(1976) Class Developments in South India

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3/11

3 JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORAR Y ASIA

l a s s D e v e l o p m e n t s i n S o u t h I n d i a

nonymous

i t wa s c l ea r by the mid - 196 0s tha t t he I nd ia n pe op le c ou ld no t a de qua te ly de ve lop

the i r hum a n a nd e c o no m ic po te n t i a l by f o l lowing a c a p i ta l is t o r s ta t e -c a p i ta l i st pa th

o f de ve lopm e n t . The c on t r a s t w i th C h ina wa s a l re a dy sha rp ; t oda y i t is f a r sha r pe r .

I n C h ina , w ha te ve r t he in t e r na l c on f l i c t s o r t he va gar ie s o f fo r e ign po l i c y , t he pe o p -

le a re we l l f ed and c lo thed; they a re deve loping the i r ta len ts and a re v igorous and

h o p e f u l . C h i n a h a s n o i n f l a ti o n , n o n o t i c e a b le u n e m p l o y m e n t , n o m a r k e d " p o p u -

l a t ion p r o b le m " . I n I nd ia a ll t he f a mi l i a r s igns o f Th i r d W or ld de ge n e r a t ion a r e

p r e se n t a nd inc r e a se a l a r ming ly : une mployme n t , i n f l a t ion , a n e ve r w ide n ing ga p

be tw e e n r i c h a nd po o r , a nd f o r t he pa s t e igh t ye a r s , ma ss ive po pu la r t h r e a t s t o t he

e x i s t ing o r de r t ha t ha ve so f a r be e n ou tm a tc h e d by r e p re s s ive v io l e nc e . I n the pa s t

ye a r m a ny thousa nds ha ve d i e d in a f a mine tha t m igh t ha ve be e n a vo ide d by e a r l ie r

de ve lopme n t s i n i r r i ga t ion a nd f lood c on t r o l , a de qua te l a nd r e f o r m, a nd e qu i t a b le

d i s t r ibu t ion o f f oo d g r ain s. W i th m ino r d i f f e r e nc e s the sa me c ond i t ions ob ta in in

P a k i s t a n , B a ng la de sh a nd S r i La nka . F o r t hose who c a r e to r e a d the e v ide nc e the

ve r d ic t is i n : t o p r og r es s , the se c o un t r i e s m us t unde r go r e vo lu t iona r y c ha nge s in

the i r soc i a l s t r uc tu r e s o f a k ind s imi l a r t o t hose a l r e a dy e xpe r i e nc e d by C h ina ,

N o r t h K o r e a an d N o r t h V i e t n a m .

Th e suc c es s o f t he lnd oc h ine se l i be r a t ion s t rugg les m a y ha s t e n r e vo lu t iona r y

c ha nge in S ou th As ia . i t i s l i ke ly to do so be c a use i t ha s we a ke ne d the Un i t e d

S ta t e s ' p r e s tige a nd r e l ia b i l it y a s a c oun te r - r e vo lu t iona r y pow e r , ha s f u r th e r r e s tr i c-

t e d the sphe r e o f c a p i t a li s t e n t e r p r i s e a nd m a r ke t s , a nd ha s g iven ne ighbou r ing

pe op le s a n e xa m ple o f wha t f a i th , o r ga n iz a t ion a nd mor a le c a n a c c ompl i sh in the

f a c e o f ove r w he lming m i l i ta r y a nd ma te r i a l odds . The ma in que s t ions a re whe n a nd

how r e vo lu t ion in S ou th As ia w ill be a c c om pl i she d .

Exc e p t i n C uba , Ma r x i s t - Le n in i s t r e vo lu t ions ha ve c ome a bou t i n t he wa ke o f

wor ld w a r s - a l t hough the " w a k e " la s t e d th i r ty ye a r s i n l ndo c h ina . Ne ve r the l es s ,

i t was W or ld War I I and Japanes e invas ion which f i rs t se r ious ly d is rup ted the co lo-

n ia l f a b r i c o f F r e nc h lndoc h ina , a s i t d id the se mi - c o lon ia l s t r uc tu r e s o f C h ina a nd

Kor e a . B y loose n ing o r d i s lodg ing e s t a b l i she d c o lon ia l powe r s , t he s e c ond wor ld

war a lso c rea ted con di t io ns favorable to M arxis t- led revo lu t io nary s t ruggles in Bur -

ma , Ma la ya a nd the P h i l ipp ine s , a nd to a sma l l e r e x t e n t i n I nd ia , a nd m a de poss ib le

the n a t iona l i s t s t ruggles of Ind ones ia and Alger ia . The se s t ruggles were ec l ipsed by

the pos t - wa r e xpa ns io n o f ne e - c o lon ia li sm dom ioa te d by the U n i t e d S ta t e s . The

e xpe r i e nc e o f C uba ind ic a te s , howe v e r , t ha t i t i s poss ib l e f o r re vo lu t ions l e a d ing to

soc ia li s t t r a ns f o r m a t ion to oc c u r in T h i r d W or ld c oun t r i e s w i tho u t w or ld wa r , e ve n

thoug h the mor e r e c e n t e xpe r i e nc e o f C h i le has unde r l ine d the c os t s a nd da nge r s .

I f r e vo lu t iona r y c ha nge i s t o be g in m a in ly th r ough in t e r na l de ve lo pm e n t s , w i th -

ou t o r p r io r t o f o r e ign inva sions and d i s r up t ions o f t he ind ige nous gove r nm e n ta l

a nd soc ia l s t r uc tu r e , t he p r e c i se c l a s s c ompos i t i on a nd c l a s s de ve lopme n t o f t he


4/11

C L A S S D E V E L O P M E N T S I N S O U T H I N D I A 3

l a b o ri n g p o o r i n t h es e c o u n t r i e s w o u l d s e e m t o b e o f ev e n g r e a t er im p o r t a n c e t h a n

i t w a s i n Ch i na o r V i e t na m . T h i s pa pe r i s a bou t s om e c l a s s de ve l opm e n t s i n T a m i l

N a d u , t h e l ar g e st s t a t e o f S o u t h e r n I n d i a , h a v in g a b o u t 4 5 m i ll io n p e o p l e . It is c ~ -

e e r n e d m a i n l y w i t h t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , i n w h i c h 7 0 % o f t h e p e o p l e d w e l l.

I t i s l og ic a l t o s u ppo s e t ha t t he m os t f a vo r a b l e g r oun d f o r a s oc ia l is t r e vo l u t i on -

a r y m ov e m e n t w o u l d be a ve r y l ar ge c l as s o f p r ope r t y l e s s la bo r e r s w ho a r e v i r tua l l y

ho m og e ne ou s i n t he i r pov e r t y a nd i n t he i r r e l a t ions o f p r od uc t i on . F a c t s as w e l l a s

l og ic s u p p o r t t h is v i e w , f o r t h e C o m m u m s t m o v e m e n t in S o u t h I n d ia h as h a d g r e a t-

es t succes s in organ iz ing w i th in l a rge bu t loca l i zed gro ups o f l andles s agr i cu l tu ra l

l a b o r e r s a n d o f t e a a n d r u b b e r p l a n t a t i o n w o r k e r s , m n o n g t r a n s p o r t w o r k e r s , i n

l a rge ha nd i ndus t r i e s a nd s e m i - p r oc e s s ing p l a n t s s uc h a s c o i r , c a s he w nu t s , a nd t e x -

t il e s, a nd i n s om e m a c h i ne i ndu s t r ie s , no t a b l y c o t t on m i l ls .

T he m a i , a r gum e n t o f t h i s pa pe r i s t ha t s i nc e i nde pe nde nc e , a nd e s pe c i a l l y s i nc e

ab ou t 1960 , landles s or nea r - landles s agr i cu l tu ra l l abore rs have grea t ly inc reased in

t he v i l l a ge s o f T a m i l N a du , a nd t ha t t he y m a y i n t i m e f o r m t he p r i nc i pa l r u r a l ba s e

f o r a n e x p a n d e d C o m m u n i s t m o v e m e n t . A l t h o u g h l a c k f ig u r es f o r t h e m o s t re c e n t

yea rs , a s imi la r inc rease has t aken p lace in S r i Lanka , Wes t Benga l and Kera la , and

pe r ha ps i n o t he r s t a t e s o f I nd i a .

T a m i l N a du l ie s i n t he s ou t he a s t o f t he I nd i a n pe n i n s u l a . I t s l ope s f r om t he

m o u n t a i n s o f t h e e a s t e r n a n d w e s t e r n G h a t s i n t h e n o r t h w e s t a n d w e s t o f th e s ta t e

t o t he c o a s t a l p la i n s o f t he e a s t a nd s ou t he a s t . T he s t a t e ( c a r ve d ou t o f t he o ld

M a dr a s S t a t e in t he m i d - 1 950 s ) now c on t a i n s 14 d i s tr i c ts .

R i c e c o n s t i t u t e s 7 8 % o f T a m i l N a d u ' s f o o d g r a in s a l th o u g h i t o c c u p i e s o n l y 5 6 %

of t he a c r e a ge de vo t e d t o f ood g r a in s , w h i c h is 65% o f t he t o t a l a r e a s ow n . M a i z e ,

m i l l e t s a nd g r a m s a r e t he o t h e r f oodg r a i n s . 2 R i c e c u l ti va t i on de p e nds a l m o s t e n t ir e -

l y on i r ri ga ti on a nd s o i s une ve n l y d i s t r i bu t e d , s inc e on l y 41% o f the ne t s ow n a r e a

is i rr i ga te d . F i ve o f the 14 d i s t r ic t s , w he r e i r r i ga ti on i s m os t p r om i ne n t , a c c oun t f o r

5 5 % o f t h e t o t a l r ic e g r o w n : t h e y a r e C h i n g l e p u t , N o r t h a n d S o u t h A r c o t , T h a n -

j avu r and T i ruc hi rapp a l l i on the e as t e rn coas ta l p l a ins . 3 Mos t o f the i r r iga t ion in

T a m i l N a du i s c a r r ie d on w i t h t he a i d o f s m a l l r e s er vo i rs o r ponds ( c a l le d t a nks ) o r

w e l l s . O n l y i n T ha n j a vu r d i s t r i c t , on t he s ou t he a s t c oa s t a l t i p , i s i r r i ga t i on m a i n l y

d e p e n d e n t o n c a n al s f r o m t h e d e l t a o f t h e R i v e r K a v e r i. E i g h t y - f o u r p e r ce n t o f

T h a n j a vu r ' s ne t s ow n a r e a i s ir r i ga te d , 4 a nd t he d i s t ri c t p r ov i de s a b ou t a qu a r t e r o f

t he s t a t e ' s t o t a l r ic e p r o duc t i on . T ha n j a vu r a ls o e xp o r t s r ic e t o t he d e f i c it s t a t e o f

K e r a l a , w he r e m or e t ha n 40% o f t he l a nd i s unde r e xpo r t c r ops s uc h a s t e a , r ub -

b e r , c a s h e w n u t s a n d c o c o n u t s . T w e n t y - f o u r p e r c e n t o f T a m i l N a d u ' s t o ta l a c re a g e

is de vo t e d t o s pe c ia l iz e d c r ops s uc h a s c o t t on , g r oun dnu t s , s uga r c a ne , o i ls e e ds , t e a

a n d t o b a c c o . A f t e r l e a t h e r g o o d s , t h e m a i n f o re ig n e x p o r t s a r e t o b a c c o a n d c o t t o n

ya r n a nd t e x t i le s , w h i l e te a a nd g r o und nu t a r e m i no r e xp o r t s , s

T h e a r e as o f i n te ns i ve , i r ri ga t ed r ic e c u l t i va t ion ha ve t he h i ghe st p r o duc t i v i t y pe r

a c re w i t h r e s pe c t t o f ood . F o r a t l e a st 2 , 000 ye a r s t he y ha ve s up po r t e d m uc h

de ns e r pop u l a t i on s , m or e c e n t r a l i z e d po l i ti c a l s y s te m s , and m or e e l a bo r a t e a nd

s t e e p l y s t r a t i f i e d c l a ss s t r uc t u r e s t ha n t he r e g ions o f p r e d om i na n t l y d r y c u l t i va t i on .

Be f o r e Br i ti s h ru l e be ga n in t he l a t e e i gh t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t he y f o r m e d t he he a r t -

l a nds a nd c on t a i n e d t he c a p i t a l c it ie s o f S ou t h I n d i a ' s m a j o r k i ngdo m s . A pa r t f r om

M a d r a s c i ty a n d t h e s m a ll s o u t h e r n m o s t d i s t ri c t o f K a n y a k u m a r i w h i c h c o m b i n e s


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32 JOUR NAL OF CONTEMPORAR Y ASIA

wet rice with intensive coconut growing and fishing, 6 Tamil Nadu's most densely

populated districts are the two main rice-growing coastal regions: Thanjavur, the

centre of the ancient Chola empire with 75 of its gross acreage under wet rice and

1022 persons per square mile in 1971, and Chingleput, the ancient Pallava heart.

land, with 71 under wet rice and with 952 per square mile (Table 2). At the other

extreme is the hill district of the Nilgiris with 0.8 of its acreage under rice and

only 503 persons per square mile, 7 most of them employed on Anglo-American tea

plantations (Table 1).

Table . I rrigation , Pa ddy Cu l t ivat ion and Populat ion D ens i ty in the Dis tr ic ts o f

Tami l Na du, So uth India , 195 1-71 .

Scheduled

Dis trwt Gross irrigated as Gross paddy as Density per Castes (Hari]ans)

o f gross sown 70 o f gross sown square mile

acreage acreage as o f Pop.

1951 1961 1971 1951 1961 1971 1951 1961 1971 1951 1961

Thanjavur 79.8 78.7 76.0 81.6 78.2 75.0 798 868 1022 22 23

Chingleput 64.9 56.1 72.7 65.2 74.9 71.2 607 696 952 28 28

South Arcot 42.7 46.2 57.4 35.7 37.1 43.1 660 724 861 25 26

North Arcot 42.6 47.7 51.2 32.4 31.5 39.6 612 671 793 18 20

Kanyakumari NA 46.0 53.2 NA 53.9 50.8 NA 1545 1883 NA 4

Madura 43.5 41.0 38.0 21.9 23.4 20.6 589 660 809 15 15

Ramanathapuram40.6 43.3 37.5 47.0 33.7 41.2 429 502 589 14 15

Tirunelveli 38.8 41.0 41.4 24.1 25.4 25.2 563 619 726 15 16

Tiruchirappalli 33.8 34.2 36.0 30.7 26.3 27.2 535 579 698 17 17

Coimbatore 32.4 37.7 37.8 5.8 12 .1 37.8 464 590 723 14 16

Salem 21.2 20.6 30.4 11.6 10.7 13.1 477 539 897 15 17

Nilgiris 0.3 0.7 0.8 7.3 6.7 5.9 317 417 503 18 18

TamilNaduState32.1 44.2 45.7 39.4 34.4 35.2 554 672 822 15 18

Source: Censuses oflndi a, Madras State Tamil Nadu/, 1951 1961 and 197 l Gove rnme nt of

Tamil Nadu Press

Ma d r a s

The district surrounding Madras city, and the small mou nta ino us district of Dharmapuri, have

been omitted.

On the whole, the main rice growing regions have the most stratified agrarian

structures, that is to say the highest percentages of both tenant cultivators and land-

less or near-landless agricultural laborers, and the smallest percentages of land-

owners. Thus in Thanjavur, only 31 of the agricultural households lived mainly

from their own land in 1961, while 21 cultivated mainly leased land, and 48

were agricultural laborers (Table 2). 8 Most of the tenant farmers paid between

about hal f and three fifths of their produce as rent, and so were only slightly better

of f than the laborers. 9 Among the owners, 75 were small owners of less than 5

acres, possessing only 37 of the total land, whereas the top 10 of tile biggest

owners possessed another 37 of the land. Fifty-six per cent of the owners, indeed,


6/11

CLASS DEVELOP MENTS IN SOUTH INDIA 33

T a b l e 2 . A g r a r i a n

D i s t r i c t

C l a ss e s in T a m i l N a d u 1 9 5 1 t o 1 9 7 1

L a n d o w n e r s C u l t i v a t i n g A g r i cu l . L a b o r - A g r i. L a b -

a s o f T e n a n t s a.s

A g r i c u l , o f A g r i e u l.

W o r k o r c e W o r k f o r c e

1 9 5 1 1 9 6 1 1 9 5 1 1 9 6 1

T o t a l A g r i c u l .

ers as o f Agri-r_ers as ~o W ork /orc e as

c u l. W o r k f o r c e l. o t a l o f T o t a l

w o r r l o r c e W o r k f o r c e

1 9 5 1 1 9 6 1 1 9 7 1 1 9 6 1 1 9 7 1 1 9 6 1 1 9 7 1

T h a n j a v u r 4 0 3 1 2 0 2 1 4 0 4 8 5 9 3 3 4 1 6 9 7 0

C h i n g l e p u t 4 7 4 7 16 1 1 3 6 4 2 5 4 2 5 3 1 6 0 5 7

S o u t h A r c o t 5 8 5 6 0 7 3 2 3 7 4 7 2 9 3 5 7 8 7 5

N o r t h A r c o t 6 2 6 5 1 l 1 0 2 7 2 5 4 6 1 7 31 6 8 6 8

K a n y a k u m a r i N A 5 8 N A 9 N A 3 3 6 7 9 3 5 3 0 5 2

M a d u r a 5 4 5 6 1 0 1 0 3 5 3 4 5 2 2 0 3 2 5 9 6 1

R a m a n a t h a p u r a m 6 9 6 8 1 0 11 2 5 2 1 4 0 1 4 2 5 6 7 6 3

T i r u n e l v e l i 5 9 5 7 10 1 2 2 3 3 1 5 6 1 6 3 0 5 1 5 4

T i r u c h i r a p p a l l i 6 5 6 7 1 2 1 0 2 3 2 3 3 6 1 6 2 5 7 I" 6 9

C o i m b a t o r e 5 1 5 5 1 0 1 0 3 9 3 5 5 7 1 6 3 1 4 6 5 4

S a l e m 6 8 7 4 4 7 2 4 9 4 4 1 3 2 7 6 8 6

Ni lg ir i s 57 52 7 10 36 38 62 11 8 30 13

T a m i l N a d u S t a t e 5 8 5 9 1 2 11 3 0 3 0 4 8 1 8 2 9 6 0 6 0

S o u r c e Censuses of india, Madras Tam ll Naclu) State, 19S i , 961 and 19"71, Gov er nme nt of

Tamil Nadu Press, Madras.

Note : F igures for l andowner s and t enant s in 1961 a re app rox imat e , be ing der ived f rom f igures

f o r

owners , t enan t s , and owners wh o are a lso t enant s . Own er- t e nant s cu l t i va t ing l ess t han

5 acres have been classed as tenants .

( s o m e o f w h o m w e r e a l so t e n a n t s ) o w n e d le ss t h a n 2 . 6 5 a c r e s a n d s o c o u l d b e

c la s se d a m o n g th e r u ra l p o o r . n T h i s m e a n s t h a t a b o u t 8 5 % o f th e a g r i c u lt u r a l h o u s e -

h o l d s i n T h a n j a v u r w e r e c o m p a r a t i v e l y p o v e r t y - s t r i c k e n , a l t h o u g h t h e y w e r e

d i v id e d i n t e r m s o f a c t u a l i n c o m e , c la s s m e m b e r s h i p , a n d f e lt cl as s i n t e re s t s , i n t o

o w n e r s , v a r io u s k i n d s o f t e n a n t s , a n d l a b o r e r s.

C h i n g l e p u t d i s tr i c t r a n k e J s e c o n d t o T h a n j a v u r i n 1 9 6 1 , w i t h 7 5 % o f i ts a c r e -

a g e u n d e r w e t r ic e , a n d w i t h l a n d o w n e r s c o m p r i s i n g 4 7 % o f i ts a g ri c u lt u r a li s ts ,

t e n a n t f a r m e r s 1 1 % , a n d a g r i c u l tu r a l l a b o r e r s 42 % . I n t h e o t h e r d i s t r ic t s th e r e w a s

a s t r o n g t e n d e n c y f o r t h e p e r c e n t a g e s o f t e n a n t f a r m e r s an d o f a g r ic u l tu r a l la b o r e rs

t o d e c r e a s e , a n d o f o w n e r - c u l t i v a t o r s t o in c r e a s e, p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y t o t h e d e c r e a se in

t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f w e t p a d d y l a n d . T h u s R a m a n a t h a p u r a m d i st ri c t w i t h 3 4 % o f i ts

a c r e a g e u n d e r w e t r ic e h a d o n l y 2 1 % o f it s a g r i c u lt u r a li s ts w o r k i n g a s a g ri c u l tu r a l

l a b o r e r s i n 1 9 6 1 , w h i le 6 8 % o f i ts a g ri c u lt u r al h o u s e h o l d s l i v ed f r o m t h e i r o w n l a n d

a n d 1 1% w e r e t e n a n t f a r m e r s . I n S a l e m d i s t r ic t w h e r e l e ss t h a n 1 1 % o f t h e la n d w a s

u n d e r p a d d y , o n l y 1 9 % o f a g ri c u lt u r al is t s w e r e la b o r e r s , w h i le 7 4 % o w n e d t h e i r

o w n l a n d a n d 7 % w e r e te n a n t f a r m e r s . W h e n w e n o t e t h a t i n th e s t a te a t l ar g e i n

1 9 6 1 , 3 0 % o f a g r i c u l tu r a l is t s w e r e a g r i c u lt u r a l l a b o r e r s , 5 9 % o w n e d t h e i r o w n l a n d

a n d 1 1% w e r e m a i n l y t e n a n t f a rm e r s , w e c a n see t h a t S a l em a n d R a m a n a t h a p u r a m

h a d w e ll a b o v e t h e a v e ra g e p e r c e n t a g e o f l a n d o w n e r s , w h i l e T h a n j a v u r a n d C h i n g e -

p u t h a d w e ll a b o v e t h e a v e r a g e p e r c e n t a g e s o f t e n a n t s a n d l a b o r e r s . S i m i l a r c o n c l u -


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4 JOU RNA L OF CONTEIelPORAR Y ASIA

s ions e me r ge f r om a c ons ide r a t ion o f t he pe r c e n ta ge o f t he t o t a l c u l t i va t e d a cr ea ge

le ased ou t t o t e na n t s : t h is wa s 56% in Th a n ja vu r a nd 30% in C h ing le pu t , bu t on ly

22% in R a m a na tha p ur a m a nd o n ly 13% in S a l e m. I l

Th e c a s t e sy s t e m ,wh ic h be f o r e B r i t ish r u l e was v e r y c lo se ly c o - o r d ina t e d w i th r e -

l a ti ons o f p r o du c t ion , i s m or e c o m ple x in t he p r e d om ina n t ly w e t r i c e r e g ions , le ss

c omple x in t hose wh ic h ha ve on ly l i t t l e r i c e c u l t i va t ion , a nd v i r tua l ly a bse n t ( a t

leas t t r ad i t io na l ly ) in a reas wi th l i t t l e or no we t r ice a t a ll . By co m pl ex i ty I r e fe r

to t he t o t a l num be r o f na m e d c a st e s a nd subc a s t e s i n a d i s t r i c t, t he t o t a l num be r in

one v illa ge , t he e x t e n t o f t he d iv is ion o f l a bou r a mo ng the c a s te s a nd subc a s t e s, a nd

the s t r i nge nc y o f r u l e s r e ga r d ing r i t ua l po l lu t ion a r i s ing f r om c on ta c t be twe e n

c a s te s o f h ighe r a nd lowe r r a nk . A Tha n ja vu r vill age o f 800 to 1 ,000 pe op le , f o r

e x a m p l e , m a y c o n t a i n f r o m 2 5 t o 4 0 n a m e d s u b ca s te s 12 b e t w e e n w h o m m a r ri ag e

and in te l -d in ing a re pro hib i ted ; a Sa lem vil lage abo ut 14 to 18 ,13 and a v il lage

a m o n g t h e h il l K a l la r o f M a d u r a, w h o f o r m e r l y h a d s e m i - in d e p e n d e n t c h ie f d o m s ,

a bou t s ix o r s e ve n . 14 in m oun ta inou s r e g ions w i th l i t t l e o r no w e t r i ce c u l t i va t ion ,

typ i f i e d b y the N ilg ir is , t he r e wa s t r a d i t i ona l ly l i t tl e o r no c a s t e sy s t e m bu t i n s t e a d

a s er ie s o f c o n t i g u o u s , a n d t o s o m e e x t e n t i n t e r d e p e n d e n t , e n d o g a m o u s p r i m i ti v e

t ri be s . The f unda m e n ta l r e a son f o r t he se d i f f e r e nc e s wa s , no do ub t , t ha t a r ea s o f

h ighe r p r oduc t iv i ty t h r ough we t r i c e c u l tu r e c ou ld ma in t a in a l a r ge p r opo r t ion o f

the pe op le i n non - a g r i c u l tu r a l oc c upa t ions a s c r a f t , t r a d ing , s er v i ce , gove r n me n ta l ,

m i l i t a r y , a r ti s ti c o r r e li g ious spec i al is t s, whe r e a s r e g ions o f l ow e r p r odu c t iv i ty c ou ld

sup por t f ew er group s and smal le r num bers o f such spec ia l is t s , and the leas t f e r ti le

m oun ta ino us a re a s non e a t all.

W he re t he c a s te sy s t e m wa s the m os t e l a bo r a t e a nd the c la sses o f t e na n t s a nd

la nd le ss l a bo r e r s m os t popu lous , t he r e w e r e t he h ighe s t pe r c e n ta ge s o f Un touc h -

ables (now ca l led Har i jans) . Overs impl i fy ing somewhat , we may say tha t the vas t

m ajor i ty o f Har i jans we re onc e s laves se rv ing e i th e r land ow ners o r ( in a f ew a reas)

t e na n t f a rme r s . I n t he we t ric e he a r t la nds o f T a mi l Na du suc h as Tha n ja vu r a nd

C h ing le pu t , t he y we r e f o r m e r ly sla ve s o f t he Ta m i l k ingdoms . Th e y w e r e d i s t ri bu -

t e d by the k ings t o j o in c om m uni t i e s o f p r i e s t l y o r a r i s toc r a ti c l a nd lo r ds o f pe a sa n t

cu l t iva tor s ; they l ived in segrega ted ghe t toes ou ts ide each v i l lage , and they d id the

bu lk o f we t r ic e c u l t i va t ion a nd bu i l t a nd m a in t a ine d the i r r iga t ion wor ks . I n Ke r a l a

wi th i ts f e uda l k ingd om s a nd f a mi ly e s t a t e s , by c on t r a s t , s la ve s be longe d to t he i n -

d iv idua l landlord or peasant household . The s laves , who were lega l ly f reed in 1843,

we r e t he a nc e s to r s o f a subs t a n t ia l p r o po r t ion o f the a g r i cu l tu r a l l a bo r e rs o f

m o d e r n t im e s . T h u s w e f i n d , fo r ex a m p l e , t h a t 2 3 % o f T h a n j av u r ' s p o p u l a t i o n w e r e

Ha r ij a ns i n 1961 , a nd a s m uc h a s 28% o f tha t o f C h ing le pu t , bu t t ha t S a l e m a nd

R a m a na tha pu r a m ha d on ly 17% a nd 15% r e spe c tive ly , wh i l e t he hi ll re g ions o f

Ma dur a ha d f e we r t ha n 10 pe r c e n t . Th e N i lg ir is ha d n one un t i l t he 19 th c e n tu r y ,

b u t n o w h a v e 1 8% b e ca u s e o f t h e i m m i g r at i o n o f i n d e n t u r ed p l a n t a t i o n w o r k e rs

on to t he B r i ti sh t e a p l a n t a t i ons . W he r e ve r t he y a r e f ound , t he ma jo r i t y o f Ha r i ja ns

cont inue to be landless labore r s .

Th e ne t r e su l t o f a ll th i s is tha t , a s Jo an M ench er has poin ted ou t , s s c lass con -

sc iousne ss ha s be e n h a r d to f o s t e r a mon g the l a bo r ing p oo r o f Ta mi l Na d u ' s v il la ge s.

W he r e t he l a nd wa s r e la t ive ly i n fe r t il e a nd p r o duc t iv i ty l ow , t he va st m a jo r i t y o f

v illa ge rs we r e own e r - c u l ti va to r s , m os t ly p oo r , o f t e n the mse lve s subo r d ina t e t o a


8/11

CLA ~S DEVE LOPM ENTS IN SOUTH INDIA 35

f e w b i g l a n d lo r d s o n w h e t .; m e y d e p e n d e d f o r lo a n s , p r o t e c t i o n , a n d m a r k e t i n g

ou t l e t s , bu t e a ge r t o m a i n t a i n t he i r a dva n ta ge s a nd s t a t u s in oppos i t i on t o t he m u c h

smal l e r numbers of t enant famle rs and l andles s l abore rs in the i r v i c in i t i e s . In the

h i gh ly p r odu c t i ve a r e a s, by c on t r a s t , the la rge num be r s o f pe t t y ow ne r s , te na n t f a r-

m e r s , a nd a g r ic u l tu r a l l a bo r e r s w e r e d i v ide d i n t o m a n y e nd oga m ous c as t e s a nd

s ub , c a s t e s w i t h d i f f e r i ng r a nks , e c onom i c pe r qu i s i t e s , a nd c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i ons , e a c h

imbued wi th a s ense of re l ig ious and soc ia l exc lus iveness , i n pa r t i cu la r t i l e ma in

blo ck o f the agr i cu l tu ra l l abore rs - t he Har i j ans - were soc ia l ly , r e s iden t ia l ly and

r i t ua l l y s e g r e ga t e d f r om o t he r l a bo r e r s a nd f r om t he t e na n t s , w ho w e r e d r a w n f r om

t he c om pa r a t i ve l y " c l e a n" a g r i c u l t u r a l H i ndu c a s t e s .

C o n s e q u e n t l y , a l t h o u g h C o m m u n i s t o r g an i zi n g a m o n g t h e r ur al p o o r b e g a n in

T a m i l N a du i n t he 1930s , t he c h i e f r e g ions w he r e t he Com m uni s t s m a de s i gn if i ca n t

i n r oa ds w e r e t hos e ha v i ng t he h i ghe st p r opo r t i ons o f l a nd l es s l a bo r e r s ( a nd t hus o f

H a r i ja n s ) , e spe c i a ll y i n T ha n j a v u r . i n K e r a l a , t oo , t he C om m uni s t s ha d g r e a t appe a l

for l andless l abo re rs , bu t they a l so succeed ed in organiz ing work ers in tea and

rub ber p lan ta t ions , s emi -proces s ing p lan t s , a nd fa c tor i e s , 16 whi l e in som e o the r

s t a t e s s uch a s A n dhr a P r a de s h a nd W e st Be nga l , t he y a t t r a c t e d f o r m e r l y p r i m i t ive

t r i be s pe op l e w hos e l a nd ha d be e n e nc r oa c he d on by t he p la i n s H i ndus . IT I n T a m i l

N a du , how e ve r , t he Com m uni s t s ha ve r e m a i ne d c h i e f l y a pa r t y o f t he a g r i c u l t u r a l

l a bo r e r s a nd e s pe c i a l l y o f t he H a r i j a n s : i n T ha n j a vu r i nde e d t he y a r e o f t e n c a l l e d

" 'Pa l l an-Parayan Katchi' or " t he pa r t y o f P a l l a s a nd P a r a ya s , " t he t w o m a i n H a r i j a n

agr i cu l tu ra l work ers ' cas t e s . s

Dur ing the 150 yea rs o f Br i ti sh ru le , a l thou gh dras t i c changes were m ade in the

p r o duc t i on o f c r op s a nd o f c r a f t good s a nd t he d i s pos a l o f s u r p l u s va l ue, t he

a g r a ri a n cl a ss s tr uc t u r e a ppe a r s t o ha ve r e m a i ne d r a t he r s t a b l e. H a n d i ndus tr i e s w e r e

pa r t l y de s t r o ye d , a nd tile i ndus t r ia l e xp o r t t r a de w i pe d o u t . P r i va te p r o pe r t y , c on -

t r a c t ua l t e nu r e s , a nd c on t r a c t u ' , d w a ge l a bo r w e r e c r e a t e d on t he l a nd . A bou t 40%

of the c u l t iva ted l and was d ive r t ed in to indus t r i a l ex po r t c rop s , and a few a reas , e s -

pe c i a ll y T ha n j a vu r , w e r e de ve l ope d a s m on oc r o p r i c e -p r oduc i ng r e g ions t o he l p f e e d

t he o t h e r a r e a s a nd t he T a m i l inde n t u r e d l a bo r e r s w ho ha d be e n ta ke n o f f t o p l a n -

t a t ion s in Ceylo n , Malaya , Maur i t ius , and K era la . A l a rge pa r t - pe rh aps up to a

t h i rd - o f t he va lue o f t he g ro s s p r od uc e w a s c onv e r t e d i n t o r e ve nue f o r t he Br i ti sh

gov e r nm e n t a nd a r m i e s , a nd p r o f i t s f o r B r i ti sh p l a n t a t i on s , m i l ls , ba nks , a nd e x po r t ,

i m p or t , t r a n s po r t a nd t r a d ing f i rm s . I n v i ll age s, t he m a i n c ha nge s s e em t o ha ve be e n

s om e de c l i ne i n t he p r opo r t i ons o f c r a f t w or ke r s a nd s om e i nc r e a s e i n t he p r opo r -

t i on o f a g r i c u l t u r a l l a bo r e r s . T h i s l a s t w a s no t , how e ve r , ve r y s t a r t l i ng : D ha r m a

K u m a r e s t i m a t e s t ha t t he l a nd le s s l a bo r e r ( o r s la ve ) pop u l a t i on o f M a dr a s w a s a bo u t

l 0 t o 15% o f t he t o t a l popu l a t i on a t t he be g i m | ing o f t he 19 t h c e n t u r y a nd a bou t

15 t o 20% ( o r a bo u t 30% o f t he a g r ic u l tu r a l popu l a t i on ) i n 1875 - 1900 . t 9 T he r e -

a f t e r the re was l i t t l e change in the s t a t e a t l a rge : Tami l Nadu ' s ag l i cu l tu ra l l abore rs

w e r e a bou t 30% o f t he a g ri c u l tu r a l pop u l a t i on i n 1901 , t e s t t o 37% by 1931 , bu t

dec l ined aga in to 3 3% in 1951 and 30% in 1961 . 2 In som e d i s tr i c t s the re was a l so

a r e m a r ka b l e c on t i nu i t y i n t he c on t e n t o f a g r a r ia n r e l a ti ons , a t l e a st du r ing t he

second ha l f o f B r i ti sh ru le . Th us Th anjav ur in 1951 had prac t i ca l ly the s ame s t a t is -

t ica l d i s t r ibu t ion in the s i ze of l and ho ld ing s , the s ame pe rc en tag e of the c rop pa id

by t e na n t s t o l a nd l o r ds , a nd t he s a m e p a ym e n t s in k ind a nd c as h f o r l a nd l e ss


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6 JOU RNAL OF CONTEMPO RAR Y ASIA

l abore r s , as i t had in 1871.

S inc e 1961 , how e ve r , Ta m i l Na du ' s r u r al c la ss s t r uc tu r e s e ems to ha ve c ha nge d

m or e d r a s t i ca l ly t ha n i t d id t h r ou gh ou t t h e c e n tu r y a nd a ha l f o f B r i ti sh ru l e ,

c h i e f ly t h r ough a ma r ke d inc r e a se o f a g r i c u l tu r a l l a bo r e r s a nd a c o r r e spond ing

de c l ine i n t he p r op o r t ion s o f t e na n t f a r me r s a nd o f owne r s . 21 I n t he s t a t e a t l a rge ,

a g r ic u l tu r a l wor ke r s i nc r ea se d f r om 18% to 29% o f the t o t a l wor k f o r c e be tw e e n

1961 a nd 1971 , a nd f r om 30% to 48% o f t he a g r ic u l tu r a l w or k f o r c e (Ta b le 2 ) . I n

T h a n j a v u r a g ri cu l tu r al w o r k e r s h av e n o w r e a ch e d 4 1 % o f t h e t o t a l w o r k f o r c e a n d

59% o f a g r ic u l tu r a l w or k f o r c e , whe r e a s t he y we r e 33% a nd 48% r e spe c t ive ly i n

1961 . i n C h ing le pu t a g r i c u ltu r al l a bo r e r s we r e 31% o f t he t o t a l wor k f o r c e i n 1971

as aga ins t 25% in 1961 and 54% o f the agr icu l tura l wo rkfo rce as agains t 42% in

1961. Every o the r d is t r ic t has inc reased s imi la r ly . In no d is t r ic t except the Ni lg i r i s

a re a g r ic u l tu r a l w or ke r s now le ss t ha n 25% o f t he t o t a l wo r k f o r c e , a nd in no d is -

t r i c t a re t he y le ss t ha n 35% o f t he a g r i c u l tu r a l wo r k f o r c e , wh i l e in 7 ou t o f 14

d i s t ri c ts t he y a r e now m or e th a n h a l f t he a g r i c u l tu r a l w or k f o r c e .

Severa l r easons f or th i s inc rease seem l ik e ly , a l tho ug h i t is ha rd t o a ss ign we ights

to t he m. One i s e c o log ic a l: un t i l 1 961 , Ta m i l Na d u ma in ly e xp a nd e d i ts p r o du c t ion

by incr e as ing i t s c u l t i va t e d a c r e age . Th i s p r ov ide d the g r owing po pu la t ion o f ow ne r s

wi th ne w c u l t i va t e d a c r e a ges , a nd a f f o r de d ne w l ea sed f i e ld s f o r t e na n t s . Af t e r

a b o u t 1 9 6 0 , h o w e v e r , i n t e n s if i ca t io n r a t h e r t h a n e x p a n s i o n a p p e a rs t o h a v e b e c o m e

mor e p r o f i t a b l e ; i nde e d , i n some r e g ions no f u r the r e xpa ns ion wa s poss ib l e . Es -

pe c i a ll y w i th t he g r e e n r e vo lu t ion po l i c y in i ti a ti ve s o f t he U n i t e d S t a t e s a f t e r 1 965 ,

e f f o r t wa s pu t i n to i nc re a s ing the i r ri ga t e d a nd the doub le - c r op a c r e age , a nd m on e y

in to fe r t i li ze r s , tube -we l l s , h igh y ie ld ing seeds , and t r ac tor s . In ten s i fy ing prod uc t io n

o n o l d l an d s d o e s n o t , h o w e v e r , y i e l d n e w l a n d s f o r a g ro w i n g n u m b e r o f o w n e r s o r

new leased f ie lds for tenants ; hence , in pa r t , the inc reas ing pe rcentage of landless

l a bo r e rs . W i th pop u la t ion g r ow th a t 22% be twe e n 1961 a nd 1971 , th i s c la ss wou ld

in a ny c a se ha ve g r own num e r i c a l ly , s inc e the r e a r e f e w opp or tun i t i e s f o r u r ba n

e m p l o y m e n t , i n f a c t , h o w e v e r , i n e v e ry d is t ri c t i t h a s g ro w n o u t o f p r o p o r t i o n t o

the pop u la t ion inc r e a se , wh i l e t he a c tua l num be r s , a s we l l a s t he pe r c e n ta ge s , o f t he

landow ning c lass have dec l ined ve ry grea t ly ( see no te 2 0) .

A se c ond r e a son f o r t he se c ha nges s t e ms f r om the l a nd r e f o r m a c ts . Ta m i l Na du

ha d a m a jo r l a nd d i s t r i bu t ion a c t i n 1961 a nd a m a jo r a c t pu r p o r t i ng to g ive

f ix i ty o f t e nu r e t o t e na n t f a r me r s i n 1969 . 22 I n f a c t , a s is we l l kno w n , ma ny l a nd -

lo r ds e v i c t e d the i r t e na n t s i n a dva nc e o f t he se a c t s , d i s t r i bu t e d the i r l a nds a mong

the i r k in s f o lk , a nd be gan wha t i s e uphe m is t ic a l ly c a ll e d s e l f - c u l t i va t ion th r ough

land les s l a bo r e r s i n o r de r t o r e t ain t he m a x im um a m ou n t o f la nd . S om e d isgu ised

te na n c y pe r s i st e d in p r a c t i c e , a nd som e pe r sons r e c o r de d a s l a bo r e r s i n 1971 m a y

be de f c to t e na n t s , b u t t he nu m be r o f l a nd le s s o r ne a r- la nd le s s l a bo r e rs g r e a t ly

inc r ea se d . I n sho r t , r a the r t ha n f u l f d l ing the Ga ndh ia n s logan o f La nd to the T i l-

le r , l and re form ac ts in Tam i l Na du, a s e l sewhere in India , d i spossessed the cu l tiv -

a t ing tenant .

A th i rd fac t or i s the green revo lu t ion it se l f . Al th oug h le ss successfu l than was

pred ic ted in the la te 1960s , i t d id inc rease rice pro du c t io n in the la te 1960s and

ear ly 1970s , mak ing T am i l N adu for the f i r s t t ime se l f suf f ic ien t for food gra ins .

Tha n ja vu r ' s ri ce p r o duc t ion doub le d be tw e e n 1951 a nd 197 1 , a t l e as t pa r t l y


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CLAS S DEVELOPMEN TS I N S OUTH I NDI A 7

t h r oug h g r e e n r e vo lu t ion t e c hn ique s . T he g r e e n re vo lu t ion , how e ve r , e xa c e r b a t e d

the l a nd lo r d ' s t e nd e nc y to e v i c t h i s t e na n t s , f o r he wa s ab l e t o ma ke a g r e a t e r p r o f i t

b y i nv e st in g in m o d e r n f a rm i n g w i t h w a g e l a b o u r t h a n b y a c c e p ti n g c o m p e n s a t i o n

f o r l a nds c on f i s c a t e d un de r t he l a nd r e f o r ms , o r by l ea v ing the m wi th t e na n t s . The

g r e e n r e vo lu t ion c oup le d w i th i n f l a t i on a l so a ppe a r s t o ha ve ba nk r up te d those o f

the sma l l e r ow ne r c u l t iva to r s wh o c ou ld no t ke e p up w i th t he ne w c u l t i va t ion c os t s

or the genera l p r ice r i se and had to sel l the i r land .

W ha te ve r t he r e asons , Ta mi l N a du is f a s t be c om ing a la nd o f c a p i ta l is t f a r m e r s

and rura l p ro le ta r ians . W e migh t a rgue tha t i t has been so in a sense eve r s ince i t

e n t e r e d the w or ld ma r k e t du r ing B r it ish r u l e: t e na n t f a r me r s f o r c e d to c u l t i va t e

c a sh c r ops f o r t he i r l a nd lo r ds ' p r o f i t a r e a s muc h a t t he me r c y o f r e g iona l a nd

wor ld m a r ke t s a s a re o wn e r c u l t i va to r s wh o p r oduc e f o r the m a r ke t . Agr i c u l tu ra l

l a bo r e r s , t oo , a r e sub je c t t o c a p i t a l i s t e xp lo i t a t i on whe the r t he y a r e pa id i n c a sh

o r k i n d , p r o v i d e d t h a t , a s i n T a m i l N a d u , t h e y p r o d u c e c o m m o d i t i e s w h i c h t h e i r

ma s t e r s s e l l f o r p r o f i t . Eve n so , t he mos t r e c e n t sh i f t t o f a r ming w i th muc h l a r ge r

num be r s o f wa ge wor ke r s doe s c r e a t e a m or e hom oge ne o us a nd e a si ly re c ogn iz a b le

p r o l e t a r i a t .

F o r t h i s r e a son i f no t f o r o the r s , I c a nn o t a g re e w i th I nd ia ' s p r e se n t C o m m uni s t

pa r t ie s t ha t t he ma in t a sks o f t he " d e m oc r a t i c r e vo lu t ion" a r e t o ge t r id o f impe r i al -

i s t c on t r o l s i n t he c oun t r y a t l a r ge a nd " se mi - f e uda l " r e l a t i ons i n t he c oun t r y s ide ,

r a the r t ha n to a t t a c k d i r e c t ly t he s t r uc tu r e o f I nd ia n c a p i t a li sm. 23 To be g in w i th ,

t he r e i s o f c ou r se a s t ra nge a n om a ly a bou t a r e vo lu t ion in wh ic h the ma in r e vo -

lu t ionary vanguard i s supposed to be the indus t r ia l working c lass , ye t the ma in a t -

t a c k i s against e xp lo i t a t i on by f o r e ign impe r i a li s ts a nd " f e u da l " la nd lo r ds , a nd no t

aga ins t tha t exe rc ised by the whole capi ta l i s t c la ss , bo th ind igenous and fore ign .

Mor e ge r ma ne , howe ve r , I wou ld a r gue tha t t he c oun t r y s ide i s pa r t a nd pa r c e l o f

nee .co lonia l cap i ta l i sm in India ; the agr icu l tura l labore r s a re the rura l working

c lass , and the landow ners a re e i th e r rura l cap i ta l is t s o r small p rod uce rs a t the m ercy

o f t he b igger l a nd lo r d a nd the m e r c ha n t . wo u ld e xpe c t t he r u ra l p r o l e t a r i a t t o

f o r m the v~ngua rd o f r e vo lu t ion in t he c oun t r y s ide , as t he p l a n t a t i on w or ke r s w ill

do on the p l a n t a t i ons , a nd the i ndus t ri a l, c r a f t , tr a nspo r t a nd se rv i ce wor k e r s in t he

cities.

Ta m i l N a du ' s C om m uni s t s t r ongho lds , l ike t hose o f Ke r a la , a r e i n t he d i s tr i c ts

and ta luks w i th the h ighes t pe rce ntages o f landless la l :o re rs , i t is som et im es a rgued

tha t C om m uni s t i n f lue nc e c a nno t sp r e a d f u r the r be c a use o f t he d iv is ivenes s i nduc e d

by the . ca s te sy s t e m, o r be c a use o f t he sma l l er num be r s o f la nd le s s la bo r e r s in o th e r

r eg ions . 24 The r e is , howe ve r , e v ide nc e f r om b o th Tha n ja vu r a nd Ke r a l a t ha t w he n

midd le - ranking castes of cu l t iva tor s a re d ispossessed , they a re capable of jo in ing

Ha r i ja n l a bo r e r s i n a C om mu ni s t m ove m e n t . G iven the i nc r ea s ing p r o l e t a r i a n i z a t ion

of Tami l Nadu 's v i l lage rs , no t to ment ion the recent f amine , i t i s poss ib le tha t Com-

mun i s t i n f lue nc e m a y sp r e a d qu i t e r a p id ly a nd l e a d to w ide sp re a d s t rugg les f o r la nd

and gra in , s imi lar to those a l ready seen in Than javur and Kera la . The main obs tac les

a ppe a r now to l i e i n t he i de o logy a nd s t r a t e gy o f t he o r ga n iz e r s a nd in r e p r e s s ion

by the s t a te a nd l a nd lo r ds r a the r t ha n in r e l a ti ons a mo ng the r u ra l poo r . The a l t e r-

na t ives to s t ruggle appear to be inc reas ing d ispossess ion , unemployment and famine

in Sou th India 's vi l lages.


11/11

38

JOUR NAL OF CONTEMPORAR Y ASIA

FOOTNOTES

I. See, e.g. Prabhat Patnaik, "Imperial ism and the Growt h of Indian Capit alism" , in Roger

Owen and Bob Sutcliffe, eds., Studies in the Theory oflmperiaUsm, Longman, 1972,

pp.217-225.

2. Statistical Hand book of Tamil Naclu,

t 972, Departm ent of Statistics, Madras, pp.94-95.

3. Op.cit., pp.98-99.

4. The net sown area is the actua l land acreage cult ivate d. The gross sown area is the tot al

acreage culti vated in a year, including second and thir d crops. The gross irrigated acreage

(shown in Table I) is the total acreage irrigate d in a year, including second and t hird

irrigations.

5. Op.cit., pp.220-22 t.

6. K.C. Alexa nder, "Some Characteristics of the Agrarian Social Structur e of Tamil Nadu",

Econ omic and Political Weekly, VoI.X, No.16, April 19, 1975, pp .6 66, 66 8. Al though

disagree with some of his more idealist inter preta tions, I am indebted to Dr Alexander 's

article and tabl es for much of the remaining numerical data in this article.

7. Op.cit.,

pp.82-83, 98-99.

8. See fo ot not e 6.

9. Badrinath, A Repo rt on the Tamii Nadu Agricultural Land Record of Tenancy Rights

Act of

1909, Chepauk, Madras, 1971, pp.19-23.

I O

Census o f India, 9 6 1 ,

Vol.IX, Madras, Part -A(ii), pp.48 0-482 .

I i. K.C. Alex ande r, Ioc.cit., 1975, p.668.

12. See, e.g. Andr d B~teille, Caste, Class and Power : Changing Patter~s of Stratification in a

Tan~ore Village, Universi ty of Californi a Press, 1965, pp.73 and 90; Kalhlee n Gough,

"Cas te in a Tan/ ore Vi llag e", in E.R. Lea ch, ed.0

Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon

and Pakistan,

Cambridge University Press, 1969, p.18.

I 3. Brenda E.F. Beck,Peasant Society in Konku, University of British Columbia Press, 1972,

pA$9.

14. Louis Dum ont ,

Une Sou .caste de I'Inde de Sad,

Mouton and Co., 1957, pp.32-38.

15. Joan P. Mencher, "The Caste Syst em Upside Down or the Not-so Myster ious East" ,

Current Anthropology,

Vol. lS, No.4, December 1974, p.471 ; "Confl icts and Contra-

dictions in Ihe 'Green Revolu tion' ",

Economic and Political Weekly,

Vol.lX, Nos. 6, 7

and 8 (Annual Number), February 1974, p.317.

16. For mote detail see Kathleen Gough, "Kerala Politics and the 1965 Electi ons", Inter.

national Journal of Comparative Sociology, VoI.Vlll, No.l, March 1967, p.59.

17. See, e.g., Mohan Ram, "Th e Com mun ist Moveme nt in Andhr a Pradesh", in Paul R. Brass

and Marcus F. Franda, eds., Radical Politics in South Asia, Massachusetts Institute of

Technology Press, 1973, p.313; Kanu Sanyal, " Repo rt on the Peasant Movement in the

Tetai Region",

Liberation,

Calcutta, VoL2, No.I, November 1968.

18. For Commu nist organi zation among Harijans in Thanjavur see, e.g., Kathleen Gough,

*'Harijans in Thanjavur", and Mythily Shivaraman, "Rumblings of Class Struggle in

Thanjavur", in Kathleen Gough and Hari P. Sharma, eds.. Imperialism and Revolution

in South Asia,

1973, pp.222-266.

19. Dharma Kumar,Land andCaste in South India, Cambridge University Press, 1965, p.193.

20.

Census of India, 1961, op.cit.,

pp.345,347.

21. Separate figures for owners and tenant s are not yet available for 1971. In the State at

targe, "cultivatocs'" (owners and tenants) decreased from 6,458 million in 1961 to 4,608

million in 197 I, while agricultural laborers increased from 2,828 million to 4,490 million

(Statistical Handbo ok of Tamil Nadu, 19 72,

p.86).

22. The Madras Land Reforms (Fi xat ion of Ceilings on Land) Act of 1961, and the Tamil

Nadu Agricultural Lands Record of Tenancy Rights Act of 1969.

23. Although t hey differ greatly on other matters of strategy and on tactics, this view is held

by the Communist Party of India, the Communist Party of India (Marxist), and all the

various Maoist groups.

24. See e.g., Andr[ B$teille, Studies in Agrarian Social Structure, Oxford University Press,

1974, pp.168-170.

(1976) Class Developments in South India

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