1934-36 - ERICCHAPTER X DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL METHOD,1934-36 GUIDANCEIN THESCHOOL PROGRAM...

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

HAROLD L. ICKES : SECRETARY

OFFICE OF EDUCATION : J. W. STUDEBAKERCOMMISSIÓNER

DEVELOPMENTS

IN EDUCATIONAL METHOD

1934-36

B EING CHAPTER X OF VOLUME I OF THE

B IENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION IN THE

UNITED STATES": 1934-36

BULLETIN, 1937, No. 2

[ADVANCE PAGES]

PREPARED BY

MARY DABNEY DAVIS, COORDINATOR

L. C. EVERARD, CLINE M. KOON, EDITH A. LATHROP

MARIS M. PROFFITT, DAVID SEGEL

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UNITED STATESGOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON : 1937

For sale by the Superifitepdent of Documents, Washington; D. C. - 10 cents

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CONTENTS.

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rageFORE*ORD

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GUIDANCE IN THE SCHOOL PROGRAM 1

State guidance programs 2alCity guidance programs 3

Develo.pments in guidance tec49-iques 6School clubs 7Child guidance clinici ._

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Counselors' qualifications it- 10DEVELOPMENT IN MEASUREMENT . 12

Measurement and the instructional process 12New areas for measurement .. 16State-wide testing programs 18Pupil personnelTecords 18

CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT 22Importance.of character development 22State and local school programs 24Research in character development_ _ _ _ _________ _..1* 28Organizations aiding charader development. 29

MUSEUr SERVICE TO SCHOOLS , 31Museum services ,.___ ___ P. 41 31s ..Preparation of teachers 32Techniques for museum visits mi. 33

RADIO AND MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION 36Educational infltience of radio and photoplays 36Instructional use of radio by schools 39,.Instructional use of motion pictures by schools 4,42

SCHOOL LIBRARY SERVICE 45Significant values of library service . 45

, Extent of service 46Trends and restillts p 47

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FOREWORD

This report presents a series 61 brief surveys of-recent develop-ments in educational method. It points to the growing convictionthat many of the aids and services once regarded as mere accessoriesto educati9nal method ilre nqw among its essential elements. Manyinnovations of a few years ago are.being accepted as basic equipnwntand as fundamental procedures effective in all parts of the schoolsystem from the nursery school to adult levels. Evaluations of theworth of these developments are specially 'important at the ele-mentary and secondary school levels where a large proportion a thecountry's population completes its education and where the schQorsfunctions and responsibilities should of necessity be most carefulliconsidered.

Two forces have operated to promote developments in educationali'nethod. On the 'one hand, social and economic changes have so

modified family life that many responsibilities of child development

and beha.;ior guidance formerly assumed by thé home have beenshifted tb the school. On tke other hand, certain changes in educa-

tional philosophy and recent findings of scientific reseajch havedirected the efforts of the school toward new undertakings. In bothinstances it has become apparent that a recognition of new responsi-bilities for the schools and new developments in educational methodmust go hand in hand. The school now --centers its attention on theclulds pe.rsonal, social, and cultural development through guidanceand counseling; through instruction fitted io his capacities, interests,and needs; through cooperation with the home and community; andthrough broad experience afforded:vicariously by radioonotion pic-

tures, museums, libraries, and other aids. Problems inherent in theseeducatiOnal prpcedures are discussed in the reports that follow.

In the first review, Dr. Proffitt, recognizing the present widespreadappreciation of individual differences, shows how guiclance solacesare collsidered an essential function of education. His accouta sum-marizes biliefly the work -in guidance carried on by State and citydepartments of public instruction. The extent of occupationalinformation courses offered in. sécondary schools is noted, the im-portance of school club activities tor realizing guidance values isindicated, the increasing *use of record forms in counseling and theefforts being made to improve them for guidance purposes are de-

scribed, and practkes relative to the qualifications of counselors aresummarized-. Child guidance clinics are given considerAtion because:of their contribution. to effective guidance service.

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With the increased emphasis upon the complete development ofeach individual child there has been an .extension and expansion (ifthe methods of evaluating pupil growth. New tests of ability andachievement liaVe been conceived. These aid in both the learningsituation and the long-time guidance situation. The measurement ifsocial behavior has also advanced paralleling the increasing attent i()npaid to social adjustment in our schools. Dr. Segel describes the.acceleration of measurement in these fields.

Attitudes and social behavior have been recognized for many yearsas factors in successful learning and in necessary social adjustment !4.

Progess in character development, reviewed by Dr. Davis, indicatesthe extent to which efforts to help boys and girls succeed have movedfrom generalities that anticipate a transfer of training, to specificWork, both with groups and with individual pupils. This has helpedto open the field of education for character to experimental study.Studies of the causes for juvenile delinquency and of adult malad-justment during social and economic difficulties have stressed theimportance of fhis emphasis upon character development in theschool program.

Cooperation between schools and community museums is provinghelpful in furthering the knowledge pupils obtain through theircurriculum experiences. The- guided visitations and illustrated lec-tures provided in many museums and the loan of material to schoolsby museums are described by Mr. Everard, who also refers to theinitiative schools are takirm in organizing and maintaining bothtemporary and permanent exhibits within their own elementary andsecondary school buildings.

The spectacular expansion (*the use of radio and motion picturesis described in Dr. Koon's summaries 'of national stirveys. The influ-ence of radio and motion-picture programs upon the individual andupon Nation-wide thinking are recognized as an immediate challengeto education. The review indicates some of the steps already takento deve10 the use of these visual aids in schools and in generalprograms offered to the public.

Curricula organized on the basis of centers of interest stimulateand requi-re children to seek information. Increasing numbers of

tbooschool and community" librarfes are supplying reference materialavailable i ks and are adding new services by loaning visual aidsand setting up exhibits related to the school programs. Miss Lathropreviews some qf .the factors affecting school-library services andsummarizes many of the aids related to curricula in the elementaryand 'secondary schools and the contribution made to library servicesby civic and etucational organizations.

. BESS GOODYKOONTZI

Auistant Commistioner of Edwation.

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CHAPTER X

DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL METHOD, 1934-36

GUIDANCE IN THE SCHOOL PROGRAM

Prepared by Mmus M. PROFFITTTducational Consultant and Specialist in Guidance and Induivtrial Education

During the past few years there has been an increasing temkncyto recognize guidance as an essential function in education, a func-

.tion necessary for the full realization of the potential values of schoolprograms in terms of pupil outcomes. State, county, and local edu-cational organizations have stre.ssed the importance of guidance andhave made provisions for studying and promoting guidance activi-ties in the schools. This section on guidance is not intended to givea survey of the past, an interpretation of the present, nor a predictionof the future, but is intended to givg an overview of present prac-tices, with brief reference to recent developments in the guidancomovement. These are set forth in terms of activities which areactually being carried on at the present time, and which involve adefinite guidance function, whether or not they like formally labeled

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'guidance." Space permits the inclusion of only a few representa-five programs. Some are given in considerable detail ill, the beliefthat specific examples are of more value than generalizations.

Guidance programs are taking shape with more emphasis thanformerly on methods used in the fields of psychiatry and personnel.The philosophy of guidance is in harmony with the developingpsychology of individual differences, and with the more general as-sumption that differences in environment and opportunities arefactors whiclondition an individual's successful progress throughthe schools 'affa his liarticipation in social relationships, includingemployment.

To support ana to lend direction. to the programs of guidancewhich have been developing throughout the country, and to pool theinterests of those actively concerned with the guhlance movement,the National Vocatiollal Guidance Association was fornwd by educa-tors and laymen. Through the work of brtinçh. associations of thisorganization, the help of a national magazine,1 and the cooperative

I Occupationethek vocational guidance magazine. National Occupitional Conference,551 Fifth Ave., New York.

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2 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36

efforts of other national educational and personnel associations, manyservices are now offered to promote public support of guidance andto secure the participation of civic organizations in guidance work.

STATE GUIDANCE PROGRAMS

Alost of thrNtate departments of education have held and arecont inning to hold meetings including programs which are wholly orpartially devoted to guidanve. State courses of study rather gener-ally include consideration of guidance. A number of States haveissued publicat ions for aiding and Promoting lt iini others are Out-lining guidance programs for the schools. A few States have madespecific provisions relative to the inclusion of studies in ocimpationas a part of the school program; others have guidance workers ontheir stairs. The New York State Education Department has takenthe lead in appointing a full-time supervisor of guida,pce.

Though many States still remain without formal guidance pro-grams, a munber, according to information furnished the Office ofEducation in' 1936, have made some provision for guidance on aState-wide basis. T he following may be noted:

Alabania.A 5-year committee op courses of study has outlined aplan for occupational courses-and guidance activities.

Californ,i4.A State conunittee has done work similar to that inAlabama.

Delaioare.A State-wide pupil-recoid system is stressed for guid-ance and other uses.

Georgia.Guidance has been promoted through suinmer teacher-training courses at the University of Georgia.

Zdaho.----Guidance is encouraged through the issuance of bulletinsand periodicals.

lowa.Vocations are included in the high-school course of study.Louisiana.A State coffinlittee is working for tut:. promotión of

guidance services in the schools.Maine.The agent for secondary education is foste mg guidance

in the seconCtry schools-by working _through s 3 le Principals'Association.

lifa8a,chusett8.Several guitlance conferences have been held.Michigan.An active State committee holds conferences, issues

publications, and circulates books devoted to guidance. Two majorprojects are now going forward: (1) Development of personnelrecords'for better elementary and secondary sChool guidance, and(2) promotion of guidahce and testing on the college level.

Afinouri.--A guidance bulletin for junior-senior high schools wasissued in 1933.

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EDUCATIONAL METHOD 3

Minnesota.---Guidave ang occupational information appear in

school manuals.Nebrwka.High-school manuals including guidance, safety edu-

cation, and the study of occupations have been published.

Nevada.A 'class called "Student Relationships" is in the required

course of study for high schools. This carries a guidance emphasis.

New Hampshire.In 1936, the.attite board of education published

a detailed program of guidance for grades 7 to 12.

North Carolita.A new course of study including materials on

guidanee, home rooms, and occupations is being introduced.

Ohio.Guidance is included in the newly revised manual of high-

school standards.Oklahoma.The director of instruction and reorganization and the

chief high-school inspector are cooperating in an active program

fostering guidance.Geeyon.In 1936 the State formulated a definite plan for inaygu-

rating guidance in the grades and in the high schools. The Statedepartment of education prepared ewo manuals to be used as guides

and designated a representative from a teacher-training institiition

to act as supervisor in assisting local schools to set up their individual

guidance programs.Penn8ylvania.Ninth-grade courses in school oppqrt unities and

occupations were issued in 1933,ind a guidance handbook in 1935.

South Carolina.The State bourd of education has adopted a text

on vocations.Texas.A curriculum revision program includes a section devoted

t9 guidfince.Vermont.A State committee on guidance is preparing a program.

Virginia.This State-has a required course in occupationf, recom-

mends guidance through home rooms, and has published and dis-tributed a guidancebulletin.

WisCOn8in.An annual conference of school supervisors considers

guidance among other school prókrams.

CITY GUIDANCE PROGRAMS

City programs of guidance were studied and reported upon, bothgenerally and specifically, in the National Survey of Secondary Edu-cation. Four general types were found; differing in centralizationof authority and in detail of organization, rather than in the basi6functions Performed :

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1. Centralized bureaus of guidance for secondary schools in city systems.2. City school systems with a centml guidance organization"but with the

individual seco,ndaey school Considered the unit in the program.

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3. Centralized bureaus or departments in individual secondary schoOls.4. Central guidance organizations in individual secondary schools which

utilize regular officers and teachers as guidance functionaries.'

A type not enumerated above was disclosed by information col-lected by the Office of Education in 1936. This type is the central,guidance committee organization in which the guidance functionariesare áll part-time workers, carrying on counseling activities in addi-tion to their other duties. For example, Birmingham, Ala., has aguidance committee composed of the director of vocational edu-cation.as chairman, and seven other members selected from -among the ad-visers of boys an advisers of girls in the high schools. The com-mittee is appoin d by the assoCiate superintendent of schools, Whohas guidance as one of his responsibilities. Wilmington, Del., has asimilar arrangement. .

Los Angeles, Calif., has a full-time supervisor of educational re-search and guidance, as does Oakland which has an assistant super-intendent of schools in charge of individual guidance. Other citieswith full-time guidance directors are: San Diego, Calif.; Bridgeport,Conn.; Hartford, Conn.; Atlanta, Ga.; New Orleans, La.; Baltimore.Md.; Boston. Mass.; Detroit, Mich.; Kansas City, Mo.; Albany.N. Y.; New York, N. Y.; Yonkers, N. Y.; Cincinnati, Ohio; Cleve-land, Ohio; and Knoxville, Tenn. This list is compiled from answersreceived in the informal survey mentioned abové, and includes citieswith populations of 100,000 oi over. Some cities reported officialswhose titles would indicate full-time guidance supervision, but whoseduties actually include other functions. Many smaller citiesliot hay-irig a full-tiiile director do have full-time guidance workers. More-over there are numerous cities With part-time directors of guidance.

The most outstanding legal development with reference tt cityguidance.programs came in 1935, when New York State required allcities having more than 100,000 population to provide for guidancein their schools. The law reads as follows:

The board of education of each city and sat each school district havingpopulation of one hundred thousAnd or more shall establish, conduct, andmaintain a guidance bureau. The organization and functions of each suchbureau shall be determined by the board of education in accordance withthe provisions of this section authorizing the establishment of guidancebureaus.'

In the field of elementary education little, if anything, has beendone -in formally organized counseling programs. Much is being

a Reavis, William C. Programs of guidance. Washington, Government Printing Office,1933. 144 p. (U. S. Department of the Interior, Office oqi Educatiiin. Bulletin 1932, No. 17:National survey of secondary education, Monograph No. 14.)

s An act to emend the education law, in relation to the establishment of vocationalschools and providing for vocational and extension education. Ch. 25% Laws of New York,1935.

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EDUCATIONAL METHOD

done, however, through grade placement, diagnosis of learning diffi-culties, and other services to study individual children for the pur-pose of aiding their progress in school and suipPlying_ guidance. andassistance in the development of social behavior.

Home-room periods and activity-periods sometimes found in éle-mentary schools, frequently include work whiCh has guidance value.In such programs a place is often given to a discussion of school'courses, school activities, and individual problems 'that serve to orientand direct the pupil.

Cumulative records of manifested traits and interests are kept bymany elementary schools. T1ie.4 records have a very definite guid-ance function and are useful throughout the entire school career.In many elementary schools, especially in systms organized on the8 ---1- plan, pupils in the last grade are visited and counseled by per-sons representing vocational, technical, and academid high schools,relative to the courses and opportunities offered.

One notable new emphasis is directed toward the enlargement ofduties of the visiting teacher or other official making home visits.These expanded duties frequently include guidance services. Be-havior study and social adjustment have become so allied to attend-ance problems that some cities consider their visiting teachers aspart-time guidance workers.

A characteristic of many city school proarams,--particularly on thesecondary level, has 'been the departmental orgat4zation of instruc-tion.. Specialization in school organization and supervision hasresulted in" the pupil's coming under the tutelage of so many differ-ent persons that he spenOs but a comparatively short time with anyone. Consequently. there is a lack of continuity of desirable teacher-pupil relations. 'It is to be remembered that after all the child is al

unit and that he cannot be divided up' among departmental and sub-ject teachers for the development of- certain parts of him withoutrunning grave risk of interference with the unity of his cievelopment.

City guidance programs which are school-center"ed, and which arebuilt around the teacher as a counselor, seem to have been mostsuccessful in permeating entire school systems. An example of thistype is found in Providence, R. L, where guidance is included, underinstructional work and is emphasized as a function of education.An organization has been developed to compensate the individualchild for the diffusion of responsibility on the part of the schoolstaff. The assistant supérintendent of schools has direct responsk-bility for thé organization, direction, and supervision orguidaiiceservices in all the schools of the city and is, ex officio, a member ofthe departmeni of personnel research and guidance.

This department maintains continuous records on attendance,health, intelligence, achievement, aptitudes, and interests. It studies

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pupil adjustment in classes and in school subjects; investigates artic-ulation between grade levels; collects basic data for construction ofthe school program and for redefining school aims and curricularobjectives; provides psychological and psychiatric examinations;collects and makes available information on schools and coursesbeond the secondary level ; arid assists pupils in orienting them-selves to the school and its program.

Counseling of imlividual pupils is done by teachers selected andtrained for the purpose. A school counselor in Providence 'neverceases to be a clagsroom teacher for at least part time: Instructionin occupations, two periods per week, is given throughout the juniorhigh school grades. Part of the period is set aside for educationaland vocational conferences with individual pupils. The instructionis given by counselors, who are gelierally assigned some pupils inneed of individual counseling.

Directed effort is made in the Providence program to secure the'cooperation of the entire school staff in the use of facilities and convditions which affect the welfare of the pupil. The classroom teacher,the school principal, the supervisor of schoo*subjectseach has anopportunify to 'discover, stimulate, an.(I develop pupil aptitudes andinterests. It is the. purpose of the Providence schools to obtainfrom all of these some contribution to the guidance function.

The program includes a central office guidance clinic for the ex-funination of pupils referred by counselors, school principals, orparents. A. central placement swvice is maintained where records ofplacement and employment conPacts are kept on file. Shop leach-ers and supervisors of guidance are scheduled one-half day eadiweek to contact employers to determine opportunities for pupilplaceipent. A regular and systematic follow-up program is in op-.eration, constituting a valuable source of information for u§ea- byschool officials in revising the curriculum and in developing desiralacontacts for gaiping the interest and suppori of the public in behalfof the schools.

DEVELOPMENTS IN GUIDANCE TECHNIQUES

The recogtion of the pupil's i*ed for information in the intelli-gent choice of $11 occupational interest, for selecting courses of train-ing; and for adjustment in employment has been rapidly growingduring the past few years. That schools are now generally includ-

-ing classroom instrUction in occupations is shown by data collectedby the Office of Education in 1934.4 Reports received from more

Proffitt, Marls M. Courses in occupational information. Washington, GovernmentPrinting Office, 1984. 47 p. (U. B. Department of the Interior, Office. of Education. Bulle-tin 1934, No. 11.)

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than a thousand representative secondarS- schools showed that- 68.5percent of these schools were giving formal classroom instructionthrough organized courses in occupations. These courses usuallycome in the junior high school or the first and second years of a4-year high school. . The average length of these courses is about 5weeks if the class meets every day. In most of the schools tfie cours'eis either elect ve or limited to pupils taking certain curricula. or tospecial groups of students. Frequently in these courses pupilsprepare workbooks covering such topics as:

Self-a mlysis.Ilow to study occupations.Choosing an occupation.Relation of education, work, and

success.Why people work and how they

cooperate.

Kinds and distribution of occupa-tions.

Preparing' for your vocation.Securing and holding a position,

and advancement.

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SCHOOL CLUBSTi.

The guidance function of education is often served by the work *

carried on in school clubs. Their great vaTiety of activities con-tributes extensively to the realization of guidance objectives. Therecent rapid increase-in the number of school clubs hastroadenedthe opportunities for -guidance services through egtracurricularactivities.

A study made by the Office of Education in 1934 based on returnsfrom 883 representative junior and senior high schools shows that92.4 percent.of these schools have clubs.5 The following group chis-sification, eaCh having many variations not listed, indicates the greatnumber of exploratory experiences club work may include:

Art clubs.Aviation and airplane clubs.Business and commercial clubs.Camera clubs.Character building clubs (national and

local).Collectors' clubs (stamps, coins, etc.).Debating and speaking clubs.Dramatic clubs.Farm, garden, and yard clubs.Foreign-language,clubs.Games (chess, checkers, nonathletic

contests).Health and welfare clubs.Honors clubs (scholarship, leadership,

letters).

Housekold arts clubs,Industrial arts clubs.Journalism (poetry and literary clubs).Music clubs.Nature study clubs (botany, geology,

zoology). -

Personal culture clubp (etiquette,. y-;glene, conversation) .

Science clubs (physics, chempt ry,

School service clubs.mathematics).

Social and recreationa clubs.Social science clubs.Sport and athletic clubs.

'Proffitt, Marls M. High-school clubs. Washington, (Imminent Printing Office, 1934.Id p. (U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Bulletin 1984, No. 18.)

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Properly filled-in pupil records are essential for successful coun-,seling services. Many schools are now developing and revising forms'for recording data on individual cases. In the Cincinnati schools,the following are in usé:

My high-sehool plan.With the assistance of the counselor, the pupil coplettbs this form before entering high school.

Counselor'8 record.This includes data on tests, school grades, atteiMancmemoranda on conferences, and school plans.

Study yourself.This is h self-analysis blank.Teachces (stimatc.The teacher records estimates of personality, aptitudes,

fin(i interes6.Student information.Pupils record their personal and family histories

and answer qirestions as to special interests.Cumulative record card.This card contains comprehensive data on the.

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As a fur ier indication of trends in the use of record cards it may, be noted that the Minneapolis schools in 1936 began using newcumulative record cards for all pupils from kindergarten to grade10B, a total of 62,000. Rochester, N. Y., now supplies teachers witha class record book for both elementary and secondary schools pro-viding space not only for numerical grades and attendance records,but for social relations, work attitudes and habits, and other moresubjectivé items useful fn counselin. Michikan is developing a

State-wide system of personnel records for the specific purpose of inProving gipichunce in both the elementary and secondary schools.

CHILD GUIDANCE CLINICS

At the present time psychiatric clinics, oi child-guidance clinics,have become recognized agencies for the adjustmept of probleiiicases of behavioy !Ind personality., Clinics in general are community

. agencies, not °officially connécted with any other comunity organiza-tion. However, their functional relationship to the public schools andto the child-cafing institutions of- the community is necessarily close.In some cases the child-guidance clinics are directly connected willthe school system.

Clinics are doing much to advance the development of efficientpractices in the diagnosis and treatment of probleln cases in theschools. An incidental, but important, result of clinical work isthe heightened sensitivity to problems of the child on the part ofbchopls and other agencies dealing with children; .It is the intentionof the clinic to study the child through the cooperation of all agen-cies interested in child life. A. full clinic consistsi therefore, of spec-ialists in medicine, psychology, psychiatry, and sociological research.

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Cindzinatl Bureau of Governmental Research,Ibirvey report of the Cincinnati public by the Office of Education. The

Noi 84, July 1985. 476 p.adios. made

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EDUCATIONAL METHOD

in smaller clinics, one person may attempt to cover more than one ofthese fields.

It has been. found that the clinic is of most value when problem"cases can be reached early. For this reason child-guidance clinicshave widened their scope beyond juvenile court. cases to take in de-linquent children before any legal hand has been laid upon them.

The number of Clinics, both fulhtime and fully staffed and part-time and part13; staffed, is increasing every year. More than 20t.) arepow known to be in existence,' of which more tilan half are full-timeclinic's; The budget aud personnel vary considerably in the differ-ent clinics.

With reference fo length of treatment, the experience of the LosAngeles Child-Guidance Clinic revealed, in a survey of *236 con-seotive full-service cases, that the study and treatment of an indi-vidual case covered an" average of 19 months, with the range runningfrom 1 to 53 Months.

As is the case with many improved educational practices that re-(wire a considerable sum of money to initiate, child:guidance clinicshad theist' origin in and are now largely confined to cities and largeadministta ve units. However, schools in the smaller places, seeingthe 'good r ults accruing irom the work- of the clinics, began tothink o ays and wags whereby their services might be carried to.maller places. As a result, visiting Qr traveling clinics more oriess adequately.equipp'ed for service, have been provided by a numberof States; including Massachusetts, Illinois. Rhode Island, Dela-ware, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, South Carolina, andCalifornia.

The visiting child-guidance clinic of- the California Bureau ofJuvenile Research, organized in 1929,8, provides a complete clinicwhere services are available to the smaller communities in the Statethat meet necessary requirements. Thus the cooperation of localpublisa schools, doctors, and social well+ agencies is made possible.The children studied and examinedlmay have been suggested by anyone of a number of agencies, such as schools, juvenile courts, welfareorganizations, or physicians. However, children of school age aregiven preference, and from the names suggested, the clink selectsthose cases which seehi to indicate that the troublei is not merely aphysical condition.

In all easel, individual mental tests are given by a trained person.The child is studied by a psychif.tr t to determine attitudes and in-

? Stevenson, Cleorie B. and Smith, Geddes/ Child matinee clinics: A quarter century ofdevelopment. New. York, Commonwealth fund, 1934. 186 p.

's Fenton, Norman. Organizing a menial hygiene program through the child guidanceconference. Sacramento, California State Printing Office, 1933. (State of California,Department of Insptutions. Bureau of Juvenile Research, Bulletin No. 9, new series.)

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BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 \

terests pertaining to his environmental conditions. A local pitsicianmakes the necessary physical examination, and social and welfareagencies, together' with the parents, guppiy- necessary information foran underkafiding of the case. After the records are completed, a

conference of the cliniCal staff is held and a repoit prepared. Thereport is givem to the liaison worker 11)tween the clinic and the com-

munity. This person, makes it avajlable to persons and agencieshaving responsibilit'y for providing the kinds of remedial treatmentor other form of action recommended. Follow-up reports are madeby the local agencies on the progress being achieved. Members ofthe clinic's staff advise concerning further treatment and revisit thecommunity for further consultation as time permits and need ismanifested.

COUNSELORS' QUALIFICATI6NS

With the development of guidance as a special function of. educa-tion, attention has been given to the qualifications of workers in thisfield. It is now a rather general practice to stipulate that personrendering guiddrice serviceemeet special requirements.

In New .York State, for example, "A teacher or other staff memberwho devotes at least 50 percei of his tirhe to eounselingcertificate valid for such serv in the imblic schools. This appliesto advisers; counselors, deans, d others performing ihe'cluties pre-scribed." 9

In order to make sure that #o member of a school staff is perform-ing such funciions unclassified as guidance activities, the State de-partment defixtes tile following duties as guidance functions:

Subject to the direction and supervision of the superintendent of schools,to plan, organize, and direct the guidance program of the school ; conferwith parents, community agencies, teachers, and specialists on the educa-tional, health, social, moral, family, and vocational problems of pupils ;

confer with pupi urricular 'and extracurricular problems, school poli-cies; and related% problems , ve instruction covering educational and occu-pational opportunities and related topics; prepare and maintain cumulative

keeoIrds ; secure reliable information about higher education, specialtraining, and occupational oppoitunities ; organize and administer pupilplacement and follow-up service; advise the superintendent of schools andprincipar with regard to all matters relating to counseling ; and to dorelated work as required.'

:

The guidance counselors in the Providence, R. 1., schools are allselected from the teaching staff. Teachers manifesting personalqualifications and having had that contribute toan understanding of guidance w rk are chosen. 4Speciak training is

*Certification for administrative and supervisory service: laws, rules, regulations, andinformation. Albany, N. Y., The University, of the State of New York Press, 1985.1""(Certification bulletin no. 1.),

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then provided for those teachers who are to gie. part time to counsel-ing. They Come under the direct supervision of the official respon-sible for the development of the guidiuice prograi.n. The Providenceplan provides for 3 years of inservice training for each (ounseIor.

In Cincinnati counselors are a carefully selected group. In theirselection emphasis is placed 'upoil vocational experience, personality'traits, knowledge of social service practices, university trainitig withparticular consideration to subjets relate'd to chilçal welfare, and spe-cific interest in the work. These counselors come under the super-vision of an official especially trained and experienced in the conductof counseling and guidance services in the school system.

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DEVELOPMENT IN MEASUREMENT

Prepared by DAVID SEGEL

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EducatirmarCowtultant and Specialist in Te8t8 and Mu:summer-CC,

The application of measurement to education has developed hdo,intensively and extensivelyintensively in that ihe use of tests :11

the classroom or guidance situation is becoming better defined ail4-1understood and more acceptable to school people; extensively in thatmeasurement is being extended to new adlninistrative school unitsand educational or socio-educational agencies. Generally .speakiill:.the acceleration in measurement has not only had as its objective themeasurement of produicts of the curriculum and the abilities of theindividual pupil, but also adjustménts in testing techniques to paral-lel the changes taking place in educational practice and the need forknowledge about individual pupils. Selected evidences of growth inmeasurement are reviewed in this report.

MEASUREMENT AND THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS

New'ztype testing which repre,sents a departure from the old essay-type of examination began with-an emphasis on skills and factualknowledge. Inasmuch as school 'practices vary with respect to the,time of teachfog. tire various, fact items and skills, standaidized teAsdo not 'always fit the curricitlum. Their vAlidity has corisecitientlybeen questiomd.. In recent years as the school has extended its ob-jectives to include appreciations, tastes. and preferences, attitudes ofwork, the applicatioo of principles to the physiçal scienck, file social-sciences, and elsewhere, standardized new-type tests have become still4es4.4 satisfactory as a means of measuring the effectiveness of thewhole curriculum. Since the need for better types of tests has be-come generally apparent, important developments in adapting mea-

. urement to the objectives of the curriculum have taken place. A fewof these developments will be npted.

Tyler's work at the Ohio State University has contributed ma-terially to the. improvement of testing lechniques; , He has cooper-ated with the college instructors at Ohio StatéThiversity, in analyz-ing their subjects and in defining specific °learning objectives to' beincorporated in examination items. In scieg.the basic materialwas bound to be "a list of important facts, technical terms, and prin-

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ciples which students might be expected to remember: a list of corn-iriC)11 misconceptions which the course might help to eliminate; a listof sources, both reliable and unreliable, of scientific information;colle.ctions of problems. problem-solving situations, and problems tobe analyzed; experimental data orfacts encountered in everyday lifefrom which students ,should be able to draw generalizations:. a listof hypotheses which could be fested by the students: a list of scien-talc principlês which the students should be able to apply to newsituations; and a collection of laboratory techniques which the stu-dents are expected to master." Iv An important outcome of Tyler'swork is a long-time-1)1'9gram of evaluation of high-school instruction.Tonsored by the Progressive Education Associatiosn.

Lindquist"' has shown that objective test questions can be .framed,--

so that undesstandinz cikn be tested. He describes the constructionof such test items in connection with a study of the Iowa State test-ing program. The use of this.improved type of question results notonly in making the test niae 'valid, but it tends to serve as anexample to the teacher of the type of instruction he should carry on.Lindquist gives the following as a saMple showing ¿he differences intypes of questions the reactions of pupils to them. The itemsare taken from a physics test given to a random sampling of 325Iowa high-school physics students. is

1. What is the heat of fusion of ice in calories?Ansnered correctly by 7S percent of the pupils.)

2. How much heat is needed to melt one gram of ice at-0' C.?correctly by 70 percent of the pupils.)

3. Write a definition of heat of fusion.(Answered correctly by no percent of the pupils.)

4. 'Pile water in a certain container would give off SOO calories of heatin cooling to 0° O. Ife800 grams of ice nreplaced in the water. theheat from the water Will melt

(1) All the ice.(2) About 10 grams of ice.(3) Nearly all the ice.(4) Between 1 and 2 grams of lee.

(Answered correctly by 35 percent of the impils.)W1::ch of t' e following situations has the numbvp-of calories i.xactly

. equal T I) the_ heat of fusion of the substaiiciin question been applied?11 Ice at 0° C. is changed to water at )0° C.

(2) Water at 100° C. is chAtged to steam at 100° C.1:;.1 Steam at 1041° C. is changed_ to water at 100° C1 4 ) Frozen alcohol at 9130* C. is changed to liquid alcohol at

130° C.(Answere4 correctly by 34 percent of the *mmHg.)

lo Hakwes, Hirbert E., Lindquist, E. F., and Mann, C. It. The construction and rise ofachievement examinations. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Cod% 1936. 497 p.

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In this test. each succeeding item, represents greater difficulty thanthe one preceding. Items 4 and 3 cannot be'linswered by rote mem-orization but require an understandin!ir of the basic principle's in-volved.

Intimate connection is being increasingly established between themcurriculu and "diagnostic'',the use of u-nit", and "instructio.nar

tests. The use of diagnostic instruments has been described in detailin.the Thirty-fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Studyof Education." There are two general aspects to educational diai;-nosis----one relating directly to instruction and .the other lia0viiiiro:its ultimate purpose'the discovery of those individual traits whichmust be known if educaiional guidance is to be most effective.

Unit tests are becoming an integral part of the unit of work (q.

activity unit. Such tests are generally constructed by the teacheror the local school systeni. They are more closely related to actualclass instruction than any other tests except perhaps the so-calletiintructional tests which usually consist of (Vill 'material tog-etherwith certain final tests. anal which are being developed for insertionat the end of topics or units in courses of study and textbook:.Workbooks consisting largely of instructional tests are being issuedin arithmetic. algebra, English. science. and the social studies.

The use -of tests for guidance has been increasing. In the kinder-garten or first-grade reading readiness *1 school readiness tests "are being used to classify entering children into reading and non-

reading groups.' Such tests have been found to be slightly superiorto general intelligehce tests for the purpose.14 In the other elemen-

tary graes there has been notable growth in the us. of batteries oftests which give, in addition to data for immediate instructionalpurposes, a picture of capabilities .of the individual pupil in thedifferent school subjects.

This information is of value to the sdiool in planning the pupir.long-time program. In many rural schools the traditional examina-tion for graduation has been shifted to the lower grades where itsguidance possil;ilities have been gready increased."

In the high gchool and the college great impetus has been broughl

about in the guidance field through sponsorship of the Cooperative

Test Service by the American Council on Education. The work in

Il National Society for the Study of Education. 34th Yearbook. Educationtil diagnosi4Bloomington Ill., Public School Publishing Co., 1935. 523 p.

12 ITa rris o n M. Lucille. Reading readiness. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1936. 1fl6 p

144 Wright, W. W. Reading readinespA prognostic study. gloomington, Ind., IndianaUniversity. (School of Education Bulletin, vol. XII, no. 3, June 1936.) 46 p.

14 Segel, David. Elementary school graduating examinations. Washington. novernmentPrinting Office, 1935. (U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin1935, No. 10.) 64 p.

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occupational research at the Minnesota Employment Stabilizatioti In-.:titute has- contributed also to our knowledge of abilities deeyedessential in certain types of occupations. This should be of vinuein school guidance.

A study sponsored by the Office of Education, in which some 15

colleges and universities are participating, centers attention uponthe factors in secondary ilducation which may influence success incollege. One of tbe studies undertakes to determine the relationtset ween character ratings and college success. Advanced methodsof using measurement in college guidance have been described indetail in a recent Office of Education pu1 )1 icatio1Ì.15

It is clear that there is developing a much ckser relationship be-tween test results and the use to which teachers and others put them.An impoi'tant element in this change is the adaptation of the typeof test iten to fit the learning situation or the ability of the pupilwho is to be tested. In the early development of measuring (levices,the new-type test, i. e., the true-false. completion. imiltiphb-chAe,and matching. overshadowed the devdopmeiit of other types ofitems. It is llOW felt that the type of item incorporated in th6test should be governed by the type of situation in which the testis to operate. There are many possible vapiations of the new-typetest items mentioned. as well as many other methods of evaluationwlìidi promise to develop into wolqii-while methods'. Behavior rat-ing scales, observation of activities, the 'ease history .niethod, the useof anecdotes, and variations of the essay type of examination offerpbssibilities.16

Another development which shows the more intimate adaptationof measurement to the school is just emerging from the experimentalstage. This development involves a general ekNaluation of the schoolprogram through rkting types of pupil responses, of lesson planning,bf class discussion, and of the teacher's administration of classroomactivities. It is an extension of the earlier practice of rating teach-ers, school or class situations by measuring the achievement of thepupils. This methoq 'attempts to evaluate the socialization and theinitiative of the pupils in the classroom situation more objectivelythan ever before. The timild schedule for -observation is an integralpart of this method. Wrightstone 17 has evolved perhaps the best

3E Prediction of succvss in college: a handbook for administrators and investigatorsconcerned with the problems of college admittaiDe or guidance of coHege students. Wash-ington. Government Printing Office, 1934. (U. S. Department (Pf the Interior, Office ofEducati)n, Bulletin No. 1934. No. 15.) 98 p.

le Wrightstone, J. W. New tests for new needs. In Educational Method, 15:407-411,May 2936t

. **Appraisal' of newer practices in selected." public schools. _ New York, TeachersCollege, Columbia University, 1935. 117 p.

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schedule of items to lie observed.. He has used: among others, thefollowing items :

1. Pupil' iiesponses observed :

(a) Initiative shown in preparing voluntary reports or;exhibits.(b) Initiative shown in extemporaneous contributions from mil

experience.(r) Initiative shown in extemporaneous contributions from vicarioui

experience.(d) Initiative shown in suggesting means, methods, activitles. so!l-

tions.(e) Responsibility shown in prepariitassigned reports Or eihibiR(f) Curiosity shown ID asking questions on the topic, unit. or'

lem.(g) Criticism of a contribution.

2. Teacher conduct of class discussions observed :

(a) Allowing pupils to make R voluntary contribution.(b) Encouraging pupils to make a contribution.(e) Proposing questions or theses for pupils or class.(d) Referring pupils to sources of data or information.(e) Suggesting means, methods, activities, or solutions.(f) Discouraging or prohibiting a pupil from making a contrilme

tion.(g) Recalling a pupil's attention by direct word, look, or gesture.

NEW AREAS FOR MEASUREMENT

One general extension of testing at the preseht time has its originin the newer administrative units that are now a part of the expand-.ing school system. The kindergarten and nursery school at one end

and the junior college and college at the other have creáted new

demands of testing service. Similarly, CCC camps, the NationalYouth Administration,18 school placement agencies for educationalguidance, and other extensions of educational and guidance facil-ities require appropriate tests for directing the development of theirprograms. This exteilsion of the school system downward and up-

ward, as well as the inclusion of newer types of activity, demandsthat more attention be paid to the grade placement of subject matterand to the individual pupil's abilities and interests so that he may

be guided into those educational experiences whih will be of mos.t.

e benefit to him. For this reason there .is a special need for pupil-appraisal. The next paragraphs present some'of the modificationsand extensions of measurement which are designed to meet currentneed.

Consider first the new program of socializing children. Whenobjective measurement was first conceived and executed, no measuresof social attitudes and interests were thought necessary. Today

is Cberniss, Lillian. Psychological tests applicable to personnel and vocational counsel-ing. Springfield, Ill. National Youth Administratbn of Illinois, 1936. 90 p.

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schools almost universally claim socialization as one of their objec-tivPs. They are experimenting to identify social traits and to deter-mine methods of measuring them. The most common method hasbeen to have teachers rate the pupils on various social traits. In a

recent survey by the Office of Education it was found that there was

little unanimity of opinion regarding any common name or descrip-tion of the social or character traits desired in pupils. Almost. everyschool system had a different set of such traits. This state of imle-cision or confusion in the identification of desirable social traitsindicates the point at which any advancement in evaluating must.begin. Until the school is united as to what these traits are, anyattempts at measurement will lack validity. The Haggerty-Olson-Wickham behavior rating schedules have been found valuable inhelping to make uniform the recording of actual events of signifi.cance to an understanding of problem pupils and the rating ofintellectual, physical, social, and emotiorial traits.

Other methods of evaluating social traits include observation ofbehavior and, to a smaller extent performance tests of character andtests of knowlédge of social usage. It has been found difficult toconceal the real purpose of these tests from the pupils and the find-ings have, therdore, been open to question. A. method which ob-viates most of this difficulty is the word association test." Thelarge number of response words incorporated in this type of testreduces the significance which a given response may hold for thepupil, and consequently increases its validity. Performance tests

iiof character traits which have been'most successful are those devel-oped by Hartshorne, May, Mailer, and Shuttleworth in connectionwith their intensive work on such traits as honesty and cooper-

ft.

ativeness.\Colleges have extended their use cif tests into a new field through

corpprehensive examinations."- These areeexaminations character-ize by (a) a large- area of slibject 'mkater and .(b) by test itemswh h depend more upon understanding and appreciation of thesub ect matter than upon a knowledge orspecific items of informa-tion. They are a result of recent emphasis in college on broad, com-prehensive programs of education which put a premium uponindependent study of students and which recognize their varyinginterests in attaining the goals of education set up by univeNities.

Growth in the use of measurement in pupil personna 'work andin the 6valuation of the curriculum and instruction in regular schoolsis attested first, by the increase in the use of tests and other instru-,._.." kelley, T. L. and Krey, A. C. Tests 'and measurements in the social sciences. New

York; Chas. Scribner's Sons, 1984., 685 p.se Jones, E. 13. Comprehensive examinatrons in American colleges. New York, Macmillan

Co., 1988. 486 p.

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ments of evaluation and. second, by the increase in the number ofschool officials bearing the title of Director of Research, Director

folf Research and Guidance, or Director of Guidance. A plan jfistapproved for New Ycirk City 21 enlarges the research bureau fromone director to a director and three assistant directors, one of whomwill be in direct charge of "tests and measprements." This is fairlytypical of recent enlargements of administrative staffs to provideguidance services.

STATE-WIDE ,TESTING PROGRAMS

State-wide testing in both the elementary and the high-schoolfields is receiving more attention than ever before. 'the admin.istratioq 'of jesting programs is changing in .many instances froma glorified competition where only a portion of the pupils in eachschool are teste.d, to serious programs involving all the pupils inthe scho61s. Tlis- is a very important. development, because itmeans that testing is becoming a technique which may influence forgood or bad the educational and guidance programs of large areas.If th6 tests used contain items gefired to the barest necessities of theeducational program, then such a testing program becorns a mill-stone which holds down effective educational development. On theother hand, a testing program fully aAve to the importance of vary-ing educational objectives and to the need of data for pupil guid-

, ance will be a program.. which tends fo lead educational progress inits participant schools.

I.

PUPIL-PERSONNEL RECORDS

There are two important types of pupil records now used inschools. Both- types are undergoing .changes. One type is theperiodic report to parents, and the other is the permanent recordof .the individual pupil kept by the school for its use and for otherschools to which the pupir may go. The report to parents is nowundergoing considerable change in many schools. These changesare not, however, all in the same direction. The tendencies in reportcard cnstructioii show four significant trehels: (1) There is a strongtendency kg eliminate percentage marks, or even marks in groups of4 or 5, such as A, B, C, D, F, or 70, 80, 90, etc. This tendency ismore marked in elementary schools than in secondary-schools. Inplace of letters or numerals, the ratings are usually simply S and U

21 Experimental Schools in New York, City. In School and Society, 43:287, February29, 1936.

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F.DUCATIONAL METHOD 19

for satisfactory and unsatisfactory. In some cases there is no sym-bol if the work in the subject is sat isfact6ry, but a check if the workis unsatisfactory.

(2) A n'other important tendency in report-card development isthat of reporting on social and character traits. The ratings askedfor on the report card recommended by the Alabama EducationAssociation used by many schools in Alabama (grades 7-12) are asfollows:

CHARACTER TRAITS (suggest these ratings be madeevery second time reports are made on attend-ance and scholarship)

1 2

Reporting periods

Ability to planPlans efficient ways of working_ _

AmbitionEager to make progress _ _ _ _ ..... _CompanionabilityIs friendly and helpful to

othersConcentration:Directs attention to task at hand_ _

Cooperation Worlp well with others for commongood

LeadershipLeads successfully in things worthwhile

PerseveranceSticks to important tasks in spiteof difficulties

ResourcefulnessMeets new situations success-fully.

Respect for propertyPublic and private....Self-control Controls emotions, judgment, and

actionsSelf-relianceReasonable 'dependence upon self_ _ _

SpontaneityResponds readily to desirable situa-tions

Study habits Prepares work regularly and effi-ciently

ThriftUses time, energy, and materials effec-tively

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KEY TO MARKING SYSTEM (use these letters f9r ratings., on scholarship andcharacter traits):

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A= Excellent. C= Fair. F = Failure.B = Good. D= Poor. ,s I = Incomplete. 0

(3) The tendency to report to the pa1en6 on the achievement inthe specific goals of the schools. The Bronxville schools provide anouttanding illustration in this practice. For example. in the J.Ionx-ville primary grades the report on oral English includes the follow-

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ing as part of the goals the attainnient of which is to be reported to40parents:

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Takes part in class . .. ......(a) Talks willingly(b) Talks loudly and distinctly enough to be heard

by group(c) Gives courteous attention to others

Tel.ls simple story or experience so that it is interestingto others

Makes helpful contributions to class plans, reports, accounts,or plays

Listens to stories or messages' carefully enough to repro-duce important

Has taken several parts in impromptu dramatizations

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In some cases this tendency is expressed through recording on thereport cards scores obtained on standardized tests. Sometimes thesescores are arranged gniphically so that they may be readily com-pared with the pupil's standing in his class, with his standing froptmonth-to month, and with the standardized norm. (4) The tend-ency to do away with reporting on any set form. No report cardsare used. -and teachers are asked to write a letter to the parents ofeach child in the Class presenting piiiblern.s, if any, of mutual interestand possible aid. In some cases the parents are asked to write aletter in return.

Altho-ugh these four different types of changes are going on witlirespect. to report cards. it is probable that all these 'attempts to im-prove the report card come .from a common feeling that the simplòsubjective rating by teachers on achiev.ement alone was an inadequaterévort for modern education. It will be interesting to watch thismovement develop. The cooperation-of school with-parents is needed.Just whiit type of rport will bring this about best is apparently amatter of experiment.

The records kepi of individual pupils in school are designated aspermanent or cumulative records. Schools differ immensely in theirrecording of information about pupils. Some keep a bare mini-mumenough to --identify the grade çlassification of a pupil in theelementary school and the credit classifictition (for purpose of gradeplacement) in the secondary school. Others are' attempting to keepa fairly full record of the achievement of the pUpils, their attendanceand progress through the grades, social attitudes, extr curricular ac-complishment. test results, vocational plans, brie uy history, andother data. Since research in some of .the fields coVered by cumula-tive records is still in its infan.cy, it is too early to be dogmatic aboutall the. items which should go into these cumulative records. Re-

. search concerning the value of series of records over a period of time.is especially needed.

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The more individual guidance and adjustment givexi to pupils .byteachers, counselors, and principals, and the less f4;rmal our cur- .

riculum becomes, the more cumulative records are needed to carrythe information about individual pupils. When entrance ahd pro-gression were fairly mechanical procedures adapted to an iron-boundcurriculum which every child had to conforin to, there was little needfor records of individual pupils. The more flexible the progressionof pupils becomes, and the more choices there are in the curriculum, d.

the greater becomes the need for knowledge about the individual°child. The need for better appraisal of pupil traits and abilities,better cumulative records, and better procedures of integrating theserecords is apparent.

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C HARACTER DEVELOPMENT

Prepared by MARY DABNEY. DAVIS

Senior Speciali8i, Nursery-Kindergarten-Primary Education

The present widespread interest in edtication for character develop-ment may be attributed to two influences. There i, first, a traditionthat certain qualities of thinking and behaving are responsible forbuilding our Nafion and should, therefore, be deeply embedded inthe character-of our people. In the seconti place, the World Warbrought changes in home and community life which the recent de-pression has intensified. Mounting records of juvenile delinquencyand a growing recognition of serious social maladjustments of adultsare proof that many influences formerly guiding and protecting boysand girls lib longer function. There is also evidence that incidenceof both juvenile deliquency and adult maladjustments might havebeen avoided by adequate.guidance during eddy childhood and schoollife. As a result. educational and social leaders are manifesting in-

4 creased interest in pro-viding guidance adapted to home and com-munity problems.

The following report describes various evidences of interest incharacter development and reviews school activities, research in Oar-.a.cter education, and programs of nonschool orgavizations. Thismay help to apswer the question repeated so frequently "What ischaracter educ4tion?" and to indicate what this em-phasis uponthinking and behaving means in t.erms of citizenship objectives ofthe school program.

IMPORTANCE OF CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT

A review a the history of character education summarizes some ofthe goals maint.ained by differént peoples for the education of theiryouth-'""The American Indian etimated for alertness, bravery, alitlhonor; the early Hebrew for an mtlerstanding and application of

% the 'way of life' commanded by Yahwak; the ancient Chinese forveneration, justice, and benevolence; thee Spartan Greek for fortitude,courage, and patriotism; the Athenian for refinementof personalityand appreciation of beauty; the colonial Puritan for fruptlity, tt.o-

briétyrand religious devotion." 22 To the traditional traits of the

$3 Meredith, Howard V. and Manry, James C. A brief history of character education.University of Iowa, Extension Bulletin, No. 200. April 15, i932. 81 p. ,1/4

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iEDUCATIONAL ETHOD 23,

coloniaf settlers in our country others have been added during thexperience of founding a democracy. of developing fmntiers. and of

vvoivine from anOgricultural to an industrial Nation. Some oftheql traits 'have been socially constructive while others have beennisga.tivelr nature. Courage. lumesty. self-relianoe. respect for theright:- of other-:, and neighborlines:- are among the long list of traits114.4ed of Citizens in a demoginicy, while such negative. glialities asselfishness. dishonesty% give( L trickery, and an antisocial desire forpower are amung those which defeai the ideal$ of democracy.

But in die pre:-ent t line of social and economic change certain diffi-0 culties in developing constr fold desirable traits in the oncom-,

ing generations seem of large ko,port ion. There are controversie§between adults and youth about standards of conduct suited to"yesterday" contrasted with standards for "today,." Restarch indi-cates that children have no one uniform code of mprals. Rather they

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adapt codes to meet the insistent demands of the home, the school,Sunda* scho.ol, the playground. A.dults are faced with the needof discrim inat in 0. vet ween essentials aed trivialities in their ownr5

behavior and in the activities of youth. They also find it. essential toba.4.b their own thinking and their guidance. of boys and girls uponprinciple rather than on expediency, fears'. and prejudices.

The President's Commission Social Trends points to the neeés-sity for beginning guidance in early childhood by st at ing That "Manyof the adults who are involved today in serious social difficulties werethe peglepteds. dependent, poorly nurtured, or otherwise maladjustedchildren* of yesterday." Other reports emphasize the -influence ofenvironment ulion the standards of personal and social conduct. "Re-

. . . is pointing definitely to the conclusion that the attitudeof persons in the home. and others in close contact with children, isfar more significant as an environmental bwkt or affecting the futpreconduct of children than tiny physical or economic limitation of theenvironment. Not even chronic physical ill health itself has moreserious effect .upon. the conduct of youtb than does the environmentfactor of at t it nde in the home, the church,.and school." 2$ Programsof mental hygibne which have kx.ntered constructively upon the de-tection. correction, and prevention of conduct disorders direct atteti-tion to the need for changes in school pnicticesa and for additions toboth school and community 'ervices to aid all ages witliin the coni-Inunity from the preschool child through the periods of youth andadult. life.

Much of the professioiial literat ure has emphasized social behavior.1 and peisonality development as basic educational objectives implying

Copeiand, Royitie Ilet chayacter, and education. in Health and Physical Zduca-.

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. Hìan integration of education for character with the generally acceptedKhool activities. This priilosophy of integration is expressed in thedefinitions of chatacter education given in tile Tenth Yearbook ofthe Department of Superintendence and in the February 1935 bulle-tin of the American Educational itesearch Association.

It Is the thesis of our study of chitracter education that character educar

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tion is not au additional subject in the curriculum, that it is not an extra-Turriculurn -Activity, rather it is the goal toward which all education isarrected. li4is not separate and apart from the commonly hccepted objectives in educatión, it is rgther inherent in all of them.

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* * 1),4bou1d be said that in the Iroadest sense all the work of the.'school, the home, the church, and other organizations which assist the

. individual to adjust his behavior to the demands of social livrng is charactereducation. In the school situation certhinly all the work along such lines

"-;" --as educational guidance and classification, Cliagnostic testing and remedialteaching, mental and physical health, and the work in the socialization of

the individual make contributions tt? \ character development.

STATE AYD LOCAL SCHOOL PRO4GRAMS

ligadership has been taken by many State departments of pubheinstruction in defining goals for character develop'ment, in construct-ing ctirriculums, and in coordinating educational, behavior-corrective,and iAfare services. Recently the States of Nebraska and Oregonenacted legilation calling for programs of character education.-Other States have guided character education through special cur-ricula, manuals, and hand600ks, sections of general courses of $tudy,supplementary curriculum materials, and statements of cardinal prin-eiples of educaaop. Among the-States .stiliCh have issued such pub-lications since 19W are Idaho, Indiana, Massachusetts, Nebraska,New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, antiRhode Island. Virginia has published a Bible study curriculum forsecondary schools. One of Nebraska's publicatiins-is addressed pri-marily to adult and emphasizu the necessity of cooperation on thepart of the home, the child, the school, and the community if theprogram of character education and citizenship training is tp beeffective.

Test least two States, New Jersey and Michigan, there has beena dire& attack upon charaCter development. In the fall of 1934 theNew Jersey State Commissioner of Education appointed a charactereductitión cómmittee representing superintendents, prinçipals, super-.visors, and teachers in the city and rural schools, the faculties of col-leges, inA the staff bf the State Department of Education. Thecommittee cohceded that character education takes place in all lifeactivities:kilt centered its work upon the limitations, responsibilities,and opportunities of the sch9ol in providing for grvidMp-oliaracter,

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as well as in intellectual and physical devel o ment. The first report 24isstted in 1935,- outlined the committee's ten ative Oan's, presentedguiding principles for the program, defined character, qu'estióned theability of the public schools to change character, and describe4 the,

case study method of analyzing character traits 'find social rnala,djltst-4 mentS. The committee then solicited State-wide co'operation in

assembling reports of individual and group case studié, reports ofschool procedures, and óf research contributing to cliaracttir objéctives.

_ In the. winter of 1933-34 the superiniendent of public instructionfor the State of Michigan soil& a frank appraisal of educational ob-jectives and accomplishments aa they relate tó other governmentalproblems. He dele.gated this app"rgistil to, the Michigan Educ-a. tioliaiPlanning Copmission, representing organized taxpaing groupsthroughout the State, as well as other interested organizations,suclias the Arherican AssociaIto, of. University Women and the Parent-Teachers Association. From 1 commission's program there de-veloped a series of pointed questions 'elating to tin overemphasisupon academic formalism in the school curriculums. It was pointedout that "the virtues that are peculiarly essentiaTio- successful livingin a democracy-a-lio,nesty and cooperation= -seentato be buried in thegrowing consciousn'ess of crime, selfishness in bilsifiesg practice, faith-lessness in publi-c office, narrow aiul ill-founded thinking, and generalapathy to social evils." It swas also pointed out ihai, "to build a mort:effective and humanitarian, economic, social, and political structure,it is nkessary to produce a type of citizen who recognizes his socialresponsibilities and who is willing to make a cofitribution to the im-

. provement of the social group * * * Many belkevé this end canbe accomplished by giving greater emphasis in the school program tocharacter values -and gy evaluating all instruction and -activities interms of charactér outcome." 25 .. .

There followed the formation of committees to carry a long-timeprojct within the State : (1) To coordinate forces already at workin the field of character development; (2) to give greater stress topersonality development in tie curriculum; (3) to shape extracur-iicOar.

influences to contribute more directly to the pupil's- ability tome,et the experiences of daily life ; (4) to provide more individualguidance by teachers and specialists for both normal and maladjusted'children ; (5) to adjust teacher-training programs to character educa-tion objectives; and (6) to promote parent. education. .

Under the direction of a cómmittee of schoolmen, a State-wide pro-gram was driifted, and this program has had the active support of

JP" New Jersey, Department of Public. Instruction.. Character emphasis in education- Or.

elementary and high schools. Bulletin No. 1., June 1985. 59 p.40ELk41 F, Educational reconstruction in Michigan. In The Nations Schoids,

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an organii zion of school-board members with the Michigan Councilon. Education, represeniing 26 State-Wide organizations actively en;gaged in education. serving in a consultative, capacity. Throughoutthe Sn-tte special projects have been carried on by school systems andby research centers in colleges and universities.26..

A study wifilin a city school unit. known as the CongressionalDenionstrat ion in Character Educati(;n. was developed in 1934 iiWashinjztifii. D. C. The study was initiated after liilarings Con-ducted by the United States Senate Subcommittee on Racketeerin.trand Crime gave évidence to prove that, the average age of prison pop-ulation is 23 yèars. that the largest age group is found at 19, ánd Thatmost criminal careers begin in childhood." After reviewing the ap-parent causes for crime and delinquency, Dr. Rtiyal S. -Copeland.chairman of the Senate committee conducting the hearings, cited tlwProcedure a physician wbuld follow in diagnosing aild 'trehtingPhysical disorders. He then asked educators whether it was nor,time for those in the educational system who are resOnsiii.).1e for thehealth of character in children to givé-precedonce to prescyiptions forMoral health over academic work.

The goal formulated for the denmnstration was ts) accumulate a. body*.of experiences on which I1I()11fiC1tÏOfl ip s.Caltool organization.administration. supervisi()I1. nit'thodFf of teaching. and materials ofinstru,ctiotk could 'be based to the eliti hat the school gives maximum

-vetinsidératit4 to the persona1 fuld social neqs of pupils on the va-..

rictus s..cligol levels. Ten schools were designated as experimental_

centers. . The regular_staff. 9f each cewer was 'supplemented by acounselor and a swan corps of research assistants. The director ofthe whore project .4is Assisted by specialits in the centers studiedand An.t-41,-isory committee guided the &Moment of the demon-stitatiohr's program. .

The .fi.erds of study included-records. guidance; curricutum,dial yawl preventive *ork. and in-ser.vice training of teachers IndsAmol administrators. Four essentials accepted for the program of, .

the :study weré: (1) It must be based,.upolt pfinciples of child growth.ttimi development (0 it inuV 1;e a delionstration of Principles ac-

functioning in :a PubJiic-sckool system: (3) it must . so ev,olveas to become tn integral part oi the school system as a whole apdmust rt4eult ifi.recommend4ions for its continuativ: (4) its methpLi,itnd technicpies qrke'd out cooperatively by teachers andprincipals, with the help of spèchilists and must be tested experi-,

t. .01

Voelker, Paul 'A program of demonstration and research! In The* BducatinaalRecord, April 1935.''AvaM1ngton. D. C., The Americiin Council OD Education. P. 207-210..

qharterK Copeland experiment in the Distiit4ot Co1eMb1a. .In The Edu-catiOnal ReecIÇetóber 1934. Washington, D. C. The Amersican Council on:EducatiOnP. 4042-4-M:

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nientally before recommendation for inclusioli in thewhole schoolQvgem.

Wit the curtaifliient of funds the study lost a year of the timeoriginally anticipated for it. White the final report Of the- 2,-yeardemast ration is not yet prepared. the pntject director has repoyteddie proceduves followed in each field of :ttidy and has prepared anunival of the procectures found helpful in the character educationxperimental c.enters.A comparison 'of character education progranF. among many dif-

fere-nt city and county ;,c114)4)1 :-ystenis -41tows a desirable lack of uni-formit V. Some include certain characteristics in common. such as;

) gradual' over a period of years with continuingAudies of the needs and resources of the co.mmunity; (.2) an ulti-mate. if gradual, extension of the program to inciude 1)44 h element ar.yand- secondary schbol grades. beirinninlr most frequently with thekindergarten-primary grades: (3) a procedure based upon studiesand research bringing teaching and administrative staffs into cii-operative working units and encom4ing. Pupils to participate. inschool government ; (4) an exp_ansion of home and community co-operation with the sc1poo1:4%1nd an interchange of service,.

Methods of conducting character education in the classroom fall .

into three general groups: (1) A direct method whereby characu;rtraits. are thrown into relief at a specified time in-the year's programor are given special periods in the weekly or daily progratp; (2) pnindirect mefhod of utilizing vicarious experiences in connection withregglar.school stibjects and with no sp.esbjal clasi period assigned to

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character education; and (3) a combin-ation of direct 'ana indirVetmetluids throalgh using all appropriate experience's 'to emphasizecharacter traits and give specific attention to their de'velopment.29

All three methods are exkessed in iirions coursel' of study. boththose dealing specifically with education for ocharac;ter and those,

dealing with the social studies.Certahi school itdmiinist rat ion have been directed toward

the improvement of childrell's attitudes and behavior. They includeadflOtments in the grouping and prqmoting of impils to helji- prevent-school fairure .and its attendant negative effect's upbK behavior; ex-

pti11sijo18 of cumidative or pe,rmanent 'records. to nfake availaBle in-formation .about the personal anti home life of the plipils for pm.-

pos.es of guidawe and a reorgauization of the periodic reports of

Successful living. SeattJe, Wash., Public Sehopts, 1935. 239 p.

The social studies, A course of study 'for grades one tb six, (Ch. II. Character educa-tion) Slate o(.Indiana, Department of Public Instruction. itulletin -114. 1935. 247 p.

Character. emphasis In education. Bibliography. For -'elementary and lokigh schools.New Jersey, Departnient of Public Instrucilop, October 1935. 49 p. (Mimeographed.)

"National Education Absociatfon, -Department of Classroom Teacheys. Seventh Yeiti-,book. The Classroom teacher character education, 1932. 272 p;

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progress sent to parents to place emphasis upon the pupil's habiNof work and social idjustments and the relation of these to progre--in school subjects.3° In contributing to the general service of build-ing stable persionalities many high schools have added counselorand student advisors to their staffs and many elementary school:-have added experts in diagnostic and remedial teaching. Priaii

-protecting the children's physical hesith have been related ,i1.19neclosely to behavior gujdance." In addition, clubs and service sc;eties have been orga.nized for elementary and secondary school pupilsunder, such titles as Safety Patrols. Civic Pride Juniors. and Junior

d Citizens to entrust the meiiibers with definite social responsibilitie.-Still another aid considered evecially vital for character develop-ment of school pupils is the poised and socially adjusted teacher.. In

re- recognition of the 'influence which the teacher's personality lwrideals, attitudes, and emotional controls have upon the personal andsocial adjustlnents of her pupils, courses in mental hygiene have beenadded to the curriculum in some teacher-preparation institutions andto the-iv-service work with experienced teachers.32

RESEARCH IN CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT

Experimental study ip character development is a recent additionto research techniques. The delay in introducing scientific techniquesinto studies of character Oucation has been due in large part to diffi-culties in establishing and defining character traits to be studied and

-in securing objective instruments for measuring qualities of growththt seem intangible and yet are recognized as controlling influences

s upon habit formation and learning abilities. To meet these difficul-ties many of the recent studies have defineri 'problems of behaviorin specific situations, and have refined the technique of studying them.Fot exam"*, a -recent cliaical. stu4 ,summlrized in a reviews.of cur:rent research " reports that the best method of character educatitinis one that prevents or reduces the moral and emotional conflicts ofthe individual. In other wordi, "if fear of punishment and die de-sire to surpass another chird intschool ace as motivations for lyingand cheating, then the removal of the feali of punishment and thecompetitive .motive in school is the lob for character education, notthe attack on lying and cheatini itself." Ancither clinical study re-

Rartshorrie, yugh. Character ed*on and school administrition. in EducationalProgress and 'Sclool Administration-0a symposium. New Haven. Yale University Press,1936. 400 p.al Hughes, William L. Character building dind health, the role of physical education. InHealth and Physica) Education, 7: 9, January 1936.

Goliirich, Leon W. Influence of tenter personality upon pupil adjustment. IN ThePrincipal; June 1986. 11 p. s

1$ American Educational Research Assodationr Special methods and psychology of theelementary.kbool subjects., Vol. V, no. 1; February 1934. &vie* ofeducational researcb.Ch. III, Vharacter education. P. 8146.

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t ports an attack on economic and social problems as a major procedurein character development. It involves the use of a series of lessonsprepared to teach children to be open-minded and non-gullible to,propaganda about questions involving attitudes toward international, -

industrial, economic and racial problems. The result of the studyshows that the experimental group im1)1'.6ved according to-the criteriaset up by the investigator.

A recent summary of studies of methods of character educationincluks both methods used in classroom instruction and those of aless forita1 )441tur.e involved in athletics and other`school activities.Two studies be cited among th..ose in the first group. Oneshowed that growth in character results from social pressure. personalexperience; and vicarious experience mad concludes that the provinceof the schóol is primarily to furnish the vicarious experience. The--

other assembled and classiffilid sucli proposed methods of characterdevelopment for .cfassroom use as : Direct attack through precepts.codes, etc.; teacher's marks and self-ratings: incidental trainingthrough regular school subjects: discussions: first-hand experiencing;and a combination of the last two. Among studies bearing on non-classroom instructi6n three may be cited : One indicated that if specialeffort is made. improvement in character can be achieved throughathletic programs: another stuay described method's employed?firough club Activities for developing character traits: and a thirdtitudy emphasized the necessity of considering the cqoperation of thetome in any plan of character educations

In another summary of research,"4 studies are grouped into sevenmajor categories: M.oral character. delinquency. personality adjust-

.ment, attitudes, opinions and prejudices, sex education, and curricu-hurl. construclion. These groupings point again to .the variety ofattacks upon character development.

4

ORGANIZ 1TIONS AIDING CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT

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Reports from 40 organizatiohs working directly Niith youth forpurposes of character develoAnent indicate. a universal interest inthe character, development of boys and gir1s.35 Reports of the pro-grams of activities offered by these trganizations,show a wide varia-tion *and a fortunatet lack of regimentation. The vaisiety (4 interestsof youth° toward which tlf*i- organizations' appeal is directed is indi-cated .by the following classifications under which .the reports aregrouped : Independent societies like the Scoilts, junior programs aadult groups suchias the Rotary, Kiwanis, and De .Molay ; plans con-

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National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. Tenth Yearbook. .

Character education, 1932. 535 p.Pendry, Elizabeth R. and Hartshorni, Hugh. Organisations for youth, leifture time, and

character building procedures. New York, McGraw Bill Book Co., 1935. 359 p.a

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30 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION. 1934-36

nected with school programs. such as Knighthood of Youth: planeuNuing some special intere-t siich as sportsmanship and natural

sciente: and programs developed by interreligious groups of whichthe . M. C. A. an example. These programs are adapted to,different ages of boys and girls and ti4- a drastic need caused chieflyhv the lack of family life. crowded living conditions, and those excite-ment of life hih carry no :,timulus for contemplation or for calmconideration of 'individual responibilities.

.1. not he r group of organizations-, works chiefly 'to inform its mem-bers about the movement of character education and to enlist theircooPeration in studies of belk4vior guidance at both the school andadult age levek Reports of committee prop.'ams and of conventionproceedings and the yearbooks of national and local parent-teacher'associations and of educational and social welfare organizations pub-lished during the past 5 years indicate their active participation inthis type of program. A third type of organization, indicatedearlier, is working in the field of research to discover the situationand th methods fhrough which character dévelopment may Lest beguided.

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Eilitor American Axxociatitin 9!'11u81:utivl

The basiq of all museum instruction' i -the material objecttheoriginal work of nature or of man. Museum-school aticooperation issuccessful in doing its pecilliar part of the educational job insofar asit gives the pupil a chapce to see and. if posible. to handle objects.This needs to be emphasized. since material has a way of being in-convenient for one reason or another. anal there s always the tempta-tion. even in a iiìiietiin, to substitute quantity-producet1 "vi.sual mate-

.lass methods of instruction in the classroom are especiallyconducive of this

Just as the schools and èolleges have been providing laboratories.-carpenter shops, and other facilities for handling materials, so theyhave been making increasinedemand-.00.the museums for the oppor-tunity to see and handle objects of mamy kinds. This demand on themuseums is not the result of pedagogical thpught alone: it is partlythe result pf necessity for more and more knowledge of a greater anti(Treater number of materialsnew materials a well as old. Thevalue of objects in making otherwise 1iiiv ideas real lsoimportant.

MUSEUM sERVICES oThe museum has two ways of giving the' (!11(iol pupil the oppor-

tunity to see and handle objectsby bringing him tgo the museuma.nd by sending museum material to ,the .citool. All museums areusing to some extent the first of these.. methods: most of the activemuséums are using the second.

Visits to the museum are effective -according to the proportifin ofthe time at the müseum spent in examiiiing exhibits or other .mate-rial, the skill and methods of the docents in demonstrating the ma-terial or ih'guiding the visitot in its observanc*e, and the .previousPreparation for the experience: Most museums in;tke gime specialprovision for visiting sthool classes. but ihere sms to be .no gen-erally acceptea procedure. In a great luau museums, at least. a.part of the time of the visiting group is spent in the lecture hall.and unless the group is small, file pupils ex.perie.nçe in this the

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32 BIENNIAL SURyEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-S6

Jamiliar mass methods of the school auditorium. Lecture hail timemay be 15 minutes or more. The remainder of the museum time ofthe .class is spent in exhibition halls, and the use of this time maybe directed by museum docents through informal talks, museumgames, or group discussions. In some museums the entire period ofthe museum visit is spent in the exhibition galleries under guidanceof the docents, but this method is generally regarded as a concessionto the practical difficulty of discussion with large classes.

The program for a year's work may be laid out systematically.In one city a plan worked out by the museum in cooperation withthe Board of Education provides for oné visit each year for each ofthebofour upper grades in all the public schools, all classes from thesame grade studying at the museum one general topic during theyear. In another city regular, programs and gallery talks correlatedwith the course of study in the different grades 'are given in coopera-tion with the school authorities. n another city classes visit tile

I ,museum by appointment nlade with the iridividual teacher. Theseexanipies ivdicate the range of procedure.

-School work is often supplemented in the miiseum by direct rela-tions with the child during his own time..., There are clubs and othdrgroups meeting at the miuseuiti after school hours, voluntarily or infulfillment of requirements set by the school teacher; projects, storyhours, hobby clubs. and entertainments of various kinds. sometimesarranged especially for school classes but more often open to 'allchildren.

The lemUng of material from the museum to the teacher for usein the clasroom is P.erhaps the most highly developed. though notthe most gefieralry tied. of museum ). services to the schools. In someOties, as St. Louis and 'Cleveland, the school authorities maintaintheir own schoohsystem museum, the chief function of which is' toprer):6e and circulate school material. Iii scores of cities public,museums Provide the sante sort of servicë as the schrl-operatednmseums. studying the needs of the schools in Tespect to objects andlantern slides, and circulating material in regular or special sets;catalogs and requisition forms are prepared for the use of teachers;motor trucks make regular deliveries. In most cities the funds Dec-essary for really adequate service are not available and the museumsdo the best they can with what they have.

PREP.4R.4TION OF TEACHERS ,

The next most. serious obstacle after lack of money is the indiffer-file 'of many teachers with %respect to illustrative materials. Two

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years ago Laurence Vail Coleman 36. described the --situation asfollows: 4

--MAny !teachers are not able to take entire advantage of illustrative materialbecavse they liltk the backgromjd which alone can simplify the selecting ofobjects from a catalog and the using of these objects in the classroom. It.is a clear indication of the importance of illustrative material, and not anargument against It, that haAgrojind is required for its choice and that chil-dren make searching demands upon teachers in-ihe presence of such objects.This teacher-training problem is one for the normal 'schooland also for themuseum in cooperation with the normal school. Thf attention now beinggiven it is nOt enough.

However, some progress has been made generally in teacher train-ing. and a few museums have made a special 1)o10 of it. Repliesto a questionnaire sent to 240 museums by Mrs. Grfiée Fisher Ram-sey, of the American Museum .of Natural History, in 1933, revealedtha 52 museums were offering courses of one kind or another .forteachers." Last year the American Museum of Natural Histprygave. 10 courses f?r teachers in service or in training and sponsored2 summer field cònrses in natural history for teachers; the Metro-politan Museum of Art gave 7 courses for -teachers during the year.rñ courses are.calculated .not only to familiarize the teachers withthe resources of theinAlseums and provide backgromid, but also to in-.elude practical demonstrations of how nmseuni matevial is used- inthe classroom ahd how the visit tothe exhibition halls niay be cor-related with the course of study in thd schools. The Brooklyn Bo-anie Garden gave courses for teachers in botany, .nature study,h rticulture, greenhouse work, plant culture, genetics, and tre6s ands rubs. Obviously only large.- museums with well-equipped depart-nents of instruction can conduct, such, p'iograms ; for most institu-tions a single course intended to acquaint the teachers of the citywith the collections and facilities is all that can be expected of themuseum. Hom ever, with the steady increase in the nundwr of mu-scums and the pressure for expv.i. n of their school service thetraining of teaChers in the use .o is service is certain to become

and mcire important.

.TECTINIOES FOR MUSEUM VISITS

The technique of the museum visit and the use of lending materialhave advanced by the method of trial and error fir many years.Recently there has appeared an interest in studying procedures pedaL

a6 Aid from museums to elementary teaching. National Education Association, Depart-ment of Elementary School Principals. Thirteenth- Yearbook. June 1934. Pp. 240-243.

Iltreèum coursis for-teachers. The ,Museum News, December 1, 16334 Pp. 6-8.

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gogically. A notable instance is te recently completed experhnent alstudy conducted at the Buffalo INfuseum of Science. wider auspicesfirst of the American AssociaGon of -1Iuseums and later of YaleUniversity." Some of the conclusions of this study are that childrenwho visit a museum 40 learn about a subject ,not closely integratellwith Weir school studies of the moment profit materially from sp.-cific Preparation for the visit, as by a silent readin!r lesson on thesubject ; that for sixth. seventh, and eighth grades the children learnas,much from 2 hours spent in examining the exhibits with no formallecture in the auditorium as they do from a combination of alectureFasting not less than 15 minutes and the relnainder of the time incontact with the exhibits; that children fift.hgratleof the appear t(;'benefit from the 15-minute auditorium lecture; 'that in none of thegrades did the chihlren profit more from a 30-minute lecture thanfrom a 15-minute lecture and a tour of the museum increased by 15minutes. Conclusions reached in regard to methods of presentini:fie exhibits to the pupils on tour of the museum are that fifth-gradechildren learn more if the docent lectures lkfore the cases than.ifmuseum, game cards or the group discussion method is used: thatfor the sixth grade the three methods in order of effectiveness aregame getfds, lectures before the cases, discussion; and that for theseventh- and eighth-grade childeen the discussion method is mosteffective. However, difference in teaching ability of the docents i-erefound to be the most important factor of all.

A recent inquiry by the Newark Musemn brought out the fact that'museums which have regular activities for preschool children fidlowthe general edficational practice of separating the .children into aspecial age group. Combining groups of y'ounger and older childrenhas been found generally to drive the older childten away 9r to de-tract from their enjoyment. _,Either, definite times are set aside for..,.,,the younger ones, or a separatoom.and leader is provided. Out of

435 museums that answered the Newark question.naire. 11 have regu-lar organized activities for children unaer T; others admit them tilstory hours or motii'm pictures. -

.With the exception of seven good muselon's, six art and one Oneral.

in preparatory schools, museums in school buildings for' the use ofthe particular schools have been only moderately successful. Tileircondition and their -influence have a tendency to wax and wane,usually with the degree of enthusiasm displayed by one individualteacher who takes 1'espon4hity for the. work. A partictilarly suc-cessful museum of this sort tends gradually to develop into a sepa-rate institution, eventuany mailitained by the board of education fdr

A1 II4 Melton, Arthur W., Feldman, *Nita Goldberg, ,and Mason, Charles W. riperhnentalitud4e4 of the education cof 'children in a muse= of science. Public5tions of the An ert-catiiiisociatIon at Museums, New *Series, No. 0. Washington, 030.

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the benefit of all the schools; more of them . fall into neglect on thedeparture or loss of enthusiasm of the p4rtieu1ar teacher.. In gen-eral, it has been fot.lnd thavtod much help on the part of the largecity museum, especially in the way of supplying material. results inless effectiveness: that, school museums built up by teachers andpupils through their Own efforts endure longer and exert greaterinfluence. This does not mean that assistance 'from the city museum

. is not needed, but that it is most valuable when it takes the directionof guidance rather than area help. in the fo-rmat ion of collections.Such guidance is always available to,teachers or school boards desir-Ious of establishing a school system musvum or a museum in -a par-ticular school.

School system museums, .that is museunis maintained by cityboards of education for tht purpose of serving all the public schoolsof the comivunity, have a uniform record of success. These museums,of which +Ire are eight in the United, States, are essentially maga-zines of objective material upon which the teadier may draw for theloan of maierial for use in the sch9olroom; exhibit material on viewat the mustum is usually seCondary to the loan service. r

SOME RECENT PUBLICATIONs ON MUSEUM SERVICEs TO SCITOOLSto

BRODERSON, (AERTRUDE. OM' museum. /is The Journal of the Naltional Educa-tion Assciciatiol'i, 25:2,11, October 1936.

Classes for school children at. the Trailside Museum of Bear Mountain Park,.

New. ,

York: in School and Society. November 30. 19:35. p. 733.HAGIE, C. E. School museums at Federal expensp. In The School Board Jour-

nal. 93:48, Septerdhgr 1936. Ikon

HIGGINS, JOHN WOODMAN. Industrial education and indnstrial museums InIndustrial Arts and Vocational Educationi 25: 137-141, May 1936.

HULL, EDWIN D. The botanicaf'museum. In School Science and, Mathematics,35: 825-843. November 1935.

QUENNELL. C. H. B. A museum for b,oys and girls. In The New Era. 11:90,April 1930.-

Reports from the art and children's nmseums in the cities of Milwaukee,Newark, Duluth, Pittsburgh, Boston and Toledo. In School Arts, October19362 Vol. 36, No. 2.

SHAW, GIORGE ELEANOR. Their own art museum. In American Childhood,15: 14-16, February 1930. -

ME NEWARK MUSEUM. The young child in the musenm. Statements from 35museums concerning museum activities-for children under seven. Newark,N. J. 1936. 27 p.

THE TOLEDO MUSEUM OF AwrThe museum educates. Toledo, Ohio, 1937. 42 p.

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RADIO AND MOTION PICTURES IN EDUCATION

Preptved by ÇLIxE M. NOONSenior Specialist in Radio and Visual Education

The tensions and torsions accompanying the present rapidly chang-ing social order have greatly complicated the educational process and

'forced the learnqr to master and coordinate a lewildering number offacts if he is to lead a Ilappy and socially useful life. The probleniof the w.orthy use of increased leisure time has been of growing sig-

.nificance during the past 5 or 6 years. Radio and 'motion picturesoccupy important places in the educational and recreational life. ofAmerica, and consequently there has been a gradually growing inter-est in the influence wilich they are exerting upon .the understand-ings, habits, and .attitudes of the American People. Vividly poi.-trayed impressions from the silver screen and radio undoubtedlyinfluence many of the habit patterns later manifested in persortalconduct, communitY relations, ahd national ideals. In addition tothe educational influence of amusement and .infoiTnation diffused by

.,photoplays and broadcasts, there is a growing awareness of the factthat educational films and br9adcasts may be invaluable aids ininstruction though the value of supplementary aids such as pupils'work books and teachers' manuals remains to be determined. Whiledefinite progress has been made in determiuing the educational im-portance of photoplays and entertainment broadcasts, the educai

. uiilization of, these media as teaching topls is still in the--q xploratory-stage. 4

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EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE UF RADIO AND PHOTOPLAYS

The influence of radio and photoplays upon thinking is evidentwhen it is knownthat 6-60 radio stations are indluded in the vast sys-tem of broadcasting that. has been developed in the United Statesduring the past 16 yeares, and that 21,000,006 American homes ownradio receiving sets, which aré operated on an average of 2 to 3 hours'daily. There are also 3,000,000 radios in automolailes. In additionsto the radio, approximately 500 feature photoplays and many moreshort .subjects re made annually and exhibited in 15,000 theaters toappröximately 90,00000 people weekly.

It is obvious that these vehicles constantly are carrying ideas andinformation to the piblic in a vivid and impressive form. Goxein-

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EDUCATIONAL' METHOD 37

mental agencies, the industries themselves, many educatiollal. andvoluntary groups, and the public in deneral, are exerting their influ-ence to the end.that right ideals and proper conceptions will beinstilled through countless reiterations. Unfortunately, however.divergent motives And lack of agreement as to the objectives to besought have led toonflict and duplication of effort, thereby greatlyretarding the imptovements of the offerings and tie raising ofstandards of taste for entertainment motion pictures and radio fare.

Through the Federal Communications Commission, the Govern-ment grants licens-es_ for ra-dio stations to bfroadcast with the provi-sion that they operate in the public interest. convenience, and nece-sity." In applications for reiwwal of licenses the. stations are ex-pected to give an account of their stewardship for the public serviceuse of the channels which have been assigned to them. By contrast,there is practically no Federal control of the production or distribu-tion of photoplays. Instead, the content *of motion pictures is deter-mined by the producers themselves and their trade organization. theMotion Picture Producers and Di:tributors of America. Both aresusceptible to the reactions of the public through box-office receiptsand fan mail. The radio advertiser and the motion-pictureexhibitoralso 'exert considerable influence on the nature of broadcasts andfilms produced.

The most extensive investigation of the influence of motion pictureson children and youth ma e in the Ifnited States was carried .onthrough the Payne fund tidies. extending from 1928 to 1933."Eminent psychologists, sociologists, and research workers in severalleading universities studied what children learn from motion pict-tures and their effects on latitudes, emotions, and conduct. Thereport was published in nine voluines and showed that :

On an average, each child in areas 'where motion pictures arep tysieally available goes io the movies once a week.

2. Three ola of four of the piCtures shown were related to sex,

c6Pinieror romantic love.3. The chalet retains two-thirds as much As the at.bilt from his

attendance at the movies.4. Motion pictures change children's attitudes and these changes

have a lasting influence.Partly as an outgrtwth of the Payne Fund studies and ixtrtly a4

a result of other forces woiking in the same direction, churchesand *other social service groups startedit_ movement in. 193t and 1935

WI 17. 13. Congress. Sepate. An act to provide for the regulation of interstate and foreigniommunication Oy wire or radio, and for othe0 purposes. Washington, Government PrintingNice, 1984. 48 p. 78d Cong., Doc. 4184

Charters, W. W. Motioti pictures. and youth. A 'summary.lan Co., 1988. 68 p. (Payne Fund studies. )

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New York, The Madill-

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to improve motion pictures. This movemeiit ha§ 1110 two results:First, the industry has learned to produce pictures Phat we're? moreacceptable to thte public by .treating more acceptable subjects, suchas history and the clafxsicK; and by establishing a more rigorous con-trol of the content of filins at the point of pyoduction. Second, thepublic has become sensitized as to .the influence of motion picture;and a number of groups are working to raise the standards of tastefor photoplays.. Schools have responded by teaching photoplayappreciation. The wide survey of national visual instruction prac-flees niade by the Office of Education revealed that 80 percent of the9,000 school systems reporting smnetimes eiicouraged their pupijs tosee selected motion picht'es in the local theaters and use tiu.t informa-tion thus acquired in school activities."

While_ no researches comparable to the Payne Fund Studies onmotion pictu'res have° been made,in the .field of raaio, the NatiOnalCoifimittee on Education by Radio, the Women's National RadioCommittee, and other agencies stall as the National Congress ofParents Ind Teacherrliave!. b'eenirstressing the intiukce of . radio.Many mim studies and experiments have been carried out, the4.esu1ts of wh deldongtrate beyoll doubt that radio program.s havebecome a powerful force in natiolial,life and are exerting a lasting--influence upòn the habits And attitudes of the American iieople. It isevident that an incalculable new force has been released in tlie home.circle. Radio prowams make a powerful appeal to the'imaginations

. .of growing chiilcireit, even though the unpregstons foi'nwd are not asvivid and lasting as ose nide by motion pictnre.s.. What .c1i,ildreuare gaining in til N ay bf ideas, attitudes, and conduct patterns.from the ..rafriis still largely a matter of colijeduire. ButcEirtainly true that radio'. as well as the motion piet:ure, looms larphi the lives of boys and 'girls.

Research .studies qealing with high-school .puplis *in Oakland,Calif., and Stamford. Conn., indicate that puiiils spen4tan ave.rageof iiearly 21/2 hours daily- listening to' the *radio. ,While it is prob-ably true that much of this listening is riot attentive,' the'pupil seemisveigy susceptible to radio sale'smanship and- is definitely irifiti6needby the sales talk of the advehiser. i'

Teachers can ill afford to ignore the radio as a potent influencepupils' lives. It is evident that.they can .hOp to develop preferences.in radio programs as. tihey can in -art, pottry, aml music, and thatteach.eis; can encourage listening to worth-w.hile programs :until adiscriminating taste is acquired. Even small children are not too.youn5 .to be taught the .

ol appreciation Cif good raaioprograms. %.

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Koon, Clint M. and Noble, Allen W. ittitinal'i-isual education dire.ctory. Washing-D. C.I.Aniericati.Council on Education, 1113e. 270 p..

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Realizing that several thousand secondary schools are teachi,Apr

photoplay appreciation and many more Oiementary and secondaryschools are making some use of inforiliation acquired from radioprograms, the Connnissioner of Education sent an inquiry on A.pril25, 1936, to all teacher-training institutions in the United States-1'6-r* =detenhine (a). whether teacher-trainintr courses in radio or photo-play appreciation were being offered,: (b)

.whether special instruc-

tion along these lines was being invluded in other teacher-trainintrcourses; (.0 whether the teacher7training institutions considered es-tablishing courses along thie line< .

w'ere received from -,809 officials lit 702 institutions. Thestudy discloses. that 8 of 'these. institutions alitl offering regularcourses in photoplay appreeilktio.n, t; are aiving combined coursesdealing vi'ith both radio and phoioplay appreciation. Fifty-three'institutions have tile offering of l'eguhr courses under consideration.l'wo hundred and s'eventew are (Aliening soine instruction alnng theselines, and 23 are planning to do so. Eliminating duplication's. 37Tteacher-training.iDstitutions, or 53.7 percent of the institutions -

ing, indicate .tbat they are_offerilAg or planning to offer smile instruc-tion in radio-propun and/oispiloto, ,apprecTation.

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fr INSTRUCTIONAL .(1,'SE OP. RAIIIO BY NC-IWO/11S4

Radio is -it new twenne. for aiding classroom in.str'uction and for,acquainting. the public with the.- N6fic of the school in swill a wItyas tc; develop an intellietit_ auct-abiding interest ill the work being,

, ..done. Within Ole. pits( 4wiOtrs there has been. a rapid'growth infhe nilmber Vf .s4po1 I'sy§teihsf taking a.avantage of this new means

A 4 , I "Qt0limitthic;ationbttir 118 a teaching fecknique ind as a means. of,,, ,

Lwow-ail* -foi.- the school's stewdship .14? tile stockholders of thisgretit otorporation *called the pu1)1k-s6164 ostem. -:

The activities of certain nati6na1 voliugary hssociat ions and speciaicommittees have given important serv* in helping 4.TSAystallizethinking and diffuse information iR-togard to the- éduciaiolial poten-tialities of radio.. Among the ltittiould I,a)e mention&I the.Ad-

.yisory Coinmittee on Education bif Ita4iro, the National:Committeeon Eduattion by Radio, the National Ad4SO1y Colltwil u .RAdioin Education, the Ohio, Institute ..07 ;.kdlicat ion i by .RtIdio, theoNational Association of -Educational Broadcasters, turd the .reF.e,ntly... .

leavening_

'' -for led Federal -Radio Education Committee. The effect-.o TteeseAgdrvoiusoprsyhcasombezttfeeeltotnhrst:dguhcoautitonthesyoRunatdriyo:,ccan

posed of agroup e distinguished educators and broad.ca-tsge "with the-Comniis-sioner öf Edlication iechairman, wits appointed. in May 1929 by the

. Hon. Rq T)3rni.an' Wrilbu, thep. SeCteart-Wthe Interior.. The, ... ,

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committee prepared a report of the advantages and limitations o

education by radio and was dissolved in 1930.Partly as a result of the work of the Advisory Committee on Edu-

cation by Radio, the National Advisory Council on Radio in Educa-tion and the National Committee on Education by Radio weisformed. The former has worked on practical projects to extendthe number and improve the quality of educational broadcasts' on the

It.has served as a liaison agency between educators'and broad-casters in organizing and presenting inany educational series over theNat ional networks. It has published a number of informational bul-letins. Thg latter (National Committee on Education by Radio) hasconcerned itself principally with the protection of the rights of edu-cational broidcasting and in assisting colleges to obtain and reifewtheir licenses to broadcast. They have also promoted research andthe exchange of information on radit) in education.

The Ohio Institute for Education by Radio holds tinnufil sessionsto enable leaders in educational broadcasting to pool existing inior-mation, and develop plais for cooperative 'fact-finding ind research.The National Association of Educational BroAdcasters has been inexistence for appioximately 10 years and serves to whange experi-ences and cope with Problems common to college radio stations. TheFederal Radio Education Committee, appointed in DecenTher 1935by the" Federal Communications Commission, is compose'd of about35 nationally known educators and broadcasters; the Commissioner°of Education is Chairman. The purpose of this committe,e is towork out practical plans to reduce conflict and promote cooperationbetweeri educators and broadcasters.

Among t1 better-known broadcasts to schools are the following:

NBC (Damrosch) Music ApprecIation Hour; American School of the Air.

Huwail School of. the Air.KOAC School of the Air.North Carolina School of the Air.Ohio School of the Air.PUerto Rican School of the Air.Rochester School of the Air.South Dakota NYA School of the Air.WHAT School of the Air.Wisconsin School a the Air.WMAQ 'School Broadcasts.Standard School Broadcast. .

e. University of Michigan (Maddy) Music Lessons.Clèveland School Broa4casts.Providence School Broadcasts.Tennessee School Broadcaas.School brOadcasts from some of the cpllege stations such as WOSU at

Ohio State University, WILL. at thelJniftreity of Illinois,. and WSUIat the University 9f Iowa.

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A recent survey shows there have been 269 series of programs in-:ended primarily for school reception broadcast since the fall of 1934.A list of the subjects trefited and the number of series presented,

claz48ification of programs broadraxt for school reception during the school yearsof 1934-36 (269 8 tations)

Rank sand subject Number ofItattions

1. Music__2. Current events

Science_____._4. Drama3. History

7. EnglishGeography and travel

9. Health and safety

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Number ofRank and Subjcrt t.tat ions

10 Vocational guidance 7

11. Spelling bees____ ..... ________ 612. French O

13 Civics 5

14 Agriculture 414. German 4

14 Spanish 4

17. Stories 3

lss All others 18

Various estimates have been made of the extent to which thesebroadcast series have'been used g,in schools. Estimates indicate thenumber of iisteners varies from less fhan a hundred tuning in forsome of the local school broadcasts to several million for the NBCMusic Appreciation Hour. Data collected in the National VisualInstruction Survey indicate that approximately 1,500 school systemsare using radio programs "often" in cojmection with their school

work, and 4,500 systems ."sometimes" use them. Three thousandschool systems indictited that (hey never use radio programs. Eighthundred and forty-five centralized 4dit-sound systems and 11,132individual sets were reported as belonging to school systems. Aboutthe same percentage of the total number of small and large schoolsystems use radio programs. Intermediate and junior high-schoolgrades make about twice as much us`e of radio programs as do

ptimary and senipr high grades.Appnoximately one-fourth of the school systems that make sys-

tematic use of broadcasts in instruction indicate that they broadcastsome programs for home and/or school feception. These broadcastsare usually sponsored by the school system or an individual schoolwithin the system,"Id deal with a wide variety ofsubjects, suchas the library hair, children's variety programs, the wgrk of theschool, public speaking, local history, music, dramatic sketches,school news, and short stories. Some of the programs are arrangedin regular series and others are individual programs given fromtime to time as the occasion arises. More than 200 school systems invarious parts of the couniry broadcast regular series of programsduring the kast 2 years.

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k Among the more active school-systems that have been broadeastinzregular series of progranls for school and, or home reception are:

BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION. 1934-36

Athknta, Ga.BislT, Ariz.Chicago, 111.Cleveland. Ohio

b Des Moines, IowaDetroit:Mich.

Erie. Pa.Indianapolis. Ind.Lancaster, Pa.Manitowoc, Wis.New York, N. Y.Philadelphia. Pa.,

Phoenix. Ariz.Provldence.:11. I.Rochester, N. Y.Seattle, Wash.Tulsa, Okla.

A noteworthy aid for radioiii education has been the o1gLriZatiiof workshops set up to prepare. scripts and to produce enucational6roadcasts that make a definite appeal to listeners. These workshopi.(r student prodpction atimps, are behig formed in colleges and inhigh schools.

Without doubt the outstanding venture in this field is the Fe(leralmlio-education project carried out by the Office of Education dur-ilig 1936. Based upon his belie.f that education by radio wouldbecome a vital and permanent factor in the dissemination of Inowl.edge and the developnlent of social insight, w)len educators becomeas skilled in using broadcasting for educatio-nal purposes as:the com-mercial broadcasters use broadcasting for .amusement purposes, theCommissioner of Education obtained a WPA. grant to prepareand broadcast educational programs as a means of training educa-tional broadcasters and of demonstrating how to build and broadcasteducational material.

The project was set up to combine the expert knowledge of profes-sional radio directors and script writers with the instructional mate-rial and 'experiences of educators. The cooperation of the NationalBroadcasting Co. and the Columbia Broadcasting System was ob-tained, and for more than a year five weekly programs have beenbroadcast over coast-to-coast networks. From a brçadcasting anglesthese programs have been successful, since they draw about 12,000pieces of mail a week. From an educational angle, satisfactory prog-ress is being made in the art of teaching by radio, and many centersthroughout the country are profiting by the techniques beingdeveloped and the scripts written in the Federal radio-educationprojects

IlSTRUCTIONAL USE OF MOTION PICTURES BY SCHOOLS

Schools sometimes make use of theatrical films and excerpts fromthem for instructional 'purposes. The outstanding efforts alongthese lines are being made by the Museum of Modern Art FilmLibrary, the Committee on Social Values in Motion Pictures. andthe National Cinema Workshop and Appreciation League. 13á

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EDUCATIONAL METIB)D 43

upon a grant from the Genei.al Education Board. the Museum of

Moderfi Art Film Library has made a coellection: of prints from theearliest photoplay to 'the present time. These films have been

arranaed in a tseyies of exhibitions to show the development of theart of making,motion pictures. The Commitfee qn Social Valuesin Motion Pktures is' financed by the General Education Boardalso, 'and has for its work a study of the. tufluence f photoplay 011

youth and the possibility of selecting cl.cvrpts from -theatrical films

10 present life problems in a alkunatic way as a .basis for lisciìionin character education. The National Cinema Workshop and Ap-preciation- League is a Weit Coast organization of teachers ofphotoplay appreciation. Ibs purposei is to pool informatiun thatill enable teachers to make :instructioilaf use of whglesome ina

terial contained in 1)h6toplays like Pasteur, Romeo and Juliet. andtravelogues. Many States and local committeeseare appraising filmswith a view to encouraging people to see the bétter ones.

The National Survey of Educational Films in which the Office ofEducation collaborated with the American Council on Education,revealed that there are about 6,500 nontheatrical films, most of whichare available for schoofuse. Of this total number, however, onlyabout 750 silent films and 75 sound films are up-to-date, easily avail-able. free from objectionable material, and rich in instructionalcontent. The Educational Film Catalog contains annotated descrip-tions of most of the better instructional films."

The ettent of use of films in saools was brought out in the Na-tio,nal Visual Insttuction Sully, which revealed that out of reportsfrom more than 9,000 school srstems with an aggregat.e enrollmentof nearly 17,000,000 pupils, approximately 22 percent of the schoolsystems used motion pictures "often", and 44 percent ofithe systems"some.times" used them. a third of the school systeds reporting'never" use films..Since the survey included reports from 95 percent of all school

systems in cities of 5,000 population or More, and comparatively fewfrom strictly rural systems, the data should be interpreted as apply-ing to urban areas. The extent of use is milch less in elementary.than in secondary schools; and large school systems, in the main,make more than twice as much use motion pictures as do smallsystchns. From the following data it is evident that many projectarsare used in schools that are not the property of the school systems.

su Cook, Dprotby E. Educational film catalog. New York, the H. W. Wilson tobpany,

1980. 184 p.

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A total of p.918 motion-picture projectors were reported as bei1.2owned by school systems. The different types follow:

rn ber or prok,...Si:e Kind pre-4..ctor tenciiZiliit16 inni .a . tle Ot 1 6

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The survey further reveals that 22 percent of the films lein7 shownin schools deal with s6ence: 17.4 percent with georrraphy`'and-travt.::15 iiercent with .history 8.7 percent with social studies; 8 percentwith English; S. percent with health: 5.2 percent with nature study:4.2 percent with .cpmmerce and industry; and 11.5 percent deal witli

. various &her subject§.In conclusion, it-should be said that responsibility for retardatiiql

in the use of these media as teaching t(s)nls lies both with thie pr()-ducer and the educator. The one needs to "develop better technksfor producing educational films and broadcasts and the other 1e(Ir

adapting films and broadcasts to the edwational program. It is (bvi-dent that curriculum specialists on the one hand. and practical broad-casters and film producers on the.other. must learn to work togethrr.To accomplish this end in the field' of films, the Àmeric4n Council ionEducation and several other national agencie4 fire interested in estab-lishing an American Film Institute:. The most Co-nstructiye stepthis direction, in the field of broadcasting is thé establishment of t heFederal Racti6- Edupation Committee. Beyond the 'realm of formalschoOling in the at:ea of iilfòrmal adult education, both films andbroadeasts are generally recognized as potent forces.

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SCHOOL LIBRARY SERVICE

Preparud by EDITH A. LATHRopAmociate Spc6i1 ii.lt in L bra ro e

Conceptions of the nature of school library service have chan4rodematerially during th.e past few years.. Only a shilrt time a(zo thelibr4ry facilities of a school met generally aceeptka educationalA.andards if the school library consi.st.ol of a set of encyclopedias, a

limited number of books' desioined to supplemjnt the material foundin the textbooks for certain subjects. plirt icularly English and his-tory. and a few books termed 'recreational.' in character t lint wereto be read at home or at school when lessons Nvere learnE;h41. Veryoften thes:e books were housed in the principal's oflicci:

Today modern educational i;rograms Provide that' the schoollibrary be h6used in space that is planned iefinitely ft)r library pur-poses; that it contain an a-dequate supply of books. periodicals, vis-ual aids, and oaer teaching materials suited to t he needs of all gradelevels found in the school : and that it be administered by a i;rofes-sional librarian. For school purposes Professional librarianship in-clucks responsibility for the onranization of library materials ac-cording to modern standards. familiarity with the literature suitablefor youth. a knowledge of the curriculum and teaching techniquesused in the scliool, aijd close cooperatidn with the activities of chil-dren, teachers. and sppervisors.

SIGNIFICANT VALUES OF LIBRARY SERVICE

Beginning with the kindergarten and primary grades the'use ofthe librfiry develops a respect for books and an appreciation for goodliterature. Yòung c1ìih1rn soon learn that they are dependent uponthe books, pictures, and other materials found in the library formuch of the information needed in developing their school projects.As the difficulties of reading are mas'etesed the opportunities for inde-pendent thinking on the part of chil4ren are increased through the'setzice of the library, thus forming a basis for adolescent and adultresourcefulness.

Since educátion is a life process every ihdividual out of school is'more or less dependent upon the exesourcek of public libraries, notonly for much of the information needed in helpilig solve the manyproblenis that ario in daily life.but also for finding. solacé from the

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cares of a work-a-day world through recreational reading. Theschool bus rendered its greatest seiivice to the child' whew it hastaught him to read intelligently, surrounUed hint with an abmylanceof wholesome °reading matter. lind guided him not only -in findini.information, but in evaluating it .and organizing it for use.

EXTENT OF SERV ICE -

l'ery few statistics are available showing the extent of school

library service. The Office of Education is mow compiling data forboth elemeniary and secondary schools whkli will give a more Com-prehensive picture of the library situation in public schools than hashitherto been available.

The latest available report of libraries in public high schools givesinformation on the number of librarians for all of the secopdaryschools reporting which includes those housed with elementaryschools and those housed separately. It atso gives datefor the sepa-rately housed-schools reporting showing the number of schools with.libraries and the number of volumes in these libraxies.

In 1934 data cpmpiled .from approximately 62 percent of all ofthe high schools reporting show that less than one in every sevenschools has a librarian for half time or more. For the same year dieseparately housed schools. which represent only about one-fourth of.all of the high schools reporting, .show an increase of 42 percent inthe average number of volumes per school for the 8-Year period from1926 to 1934. In 1926, the number was 1,652 ; in 1930 it was ,000;and in 1934 it was 2,287."

In general, library Aervice has reached its fullest development inaccredited secondary schools which comply with certain standardsrelating to library books, library rooms, and the qualifications ofpersons employed as librarians. The poorest examples of libraryservice in the skondary school field are found in the small highschools," most of which are located in rural areas."

While recognitipn of the need for library service for elementaryschools came uch later than that for secondary. schools consider-able progress .": been made. The platoon type of school organiza-

I don which exists in a more or less .modified form in a considerablenumber of elemeqtary schools has stimulated library service becausethe Really is an .4nherent feature of this type of school organiza-,tion. Educational surveys, committees Qn revision of curricula,

" BIennial survey of education 1932-84. Ch. 5. fitaistics of public high sclools,1933-84, pp. 15-16, if,. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1986. (U. B. DepilVt-ment of the Interior, Mee ofiEducation. Bulletin, 1935,.No. 2.)

" Jobn son , B. Laniar. The secondary school library. Washington, U7-13. ClovVninentPrinting Office, 1933, p. 94. (U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Hilucation.Bulletin, 1932, No. 17, National survey of secondary education, Monograph No. 17.)

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supervision of instruction, and the existence of strong public *li-

braries in areas served by schools are other factors that lave con-

tributed to its development. Generally, the outstandilig examples

of the motlern conception of elementary school library service are

found in city schools.State and local supervision of instruction, State supervision of

school libraries, the ekistence of county librarks, and flaw travelinglibrary service of Suite libi.ary extension .agenries liave contributed-to the growth of library service for elementary schools in rural areas.While some excellent examples of modern library service can be

found in /rural ele.mentary schools progretss is slow. Surveys showthat these schools lack books: that most Sfate litwary extensionagencies are not equipped to meet the demands made upon them bythe rural schools; and that of the approximately 3,000 counties inthe United States fewer thah 300 have county library service and 46of these are in one StateCalifornia. The fact that approximately41/2 million cllildren, representing mare than a third of the entirerural elementary school enrollment of the -country, are i9

2-teacher schools shows the gravity of this situation. The way to -provide better library service for rural schools lies not. s'o much in .

awakening a consciousness of its need !Is` improviqg methods offinancing and aqministering both schools and libraries.

TRENDS AND RESULTSa

'As

Since the last survey of trends in (11lool librar'y service made bythe Office of Education covered the decade from 1920 to 1930.45 ihi.s

review is confined /to the major aevelopments that have occurred'from 1930 to 19:36. Eight important trends are characteristic ofthis period as follows:

1. The integration of Nthe library and the eurriodum.The activi-ties of the curriculum determine madethe uses of available libraryfacilities. The traditional curriculum with its suliject-matter com-partments requires a library service whicl is very limited in com-parison with that needed fo carry out an integrated curricillum suchas, for exImple, the Virginia State course of study, which is or-ganized around 11 major functions of social life. It is in schoolsusing &irricula of the latter.type timt the library becomes the centerfrom which every activity of the school radiates. Since theitrend incurriculum revision is toward integration of subjects it follows natu-rally that there should be increased interest in the relation of thelibrary to the 'changing curriculum, This interest is manifest in

"Lathroi), Edith A. A decade of schfool library achievement. Biennial survey of edu-cation, 1928-1930, vol. X, ch. 19, pp. 685-694. Washington, Government Printing Office,194. (U. S. Department of the Interior, Offici of Education, Bulletin, 1931, No. 20. )

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the large number of articles which Iktve appeared on the subject ;

in discussions of the topic at.educational and library meetings; inan increase' in thrnumber of books and magazine articles of theinformational type in sChool library collections as well as of visualaids; in a closer relationship between the librarian and other mem-bers of the school faculty; in demonstrations and investigarions; andin an increasing use of libraries by the pupils enrolled.'

An investigation of the possibilities of integrating subject matterand library instruction through assignments in the social studiesappears to indicate that, certain factors being favorable, the inte-gration method will provide sufficient library use of the right type'to make the pupils permanently awaré of the value of libraryservice." A syllabus in English for grades 7 to 12, inclusive, pub-lished by the New York State Department of Education, presentssuOgestions regarding library skills that may be mastered -throughfrequent opportunity for practical application of the work in Eng.lish classes.°

Tile 'Mount Auburn Elementari School in Cleveland, Ohio, wasestablished some time ago by the iloard of Education as a library-curriculum center. As a result of its program parents are buildingup home libraries for their children and other gchools of the cityare adapting the library-curriculum practices to their own sAtuations.

An experiment in Stephe'ns College, a pri-vate júnior college, may6ffer suggestions for public high schools. In this instance the li-brarian of t ie college is also dean of instruction and teachers areencouraged t worfc .with students in the presence of books. A socialscience- librar is being dewl&ped with a librarian in charge whocooperates with individu41 student's i;r9jects.48

2. Contributións to the needs of alracurricular activities.Not-withstanding the fact that modern curricula are placing increasingemphasis upon life situations, there are certain school activities thatfall outside the realm of established courses which are vitally con-nected with the general welfare of the school. They are the so-called extracurricillat activities. The part contributed by the libraryand the librarian is essential to their success. The library is theinformational center for .these activities; if it does not have themtiterials needed the librarian can tell where they may be found.

4 Brooks, Alice R. The integration' of library instruction with the high school socialstudies. Sehool 'library yearbook, no. 5. P. 1214-44. Chicago, American Library -Asso-ciation, 1932.

47 New York. (State) University. Library instruction. Albany, Univèrsity of the State,of New York Press, 1938. 65 p. (Unliersity of the.StatVof New York, Buolletip No. 1926,Aug. 15, 1983.)

" Johnson, B. Lamar. The Steve% college library program and its imPlications for. thehigh school library. korth Central Association Quarterly 9 : April 1935.

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Cooperation N-ith student councils, Junior Rk-1 Cross organizations,4-1-1 and other service dubs, as well as with committees of all kindsare some of the ways 1)17 which the libraria,n contributes to eitra-curricular activities.

Muth is being said about the possibPilities of the service that thelibraryiecan renner in supplementing the work of two agencies -gen-erally neglected by the, schools but used yonstantly by children=the moving picture and the radio. For sorne time the ClevelandPublio Library has been distributing Motion Picture Bookmarksupon which are prinTed lists of books in the library 'which could beread profitably in connection with some of the excellent films being;shown. Both school and public libraries are providing books ofreferences for classes participating in the Nation-wide music appre-ciation progiams conducted over the radio by Dr. Walter J. Dam-rosch and for other broadgqsts of intexpst to school pupils.

3. Continuanre of studies of children's reading interests. Attemptsto discover the readinginterests of children and young pe ple persias evidenced by the ntaber of studies and investigations

,tinue to appear upon the subject.Already these have.had a whoNsome effect in throwing light upon

problems in book selection 'and reading guldance but the field is inno wise exhausted..

Statements from the findings of a few of these studies are' repre-sentative of the character of the resultsf The subcommikee on read-ing of the White House Conference on Child Health and Protectionemphasized the significance and present status of children's interestsin reading and callqd attention to the need for moiie reading mate-rials.aand better library facilities." Another study of reading inprimary grades shows that there is need for a pleogram that allowschildren freedom in choosing Material according to their persönitinterests and volition." Thére is need also for a greater varjety ofmaferials apd for teacher's who are skillful in guiding`ihe readingtastes and interests of children. One investigator, after a ctirefulconsideration of the èlements which make reading interesting -tochildren, is led to challenge a great deal of what is found in sch41readers and what is offered in children's libraries." That the vol-untary reading of ahigh-school students represents a higlip qualitythan some are 1*one to think is ievealed in a recent survey of the

4eMilam, Carl H., ch. Children's reading. A study of the voluntary reading of boys andgirls in the United States. Report of tbe subcommittee on reading. White fiouse Confer-ence on Child Health and Rending. New York, Century Co., 1933.

Boney, C. De Witt. A study of library reading in the primary ¡rides. TeachersCollege, Columbia University, Contributions to education, no. 578, 1938.

51 One, Warren H. Scientific literature on the reading interests of school childfei3.library Journal, 57 : 6-15, Jan. 1, 1985.

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periodical literature read by high-school students. -Fndings indi-cate thit although the reading of the group studied was stronglyinfluenced by-newsstand, drug store, and,other commercial agencies»it was also influenced, to a léss-er degree, by the school library.

4. Interest in acquainting teachers and librarians with reliablEbook lists.Keen interest in bogic election has been manifested re-

cently by many agencies and much effort has been expended by Fed-eral, -National, and State agencies in acquainting school libraria.nsan'd teachers with reliable book lists. The-scientific procedures usedin Terman and Lirn\a's Children's Reading 'and in the TV innetlea

s Graded Book List have been continued. *One result is the publicationof the Right 13(jok for the Right Child."

Some State departments o-f 'education are fecommending the adop--tion of standard lists rather than preparing lists. of their own, or aresuggesting that such lists supplement their own. Kentucky. Lp*i-ana, and New York are examples of States which have recommehtledthat The Standard Catalogue for MO School Libraries-be used inthe selection of books for high-school libraries. The State Libraryand the. Stqte Department of Public Instruction in Michigan, which

, are required by law to cooperatqin the preparation of book lists forschools, have recommende4 that their Preferred List of Books, pub-lislie4 in...1930, be supplemented by certain other well-known lists-that have been designated»

5. Attempts to discover desitable courses of imtruction for schoollibrarians.Since 1930 considerable attention has been centered uponpreparation for school library ,-work." During the school year

a library science cuirriculum for teachers and teacher-, librArians was given in tile School ìf Library Service, Columbia

University, as a project of the Joint Committee of -the. AmericzinAssociation of Teachers Collegeiaild the Americ-an Library As-

_

sociation.Because of wide differences of opinions concerning the °training of

school librarians expressed at a conference of southern librar.y work-ers called at Atlanta, Ga., in the fall of 1935, a committee was ap-

62 Lewis. Elizabeth. M.agazine reading interests of high-school students: A survey ofthe .periodIcal literature read in the Roslyn High School and 11 comparison with otherstudies of Mmilar character made eisewhexet Master's theslei"1832. New York Utilversity.Mimeographed.

o "Right Book fpr the-Rtght Child: A graded buying ,list of children's books. New Yort.John C. Day Co., 1933. 357 p.

" Book lists for primary and graded school -districts: Aids to hook buyinglpr elementaryana secondary sclfools. Lansing, Mich., State Department of Education and State library,

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$5 Fargo, Lucile F. Preparation. for school library w.kkr1 Neiv-York, Columblit Universityt---

Press, 1p4f3. 190 p.. 1 Tolak. committee of the American association of teachers colleges and the American

.Library association. How shall vie educate teachers and librarian; for' library netlike intir school.' New.----.D'Ork Cotumbla University Presa, 1936. 74 p.

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pointed by the chairman of the School Librarians Section of themerican Library Association for the purpose of testing opinionson the subject in various:sections of the country. The returns indi-

fate that some dissatisfaction appears on .the part of both schoollibrarians and administrAto.rs regarding courses of instruction forschool li6rarians, because the library school curriculum is not relitedclosely enough to the ictualappractices of the school library . 5 TheAmerican Library Association reports that the District of Columbiaand 17 States require scho61 librarians to hold certificates."

6. Increase in the vomber of State school library Nuperrisorg.Since 1930 supervisors of school libraries have been ad(W to depart-imams of education in three Soutlern States--_11abaina, Kent ilAy,and Tennessee. These supervisors are being maintained by subven-tions bf the,General Education Mara with the hope that after theyhave demonstrated their; usefulness their work will be taken overby the States. Louisiana and North Carolina have recently pro-vided for such supervision fOlo.wing demonstrations. Ten Statesnow have school library supervisors, one State. Michigan, having dis-continued the practice as an economy pleasure. Those, in additionto the five named, are Indiana. :kfinnesota,ANew York, Virginia. andWisconsin. In all of the 10 States except Indiana these supervisorsare 'placed in departments of education. In that State the super-visor is a member of the staff of the State library.

7. Stim7Pation of school library .Rerriee through cooperation be-tween schpol and lib)*ary groups.State and national undertakingscreated for the purpose of working out uojects in which bothschool and library groups are vitally interested are exerting a whole-some influence on school library service.

In New Jersey, a joint committee composed of representative§ ofthe State library association 'and the State teachers association hasbeen created for the- pi-rposi of curbing theft and mutik.tion oflibrary books.

One of the most extensive efforts in cooperation is reported fromCalifornia. In that State, studies m the school library field are being'carried oh through the cooper0ipn of educational and librav groupsand the results are _being publi§hed as bulletins of the State depart-ment of educatidnu Four bulletins relatipg to library service in theelementary school have beekpublished and others are in progress.

4,

In Parks, Martha M., ch. Training of schodl librarians. Bulletin of the AmericanLibrary Associafton, 30 V680-81, August 1936,

American Library Association. Board of eaucatioo for librariaiship. Chicago, Juik1986. Mimeographed.

Selection and distributfon ef supplenientary and iibrary boOks 14 California counties(Bulletin ko. 10, .May 15, 1934) ; Effective use of library facilities (BUlletin No; 11:June 1,.1984) ; Pleasure riading for boys and girls (Bulletin No. *17, Sept. 1, 1935) ;* And Thelibrary in the elementary school (Bulletin No. 18, Sept..15, 1985)..

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In the field of the secondary school a comprehensive, State-wsurvey of conditions,in secondary school libraries has been plannedby a committee of the California School Library Association andsponsored and supported by the State department of education. Theresults of this study will be published by the Department.

Reference has been made in this .section to a school library projectsponsored by the American Association of Teachers Colleges and t he

American Library Association. Another national joint committeethat of the National Education. Association and the American Li-brary Association.Lheld conferences in connection with the 193e;annual meetings of the two organizations at which the librarystandards that are being developed by the Cooperative Study (44

Secondary Schools were discussed.8. Conteibution8 of civic and educational organization8 to the ii(ld

of schodl libraries.The contributions made by civic, educational,and philanthropic organizations to school libraries include donationsof books 'and funds, the preparation and publication of studies per-taining to school libraries, and active cooperation with interestedagencies.

The American Assojation of University Women is fostering li-brary service as Itmmunal project .through its State divis7rònsand local branches. Books and magazines have been donated forschools, funds have been collected for the purchase of books, andinterest in school libraries has been stimulated. The Jonesboro,Ark., branch has established a county library which is used byschools. The Nebraska Division is engaged in a State-wide ruralschool library project. The chairman reports that 6,500 books andmagazines have been put into circulation chiefly °through offices ofcounty superintendents of schools and that a library-museum roomhas been opened in the public library at McCook for the use of out-lying rurarschools. Branches in Kansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma,Oregon, Texas,:and some other States are carrying on similarprojects.

The American Junior Red Cross assists school libraries by threecontinuing projects as follows: First, it replaces books destroyed byfloods and tornadoes in cases where parents or school 'authoritiesare unable to replace them. Since 1930 several thousand dollars havebeeen expended for this purpose by the National Children's Fundwhich is contributed by members of local chapters. Second, itprovides small library -collections for schools remotely located fromcenters of population. Thirty-five hundred dollars was spent duringeach of the school years 1934-35 and 1935-36 for this purpose.Third, it donates books to schools that are in need of help: Informa-tion concerning schools needing assistance is obtained through the

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field representative of the national organization. In addition tothese continuing projects, the Organization carries on a number ofspecial projects. One example is the establishment of *a conununitylibrary at Palmer. Alaska, the Federal Government's newly de-veloped rehabilitation center for settlers from four northwesternStkes.

The American,Library A.ssociation is vitally interested in the im-provement of library service for schools. In 1936 it establishedat its headquarters a school and children's division which includedthe employment of a school library specialist. The work of_ thisdivision is concerned primarily with the collection of informationon all phases of library service or children and young peoplejint his country and in Canada. In addition to these services the AAso-ciation helps schools through its publications on school librariesand through its cooperation with other educational agencies. Alen-t ios has been made of the work of its joint cominittees with theAmerican Association of Teachers Colleges and the1/4Natiomi1 Educa-tion Association. Another example of cooperative effort is the pub-lication in 1934 of A Study of Rural School Library Practices andServices which was made by the specialist in school libraries ofthe Office of Education, United States Department of the, Interior,with the help of a grant from the Carnegie Corpoiation.

Local and State units of the National Congress of Parents andTeachers are doing much to stimulate reading among school children,to improve school library conditions, and to sponsor surveys oflocal library facilities. Many schools would be..without library booksand magazines except for their help. In Connecticut, more thansathousand dollars was spent for school library books, In Georgia,efforts have been concentrated upon the improvement:of high-schoollibraries and upon the employment of a State school library super-visor. In Youngstown, Ohio7 a mothers' room has.been paged illthe public library for the pu'rpose of helping mothers insilri loveof books in their children from babyhood on. A report fiorn theSta.te of California shows that 1245 local units of the "Congress"participatéd in a survey of methods for financing city and countylibraries. This resulted in the improvement of housing facilitiesfor libraries and in an increase in their revemies. This is signifi-cant from the point of view of the school because county librariesare used extensively by the public schools in California.

Two departments of the National Education Association havepublished yearbooks on the subject of school libraries: El6mentariSchool Libraries, published in 1933 by the Deliartment of Elemen-tary School Principals; and Rural Séhool Libraries, in 1936, by the-Department of Rural Education, The Joint Committee of the

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BIENIAL SUltVEY OF EDUCATION. 1913446

ational Education Association and the American Library Asso-ciation whith has been mentioned previously, beglin to function in

1931 with the followin objectives : To facilitate and promote jointstudies and other cooperative activities by the two associations inthe field of school library service.

This report indicates how much the Concept of the school libraryhas grown since its inception as merely a collection of school books.Today the school library is the 'center of curriculumTeachers and pupil8 'turn to the library -for referencie material andto the librarian for guidance iii itp ti,se. Continual use of these serv-ices beginning in the nursery school and kiftdergarten and carriedOil through the elementary and secondary schools should:do muchto produce citizens who will be able to participafe intelligently inthe development of modern democratic living.

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James F.: Foleign eduntion. VII. 1 97.

A bility to learn, IV` 19- 22.Academic courses, CCC camps. IV: 31-32.Academic freedom of speech, 111: :;2Achievement examinations (Lindqin;ti, X: 13."Activity school." Latin America, ,7j 72.Adams, Lucy Wilcox: Adult eflue4r.on. IV: 6. 27.Administration and finance, higher instil iv ions. leg-

,

islation, VIII: F.1- 16.Administration and support. rural qihook, V: 3s-44.Adult education, II: 21; V: 61-6J;; (Profit!), IV:

1-73; China, VII: 34 -35; Europe. VII; 17) 1; high-er institutions, III: 45-16: Rochester, N. Y., I Xs-6; world conference, VII: 96-97.

.kfrica, education. VIL-46-59.Agricultural education. III: 7s-79; cre catniv.

IV: 33.Agricultural Experinihit Stations, research activi-

ties. III; 61.62..kgriculture, rural high .school, II: Z.Albany, N. Y.: Paront ef !wit i;)n. 1X' 6-7. 27.Alderman, L. R W PA edueat ion program., IV: 28.

4All-lay vocational programs. II: 20.Ametican Association for the Ail% ancement of .Sci-ence, research activit III: 57.

American Association of University Professors,

F-tudy of effects of demssiou and remvery onhigher education, VI: 5s- n9.

Atherican Association of University WoMbii: Par-ent-educatipn program, IV: 4g--19.

American Council of Learned Societies: Revarchactivities, III: 57-58.

American Council on EducatiOn:. Report of Com-mittee cfn Graduate Instruction, III: 53; researchactivities, III: 62.

American Home Economies Association: Parent-education program, IV: 49.

American Library Association: Parent-education

program, IV: 49.

American Social Hygiene Association: Parent-edu-cation program, IV: -49-50. -

Anderson, Douglas S.: Ideals of engineering eaucti-

t Hon. III: 77.

Anderson, Sir George: Compulsory education,India, VII: 38.

Angell, J. R.: Excerpt from addrew, Harvard Uni-versity Tercentenary,.III:

Annuity .plons, higheruinstitutions, III: 18-19,AppointMent policies, higher

,institutions, III: 36.

Argentina: Education, VII: 75-80.Arkansas: Cost of pupil transportation, V: 57;

curriculum development, V: 20-21.Arthur. C. M.: Vocational 'ducat ion, II: 17-25.Articulation, secondary schools, II: 34-36.Arts and sciences: Organisation and instruction,

44-41.

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Asia, education, VII: 30-4,r).sseskznients and tax rites, public elementary and

secondary school,--VI: 7-9.

Assiwiation for Chi1,111(10(1 Education: Parentrat ion program. IV: 49.

A t tendance. SCh1101 attendance.Austrilia, edutat ion, VII: 6o-63.

Baldwin, Right Hon. Stanh.y: Harvard men. III: 3.altimore, Md.: Parent-education Program, IX:11-12.

Ihrker. Earl: Standardintion of theological schools,III: 6.

Brrnes. Harry Elmer: Adult efliwation, 1V: II:Barilidniy. AI., Guorges: Physical education in

France. VII: 22-23.Beard, Charles A.: Adult education, It: 14.

Belgium: Adult education, VII: 16-17; technicaleducation. VII: 26.

Bentley. Jerome II.: Adult education, IV: 28.Berkeley. Calif.: Parent-education program, IX: 19.Bible and religious courses, higher institutions, III:

co.

Binghamton, N. Y.: Parent-education programs,

Bittner, W. S.: University and college extensionwork, IV:. 56.

Br1711. cduPat ion, VII: 80-83.Bridgman, Ralph P.: Parent education, IV: 46, 47.Briggs, Howard L.: Wallkill, N. Y., Aucation pro-

gram. IV: 66.British Commonwealth of fs:ations Advisory Com-

mittee, VII: 58-59.Broadcasts to schools, X: 40-42.Brookwood Labor College, Katonah, N. Y., IV: 41.Brunner, Edmund de S.: Adult education, IV: 19.11ryn Mawr Summer-fyhool for Women Workers

. in Industry, Mount Ivy Camp, Pomona, N. Y.,IV: 41.

Bulgaria: Voentional education,- VII: 27.Business efficiency, State control, legislation, VIII:

4-6.Butler, Nicholas Murray: Adult education, II: 8-9.Butterworth, Julian E.: County superintendency,

V: GO; Organization for local administration andsupport, V: 38-60; Types of local school unitt,V: 44.

California: Emergency education program, IV:24-2G; pa:lint-education programs, IX: 4, 17, 22, 29,

CAmbridge University: Relation to Harvard Universify, III: 4-5.

Canacia: Education, .

Capen, Samuel P.: Academics freedom, III N.

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VII;

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IX: 7, 28.

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ID

2 INDEX

Capital aulay, public elementary and secondaryschools, VI: 14-15.

Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teach-ing, research activities, 111: 62-63.

Cartwright, Morse A.: Adult education, IV.Catholic seminaries, III: 68-69.

CCC Camp education (Oxley), IV: 2S-35.Ceniral rural-school district, V: 55.Certification of teachers, legislation, VIII: 20 22.

Character development (Davis), X: 22-30.Chase, Harry Woodburn: Academic freedom, 111:

35.Child development, Rochester, N. Y., I X: 5-6.

Child guidance clinics, X: 8-10.Child Study Association of America: Parent-educa-

tion program, IV: 50.. Children's Bureau, Pareht-education, IV: 48.

Citizenship: I'PA clasSes, IV: 25.City guklance programs, X: 3-6.China, education, VII: 30-36.Citizens Conference on Education., Ill: 8 9City school systems, parent education, IV: 55; IX:

1-35.City schools: Provisions for exce¡itional children,

VI: 5.Civic education through forums, IV: 68-72.Civilian Conservation Corps: Colleges, III: 11; sec-

ondary education, II: 16; see also CCC camp edu-

cation.Civilian rehabilitation, Federally aided', IV: 38-39.Coleman, Laurence Vail: Teacher training, muse-

,ums, X: 33.

College education, experiments, III: 41-43.College student-aid programs, III: 9-10.Colleges and universities-(Kelly and McNeely), VI:

45-59; see also higher institutions. .

Colombia, nationalization of education, VII: 69.ColOnial Africa, educatiek, VII: 56-59.Columbia In3titute for the Deaf, Medical aid, III:

14.Columbia University: Doctor's degree, Ill: 52.Commercial education, II: 19-20; international con-

gresses, VII: 93-94.Commonwealth College, Mena, Ark., IV: 41.Compulsory education, China, VII: 34; Egypt,NII:

53-54; India, VII: 38; Turkey, VII: 43.Conant, J. B.: Nature of university tradition, I: 2.Conferences, higher education, III: 8-9.Consolidation of local sChool units, legislation, VIII:

12-13.Consolidation of rural schools, V: 50-M; Australia,

VII: 112.Cook, Katherine M.: Education in rural and other

sparsely settled areas, V: 1-70.Correspondence instruçtion, II: 16-;6; Australia,

VII: 81-62.Cost per Pupil, public elementary and secondary

schools, VI: 11-13.Costa Rica, nationalization of education, VII: ¡O.

Coulson, A. R.: Parent-education program, AlbaNA., IX: 27.

County superintendency, V: 50-60.County wait law, West Virginia, V: 40.Count in occupational Information, II: 41-42.

. .

'OWL

Courses of study, secondary schools, U. 133-44.

Covert, Timon: Financing public schovls, VI

35-45.Cressmun, fieorge R.: Administrative units, V: 4:s.Crippled children: Wisconsin program of educatio:;,

V: O.Cumulative records, X: 18-21.Cunningham, K. *S.: Education in Australia, VII

62-63.Current expenses, public elementary uud secondary

schools, VI: 9-11.Curriculum: Elementary schools, I: 17-19; high r

institutions, legislation, VIII: lh; legislation, VIII.31-3; -rural schools, reorganization, V: 16-26; set....on(lary schools, II: 33.-39.

Cutler, Elliot (7.: Harvard University Tercenteinir,III: 2.

I )allw, Tex : Parentedwition program, IX: 15- N.Davis, Mary Dabliey: Character development, N:

2230; edurational method, X 1-54.Dawson, II A urd A.: Functions of an adininit rat i%

unit, V: 43; standards for a local school unit, 144-45.

ktIenhaugit, W. S.: Effects of the deprksion uponpublic elementary and secondary schools and uponcolleges and universities, VI: 1-59.

Degrms, advanced, III: 52-53.Dental cduem ion, III: 72-73.Depart mental examinations, Canadian schools,

67-65.Depression and faculty members, III: 35-38Detroit, Mich.: Parent-education program, IX:

17-18.iller F.: Parent-education programs, Cal

&cilia, IX: 29.Doctor's deoee,

Fennemic depression and higher education, Ill : 7-12.

Educational legislation (Keeseeker), V111: 1-39.EducitionAl method (Davis el al.), X: 1-54.Effects of the depression upon public elementary

and secondary schools and upon colleges and uni-versities (1)effenbaugh), VI: 1-59.

Egypt, edurition, VII: 53-56.Elenientqry and secomlar) schools, public, VI: 1-45.Elementary education (Iloodykoontz), I: 1-31:

China, V11: 33.Elementary schools: Effects of the depression, VI:

1-45.

Elementary t:lichers. rural, professional preparation,V: 2s -32.

Ellis. A. Cu ell: Adult education, IV: e, 1114 1%).

Emergency collegosollI: 11-12.

Emergency education program, adult education,IV: 12-24.

Emergency nursliry schools, VI: 33.Emmanuel College, founding. III: 5.Etnployment, higher Institutions, III: 35-36.Engineering: Study of graduate work, Ill: 53-54..

Engineering curricula, higher institutions, 24,

Engineering cdueathm, III: 75-77.Engineering experiment stations, research activitieS,

III: 63-.64:

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INDEX

England: Adult educatio , Vtil.:, 16.Enrollment: Cauadian schools, VII: 65; elementary

schools, I: 9-14; higher institutions II: 2.,;-28,

45; VI: 50-51; public eletneutary secondaryschools, V: 35; secondary 1; sparselysettled areas, V: 2-7; uni say extension work,I V : 58-62.

Erskine., John: Adult ed c*ion, IV: 6, 16-17.i Estonia: VocatiOnal education, VII:

Europe, education, VI4: 3-2y.,

i Evening Ch.SSCS, v4ci1tion:1SedtkatiOn, IV: 37i 1.. cuing schools, V I: 32.

Everard Levyis C.: NIuseuin service tu sehools,3 1 -3e4

FAceptional pupils (Martens), II: 4 6; V: 66-70;city school pros isiuns, VI: 5; scbook and classes,VI: 31.

Extracurricular38-39.

X:

acti secondary schools, 11:

Faculties, higher institutions, effect of depression,III 37

Fansler, Thomas: Qualifications of teachers of adults,IV: 17.

FER A: Higher education, 111: 9-10; parent-educa-tion program, IV: 48.

Federal agencies, secondary education, II: 16-17.Feieral aid 'to higher education increased, III: 13-14.Federal Council of Churches: Parent-education pro-

gram, IV: 50.Federal Emergency Relief Funds, rural schools,. VI!

19; see also FERA.Federal Government: Higher education,- III: 9-12;

parent education, IV: 47-48.Folentl penal institutions: Enrollment, IV: 68.Finances, higtkr institutions, III: 17-18.Financial support, higher institutions, VI: 45-49;

public elementary and secondary schools, VI: 6-15.Financing public schools (Covert),^VI: 35-45.Firmer, Jennie M.: Emergency adult education

progiam, IV: 27.Florida: State-supported sch4o1 program, VIII: 8.Foreign education (Abel), VII: 1-97.Art Smith, Ark.: Parent-education programs, IX:

it 26.Forums and civic eduCation, Iy: 68-72.Forums in rural communities (Williamsir V: 64-66.France: Physical education, VII: 22-24; technical

education, VII: 25-*Frank, Glenn: Adult Mucation, IV: 10.

Freedom of speech, higher institutions, III: 32-35.

Gaumnits, Walter H.: Types of rural schools andtheir enrollments, V: 2-10.

Georgia: Higher education, III: 15.Germany: Adult education, VII: 18; nationalisation

of education, VII: 10-12; physic:0 education, VII:21-22.

06odykoonts, Bess: Elementary education, I: 142.Graduate study and.research, III: 47-64.Grady, William E.: Adult education, IV: 6.Graham, "tank P.: Depression and education, III:

34.Grand Rapids, Mich.: Parent-education program,

IX: 18..Gruenberg, BParent oduosiloi, IV: 45.Guidance (Proffitt), M...30-42; CCC Camps, IV: 31;

developipént of techniques, X: 84; in the schoolprogram, X: HL

:.

e

Hart, Joseph K.: Adtilt, education, IV: 6.Harvard University: Teacher's degree, III: 52; ter-

centenary, III: 1-6.Heyl, Helen Hay: Supervision of instruction in rural

schools, V: 32-38.High school; small, II: 25-33; see also Junior high

schools; secondary schools.Higher education (John), III: 1-92; administration

and control, III: 13-25; Argentina, VII: .79-80;China, VII: 32; conferences, III: 6-9,. economicdepression, III: 7-12; Egypt, VII: 55; Federal Gov-ernment, III: 9-12; legislation, VIII: 13-29; studentbody, III: 26-31; see also Colleges and universities.

Sigher institutions: Clogfd or merged, 111: 13; col-lege organization and instruction, III: 38-46; grad-wate study and research, III: 4tt-64; legisfation,VIII: 13-16; teaching staff, III: 32-37.

Holtnstedt, R. W.: School atttndance units, V: 51.Homemaking education, II: 23-24.Hopkins, Harry L.: WPA education program,

IV: 22-25.Houston, Tex.: Parent-education program, IX:

16-17, 23-24, 26.Howard University, Federal did, III: 14.

Ickes, Harold L.: Academic freedom, III: 34.Illiteracy: Argentina, VII: 76; CCC Camps, IV:

t2; China, VII: 34-35; Egypt, VII: 53-54; Europe,VII: 14-15; Iran, VII: 42; Latin America, VII: 70-71; Mexico, VII: 83-85; United States., I: 28-29;WPA. classes, I V: 24-25.

Income, public elementary and secondarr schools,VI: 6-7.

India, education, VII: 36-40.Indiana University Extension Division, IV: 62-64.Individual differences, secondary schools, II: 2-6.Instruction: CCC camps, IV: 35; public elementary

and secondary schools, VI: 27-28; rural schools,V: 16-38; supervision, rural schools, V: 32-38.

Insurance and annuity plans, higher Institutions,III: 18-19.

International Child Health Congress, meeting,Paris, VII: 88-89.

International Colonial Exposition, VI): 57-58.International Congresses and Conferences, VII:

88-97.International Council of Religious Education:

Parent-education program, IV: 50.Iran, education, VII: 40-42.Irish Free State: Technical and vocational educa-

tion, VII: 27-29.Italy: Adult education, VII: 17; nationalisation of

education, VII: 8-9.Itinerant teachers for handicapped children, V: 69.

Jesien, Carl A.: Secondary education, II: 1-44.Job improvement, voiational training, 5.John, Walton C.: Higher education, III: 02,Jones, Thomas Jesse: Education in Africa, VII :

56-457.

Junior colleges: Legislation, VIII: 16-17; numberand enrollment, II: 1246; organization and in-.structioh, III: 38-39.

Junior high'echools, Canada, VII: EL

'Debater, Ward W.: Educational !titillation, V1.11:-e .

Kelly; Daniel.1.: Parenkeduotion ptegrams, Biné-.t.tinton, N..Y., PC: 26. e

.

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26-27.

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4.1141,

Kelly. Fred J.: Co Ilpge eurr;Ilmen:. III: 2$; andMcNeely, John H.: Colleges and universities, VI:45-49.

John L.; Workers' education program,42.

Kindergartens, enrollment, VI: 5,Koon, Cline M.: Radio and mtfñn piet tires in edu-

cation, X: 36-44.

Labor Institute, Rutgers University, New Bruns-wick, N. J., IV: 41.

Land-grant colleges aided, III: 13 14.Language instruction, VII: 57.Langusges..Pnion of South Africa, VII: 51.Latfrop,'Edith A.: School library service, X: 45-54.Latin Ainerica, education, VII: 68-87.Laws, Gertrude: On parent-education groups, IX:

24-25.Legal education, III: 69-71.Legislation, VIII: 1-39; State colleges anil univer-

sities, VI: 51-58. - ,

Leigh, Robert. D.: Adult education, IV: 1A, 92Leisure time, adult education, IV: 14-15.Length of term, elementary schools, I: 1921.

Librarim elementary schools, I: 21-22.Library service, school, X: 45-54.Lindquist, E. F.: Achievement examinations,

13. .

Little Rock, Ark.: Parent-education pros'', IX:13.

Local school units, consolidation, legislation, VIII:12-13; project, Office of Education, V: 48-50.

Lombard, Ellen C.: Parent education, IV: 43-55;parent-education programs in city school systems,IX: 1-35.

MacCormick, Austin. H.: Prison education, IV:64-65.

Martens, Elise II : Exceptional pupils, II: 4-6;provisions for exceptional children, V: 66-70.

Maryland: County unit system, V: 43.

Massacfiusetts: Itinerant teachers for handicappedchildren, V: 69.

Master's degree, Iat 47-49.

McNeely, John FL. and Kelly, F. J. Colleges and

universities, VI: 45-59.

Measurement (Segel), X: 12-21; higher institutions,HI: 21-22.

Medical education, III: 71-72.

Melcher, George: Adult education, IV: S.Mexiéo, education, VII: 83-87.

Michigan: State-supported school 'program, VIII:

Mildmay, Sir Walter: Founding of EmmanuelCollege, III: 6.

Miller, Spencer, Jr.: Workers' education movement,IV: 42.

Missisiippi: Higher education, III: 15.

Moehlman, Arthur B.: Administrative units, V:45-46.

Montana: State-supported school progrims, VIII: 9

Motion pletUrGS in education, X: 36- 31.), 42-44.

MilikAnn service to schools (Evertird), X: 31411.

6

National Catholic Welfare Conference. Pater!.education program, IV: 5041.

National Congress of Colored fiarents and Teacher-Parent-eduenti'on prognim, IV:

National Congress of Parents and Teachers. Paten!.education program, IV: 51-52.

National Council of Parent Education, Inc.: Parer-education program, IV: 52.

National organizations for guidance, II: 40.National Research Council, nctivitiés. III: .58-59National Youth Administration, III: 10; sepond,r7

education, II: 16-17.Nationalization of educitinn: Europe. VII: 4-1.2,

Latin America, VII: 69-7O.Native education, Union ofouth Africa, VII: 50 ."1Negroes: Enrollment, elementary schools, I: 1.4.

graduate 'work, 55; higher education, III24-25; legislation, VIII: 17- is.

New-Jersey: State-supported school program,V111 .9.

New York State: Education Department; outhripfor study group leaders. IX: 25-26; parent-edw.tion program, IV: 52-53; IX: 4; pri::on education.IV: 65-66.

Night schools, II: 15.Normal schools. See Teichers colleges.North Carolina: Hiiher education, III: 15.North Central Association of Colleges-and econ'l:iry

'Schools, changes in standards, III: 23.North Dakota: State-supported school progrAiri,

10. -

Northwestern States: Effect of emergency educationprogram, IV: 26.

Nursery schools and kindergartens, VI: 32-33.Nursing education, III: 74-75.

Occupational information, courses, II: 41-42.Occupational training. CCC camps, IV: 33.Office of Education: Local School Units Project. V.

48-50; parent education, IV: 47-48; project in re-

search in universities, III: 12; public forums,IV: 69-71.

Ogburn, William F.: Adult education. IV: 6.Ohio: State-supported school program, VIII; laOklahoma: Parent-education programs, IX: 4; State

supported school program, VIII: 11-12.Oklahoma City, Okla.: Parent-education prograws,

IX: 14.Oregon: Higher education, III: 15.Organization for lócal administration and support

(Butterworth), V: 38-60.Out-of-school girls, II: 22.Out-of-school rural youth, II: 20-22.Oxley, Howard W.: CCC camp education, IV: 28

Parent education (Lombard), IV: -13-55; programsin city school systems, IX:

Part-time schools ibe classes, II:415; vocationalprograms, II: 20; IV: 37.

Pasadena, Calif.. Parent-education program, IX: 11,

27-28.Pennsylvania: State Department of Ivublic Instruc-

tion, parent-educayon program, IV.: 54; townshipand borough systems, V: 43; workeis' education

program, IV: 43. -

Per capita tost, elementary and secondary schools,

I: 3142:

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-

III.:

VIII:

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11.

1-35.

:11

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#

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.

Kerchen, IV:

.

1

Personnel records, X: IS .21._Personnel work, hiher institutior.s. III: 1Ç 21.fkrmacy sclit)ols. III: 1'3-74.Physical t.ducation, Europo. VII: Mt. 2i.Moment activities. (TO. (:;'1:;-:, IV. nri.rlacernent and follo-tip, yi;:tlional gradthiti

0.1

Play groups, Pasadena, Calif . IX; 11.Poor whites of South Africa, \ II: IS r4).Pop!ilation of r nitt.d States h age.. IV: 21Pound, 1'osco4-: Ti.nduncies ittelocal Pdur;it ion. III:

70-71.Preschool carP. of the child, I: .skt"s9.Preschool tildren, Europe. 'Al. 19.Plimary schools, reypt, VII 1.

Prison education, IV:Private education: An:on:inn. VII: ,7.1, Chinn, VII:

1136; lecislat ton, VIll: 37.Proctor. Wilflani M.: New phi; zopti7of education.

IV: IS,PrOfessional eduentiqn, c.;

Professional preparation of rtnal 4.1etnont9ry tciv:h-ers (Robinson), V: 2*-32.

Professional staff, rural schools, V: 21;-.28.Pro(Ott, Maris M.: Adult education. IV: 1-73: enifl-

VIM' in the rc!io.d program, X: 1-11; guidance,secondary schools, II: 39-42.

Project in Research in UnivcrAtifis. III: 12.Promotions, ti institutitai:. III: 36.Protestant Episcopal Church: I'lrent-edulntion pro-

gram IV: 52.Protestant t'1Po1opi(-11 schools, (17. R.

Public education: Arzentinn. VII: 78; six interna-tional conferonees, VII. so.

Public elementary and seconthry Fchoolg. 1-t5.Public forums and ci ic eduntion. IV: ttc1-72.Public schools, finincitiv, VI: 3.-1-45.Public Work:: Administration. school huildincs. 111:

11.

Publications, may= servioic tn schools, X: 35.Pupilpersonnel records, X:. 1-'21.

QualifIcritions of teachers, pull ie elementary and see-'on,lary schools, VI: 2ef-27.

Radio aril motion pictures in education (Koon), X:

Ramsey, J. W. Parent-education group procedures,IX: 26.

Records, pupil, X: 18-21.Recreational activities, CCC camps, IV: 34.Recruiting of students,Reorganized high schools, II: 7-12.Research: Charticter deve19ptiii%3t, X: 2.51-2(1; gratiu .

ate schools, I'll: 55-61; in universities, peoject,12.

Rhode Island:- Higher education, III: 15.*Rhodes scholarships, III: 29.Robinson, William McKinley: Profesiional

ration of rural elementary filchers. V: 24-32.Rochester, X. Y.: Parent-elilie:Ition programs, IX:

. 54,29.Roosevelt; Franklin D.: narvArd Tercentenary, III:

4.

kural and pther spArsely settled areas, edueatiOn(Cook); V:140. . . .

Rtiral elementary teachers,' professional preparation,It: 29-ft

. -4 :1-

t ;1.3211,-:-

?"' 4}..t.;es 11.

EX

Rural school buildings. .V 61-.61r:Iti,in.lto .1:poIrt.

..1'!";.g-i.1111:0101). V: !.4 .1%1. Mrent 0\1 VI.11; enrlrilet.t Anti types, N'." 7; FER.% funds, VI:.

instruct supervi-.:on, V.3:2it ti JaTiics E.: .A Ion IN it fir

Adult esincat inn. IV: 10) ILlivtittite. IV. 41.

,slen7, Moi,es. F..1opot ion in Me\ VII 4

71 lrii.. 11!...Ther inst.'.1titions, I 117 ;; VI 19-710.

teir,.a.r.. le.2!sl,ttimi, VIII: '22 l'...;. tea hers, super-yi-ors, Anil prInt.¡,:ils, put lie elementary andsecond ir stlioo!.. VI : ..1 N.

ti. Rich irii E., Soria] discipline, III: (44 M.schenecIals,y, N. Y.: I'itrent-edueation programs,

IX :S.S. !...111:ilAiips ii To! fellowships, Ill. 2s 129.*.thol iiships. hig.her institutions, legislation, VIII:

19.svh(tol ndulitii.:Iiittion, Shle control, ..legislat inn,

VIII: 2-3.'clit-!ol attenii :srict: : By are, IV: '1; Europe, VII:

12 14.School lill'ie(It`t, State control, legisl.stion, VIII:

1 -A. %

sc ho- I boil !ings, I:le:i.i.7d.li.al, III- :in; j \\ 1, III: I 1.

ch401 dill's; 7 s.,(.1)oo1 11\10t1llit Tires, St:de control. It.6.4:it inn, VIII:

1-tl.F.c114)(,1 finance, (Thtiaila, VII: 6r,- 66.School hell! h and stety, legislation. VIII 31 36.school library service (I1:ttlirolu, X: 4:1' r) I.

"vi: (NVilson), V: 61 44;

revenuf... legisht ion, VIII: f 7.:41414101 support , sliarsel :zet tied areas, V: 11 It;

ichool term, knot), I: 4: pulAie eletrentary andceennolary s[..114.ok, VI: 1.. 19. at..

Schoolhouses. Ste Setif .61

Secondary education (Jesseu), II: 1 41; Argentina,Chinin, VII: 32 33; Egypt, VII: 54-55;

'Turkey, VII:Secondary schools: Courses of study, II: 133-34;

effects of the depression, VI: 1 .". enrollnient, 1.

Segel, David: Measurement* X: 12-21; tests andmeasurements. II: 36-37.

Sexson, J. A.: Parent-education program, Pasadena,°Calif.: IV: 27

Shanks, Allen L.: Prison ce.ucation, IV:67.Shih-Cheh, Vang: F.duention in China, V I I: 31.

Morri E.: Adult 1.11:ncit1on, TV: 1., '19,

Slit hilt) schools, 25 33.Smith. Rufus D.: Colleec enrollments, III: 27. 28

Social discipline, III: 65-64..Social Science Research Council, research activities,

III r59-61.Society for the Promotign of Engineering Education:

Study of graduate work, III: 53w-54.outhwestern Conference on nigher Education,111: 9.

soviet tfnion: Adult eineation, VII: 17-18; national-17.nt ion of education, VII: 9-

Spain: Adult eglucatton,.Sparsely tiettled comniuniti education, V:.'1710.

. .

Special schools and classes,. VI: .31)45..Spinning, J. W.:4 Parent-education progrem

Roghester, Ili Y., IX: 27:

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41

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t'intion,16...ts,1.11.

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A?v,

:2, 5-6;v

, .

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76-77:11.

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141-!...'1121

6

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III:

III:

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,

INDEX

Standardizing organizations, higher education,III: 23.

Statt agencies for guidance, II: 40-41.State and city councils for parent education, IV:

64-5.5.State and local scrool programs, character education,

e" IX: 24-28.State-aid education programs, legislation, VIII:

7-12.State colleges and univorsities, legislation, VI: 51-58.

State departments of education and rural schools,V: 10-38.

State guidance programs, X: 2-3.

_

State reorganization affecting higher ellueation,

III: 16.State school administir ion, organization, and

functions, legislation, 1'111: 2-3.Sfate-wide testing programs, X: 14.Strayer, George W.: Adult education, IV: 72.Studebaker, J. W.: Forums, IV: 69, 71-72.Student-aid programs, III: 9-10.Student body, higher institutions, Ill: 26--31.Summer schools, VI: 31-32.Supervised farm practice, 11: 23.Supervision of instruction, rural se&x,Is (Ifeyi), V:

32-38.Supervisory and teaching staff, public ekineutary

and secondary schools, 471: 19-27.

1 'IllTeacher education, III: 8292.Teacher employment, tenure, loyalty, oaths, legis-

lation, VIII: 23-26.Teacher retirement, legislation. VIII: 26-29.Teacher training: Iran, VII: 42; museums, X:

32-33; Turkey, VII9t. 43-44. .

Teacher training and certification, legislation, VIII:20-22.

Teachers, rural schools, V: 7-8.Teachers associations, international, VII: 94-95.Teachers colleges, graduate work, III: 54-53.Teachers' salaries: VI: 3; VIII: 22-23; rural schools,

Nr: 9." Teaching staff: ElementarY schools, V: 23-26;

higher institutions, III: 32-37; public elementaryand secondary schools, VI: W-27.,

Technical and, vocational education: Europe, VII:24-29; Latin America, VII: 72-74.

Technical education: Canada, VII: 66417; Egypt,VII: 85; international congresses, VII: 90-93;Turkey, VII: 44; Union of South Africa, VII:

.. 47-48.Tenure policy, higher institutions, III: 36.

Tercentenary, Harvard University, III: 1-6.Tests and measurements (Segel), II: 36-37; X:

1221. -A .

Texas: Curriculum-development, V: 20, 24; parent-education programs, IX: 4; State-supported schoolprogram, VIII: 12.

TeXtbooks, legislation, VIII: 29-31.Textbooks and supplies, public elementary and

secondary sChools, VI: WS.Theological education, III: 66-00.Thorndiket Edyrard L.: Adult education', IV:

12.-43,11-49.

Traw p ;hi iou, ruralTrent, W. .: County unit laws, West VirgiLiu.

V: 40.Tuition and- transportrition, Ic;isIat ion, VIII:

Tulsa, Okla.: Parkynt-e tion pregrarns, IX:Turkey, educatiou, V 42

Types of rural schools and thei enrollment (Gau::.-nit.z), V: 2-1Q,

rnion of South Africa. education, VII: 46-53.United Parent:; Aszle..iations: Parent-education iir.

gram, IV: 52.nited States Dpartment of Agriculture, pare-:.:

education, IV:Unite States Industrial Reformatory, Chillieoti

Ohio: Education program, IV: 66-67.United States Northeastern Penitentiary, edueatil:::

program, IV: 67.University admission, Canada. VII: 68.I ni% ersit y extension, I. V: 56-64.University of California: Workers' education pr.,-

grain, IV: 42.University Of Istanbul VII: 44.University of Wisconsin, School fur Workers ia

InfluFtry, IV: ILUniversity tradition (Conant), III: 2.ijrhan universities, programs, III: 45.

Vermont: State-supported school program, VIII :12.Virginia: Organization chart fur curriculum work, .

V: W.Vocational edueatitba (Arthur), 17-25; CCC

camps, IV: 33; for adults, IV: 35-37; legislation,VIII: n-39.

Vocational guidance, Canada, VII: 67.Vocational rehabilitat IX: 38-39.Vocational schools and classes VI: 31.Vocational training: CCC camp I V: 31; job im.

. provement aid for adjustment,. IV: 5.Vocational training of adults, IV: 13-14.

Wallkill, N. Y.: Education program, IV: 65-66.Walters, Raymond: College enrollments, III: 27.Wayne University, Detroit, organized, III: 16-7,West Virginia: County unit law, V: 40:Western hemisphere, education, VII: 64-87.Whipple, Caioline A.: Adult education, IV: 27.Williams, Chester: Forums 'in rural communities,

V: 64-66.Wilson, W. K.: School buildings, V: 61-64.Wisconsin: Education 6f crippled children, V: 68.Women and girls: Education in India, VII: 38-40;

Latin America, VII: 74-75. ,

Workers' education, IV: 39-43;rPennsylvan1a, IV:p 43.Works Progreis Administration: Adult education

program, III: 46; IV: 22-28; higher education, III:10, 12; parent-education programs, IV: 48. .

Wrightstone,q: W.: Observation schedule for ex-amination, X: la.

Wyer, Malcolm G.: Adult educattn, IV: 72-73.

Youtz, Philip N.: Emergency adult education pro-gram, IV: 27.

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1934-36 - ERICCHAPTER X DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL METHOD,1934-36 GUIDANCEIN THESCHOOL PROGRAM...

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Transcript of 1934-36 - ERICCHAPTER X DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL METHOD,1934-36 GUIDANCEIN THESCHOOL PROGRAM...