h e r e m o t i o n e xp e r ie n c e ca n b e

m o d i ed d i rec tly, a l t h o u g h c ogn i t ive, b e h a vio u r a l, a n d p h a r m a c o lo gi c

m e a n s a ll m a y b e u s e d t o m o d if y e m o t io n e xp e r i en c e i n d i r ec t ly.

CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH

A g r o w i n g s e n s e o f s h a r e d p u r p o s e i n t h e d o m a i n o f e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n

h a s le d t o gr ea ter co n t a ct b et wee n p r ev io u sly d isp a r a t e r es ea r ch p ro gr a m s.

I n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s , I i l l u s t r a t e c u r r e n t e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n r e s e a r c h

by describing promising research on basic processes and individual differ-

ences in a du lt emo tion regu lation (fo r a r eview of the literat ure on em otion

r e g u l a t i o n i n c h i l d r e n , s e e T h o m p s o n , 1 9 9 0 ) . R e e c t i n g t h e b i a s i n c o n -t em p o r a r y r es ea r ch , m y fo cu s is o n t h e r egu la t io n o f n eg at ive em o t io n s.

Basic Processes

A v a r i et y o f e m o t io n r e gu la t o r y p r o c es se s h a ve a t t r a c t ed a t t e n t i o n , i n cl u d -

i n g: R e ca l lin g m o o d - in c o n g r u e n t m e m o r ie s (Pa r r o t t & Sa b in i , 19 9 0; Sm i t h

& P e t t y, 19 9 5) , h e lp i n g o t h e r s ( Sc h a ller & C i a ld i n i, 199 0 ), exer c isin g

( T h a y er, N e wm a n & M c C la i n , 19 94) , s eek i n g so c ia l s u p p o r t ( R i p p er e,1 9 77 ), u s in g d r u g s ( M o r r i s & R e il le y, 1 9 87 ), a n d m a k i n g s o ci a l c o m p a r -

iso n s (Ta ylo r & L o b e l, 198 9). I n t h e fo llo win g , I fo cu s o n t wo b a sic

p ro cess es r ea p p r a is a l a n d su p p r essio n t h a t r ep r ese n t t wo m a jo r p o in t s

in t h e em o t i o n ge n er a t ive p r o cess a t wh ich em o t i o n s c a n b e r egu l a ted

(G ross, 1998b).

Reappraisal. I t is w id e ly a gr e ed t h a t a s it u a t i o n t y p i ca l ly d o e s n o t i n

a n d o f i t se lf g e n er a t e e m o t i o n . R a t h e r, i t i s t h e i n d i vi d u a l s e va l u a t io n o f t h a t sit u a tio n t h a t is em o t io n -g en er a t ive. O n e p o we r fu l m ea n s o f em o t io n

r e g u l a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , i s t o m o d i f y t h e w a y a s i t u a t i o n i s e v a l u a t e d . Su c h

r e a p p r a i s a l s m a y d e c r e a s e e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n d i n g , a s w h e n o n e i m a g i n e s

t h a t gr a p h ic n ew s fo o t a ge h a s b een fa ked , o r in cr ea se em o t io n a l r es p o n d -

i n g , a s w h e n o n e r e i n t e r p r e t s a j o k e a s a t h i n l y v e i l e d i n s u l t . R e a p p r a i s a l

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p lays a key ro le in t h eo r ies o f em o t io n (e.g . L a za r u s, 19 91) a n d st r es s

r ed u c tio n ( e. g. K a t z & E p s t ein , 199 1 ; M eich e n b a u m , 198 5 ). U n fo r t u -

n a t el y, d es p it e its wid e cu r r en cy, ev en t h e hy p o t h es is t h a t co gn it ive st r a te-

g i e s m a y b e u s e d t o d e c r e a s e n e g a t i v e e m o t i o n w h i c h i s w h a t w e k n o w

m o s t a b o u t h a s a su r p r isin g ly m o d e st em p i r ica l fo u n d a t io n . L ea d in g

s u b j e c t s t o r e a p p r a i s e n e g a t i v e e m o t i o n - e l i c i t i n g l m s h a s b e e n s h o w n t od e c r ea s e n e ga t iv e e m o t i o n e xp e r ie n ce ( C a n t o r & W ils o n , 1 98 4; D a n d o y &

G o l d s t ein , 1 99 0 ; G r o s s, 1 99 8 a ; L a z a r u s & A l fe r t , 1 96 4) . H o w ev er, c o n -

com itan t d ecreases in physiological respo nd ing are o ften n ot ob served (e.g.

G ross, 1998a; Stepto e & Vogele, 1986). W hy m ight th is be? O ne po ssib ility

is t h a t c o gn i t iv e a p p r a i s a ls p l a y a l im i t e d r o le i n t h e g en e r a t i o n o f p h y si o -

lo gica l r esp o n se t en d en cies in t h e co n t ext o f gr a p h ic su r ge ry lm s

( L e D o u x , 1 9 89 ). I f s o, r e a p p r a i sa l m ig h t b e e xp e ct e d t o b e m o r e e ffe ct i ve

in c o m p lex so c ia l s it u a t io n s. I n d e ed , St e m m l er ( 1997 ) h a s s h o wn t h a t r e ap p r a i sa l in s t r u c t io n s led t o d e cr e a sed p h y sio l o gi ca l r e sp o n d i n g fo r

s u b j e c t s w h o a n e x p e r i m e n t e r v e r b a l l y h a r a s s e d . O n e i m p o r t a n t d i r e c t i o n

f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h i s t o u s e r e a p p r a i s a l a s a p r o b e t o c l a r i f y t h e n a t u r e o f

c o gn it i ve p r o c es sin g i n e m o t io n g en e r a t i o n a n d r e gu l a t io n .

Suppression . C o n t em p o r a r y in t er est in t h e e ffec ts o f i n h ib it in g e m o -

t io n -e xp r es sive b eh av io u r ca n b e t r a ced t o W illia m Ja m es. O n Ja m es

( 18 84 ) v ie w, e m o t i o n - ex p r e ss ive b e h av io u r w a s s o i m p o r t a n t t o e m o t io n t h a t go in g t h r o u gh t h e o u t wa r d m o t io n s o f a n em o t io n a l st a te co u ld give

r i s e t o t h a t f e e l i n g , a n d l i m i t i n g e x p r e s s i v e b e h a v i o u r c o u l d d e c r e a s e t h e

associated feelings. One variant of this hypothesis came to be known as the

``facial feedba ck hypot h esis (Bu ck, 1980). M o st stud ies designed to test

t h is hyp o t h esis co n ce n t r a t ed o n t h e em o t io n ge n er a tio n a sp ec t o f t h e

hy p o t h esis, a n d in d eed , in it ia t in g em o t io n -ex p r ess ive b eh av io u r se em s t o

in c r ea s e t h e f ee lin g o f t h a t e m o t i o n s li gh t ly (M a t s u m o t o , 1987 ) . F ew er

s t u d i es h a ve t e s t e d p r e d i ct i o n s r e ga r d i n g t h e s u p p r e ss io n o f o n g o i n g e m o -t io n a l b eh avio u r, a s it wa s a ssu m ed t h a t in h ib it in g o n go in g em o t io n

expressive behaviour would simply have the opposite effects from volunta-

r i ly p r o d u c i n g e m o t io n - ex p r e ss iv e b e h a vi o u r ( G r o s s & L e v en s o n , 1 99 3) .

H o w ever, r es u lt s t o d a t e d o n o t su p p o r t t h e view t h a t su p p r e ss io n is t h e

s i m p l e o p p o s i t e o f e x a g g e r a t i o n . W h a t i s k n o w n s u g g e s t s t h a t i n h i b i t i n g

expressive behaviour decreases self-reported experience of some emotions

( e. g. p a in , p r i d e, a n d a m u se m e n t ), b u t n o t o t h e r s ( e. g. d i sgu s t , s a d n e ss )

( fo r a r e vi ew, s ee G r o s s & L e ve n s o n , 1 99 7 ). Ph y si o lo g ic a lly, in h i b it i n ge xp r e s sive b e h a vio u r w h i le w a i t in g fo r a p a i n f u l s h o c k l ea d s t o d e c r ea s ed

s k in co n d u ct a n c e r ea c t ivi t y (C o lb y, L a n z et t a , & K le ck , 197 7 ; L a n z et t a ,

C a r t w r i g h t - Sm i t h , & K l e c k , 1 9 7 6 ) , b u t t h e e f f e c t s o f i n h i b i t i n g e m o t i o n a l

r esp o n s es t o o t h e r n eg at ive s tim u l i h ave in clu d e d sign s o f in cr ea sed

s ym p a t h et ic a c t iv at io n (G r o ss, 1 998 a ; G r o s s & L e ve n so n , 1 993 , 1 997 ).


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F u t u re r es ea r ch sh o u ld exp lo r e t h e ex t en t t o wh ich t h e in h ib it io n o f

ex p r essive b e h avi o u r h a s co n s ist en t e ffec ts a c ro s s e m o t io n s, a n d t est

w h e t h e r t h e s e e f f e c t s a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f a t t e m p t i n g t o i n h i b i t o t h e r

a s p e ct s o f t h e e m o t i o n a l r e sp o n s e, s u c h a s e m o t i o n a l e x p e r ie n ce.

Individual Differences

E m o t io n r eg u la t io n a lw ays t a kes p la ce in t h e co n t ext o f a p a r ticu la r

i n d iv id u a l . B e ca u s e i n d i vid u a l s d i ffe r b o t h in t h e e m o t i o n s t h e y e xp e r i-

e n ce a n d in t h e w a y t h e y r e gu l a t e t h e s e em o t io n s, a n y s ep a r a t io n b e t we en

t h e st u dy o f b a sic em o t io n r eg u la t o r y p r ocess es a n d in d ivid u a l d iffer en ces

in su ch p r o cesse s m u st b e r ega r d ed a s a t em p o r a r y co n ven ien c e r a t h e r

t h a n a lo n g- ter m st r a t eg y (see G ro ss, in p r ess ). H o wever, o n e m a jo r

i m p ed im e n t t o t a k in g a p r o ce ss -o r i en t e d a p p r o a ch t o p e r so n a l it y is t h a t i n d ivid u a l d iffe r en c es in em o t io n r egu l at io n h a ve b e en st u d i ed u n d e r a

disconcertingly large number of rubrics. Constructs most closely related to

e m o t i o n r e gu l a t io n in c lu d e : E m o t i o n a l c o n t r o l ( R o g er & N a j a r ia n , 1 98 9) ,

n ega t ive m oo d r eg u lat ion (C a ta n za ro, 19 96 ) , r ep r essio n (Wein b erge r,

1 9 9 0 ) , a n d r u m i n a t i o n / d i s t r a c t i o n ( N o l e n - H o e k s e m a , 1 9 9 3 ) . R e l a t e d c o n -

s tr u c t s in c lu d e : m o n i to r i n g/b l u n t in g (M il ler, 1987) , se n sa t io n s ee k in g

(Zuckerm an , 1979), constru ctive th ink ing (Epstein & M eier, 1989), imp u l-

sivity (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1969), b ehaviou ra l inhibition (K agan, R eznick,& G i bb o n s , 1989) , co n s t r a in t (T ell ege n , 1985) , a m b i va l en c e o ver e m o -

t io n a l ex p r es sivit y (K in g & E m m o n s, 19 90 ) , d ela y o f gr a t ica t ion (M is-

c h el, 1 9 74) , a l ex it h ym ia ( Ta yl o r, B a gb y, & P a r k e r, 1 9 97 ), c o p i n g s ty le

(C a r ve r, Sc h eie r, & Wein t r a u b, 19 89), ego co n t r o l (B lo c k & Blo ck ,

1 98 0) , a n d e m o t i o n a l in t e ll ig en c e ( Sa l o ve y & M a ye r, 1 99 0) . R a t h e r t h a n

attempting a comprehensive review, I i l lustrate recent research on indivi-

d u a l d i ffe r en c es in e m o t i o n r e gu l a t io n b y fo c u s in g o n t w o w el l- st u d i ed

i n d iv id u a l d i ff er e n c es r u m i n a t io n a n d r e p r ess io n t h a t w er e s ele ct ed t or e p r e s e n t c o n s c i o u s a n d n o n c o n s c i o u s e m o t i o n r e g u l a t o r y p r o c e s s e s t h a t

v a r y d i a m e t r i c a l l y i n t h e i r u s e o f a t t e n t i o n .

Rumination. T h i s r ef er s t o ``b e h av io u r s a n d t h o u gh t s t h a t fo c u s o n e s

at ten tio n o n on es dep ressive sym pt o m s (N olen-H oek sema , 1991, p. 569).

Examples include dwelling on problems one is having at work, focusing on

feelin g s o f t ir ed n es s o r b o d ily p a in s, a n d w o rr yin g a b ou t h avin g y et

a n o t h e r s le ep l es s n i gh t . W h e n a s se ss ed b y N o l en - H o e k s e m a s R e s p o n s eSt y le s Q u e st i o n n a i r e ( N o l en - H o e k s em a & M o r r o w, 1 99 1 ), d i sp o s it i o n a l

r u m i n a t i o n h a s m o d e r a t e s t a b i l i t y o v e r p e r i o d s a s l o n g a s o n e y e a r ( J u s t

& A llo y, 199 7 ). R u m i n a t io n i s e ffo r t f u l, c o n t r o ll ed , a n d c o n scio u s , a n d

s eem s t o b e a im e d a t r ed u c in g d e p re ssive fee lin gs, a lt h o u g h it s a c tu a l

e ff ec t is u s u a lly t h e o p p o s it e. H ig h e r le ve ls o f d i sp o s it i o n a l r u m i n a t i o n

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a r e a s so c ia t e d w i t h g r ea t e r l ik el ih o o d o f d e ve lo p i n g d e p r es siv e s ym p t o m s

(Ju s t & A l lo y, 19 97; N o l en - H o ek s em a , P a r k er, & L a r s o n , 1 994 ), m o r e

s eve r e d e p r es sive s ym p t o m s ( Ju s t & A l lo y, 19 9 7; N o l en - H o e k sem a &

M o r r o w, 19 9 1; N o le n -H o e k s em a , M o r r o w, & F r ed r i ck s o n , 19 9 3) , a n d

lo n g e r d e p r ess ive ep i so d e s ( N o l en - H o e k se m a , 1993 ; N o l en - H o e k s em a ,

M cBride, & Larson, 1997). In the context of an analysis of sex differencesin depression, N olen -H oeksema (1993, p. 308) h as a rgued tha t ``it is mo re

efcient an d p otent ially useful to focus o n p eoples styles of respon ding to

t h e sp ec ic m o o d st a t es t h a n t o u t iliz e m o r e gl o b a l co n st r u ct s. H o weve r,

fro m a b r o a d er em o t i o n r egu l a to r y p e r sp e ct ive, o n e m i gh t exp e ct t h a t

r u m i n a t i o n i n t h e c o n t e x t o f o t h e r e m o t i o n a l s t a t e s s u c h a s a n g e r , g u i l t ,

o r a n x iet y wo u l d h a ve c o m p a r a b le co n s eq u e n ces in t er m s o f p r o d u cin g

m o r e in t en se a n d lo n ger -la st in g ep iso d es o f ea ch o f t h ese em o t io n s.

E x p lo r i n g i n d i vi d u a l d i f fer e n c es in r u m i n a t i o n w i t h o t h e r e m o t i o n a l s t a t e si s a c l e a r r e s e a r c h p r i o r i t y i n t h i s a r e a .

Repression . Sin c e t h e 19 50s, h u n d r ed s o f s tu d i es h ave e xa m in ed t h e

r ep r essive co p i n g st yle, a n d t h er e r ec en t ly h a s b e en a r en a i ssa n c e o f

in t e rest in t h i s c o n s tr u c t (E g lo f f & K r o h n e, 1 996 ). I n co n t r a s t t o t h e

c o n t r o l l e d a t t e n t i o n t o d e p r e s s i v e f e e l i n g s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i s e s r u m i n a t i o n ,

r ep r essio n a pp ea r s t o b e a n a u t om a t ic a t ten tio n a l d efen ce a ga in st

u n p l ea s a n t st im u li ( B o n a n n o & S in g er, 1 990 ) a n d a c co m p a n y in g a f fec -t ive a ro u sa l (K ro h n e, 19 96) , p o ss ib ly in vo lv in g in cr ea sed a t t en t io n t o

p lea sa n t t h o u gh t s (B o d en & Ba u m eist er, 19 9 7, bu t see M c F a r la n d &

B u e h le r, 19 97) . R e pr e ssive t en d e n c ie s a r e t yp ica l ly o p e r a t io n a li se d a s

lo w sco r es o n a t r a it a n x iet y m e a su r e i n co m b in a t io n w it h h igh sco r es

o n a s oc ia l d e sir a b il it y m ea s u r es t h a t t a p s d e fen s ive n es s ( We in b e r ge r,

S ch w a r t z , & D avid s o n , 197 9 ). C l in i cia n ju d g e m en t s o f d e fe n siven e ss

a lso h a ve b e en u s ed (S h ed ler, M a ym a n , & M a n is, 1 993) . R e p r esso r s

r ep o r t feelin g lo w levels o f a n x iet y (b y d e n it io n ) , a n d t h ese r ep o r t sm a y r e ect less fr eq u e n t n ega t ive em o t i o n exp e r ien c e. I n t er est in g ly,

repressors capacity fo r n e ga t iv e e m o t i o n exp e r ie n ce a p p e a r s u n d i m i n -

is h ed , a lt h o u gh t h e y d o l a ck t h e s e co n d a r y em o t io n s t h a t u s u a l ly a c co m -

p a ny a n em o t io n ex p er ien ce (D av is, 198 7; E gl o ff & K r o h n e, 19 96;

H a n s en & H a n s en , 19 88). B eh a vio u r a l ly, r ep r esso r s sh o w d e cr ea sed

ex p r es sive b e h avio u r ( L eve n so n , M a d es, & M e ek , 19 8 0) , a l t h o u g h t h i s

i n h i b i t i o n o f e x p r e s s i v e b e h a v i o u r m a y n o t b e e v i d e n t w h e n s u b j e c t s d o

n o t k n ow t h ey a r e b ein g o b se r ve d (e.g. A sen d o r p f & Sch er er, 198 3).P h ysio lo gica lly, r ep r esso r s t en d t o b e m o r e a r o u sed p h ysio lo gica lly

t h a n o t h er su b ject s wh o r ep o r t lo w a n xi et y, a s sh o wn b y gr ea ter fro n t a -

lis r e gi o n e lec t r o m yo g r a p h ic ( E M G ) a c t iv it y ( We in b e r ge r e t a l . , 1 97 9) ,

in c r e a s ed c o r t i so l le ve ls ( Br o w n e t a l . , 1 9 96 ), a n d i n cr e a se d s ym p a t h e t ic

a c t iva t io n ( e. g. K o h l m a n n , W eid n e r, & M e ss in a , 19 96 ; L eve n so n e t a l .,


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1980; N ewton & Contrada, 1992; Weinberger, 1990). F uture research will

b e n e e d e d t o c l a r i f y r e p r e s s o r s t y p i c a l p a t t e r n s o f e m o t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e

a n d exp r essio n , a n d t o a ssess m o r e p r ecisely wh er e in t h e em o t i on -

g en e r a t i ve p r o c e ss r e p r e ss o r s r e gu l a t e e m o t i o n .

THEORETICAL CHALLENGES ANDFUTURE DIRECTIONS

T h is select ive r evi ew o f r ecen t r ese a r ch d em o n st r a tes t h e in t egr a t ive

p ower o f t h e co n st r u ct o f em o t io n r egu la t io n . A p p a r en t ly d isp a r a t e

co n cer n s a r e b ro u gh t u n d er o n e r o of, h elp in g t o sh a r pen q u est io n s

a b o u t p o i n t s o f co n ve r gen c e a n d d i ve rge n ce a m o n g p r o c esse s. H o w ever,

t h e n o t io n o f em o t io n r egu la t io n a lso p o ses a n u m b er o f se r io u s t h eo r e-

t ica l ch a llen ge s. I n t h e fo llo w in g sec t io n s, I d iscu ss ve o f t h e m o stp r ess in g o f t h ese ch a llen ge s, a n d su gg est a nu m b er o f d irect io n s fo r

f u t u r e r e s e a r c h .

What Is Regulated in Emotion Regulation?

T h o m p so n (19 94 ) r a ises t h e im p o r t a n t q u est io n a s t o wh a t is r eg u la t ed in

e m o t i o n r eg u la t io n . I h a ve su g ge st e d t h a t em o t io n r e gu l a t io n in vo l ves

c h a n ge s in b e h avio u r a l , ex p er ien t i al, a n d / o r p h ys io lo gica l r esp o n s es.B e c a u s e e m o t i o n s u n f o l d o v e r t i m e , t h e s e c h a n g e s i n v o l v e a l t e r a t i o n s i n

``em o t io n d y n a m i c s ( T h o m p s o n , 1 99 0) , o r t h e la t e n c y, r i se t i m e, m a g n i-

t u d e, d u r a t io n , a n d o ffset o f r es p o n se s in o n e o r m o r e d o m a in s. E m o t io n

r egu l a tio n a lso m a y in vo l ve c h a n ge s in h o w r esp o n s e co m p o n en t s a r e

in t er rela ted a s t h e em o t io n u n fo ld s o ver t im e, su ch a s w hen la rge

in cr ea ses in p hy sio lo gica l r esp o n d in g o ccu r in t h e ab sen ce o f o ve rt

b eh avio u r. H o wever, em o t io n r esp o n se co m p o n e n ts a r e n o t o r io u sly

l o o s e l y i n t e r k n i t ( L a n g , R i c e , & S t e r n b a c h , 1 9 7 2 ) , a n d i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n b a s e d o n d i s c r e p a n c i e s a c r o s s r e s p o n s e c h a n n e l s m u s t

b e m a d e w it h ca u t io n . S p ecifyin g p r ecisely w ha t is r egu la ted a n d

w h et h er em o t io n r eg u la t io n h a s t a k en p la c e a t a ll is o n e o f t h e m o s t

s er io u s c h a l le n g es t h i s a r e a f a c es. To m e e t t h i s c h a l le n ge, w e n e ed a m o r e

c o m p let e u n d e r st a n d i ng o f t h e r ela t io n s a m o n g e m o t io n r es p o n se co m -

p o n en t s b o t h wh en in d ivid u a ls r egu la t e a n d wh en t h ey d o n o t r egu la t e

t h eir em o t io n s.

How Can One Tell When Emotion Is Regulated?

D ening em ot ion regulation in ter ms of cha n ges in em otion respon ses begs

t h e q u es t io n : C h a n ge s co m p a r ed w it h wh a t ? P r esu m ab ly, em o t io n r egu la -

t io n m ay b e in fer r ed wh en a n em o t io n a l r es p o n se wo u ld h av e p ro ce ed ed in

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o n e f a s h i o n , b u t i n s t e a d p r o c e e d s i n a n o t h e r . I n f e r e n c e s s u c h a s t h e s e a r e

f r a u gh t w it h d a n ge r. A n ex p r essio n l es s f a c e i n s o m e o n e w h o t y p ic a lly

g e s t i c u l a t e s w i l d l y a t t h e s l i g h t e s t e x c u s e m a y b e r i c h w i t h m e a n i n g , b u t

t h a t sa m e la ck o f ex p r ess io n in so m eo n e wh o r a r ely sh ow s a n y si gn o f

e m o t i o n i s m u c h l e s s s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t i v e o f e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n . A l s o , a s

a t t e m p t s a t e li cit in g e m o t i o n i n t h e l ab o r a t o r y h a ve a m p ly d em o n s t r a t ed ,emo tion al respon ses var y as a fun ction of sub tle environm enta l cues (G ross

& L e ve n s o n , 1 9 95 ). T h i s m e a n s t h a t e m o t i o n r e gu l a t io n c a n n o t b e i n fe r r ed

u n l e s s t h e s i t u a t i o n a s p e r c e i v e d b y t h e i n d i v i d u a l s h o u l d h a v e e l i c i t e d a

d i ffe r en t e m o t i o n r e s p o n s e p r o le t h a n t h e o n e t h a t w a s s h o w n . E m o t i o n

regulation th us requires a for m idable level of certaint y abou t em ot ion in its

u n r e gu l a t e d s t a t e. W it h o u t t h i s, d i s cu s sio n s o f e m o t i o n r e gu l a t i o n b e c o m e

p o std ict io n s t h a t ca n exp la in a n y p a t t er n o f n d in gs (K a p p a s, 19 96) . T h is

is particularly true when emotion regulation is invoked to explain a lack of e m o t io n wh e re e m o t io n m i gh t b e exp e ct ed , in wh ich ca se t wo h i dd e n

p ro ce sses em o t io n a n d em o t io n r egu la t io n a r e invo k ed t o ex p la in t o a

n o n r esp o n se (F r ijd a , 19 86 ). L it t le is k n own ab o u t t h e co m p lexit ies o f

n o r m a t ive em o t io n a l r es p o n d in g, let a lo n e t h e effect s o f d isp o sit io n a l

va r i ab l es, s u ch a s n e u r o t ic ism (G r o ss, S u t t o n , & K et el a a r, 1 998 ) , a n d

gr o u p d i ff er e n ce s, su c h a s se x ( K r in g & G o r d o n , 199 8 ). T h i s m e a n s t h a t

a t b e s t , p r o b a b i l i s t i c s t a t e m e n t s c a n b e m a d e a b o u t e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n i n

a n y g ive n ca s e. T o sp e cif y w h e n a n d w h et h e r e m o t i o n r eg u la t io n h a so ccu rr ed , m u ch m o r e w ill n eed t o b e lea r n ed ab o u t b a sic em o t io n a l

responses.

Is Emotion Ever Not Regulated?

Processes subserving emotion regulation are t ightly intertwined with those

in vo l ved i n e m o t io n g en e r a t i o n . I n d e ed , s o m e t h e o r ist s h a ve r e s p o n d e d t o

t h is in t er d igit a t io n o f em o t io n -reg u la t o r y a n d em o t io n -ge n er a t ive p r o -c e s s e s b y a r g u i n g t h a t e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n i s p a r t a n d p a r c e l o f e m o t i o n

( Fr i j d a , 1 9 8 6 ) . A f t e r a l l , a d u l t e m o t i o n i s a l m o s t a l w a y s r e g u l a t e d i n o n e

w ay o r a n o t h er (To m k i ns, 19 84) , a n d it n o w a p p ea r s t h a t cla ssica lly

c o n d it io n e d r es p o n se s a r e n o t e ra s ed w h en t h e y a r e ex tin gu i sh ed , b u t

r a t h e r s u p p r e s se d ( M o r g a n , R o m a s k i , & L e D o u x , 1 99 3 ). I f e m o t io n c en -

t r es in t h e lim b ic sys t em a r e t o n ica lly r es t r a in ed b y o t h er b r a in r egi o n s

s u ch a s t h e p e r fr o n t a l co r t e x ( S t u ss & B en s o n , 198 6 ), d o e sn t t h e t e r m

e m o t io n r egu l a tio n lo s e it s va l u e? I wo u l d a r gu e t h a t t h e q u e st io n ` I se m o t i o n e v e r no t r e g u l a t e d ? i s m i s l e a d i n g , i n t h a t i t s u g g e s t s a n a l l - o r -

n o n e a ffa ir. A co n ce p t io n o f r ela t ive r eg u la tio n see m s m o r e a p p ro p r iat e.

G iven th e wide ra nge o f neu ral p rocesses im plicated in em o tion, ho wever, i t

w ill b e a c h a lle n ge t o d r a w a c lea r lin e b et w een e m o t io n a n d em o t i o n

regulation.


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What Level of Analysis Should Be Used?

S o m e r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e a s s e s s e d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f o n e o r t w o s p e c i c

fo r m s o f e m o t i o n r e g u l a t io n , i n o n e e m o t i o n a l c o n t e x t , u s in g a fo c u s ed s et

o f respo nse m easures (e.g. N olen -H oeksema , 1993). O th ers h ave exam ined

em o t io n r egu la tio n in fa r m o r e g en er a l t e r m s u sin g a b ro a d a r r ay o f

r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s ( E i s e n b e r g e t a l . , 1 9 9 5 ) . I n m y o w n m u l t i m e t h o d w o r k

o n em otion supp ression (G ross, 1998a; G ross & L evenson, 1993, 1997), I

h av e b een m o r e im p r es se d wit h sim ila r it ies t h a n d iffer en ce s in t h e effect s o f

e m o t i o n s u p p r e s s i o n a c r o s s e m o t i o n s , b u t o n e i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e h a s

emerged, in th at supp ressing po sitive emot ion -expressive behavio ur such a s

a m u s e m e n t , d e c r e a s e s a m u s e m e n t e x p e r i e n c e , w h e r e a s s u p p r e s s i n g n e g a -

t ive em o t io n -e xp r ess ive b eh av io u r d o es n o t h ave co m p a r ab le effect s. O n e

im p o r t a n t d ir ect io n fo r fu t u re r esea r ch is t o ch a r t t h e im m e d ia te a n d

l o n g e r - t e r m c o n s e q u e n c e s o f d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n i n t h e

c o n t e x t o f d i ffe r en t e m o t i o n a l s t a t e s.

How Does Emotion Regulation Relate to OtherForms of Impulse Regulation?

E mo tiona l imp ulses are by no mea ns th e only imp ulses with which we must

c o n t e n d . O n e p r e ss in g q u e st i o n is h o w e m o t i o n r e gu l at io n r e la t e s t o o t h e r form s o f regulat ion , such as m oo d regulat ion (Ca rver & Scheier, 1990; T hayer,

1996) , t h o u g h t co n t r o l ( Wegn e r, 1994) , a n d s ti ll o t h e r fo r m s o f im p u lse

regulation (Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996; Block & Block, 1980). Initial

evidence suggests m od est cor relation s am on g measu res of imp ulse regulation

i n c h i l d r e n ( K o p p , 1 9 8 2 ; R e e d , Pi e n , & R o t h b a r t , 1 9 8 4 ) a n d a d u l t s ( K i n g ,

E m m o ns, & Woo dley, 1992). G iven th e emerging consensus tha t d iscrete an d

dim ensio na l levels of ana lysis are comp atible rat her th an in com petition with

one another, models of emotion regulation and mood regulation eventuallymay take their place in superordinate models of affect regulation. It seems

reason able, however, to m ainta in d istinctions b etween p rocesses tha t r egulate

e m o t i o n , o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h o s e t h a t r e gu l a t e t h o u g h t s ( e. g. Weg n er &

B a r gh , 19 98 ) o r w el l- lea r n t o p e r a n t r e sp o n s es ( e. g. L o g a n , Sch a c h a r , &

Ta n n o ck , 19 97 ) o n t h e o t h er. I t is less o bvio u s wh et h er p ro ce sses t h at r eg-

u l a t e e m o t i o n a l i m p u l ses s h o u l d b e d i st i n gu i sh e d fr o m t h o s e t h a t r e gu l a t e

imp ulses associated with h un ger, thirst, aggression , an d sexua l aro usal (Buck,

1985). These issues seem certain to attract continued interest, as researchersfrom a var iety of ho m e dom ains (e.g. weight loss, su bsta n ce abu se, a ggression ,

e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n : s e e B a u m e i s t e r & H e a t h e r t o n , 1 9 9 6 ) b e g i n t o f a s h i o n

stron ger emp irical links a cross diverse for m s of self-regulatio n.

M an uscript received 2 M ar ch 1999

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