1946 to 1961:1946 to 1961:Three Main ThemesThree Main Themes

COLD WARCONSUMERISM

CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

COLD WARCONSUMERISM

CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

Was it a time of “happy days or anxiety, alienation and

social unrest”?

Was it a time of “happy days or anxiety, alienation and

social unrest”?

Post War Agenda

¨ 1. Deal with Germany:– divided into four zones of occupation

¨ 2. Creation of the United Nations¨ 3. Deal with the Holocaust:

– Nuremberg Trials (1945-46)• Punishment of Nazi war criminals

– Creation of the Nation of Israel- 1948¨ 3. Onset of The Cold War

– Most determines fate of post war Europe

Yalta

DECISIONS MADE AT YALTA· Created a United Nations to promote world peace.

· Germany and Berlin would be divided into 4 zones controlled by the US, British, France and Soviet Union

· Eastern European countries under Soviet control would have “free elections”· Stalin agreed but kept Eastern Europe under Soviet control after WWII

leading to the Cold War…..

The decisions at the Yalta Conference shaped

the post WWII world. Many agreements were

made but the lasting effect was: “You cannot

trust the words of a dictator”.

United Nations

Allied Powers became the United Nations

• International peace-keeping body with teeth

• Sanctions• Troops

• Member nations agree to more stringent requiremnts• Germans surrender to the

United Nations to end the war in Europe

United Nations

Allied Powers became the United Nations

• International peace-keeping body with teeth

• Sanctions• Troops

• Member nations agree to more stringent requiremnts• Germans surrender to the

United Nations to end the war in Europe

UN

Democrac

y

Communism

Limited Democra

cy1 Party

State

MilitaryDictatorship

Dictatorship

Monarchy

No Self Governmen

t

No

Government

China

U.S.AU.S.A

*Great Britain**France

***

Soviet UnionSoviet Union

• Founders of the United Nations in 1945 • Permanent seats on the Security Council.

• Replaced the League of Nations to promote world peace

Division of Germany

Post War Agenda

¨ 1. Deal with Germany:– divided into four zones of occupation

¨ 2. Creation of the United Nations¨ 3. Deal with the Holocaust:

– Nuremberg Trials (1945-46)• Punishment of Nazi war criminals

– Creation of the Nation of Israel- 1948¨ 3. Onset of The Cold War

– Most determines fate of post war Europe

trial

Several Nazi leaders would be found guilty for crimes against humanity. Punishments ranged from prison sentences up to

life and execution by hanging…...

Nuremburg Trials

Can justice ever be done?• The Nuremburg Trials-• It was in this context that the trials was created, a trial of judgment for war

crimes. But it was not a court convened to mete out punishment for the Holocaust alone. The tribunal was designed to document and redress crimes committed in the course of the most massive conflict the world has ever known. In October 1945, the IMT formally indicted the Nuremberg defendants on four counts: crimes against peace, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and conspiracy to commit these crimes.

• The Holocaust was, in the legal language of the IMT, “a crime against humanity.” Convened within months of the end of the war, from the trial’s first public session on November 20, 1945, until the verdicts were delivered on October 1, 1946

U.S. Army staffers organize stacks of German documents collected by war crimes investigators as evidence for the International Military Tribunal. Nuremberg, Germany, between November 20, 1945, and October 1, 1946.

—USHMM #03549/National Archives

The Creation of Israel 1948Based on the UN Partition Plan, Israel proclaimed itself an independent state on May 14. Arab states (Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria and Palestinian guerrillas) attacked Israel on May 15. War ended in December 1948, with Israel controlling 77% of the territory of Palestine. Egypt controlled the Gaza Strip and Jordan controlled the West Bank, including East-Jerusalem.

Before After

Palestinian Refugees

About half (700,000) of the Palestinians fled their homes or were expelled. Most settled in Jordan, Gaza, West Bank, Lebanon, Syria, and Kuwait. This refugee flow had a big impact on neighboring countries. During 1948 the population of Jordan doubled with the influx of refugees.

Israeli Jews were concerned about new boundaries

• 80% of Jewish population lives on coastal plain -- felt vulnerable because population centers were only a few miles from hostile populations in Jordanian-controlled West Bank and Egyptian-controlled Gaza Strip. And Jerusalem was divided.

• Cause for tension and eventual war

http://www.zionism-israel.com/map_of_israel_security_problem_distances.htm

Post War Agenda

¨ 1. Deal with Germany:– divided into four zones of occupation

¨ 2. Creation of the United Nations¨ 3. Deal with the Holocaust:

– Nuremberg Trials (1945-46)• Punishment of Nazi war criminals

– Creation of the Nation of Israel- 1948¨ 3. Onset of The Cold War

– Most determines fate of post war Europe

Conclusion: the stage is set for the Cold War

The conferences held at Yalta and Potsdam can be argued to have laid the foundations for the end of the Second World War and the beginning of the Cold War.

Cold War 1945–1991

• Uneasy peace between the U.S. and the Soviet Union.

• Competition for world dominance and global power.

• Fought on political and economic fronts rather than on military battlefields---------Even though the

threat of war was always present. • Defined America’s foreign policy from 1946 to

1989. • It affected domestic politics and how Americans

viewed the world and themselves. • Constant state of military preparedness and arms

race· Propaganda war----Democracy vs Communism

· US policy: Support nations threatened by Communism

coldwar

18

Potsdam ConferenceJuly 1945

• Final wartime conference• Big Three

– England = Attlee– USA = Truman– USSR = Stalin

• Stalin promised to allow free elections in Eastern Europe

19

Satellite Nations…

• Stalin never allowed truly free elections.

• Instead, communist governments were installed in many Eastern European nations.

• Main Purpose?– Protect USSR from invasion

from the West

20

Churchill’s Warning…

Churchill felt that behind the Iron Curtain, the USSR was planning to attack and conquer Western Europe.

21

Roots of Cold War

• 1.Key: Ideological differences between US and USSR (Communism vs. democracy)

• 2. 1917 Russian Revolution ushers in Communist Government

• 3. WWI- First Red Scare in US, aid to White Russians• 4. Post WWI- US refused to recognize USSR• 5. WWII- Hitler/Stalin Pact- invasion of Poland• 6. One reason US is involved in WWII is to stop

spread of totalitarian governments

Roots of the Cold War• 7. USSR resentment over fighting on Eastern Front with little military

aid• 8. US shared nuclear secrets with UK not USSR

– US developed & used nuclear bomb during war– USSR developed atomic bomb in 1949

• 9. Key: USSR desires a buffer zone in Post War• 10. Key: Conflict over Poland: free elections promised but Stalin

does not honor agreement• 11. Key Conflict over Germany: East vs. West, Communism vs.

Democracy– Divided into four zones– American, French & British zones merged in 1947 free West Germany– East Germany (& Berlin) under Communist rule

Rise of the Military Industrial Complex

• World War II was influential in the change of the United States' previous historical pattern of a small peacetime military. During the Second World War, the United States underwent total mobilization of all available national resources to fight and win, alongside its allies, a total war against Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan . This mobilization of resources exceeded the combined history of all conflicts the nation had previously encountered. By the war's end, East Asia was gravely damaged, and Europe was devastated. The United States and the Soviet Union stood as the two remaining great powers.

• Still faced with a potential threat immediately following the Second World War, the U.S. never demobilized. The two remaining powers, the United States and the Soviet Union, grew suspicious and hostile toward one another in a period known as the Cold War . This 45-year period of low-intensity, unconventional conflict between the two superpowers, overshadowed by the constant threat of a potential nuclear conflict reinforced the need for constant procurement of military goods and services including large naval, air, and land forces. Thus birthed the military industrial complex in the United States.

25

US Response to Communism

• George Kennan, career Foreign Service Officer and Truman advisor

• Formulated the policy of “containment”:– US would not get rid of

communism, but would not allow it to spread.

– US would “contain” communism where is already existed through peace if possible and force if necessary.

map/cold war

Soviet Union/China and Allies……..

Containment: Stop the expansion of Communism in Asia and Europe

US, Allied Nations and Allied colonies.

1950’s

Containment & The Truman Doctrine

• George Keenan’s Policy of Containment– Sustained fight against spread of communism by peaceful means

and force if necessary• Truman Doctrine (1947)

– “I believe it must be the policy of the United States to support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures. I believe that we must assist free peoples to work out their own destinies in their own way.”

• First Application: 1947 Greece & Turkey: economic vulnerability– Economic & military aid provided to Greece, Turkey & other

countries fighting communism

Containment & The Truman Doctrine

• Marshall Plan 1947 (ex. Containment)– $13 billion in economic aid to stabilize economy of western Europe

(offer rejected by USSSR)• 1948 Berlin Blockade/Berlin Airlift

– West Berlin cut off by Soviets– Struggle over reparation agreements– 321 day airlift of food & supplies– Height: one per minute

• NATO (1949) and Warsaw Pact (1955)– North Atlantic Treaty Organization: military alliance of western

Europe (& US) War against one is war against all– Vs. Pact: military alliance of Eastern Europe

• 1947, first use of Marshall Plan

• $$$$$ to Greece and Turkey of $400 million to stop the

spread of communism.

• 1947, first use of Marshall Plan

• $$$$$ to Greece and Turkey of $400 million to stop the

spread of communism.

marshall

• 1948, $13-16 billion to help rebuild Europe

after WWII. • Example of

“containment” • Food, animal feed, fertilizer,

fuel, raw materials and

production equipment were among some of

the goods shared

• 1948, $13-16 billion to help rebuild Europe

after WWII. • Example of

“containment” • Food, animal feed, fertilizer,

fuel, raw materials and

production equipment were among some of

the goods shared

• Provided a 33.5% increase in GNP in Western Europe between 1948-52.

• European economy had a steep increase in production.

• Provided a 33.5% increase in GNP in Western Europe between 1948-52.

• European economy had a steep increase in production.

Stalin Counters the Marshall Plan

•Soviet Union offered a similar plan----Molotov Plan.

• Similar to the Marshall Plan and was offered to the all

European countries…• No countries of Western

Europe took $$$.•Marshall Plan was considered

a threat to Stalin because it was offered by the U.S. to war

torn Europe as a way to promote democracy.

marshall

32

33

Problem with Berlin?

Berlin was in the Soviet Sector.

Stalin was not happy with a “small piece” of democracy in Eastern Europe. What did he do?

34

Berlin Blockade June 1948, Stalin attempts to starve West

Berliners into submission. All rail and street access was blocked.

35

Berlin Airlift

American and British planes flew food and supplies into Berlin for 327 days.

Stalin lifted the Blockade by May 1949.

36

37

Operation “Little Vittles”

During the Berlin Airlift a group of pilots decided to help boost the spirits of the German children.

They organized a mission to drop candy to the children using parachutes made of handkerchiefs.

Communism Spreads to Asia

• Japan: under US occupation from 1945-47– General Douglas MacArthur brings

democratization of society• Ex. Constitution with basic liberties, land reform…• Tokyo Trials: odd conviction of war criminals

• Fear of monolithic communism• Fears strengthened by the 1949 defeat of

Nationalist forces in China by Communists under Mao Zedong

39

Struggle for China

• Mao Zedong wanted China to become a communist state after WW II.

• Chang Kai Shek fought to stop the communists but was unsuccessful.

40

Taiwan

• Chiang Kai-shek, retreated from Mainland China and moved his government from Nanjing to Taipei, Taiwan's largest city.

• Taiwan made a claim they were separate from China.

• The US extended diplomatic recognition to Taiwan but not communist China.

Cold War: Domino Theory The idea that neighboring

nations will fall to communism leads to US interventionist policies

Communism Spreads in Asia

• Korea (WWII liberated from Japan, divided at 38th parallel, promise to hold democratic elections)

• 1950-1953 Korean War• Post WWII: Communist North Korea under Kim II-Sung

(USSR) & South Korea under Syngman Rhee (US)• 1950 N. Korea invades S. Korea beyond 38th parallel• South Korea retaken under General MacArthur but attempts

to unify Korea beyond the 38th draws China into conflict– Forcing long retreat– Who shapes war objectives: policy makers or generals?

• Stalemate: demilitarized zone that remains today

The Shifting Map of Korea[1950-1953]

Shift of Power: Middle East

• Fear over the Spread of communism- Leads to US involvement “DOMINO THEORY”– US can fight w/o declaration of war from Congress– Massive US rearmament– U.S. Policy in Korea after 1953: leave Asia alone for the present:

Soviets a greater threat

• Creation of Israel (1948)– Palestine divided Jewish/Arab section– First Arab-Israeli War (1948)

• World Powers take sides• Palestinian refugees- on-going struggles even today

Domestic Policy: Truman Admin. & the Cold War in America

• Tools to contain communism at home:– 1947 National Security Act

• Creates National Security Council (NSC) to coordinate foreign and military intelligence and policy, serve as an advisor to the President.

– Create the CIA (1951)• Foreign intelligence, covert actions

– Create the Department of Defense• Coordinate military intelligence and serve as an

advisor to the President

Rise of the Military Industrial Complex

• World War II was influential in the change of the United States' previous historical pattern of a small peacetime military. During the Second World War, the United States underwent total mobilization of all available national resources to fight and win, alongside its allies, a total war against Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan . This mobilization of resources exceeded the combined history of all conflicts the nation had previously encountered. By the war's end, East Asia was gravely damaged, and Europe was devastated. The United States and the Soviet Union stood as the two remaining great powers.

• Still faced with a potential threat immediately following the Second World War, the U.S. never demobilized. The two remaining powers, the United States and the Soviet Union, grew suspicious and hostile toward one another in a period known as the Cold War . This 45-year period of low-intensity, unconventional conflict between the two superpowers, overshadowed by the constant threat of a potential nuclear conflict reinforced the need for constant procurement of military goods and services including large naval, air, and land forces. Thus birthed the military industrial complex in the United States.

National Defense Budget [1940-1964]

49

Loyalty Review Board

• Set up by President Truman in March 1947.

• Purpose?– Investigate Federal

government employees and dismiss those disloyal to US

• 212 dismissed

50

House on Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)

• 1947= House of Representatives

• Investigate Communist influence in the movie industry

51

‘Hollywood Ten’• 10 Hollywood

screenwriters and directors who refused to testify before HUAC.

• Charged with contempt of Congress.

• Claimed 1st Amendment right of free speech

52

Blacklisted

• Following a meeting of film industry executives at New York's Waldorf-Astoria hotel, MPAA president Johnston issued a press release on the executives' behalf that is today referred to as the Waldorf Statement.

• The statement declared that the ten would be fired or suspended without pay and not reemployed until they were cleared of contempt charges and had sworn that they were not Communists.

• The first Hollywood blacklist was now in effect.

53

Spy Cases Shock the US

• During the late 1940s and early 1950s, America was rocked by sensational stories of Americans spying for the Soviet Union.

54

Alger Hiss• Hiss worked for the US

State Department.• Accused of being a spy for

the USSR.• Found guilty of perjury.• Later (1990s) Hiss was

proven to be a spy for the USSR.

55

The Rosenbergs

• American Communists who were found guilty of conspiracy to commit espionage in relation to passing information on the American nuclear bomb to the Soviet Union.

• The couple were executed at sundown in the electric chair at Sing Sing Correctional Facility in Ossining, New York, on June 19, 1953.

56

McCarthyism

• Senator Joe McCarthy became the most famous anti-Communist activist.

• Used the issue to help win re-election in 1950.

57

McCarthy’s Tactics

• Made one unsupported accusation after another.

• He would bully witnesses.

• McCarthyism = tactics used to advance your career.

58

McCarthy’s Downfall

• In 1954 McCarthy made accusations against the US Army.

• Led to televised Senate investigation; and American people did not like McCarthy’s tactics. His popularity dropped greatly.

1950’s

60

Change in Leaders

• The early 1950s saw a change in leaders in both the US and USSR.

• USA = Dwight Eisenhower wins the election of 1952.

• USSR = Nikita Khruschev takes over when Stalin dies in 1953.

Premier Nikita Khrushchev

About the capitalist states, it doesn't depend on you whether we (Soviet Union) exist.If you don't like us, don't accept our invitations, and don'tinvite us to come to see you. Whether you like it our not, history is on our side. We will bury you. -- 1956

De-Stalinization Program

II. Brinkmanshipa. Pres. Eisenhower &

Kennedy

b. Show that the US is willing to go to war

c. Like a game of chicken

63

Brinkmanship

• Defined as willingness to push nation to the “brink” of nuclear war to keep peace.

• Policy advocated by John Foster Dulles; Secretary of State.

64

Central Intelligence Agency - CIA

• Used spies to gather information abroad

• Began to carry out covert operations to weaken or overthrow governments unfriendly to the United States.

65

Iran• One of the CIAs first covert

actions tool place in Iran when Iran’s Prime minister Mohammed Mossadegh nationalized Iran’s oil fields.

• CIA worked to remove Mossadegh

66

Shah of Iran

• CIA “Operation Ajax” caused the downfall of Mossadegh from office in 1953. The Shah, backed by the US, formed a government friendly to the US.

• By the 1970’s American will be held hostage related to this moment in history.

67

U-2 Incident

• U-2 was designed to be high altitude reconnaissance plane.

• CIA used these to spy on USSR and one was shot down on May 1, 1960 intensifying Cold War tension.

68

Francis Gary Powers

• Recruited by CIA to fly spy missions.

• Shot down in U2 over USSR and convicted of espionage.

• Exchanged for a KGB colonel the US had captured.

• Russia walks out of Paris Summit to discuss disarmament

• Mutually Assured Destruction but diplomacy hoped to ease tensions

• Arms Race intensifies

The race begins….• Both countries began developing their weapons so as to be able to ‘outgun’ their opponents. This meant:

• developing more powerful weapons

•Having more of one weapon than the other side

• WHY NUCLEAR WEAPONS?

• Cheaper than having a large army

• They were a deterrent. The idea was to have so many missiles that they could not all be destroyed. If one side attacked then it knew that the other could retaliate. This was known as MAD – MUTUAL ASSURED DESTRUCTION.

•For some the Arms Race was a test of the strengths of Capitalism v communism

70

71

Hydrogen Bomb

• US exploded the 1st H-bomb on November 1, 1952 in South Pacific. – That bomb completely

destroyed one island and left a crater 175 feet deep.

• Russians exploded one in August of 1953.

ARMS RACE, 1945 - 19601945 – USA tests and drops the first atomic (A) bombs1949 – USSR tests A bomb1952 – USA tests its first hydrogen (H) bomb1953 – USSR tests its first H bomb1957 – USSR1. tests ICBM capable of carrying an H bomb from USSR to

USA2. puts the space satellite ‘Sputnik’ into orbit.

•WHY NUCLEAR WEAPONS?

• Cheaper than having a large army

• They were a deterrent. The idea was to have so many missiles that they could not all be destroyed. If one side attacked then it knew that the other could retaliate. This was known as MAD – MUTUAL ASSURED DESTRUCTION.

ARMS RACE: 1958 – USA

1. Places ICBMs targeted on USSR in NATO countries. Both sides could now launch direct attacks on each others’ cities

2. Launches its own satellite

1960 – USA launches first nuclear powered submarine capable of firing a Polaris missile with an atomic warhead from underwater

ARMS RACE: The failure of disarmament

• Both sides hoped for arms reductions to cut defence spending

• After Stalin’s death East-West relations had improved

• USSR proposed:– reduction of armed forces– Eventual abolition of atomic weapons– International inspections to supervise this

ARMS RACE : The USA….

• Wanted strong inspection system• Proposed ‘open skies’ – openly photograph

each others sites from planes• USSR rejected this• USA rejected initial USSR proposals• Stalemate• Attempts again failed at the 1960 Paris

Summit due to the U2 incident.• Arms Race continues as Space Race intensifies.

76

Space Race

• On October 4, 1957 the Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik I.

• The world's first artificial satellite was about the size of a beach ball.

• Orbited the earth in 98 minutes.

Race to control space was on!

SPACE RACE...meant

• That a rocket that could launch a satellite could also launch a nuclear warhead at a target.

• So space developments led to rapid advances in nuclear weapons.

• By 1960 each side had the nuclear capability to destroy the earth

• In 1961 Yuri Gagarin, a Soviet cosmonaut was the first man to orbit the earth – the Soviets had the lead. For Khrushchev it was a triumph for communism

• But who would reach the moon first?

78

1950’s Conclusion…

• Moving into the 1960’s, the Cold War was really starting to heat up with no end in sight.

• The Cold War will continue in the 1960s with the world moving closer to an open conflict between the US and USSR.