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Pas-de-Calais1914 - 1918

They came from across the globe

2 1914-1918They came from across The globe

Access and useful information : A list of our tourist offices is available from www.pas-de-calais.comScan the QR code for an online list of tourist offices

By car :A16, A25 and A26 motorwaysalong the coast or inland

From Great Britain:- Eurotunnel : Folkestone – Calais (35mn)www.eurotunnel.com- DFDS/LD Lines : Dover – Calais (1h30)www.dfdsseaways.com - P&O Ferries : Dover – Calais (1h30)www.poferries.co.uk (foot passengers accepted)

By train : - Eurostar : London / Paris / Brussels /Lille – Calais Frethun www.eurostar.com- French national railways (SNCF)www.voyage-sncf.com- TER Regional railways www.ter-sncf.com

By plane :Le Touquet airport00333 21 05 03 99 – www.aeroport-letouquet.com

Editorial

During the Great War, the Pas-de-Calais was at the heart of a world conflict: the British, Belgians, Canadians, New Zealanders, Poles, Czechs, Portuguese, Native Americans, Senegalese, Indians and Chinese were just some of the nationalities who fought in our region. Thousands of letters written by young soldiers left the Pas-de-Calais département daily to make their way to countries dotted around the world. Bearing witness to these bloody battles, the largest cemetery in France is situated in Notre-Dame-de-Lorette, in the commune of Ablain-Saint-Nazaire, while the largest British military cemetery in France is found in Etaples. The Musée Jean et Denise Letaille has recently been opened in Bullecourt in tribute to the sacrifice made by the Diggers, a nickname given to the brave Australian soldiers – 10,771 in total – who were killed on the battlefields in this area. However, looking beyond this tragic conflict, it should be empha-sised that the Pas-de-Calais made courageous efforts to get back on its feet in the post-war period – with the help of the French nation, more than a hundred towns and villages were rebuilt.Today, with an emphasis on sus-tainable development, the Conseil Général (county council) of the Pas-de-Calais département is loo-king to improve these memorial sites, so that as many visitors as possible can visit them and learn more about this period of history. It is with this in mind that the council is taking part in the Euro-regional “Memories of the Great War” programme along with the Belgian province of West Flanders and the French départements of Nord, Aisne and Somme, as well as being involved in the promo-tion of the Remembrance Trails started by the Nord-Pas de Calais regional council. On a day-to-day basis, it seems important to me not to restrict ourselves to simply evoking the facts. We must also, and above all, emphasise the barbarity of this conflict so that we give our young people an overwhelming desire to maintain and promote peace.

Dominique Dupilet,Chairman of

the Pas-de-Calais Council

• P. 3 - International cemeteries and memorials

• P. 4 - The Great War in the Pas-de-Calais

• P. 5 - Morrocans, Algerians, Tunisians... From Africa to the Artois…

• P. 6 - French

• P. 7 - Émilienne Moreau from Loos-en-Gohelle

• P. 8 - English

• P. 9 - A mutiny beneath a veil of silence

• P. 10 - Scots, Irish

• P. 11 - Americans

• P. 12 - Canadians

• P. 13 - The 22d Battalion «indefatigable heroism»

• P. 14-15 - Map of Pas-de-Calais

• P. 16 - Native Americans

• P. 17 - Indians

• P. 18 - Australians

• P. 19 - New Zealanders

• P. 20 - Japanese

• P. 21 - South Africans ; Newfoundlanders ; For Belgian refugees in France

• P. 22 - Portuguese

• P. 23 - Poles and Czechs

• P. 24 - Germans

• P. 25 - The German newspaper in Bapaume

• P. 26 - Chinese

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W i m e r e u x C o m m u n a l Cemetery6 Rue Jean Moulin, 62930 WimereuxAmongs t t he soldiers buried in Wimereux i s C a n a d i a n L i e u t e n a n t Colone l John M c C r a e t h e author of “In Flanders Fields” (1915) on whose Memorial Seat you can read an excerpt of the most famous poem about World War I:“We are the dead. Short days ago,We lived, felt dawn, saw sunset glow,Loved and were loved and now we lieIn Flanders fields”

The poppy and the cornflowerThe poppy mentioned in the poem “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae has symbo-lised the remembrance of fallen soldiers from the Commonwealth since the First World War.

Since 1916, the cornflower (“bleuet” in French) has been the symbol in France of solidarity with war victims and veteran sol-diers. The flower’s colour recalls the blue of the French soldiers’ uniform worn at this time.

St-Mary’s advanced Dressing Station CemeteryIn Haisnes, near LensAt this Cemetery are almost 2,000 graves of sol-diers who perished during the Battle of Loos, of which over two-thirds are of “unknown soldiers”.Among the graves is that of Rudyard Kipling’s son John who died in the battle at the age of 18. The father spent his final years until his death in 1936 searching for the grave of his only son. John’s grave was identified in 1991, but doubts remain.

The underground passages of ArrasBeneath the streets of Arras lie impressive chalk quarries which have been hollowed out since the Middle Ages. Arras was destroyed in 1914. In November 1916, the Allies began their preparations for a diversionary attack on the Artois Front prior to their assault on the Chemin des Dames. The British had the ingenious idea of connecting the quarries so that Allied soldiers could emerge from this underground network and push back the front line.

At 5.30am on 9 April 1917, after a huge explo-sion, 24,000 men suddenly appeared from beneath the ground and took the front German lines by surprise. At the same time, the Canadians launched an attack on Vimy Ridge.

The Wellington Quarry (Carrière Wellington), a memorial to the Battle of Arras, allows visitors to learn more about this major event of the First World War. Rue Delétoille 62000 ArrasTel : 00 33 (0)3 21 51 26 95www.carriere-wellington.com

Did you know ?

International cemeteries and memorials

There are more than 600 military cemeteries in the Pas-de-Calais region. The sites bear continuing

witness to the tragic events in the region during the First and Second World Wars. We cannot list here all the cemeteries in the Pas-de-Calais, so to indicate the origin of all the soldiers who died on our lands, we have decided to list one cemetery per nation.

FranceNational necropolis of Notre-Dame-de-LoretteAblain-Saint-NazaireImmediately after the conflict, the French State created what was to be the largest national necropolis on the plateau of Notre Dame de Lorette. Twenty thousand indi-vidual tombs were built, and the bodies of 22,970 other soldiers were placed in seven ossuaries.

Commonwealth ForcesEtaples Military CemeteryEtaples - RD 940The Imperial British Army built hospitals to care for the wounded from the front around the military camp at Etaples. 10,771of the wounded died of their injuries and are buried here, in the largest cemetery for Commonwealth Forces in France with nearly 11,500 graves.

Germany La Maison Blanche German military cemetery at Neuville-Saint-Vaast Neuville-Saint-Vaast – D937 road (10 min drive)The largest German war cemetery in France, it is the final resting place for 44,833

German soldiers of which 8,040 were never identified and buried in a common grave. The way the site is constructed reflects the important place that nature has in German mythology.

AustraliaAustralian memorial at BullecourtBulLecourt – rue de DouaiBy 10 April 1917, when the Battle of Arras had been in progress for one day, Australiansoldiers left to attack the German lines at Bullecourt. A second offensivewas launched on 3 May. The statue of the Digger is a tribute to the 10,000 Australiansoldiers who fell during these operations.

New-ZealandNew-Zealand Memorial – Grévillers British CemeteryGrévillers – RD 29This memorial was erected in memory of the New Zealand soldiers reported mis-sing during the “100-Day Offensive” in the summer of 1918, which enabled the Allied armies to cross the German lines and libe-rate occupied territory..

South AfricaWarlencourt British CemeteryOn the D929 towards PozièresWarlencourt -EaucourtSouth-African troops arrived in France in spring 1916, and took part in a number of operations during the Battle of the Somme. In particular, 128 South-African soldiers lost their lives when taking the Butte of Warlencourt and Eaucourt l’Abbaye.Today they rest in the cemetery.

CanadaCanadian National History site at Vimy Ridge - Vimy

On 9 April 1917, Canadian soldiers, united for the first time in a single army corps, took part in the Battle of Arras and succeeded in taking Vimy Ridge, strongly defended by the German Army. The memorial recalls this key episode in the history of the Canadian Nation, and pays tribute to the 11,285 Canadian soldiers reported missing during the First World War..

IndiaNeuve-Chapelle Indian Memorial,Intersection of the D947 and the D171Richebourg l’AvouéThe first Indian troops in the Imperial British Army arrived in France in October 1914. They were first stationed in Flanders and took part in the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in March 1915. This memorial is to their role in France and in Belgiumduring the Great War.

PortugalPortuguese Military Cemetery at Neuve ChapelleIntersection of the RD 947 and the RD 171Richebourg l’AvouéThe new Republic of Portugal showed its support for France and Great Britain by sending around 56,000 soldiers to join the Allied Armies. Stationed in Flanders, the Portuguese soldiers suffered the full brunt of the offensive launched by the German Army in March 1918 in the La Lys valley.

BelgiumBelgian Military Square at the Communal Cemetery at CalaisBoulevard de l’Egalité - CalaisBelgium was almost entirely occupied by the German Army in 1914. Only the area between Ypres and Nieuport remained free.

The Belgian Army was assigned to defend the front at the Yser, and set up bases in the Nord - Pas-de-Calais.

ChinaSt. Etienne-au-Mont Communal CemeterySt. Etienne-au-Mont Communal Cemetery – RD 940From 1916 onwards, the British Army recruited Chinese peasants for logistical tasks in its camps in France. At the end of the fighting, men from the Chinese Labour Corps were involved in minesweeping the land and burying soldiers who had died on the battlefield.

CzechoslovakiaCzechoslovak Military Cemetery and the “Nazdar” Company MemorialNeuvile Saint-Vaast – D937 towards SouchezThe memorial pays tribute to Czechoslovak emigrants in Paris who enlisted in the Foreign Legion, where they formed the “Nazdar” Company to uphold the concept of a Czechoslovakia freed from the dominion of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

PolandPolish MemorialNeuvile Saint -Vaast – RD 937 towards SouchezIn 1914, the German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian Empires divided Polish territory among themselves. When war broke out, Polish emigrants enlisted alongside soldiers in the French Army, hoping to see the rebirth of an inde-pendent Poland.The monument bears the words of these volunteers: “Za nasza wolnosc i wasza”.(For our freedom and yours).

4 1914-1918They came from across The globeText : Christian Defrance

At any given moment, every community in the Pas-de-Calais had, to a greater or lesser extent, an involvement in the First World War. All had seen their youngest inhabitants head off to war; all had cried for those who had “died for France”. After the 90th anniversary of the end of the Great War, “we are witnessing a transition from living memory to history”, explains the director of La Coupole, a history and remembrance

centre in the Nord-Pas de Calais region. The

last surviving French soldiers of the

First World War (known

as “Poilus”) have now died and their voices have been replaced by photographs and the

official journals of regiments – a treasure-trove of documents which has brushed aside the simplistic idea of a war involving the French, Germans and British. This war was a global war and the Pas-de-Calais represented “a microcosm of the world at war”, to quote an expression coined by the historian Xavier Boniface. A magnifying glass

placed over this microcosm highlights the role played by Canadians, Australians,

New Zealanders, Indians, Portuguese, Americans, South Africans and other nationalities during the conflict.The French and British put their colonies to the severest of tests – in the trenches and on the battlefields of the Pas-de-Calais.

«The front developed gradually »The First World War in our département can be divided into three phases. From late August 1914 to late October 1914, the Pas-de-Calais witnessed a war of movement: “the great German army advancing towards Paris”, and villages providing support for the mix of French and British troops. “The front developed gradually”, Yves Le Maner goes on to add. The last classic military confrontations took place in early October (Courcelles-le-Comte, Saint-Laurent-Blangy, Lorette etc), and the first battle of Ypres marked a turning-point – the end of the “Race to the Sea”.

« 100% British »With the onset of this “static war” , the front line became fixed and barely moved at all, with the exception of the Hindenburg retreat. In late 1915-early 1916, the Allies were awaiting a “new army” in the form of units arriving

from Canada and Australia – fresh troops which would be plunged into the bloodbath of the Somme, now that France “was committing everything it had to Verdun”.From 1916 onwards in the Pas-de-Calais, the front became “100% British”. April 1917 was to see a major offensive: victory at Vimy, defeat in Arras; and in November 1917 in Cambrai the Germans employed infantry counter-attacking techniques for the first time.

Methodical advancesThe Russian retreat signalled a return to a war of movement. March 1918 saw Prussian elite troops go on the offensive. The Battle of the Lys forced back the British but saw the French come into their own: “the hole was filled in the nick of time”. From late August 1918 onwards, and with moral restored, the British attacked methodically and made significant advances, most notably at the Second Battle of Arras, and in the capture of the Canal du Nord (under construction since 1913) at the end of September 1918. The Great War had a huge impact on the Pas-de-Calais which went to its very core. With men arriving from around the world, it was now well and truly part of the 20th century.

If you had passed through or flown over the Pas-de-Calais at the end of 1918 when the cannons finally fell silent, you would have been aware of three distinct areas affected by a conflict which had involved all five continents. In the area by the front – where 200 communities were affected and which extended for a distance

of 30-40km – nothing remained, particularly around Bapaume. Not a single tree, house or church. In the occupied (German) zone – the occupation “had been well thought out and methodical”, according to Yves Le Maner – everyday life and coal-mining were gradually re-establishing themselves. Meanwhile, in the rear zone (the Boulonnais, Montreuillois, Audomarois and Ternois areas), where millions of troops had passed through, military headquarters, hospitals and camps had all left their mark on both the land and people’s spirits.

Les Échos du Pas-de-CalaisBP 40139 – 5, place Jean-Jaurès 62190 Lillers - France

Tél. 00333 21 54 35 75 – Fax 00333 21 54 34 89http://www.echo62.com

email : contact@echo62.com

L’Echo du Pas-de-Calais is a free public newspaper delivered to the inhabitants of the Pas-de-Calais. The monthly periodical is the voice of the Pas-de-Calais and

deals with a wide variety of subjects including culture and heritage, sports, tourism, wildlife, economy, arts and crafts, events, agriculture etc.

“They came from across the globe” has been adapted froman original file created by Les Echos.

Editor : Roland HuguetEditorial manager : Jean-Yves VincentExecutive Editor : Philippe Vincent

Managing Editors : Christian DefranceFeatures Editor : Marie-Pierre Griffon

Writer/Graphic Designer : Magali CrombezPhotographer : Jérôme PouilleSub-Editor : Claude Henneton

In addition to those mentioned elsewhere, the following have contributedto the production of this publication :

Michel Gravel, Hugues Chevalier, Yves Le Maner,

Robert Wabinski, Alain Jacques, Dominique Faivre,

Brigitte Deligne, Henri Claverie, Yann Hodicq,

Raymond Sulligez, Philippe Égu.

Printed by : SIB, Boulogne-sur-Mer

The Great Warin the Pas-de-Calais

Hell, chaos and the 20th century

During the years 1914-18, British, Chinese and many other nationalities

passed through my maternal grandmother’s house. From here, they left for the battlefield and the nearby Front – and sadly not all of them returned to collect their belongings. After the death of my grandmother in 1943, we found a collection of objects and items still waiting to be collected in one of her rooms! She would never have dreamed of touching any of these items. Our family shared these belongings amongst ourselves and I still have a small camp stove from this collection, although the “English biscuits” kept in large tins were all eaten during the Second World War – we couldn’t leave them for the Germans. You’ll find a range of photos, anecdotes and portraits of these terrible years in this special edition. This is the story, not of the battles but of those who came from all corners of the globe to fight in the Pas-de-Calais region. T h e i r h u m a n , moving accounts strengthen our desire for peace at all times. The country which was our enemy during that war and which is now creating a new Europe alongside France also experienced horrendous casualties, many of whom were extremely young, such as the soldier who was killed at the age of 14.It is only right that our département, to which more nations sent their soldiers than any other, should dedicate the following pages to them.

Roland Huguet,President of the associationLes Échos du Pas-de-Calais

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51914-1918 Text : Philippe Vincent-Chaissac

Moroccans, Algerians, Tunisians...FOR the vast majority of the inhabitants

of the Pas-de-Calais, the name Vimy is indelibly linked with Canada because

of the battle that took place there in April 1917. The Canadian memorial appears in every history book and travel guide and is one of the main monuments in the region. In fact, Vimy is technically not even part of France, as the monument officially stands on Canadian soil.

The Moroccan monument was in fact res-tored a few years ago (paid for by the King of Morocco), yet passes (almost) unnoticed. So why is it here? The reason for its presence is quite easy to identify: fortified and held by the Germans since 1914, Vimy Ridge had long been coveted by France because of its stra-tegic position, in the same way as the hill of Notre-Dame-de-Lorette.In 1915, the French and German armies confronted each other in the Souchez sector, each embedded in successive lines of trenches. Despite its weak artillery, France’s continued aim was to retake Lorette and to break through the front. On this occasion it set Vimy Ridge as its objective, even though this seemed somewhat unrealistic at the time.

On Vimy RidgeOn 9 May, the Moroccan Division went

directly on the attack, and against all the odds it broke through four successive lines of German trenches to reach the ridge an hour and a half later. Even though its losses were heavy, its success was undeniable, incredible even. So incredible, in fact, that the reinfor-cements which should have been following to clean up the sector, were not there...or even ready, and were too far away to react quickly.As a result, it was a question of holding the position to the death. Pierre Miquel wrote in La Butte Sanglante (The Bloody Hill): “The troops of the Moroccan Division made a mistake in winning the battle, as it then became a question of minimising their achievement […] given that the resources to back up what had been achieved were not in place”.

A sacrificed divisionThe Moroccan Division was then considered a target for enemy fire… which is another way of saying that it was sacrificed, hence the reason for the Moroccan Division’s com-memoration at the memorial. However, in the eyes of the sociologist Abdelmoula Souidia (Memoria Nord association): “this is not true”, in the sense that it gives the impression that it honours the memory of Moroccan soldiers whereas, in fact, there were no Moroccans in the Moroccan Division.The Division was given its name because it

had returned from Morocco in August 1914. Subsequently reorganised, it comprised units of varying origin. In the case of the assault on Vimy Ridge, its troops were made up of Algerian soldiers, recruited in Algeria or Tunisia, as well as legionnaires, and forei-gners of every description ranging from American, Polish and Czechs to Swedish and Swiss volunteers, including the writer Blaise Cendrars.

Where are the Moroccans?Given the circumstances it’s not easy to work this out. What is clear, however, is that Moroccan soldiers were engaged on the Artois front. The presence of the 1st Moroccan Infantry regiment is highlighted in May-June 1915 around Angres and Aix-Noulette. We also know that infantry regiments of Moroccan Spahis were in action in Arras and Hesdin. Abdelmoula Souidia himself talks of the caïdmia (lieutenant) Brick Ben Kaddour, one of the few Moroccan officers who took part in the defence of Béthune and was killed at Radinghem-en-Weppes, and of one of his friends, Abbas Ben M’Hamed, killed at Richebourg in 1914. However, without an in-depth knowledge of regimental history, it

is particularly difficult trying to find detailed information as there are no Moroccan, Algerian or Tunisian cemeteries – only the Muslim cemeteries in Lorette, and in La Targette, where Muslim tombs from 1939-45 are more numerous than those from 1914-18. Hence the question: what happened to the Moroccans who died? The answer can be found in various cemeteries of the region, and is directly linked to the composition of the different army corps. It’s worth noting that more than 30,000 Moroccan soldiers (37,000 according to Pierre Miquel) left their home country to fight along-side French troops.

Working with the Memoria Nord association, sociologist Abdelmoula Souidia regularly

brings school pupils to the region’s military cemeteries and memorials. “These places are full of meaning” he says. The history which these pupils learn in class is also their history. “They are a part of the history of France”.

These visits take them away from the world of the working class, which has been their only reference point until now. “Their parents came here to work, and now all of a sudden they are heroes”, continues Abdelmoula Souidia, whose father was a miner at Évin-Malmaison, a job which commands a huge amount of respect. The sociologist explains that Morocco was a protectorate (unlike Algeria, which was a colony) and that Moroccans came to fight in

France because their king asked them to do so. There was a huge response to his appeal. Moroccans came to France with their horses; they had long hair and their traditional djel-laba robes flapped in the wind as they galloped across the fields. They were disliked by the Germans, who nicknamed them the Swallows of Death.

Today, a significant number of Moroccans have ancestors who fought in France. This is a part of their history. Abdelmoula Souidia explains that he is often questioned by Moroccans who want to know where a particular tomb is situated. Not an easy question to answer, as there are so many unknown soldiers in the tombs. And even once they’ve located the tomb, they are not always likely to obtain a visa to visit France. Much remains to be done for attitudes to change in this respect.Formalities can also take a long time to be completed. This was certainly true in the case of Brick Ben Kaddour, a Muslim who had been erroneously buried under a Latin cross. Captain Josse, a former Spahi, discovered the mistake and became involved in lengthy nego-tiations in order for the soldier to be laid to rest under a Muslim stele. It’s clear that conside-rable work still needs to be done to comme-

morate sacrifices made. Mr Souidia, who is looking for financial backing for a book on the subject, reminds us that “Moroccans helped to build the French Empire”. In other words, they contributed to the country’s greatness. After the end of the war, these men returned to their own country with a completely different image of France.As far as the Algerians are concerned, the historian Carl Pépin explains that the First World War helped to build their awareness of themselves as a people who aspired to inde-pendence.These feelings were reinforced by the Second World War. For the Moroccans, who had a much older history as a nation, such reinfor-cement was not needed. Nonetheless, this war undoubtedly strengthened their desire to reject their status of a protectorate, which was dis-liked by many.

For French citizens of Moroccan origin, considerable work still needs to be done to commemorate sacrifices made.A ceremony in the Muslim section of Lorette cemetery.

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They are part of the history of FranceThanks to their glorious ancestors who came to fight alongside French soldiers

They are part of the history of France

The “café” in a Moroccan camp near Aix-Noulette

The memorial to the Moroccan Division

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From Africa to the Artois,

Algerian infantrymen, in Carency

6 1914-1918They came from across The globeText : Marie-Pierre Griffon

Numerous accounts tell of acts of both remarkable and more modest female bravery. “Women made the Resistance what it was”, explains 88-year-old Henri Claverie, a historian from Hénin-Beaumont. “They broke through enemy lines to pass on messages; they lived in caves, only venturing out to visit the supply depot in order to feed their families; and for hours on end they would grind flour in coffee mills.” Simone Caffard, whose story was uncovered by Raymond Sulliger from the Cercle Historique de Fouquières-lès-Lens, was in her own way a young heroine. A gifted teacher who was passionate about education, she gave lessons to children in the most trying circumstances and worked tirelessly to ensure that they passed their “certificat d’études” exams in 1916. Sadly, she fell ill the following year and died. It’s a lesser-known fact that women were victims of abuse and violence (which included rape, forced labour, deportation and savage repression) if they were found to be part of the Resistance movement. The atrocities to which they were subjected have not been recorded by history,

largely because the cruelties of the Second World War have taken their place in the collective memory.As for children, they, too, played their part as best they could. Raymond Sulliger has discovered anecdotes in the work by Alfred Crépe, in particular those relating to the children of Fouquières, who would sing under

the noses of German soldiers returning from Lorette:

“Té peux chirer tes guêtesTé n’mont’ras pas LoretteTé peux chirer tes bottes

Té n’mont’ras pas la côte!”(“You can polish your leggings

You’ll never take LoretteYou can polish your boots

You’ll never take the hill!”)

He also recounts how the most daring children would place bricks in German cooking pots when the cook’s back was turned or do their best to stand up to the enemy in their own way. As the Kommandantur had given an order that all men and young people should greet officers by removing their cap, some walked around bare-headed,

which was far from common at the time!

Emancipation

Few studies have been carried out on the lot of civilians in the occupied zone, although numerous eye-witness accounts tell of difficult living conditions. Requisi t ions, col lect ive atrocities, reprisals and forced labour became increasingly common. From 1914 onwards,

civilians were a workforce which could be exploited for “the war effort”, in particular for the reconstruction of infrastructure destroyed as a result of the fighting. When they resisted, civilians (and occasionally even women and young girls) were deported to forced labour camps, where they formed ZABs (“Zivilarbeiter-Bataillone” or battalions of civil workers) and wore a distinctive emblem: a red armband (brassard rouge), which some wore until 1918. Living conditions for these “Brassards Rouges” was similar to those of prisoners in deportation camps.

A rebellious citizenGeorges Cambier refused to submit himself to the will of the Germans and was punished as a result. Along with five hundred or so other civilians, he was taken - “like a convict”

in the words of his granddaughter – to where labour was needed, mainly in the area around Vadancourt (in the Aisne département). At the railway station he witnessed civilians being hit with the butt of rifles, bitten by dogs and summarily executed. Upon arrival, hunger and ill-treatment were the norm. “We washed using the morning coffee, and once that was done we had to drink it as we were so short of water”. Those who still refused to work were locked in flooded cellars and sheds full of foul-smelling manure. Every three days they received a litre of soup without

bread. After three weeks many broke down…Others were enclosed in crates and some went mad. The hospital was, unsurprisingly, like an abattoir and the dead could be counted in their hundreds.

CensurePersonal correspondence was authorised but had to be written with a pencil to avoid censure. Miraculously, an injury to his shoulder enabled Georges to return home, “but he had to leave for fear of reprisals against his family.” He was finally able to put this hellish

existence behind him in 1917. In the north, he saw his mother once again, who was mourning the death of his father. After the war he played his part in the reconstruction of local mines and put his talents as a woodworker to good use for the Compagnie des Mines de Béthune.

Nowadays, not a single monument pays homage to the “Brassards Rouges”. “Their resistance has been largely ignored”, regrets Philippe Égu. “However, they served their country well!”

The Brassards Rouges, resistors to the occupation.

Photos: Philippe Égu collection

the forgotten men of historyThe “Brassards Rouges”:

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Rens. http://pabqt.free.fr/mairie1/vieclav.htmlhttp://fouquiereschf.free.fr/

Simone Caffard died in January 1

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Photo: Cercle Historique de Fouquières-lès-Lens collection

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FRENCH

HAVE you heard of the “Brassards Rouges”? Philippe Égu from Grenay has shown a special interest in the forgotten ranks of civilian workers who, refusing to

work for the enemy, were deported, mistreated and tortured. This was the case for his maternal grandfather, Georges Cambier, a joiner, who was taken away by force at the age of 19, and who survived deprivation and numerous beatings.

Fouquières-lès-Lens. Occupying forces posing with local inhabitants - in this instance, the Musin family - as they would in a hunting scene.

The “Brassards Rouges”:the forgotten men of history

It is often said that the First World War played a significant role in the emancipation of women. However, this is questioned by his-torians, who claim that the changes which took place at this time were fairly superficial. If changes did take place, they did not last long; once the war was over, women soon found themselves back in the home. Those who gained the most were probably educated or middle-class women. A “baccalauréat feminin” was introduced in 1919, followed by the introduction of equal pay for teachers. All women, however, benefited from the fact that clothes became simpler, as corsets, cumbersome long dresses and uncomfortable large hats were all abandoned. This marked the beginning of the liberalisation of women’s bodies...

71914-1918 Text : Marie-Pierre Griffon

Émilienne Moreau and her family left Wingles for Loos-en-Gohelle in June 1914. Her father, a retired mine foreman, was appointed the manager of a small shop on the main square of this large mining town. Émilienne, who had just turned sixteen, was destined for a career as a teacher. The alarming news of the final days of July worried her a little but “a young girl pays little attention to news relating to foreign politics; and to tell the truth I had little idea about the Serbia that was being talked about...”, she wrote in “Mes mémoires, 1914-1915”, which appeared in the magazine Le Miroir. When, at 4pm on 1 August, the siren brought miners up from the pit and the alarm sounded in local mining villages, the reality soon hit home. After mobilisation and the departure of her brother for the front, days of uncertainty were followed by days of anguish, and after the long processions of eva-cuated civilians came the arrival of the German occupying forces.

Time passed. Gradually, with each new horror and act of pillage by the Uhlans, the young girl’s indignation and confidence grew.

Acts of fortitude Émilienne created a special obser-vation post in her attic, watching events through her binoculars. She started to observe the Germans digging shelters in the slag heap, installing themselves in the sorting buildings and, on 8 October 1914, setting up machine guns between the pylons of La Fosse. “A moment later, we spotted our soldiers on the hill. I suddenly started shouting: the poor souls are going to be mown down by the machine guns…” Without thinking, the young girl started to run “like a mad woman” between the bullets and pieces of shrapnel to warn the soldiers. French shells rained down on the Germans. “Thank you my child, you’re a very brave girl!”, the ser-geant said to her. “You did well!”, her father whispered as he hugged

her. The young girl’s resolve har-dened with every passing day. When the town hall was in flames, she ran to put out the fire and save the public archives; when the Germans threatened her, she held her head up high, brandishing a bottle at them. “(...) I asked myself whether it was really me who had behaved with such fortitude,” she wrote later.

« Give me two grenades »When wounded British soldiers passed through Loos-en-Gohelle, Émilienne Moreau, who was devas-tated by the sight, became a first-aid worker. With her mother, she trans-formed the family home into an infir-mary and provided useful assistance to a British doctor who established a clinic there. In the book “Petits héros de la Grande Guerre” (Unsung Heroes of the Great War), Jacquin and Fabre told how the wounded continued to arrive in great numbers and that many of them remained outside on the street des-pite their serious injuries. “Ignoring the pleas of the major who feared for her life, she left the safety of her house and off she went amid the crackle of gunfire to give water to those in need, remo-ving the wounded from among the dead…” When she suddenly saw three Germans head towards an

injured Scottish soldier, she decided to attack them accompanied by three other wounded soldiers “who could barely stand up”. “Follow me”, Émilienne Moreau whis-pered, “I’ll go first.” However, a noise had undoubtedly revealed their presence and a German b u l l e t s k i m m e d past the young girl’s hair. She decided that all was not lost. “Stay here”, she said, showing the British soldiers the door to the cellar, “and give me two gre-nades.” On another occa-sion, a further act of bravery was to immortalise Émilienne Moreau in the hearts of the inhabitants of Loos-en-Gohelle. On her own, with a wounded soldier on a stret-cher, she saw two Germans in front of her pointing their guns directly at her. Their shots missed but the young girl’s did not. “The young girl then spotted a revolver (...). Émilienne grabbed hold of it. Feverishly, she fired shot after

shot at random (...), and the Germans, shot at almost point-blank range, fell one after the other.”Frédo Duparcq, from the “Loos-en-Gohelle sur les traces de la Grande Guerre” association, knows Émilienne’s story off by heart, or at least the one recounted to him by the village’s older residents, as recollec-tions vary somewhat between Les Mémoires d’Émilienne, the book by Jacquin and Fabre, and the memo-ries of local inhabitants. Whatever the exact story, Émilienne Moreau’s actions are to be applauded, and Frédo, who has carefully read through the rare edition of Le Miroir, is happy to share the details of this adventure. The story has a happy ending, with medals and decora-tions galore: “On the day that Émilienne was accompanying her sister to Béthune for an opera-tion, the latter injured by a shell, a car stopped alongside them. A few moments later, she was presented to the British general in command of the sector, who wanted to thank her and inform her that he had advised both the French and British governments of her actions. On 27 November 1915, following a mention in dispatches by General Foch, General De Sailly presented the Military Cross with palm to the young heroine. On the recom-mendation of General Douglas Haig, the British ambassador in Paris also awarded her, in the name of His Majesty the King, the Military Medal, the

Royal Red Cross First Class and the Medal of the

Order of St John of Jerusalem.” It goes

without saying that the Germans would have good reason to remember the name of É m i l i e n n e Moreau when they returned

to the region twenty years

later. Émilienne showed the same

passionate commit-ment in the Second World War as she did in the first, and the woman known as Jeanne Poirier or “Émilienne la Blonde” in the heart of the R e s i s t a n c e would be talked about for many years

to come.

A young heroine…

To say that the inhabitants of Loos and the “Loos-en-Gohelle sur les traces de la Grande Guerre” association are proud of their heroine Émilienne Moreau is something of an

understatement, as it is worth stating from the outset that in the Pas-de-Calais fearless 16-year-old girls with a grenade in one hand and a revolver in the other were few and far between! In turn a loving daughter, teacher, nurse and a combatant, she never once submitted to the enemy or lost her nerve.

Émilienne Moreau from Loos-en-Gohelle

The war was far from over yet the young Emilienne Moreau had already been decorated with the Croix de Guerre with palm, which she received on 27 November 1915 from the French President, Raymond Poincaré, at the Elysée Palace. She would also be the only woman to be awarded the Military Medal, a British distinction, and went on to receive the Royal Red Cross, the Medal of the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem and the Légion d’Honneur.

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8 1914-1918They came from across The globeText : Marie-Pierre Griffon

Vera Brittain was born in 1893 into a wealthy English family. From an early age she refused to accept the res-trictions placed on young women of the time, and envied her younger brother who was able to leave the family home without getting married. A rebel by nature, she talked of nothing else except her independence, her stu-dies and her career. Despite the disapproval of her father, she succeeded in gaining a place at Somerville College, Oxford, where she fell in love with Roland Leighton, a friend of her brother. The future seemed nothing but rosy for them when war broke out in 1914. “Carried away with emotion and the glorious face of patriotism” (these were her words),Vera put her name forward as a volunteer and underwent training as an auxiliary nurse, once again against the wishes of her father.

It was only three weeks later that she began to truly understand the meaning of war, and every day she was more and more horrified by the but-chery of it all. In England, Malta, France and Étaples in particular, she learnt of the deaths of her friends, her fiancé, and later on, her bro-ther. She found herself in the absurd position of working relentlessly to save lives, in particular those of German prisoners, at the same time as her brother was trying to destroy them! It was at this time that her pacifism took root. She wrote and published her war diary from 1913 to 1917, entitled “Chronicle of Youth”, as well her “Testament of Youth 1933”, an autobiography in which, she says, she appealed more to the mind than the heart. The story has been screened in England in a very popular TV series. Vera Brittain became tirelessly involved in the paci-fist campaign during the inter-war years, and later campaigned for nuclear disarmament, the independence of the colonies, and the anti-apar-theid movement in South Africa.

ENGLISH

Vera Brittain was a nurse in Etaples. Her involvement in the Great War made her name as a militant and internationally famous pacifist.

The camp at Étaples

A huge camp was therefore set up to store equipment, to pro-vide training for troops and to ensure their fitness. It also

housed around twenty hospitals, with 20,000 beds, to receive full trainloads of wounded sol-diers arriving here. It even

became necessary to build an additional station. The injured were first received at rest posts before being taken to the camp in ambulances by British army auxiliaries known as the “Khaki Girls”, who were quickly given the nickname of “Cats qui gueulent” (screaming cats) by locals in Étaples. These young women, who also fulfilled the role of cooks, typists, telepho-nists for military staff etc, “eli-cited not even the slightest astonishment from local inha-bitants who, for the first time in their lives, were seeing women dressed in uniform”, explains Pierre Baudelicque, a history professor at the uni-versity. Upon their arrival, in Étaples as elsewhere in the Pas-de-Calais region, the soldiers received a warm welcome from the local population, “who saw them as allies determined to support the French fight, even if in reality Great Britain had declared war to protest against the German violation of Belgian neutrality”, adds Xavier Boniface, a lecturer at the Université du Littoral.

Illegitimate babiesOn occasion, romances deve-loped between soldiers and local women. There were marriages, very few in fact (the figure of just five is mentioned), perhaps because of the differences in reli-

gion (the soldiers were Anglican, the local women Catholic). These “fraternisations” resulted in several illegitimate births in every social category of the population. “Babies born from these day- or month-long liai-sons were of course subjected to gibes which the cocky and ever-alert locals of Étaples never missed an opportunity to make up,” wrote Pierre Baudelicque in his famous work “Histoire d’Étaples. Des ori-gines à nos jours”. These poor children were picked upon and often subjected to insults: “Va donc, espèce ed’monster ed’batard d’inglé!” (Clear off you little monster and bastard of an Englishman)

The “Black Plague”Prostitution clearly prospered and with it the “Black Plague”, namely venereal diseases. This curse was not immediately noticed due to the attention given solely to the war-wounded. In France, the big cities and most of the country ’s s e c o n -d a r y t o w n s

became sources of contagion. In Étaples, a hospital was enti-rely set aside for soldiers who had contracted these “special” illnesses. The epidemic also spread within the civilian popu-lation and is one of the reason why the Franco-British cohabi-tation became a little less har-monious over time. In addition to venereal diseases and pros-titution, other problems which tend to develop wherever there are soldiers manifested them-selves: the sale of alcohol, fights, an increase in crime etc, even though in Étaples the soldiers rarely left their camp.Furthermore, the population was unhappy that its rights were being restricted, particularly in terms of movement (passes, ceasefires etc). Relations were stretched even further when, on the occa-sion of the mutiny at the end of 1917, the soldiers left their camp furious with rage, as a result of which local “Étaplois” were sub-jected to a week of hell… which

is still talked about even to this day.

Vera BrittainVera BrittainA volunteer turned spirited pacifist

Local women and children...and English soldiers.

FraternisationFraternization

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ÉTAPLES was a remarkable railway crossroads, as it was from here that the battlefields of the Somme and Artois could be reached. If you take into account the proximity

of Boulogne-sur-Mer and the existence of extensive available land, you can easily understand why the British were so keen to establish themselves in this perfect strategic location. It was here that the military had extended the largest British base in France. In all probability, over a million men passed through here between March 1915 and November 1918, and the base accommodated 60-80,000 soldiers at any one time.

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91914-1918 Text : Philippe Vincent-Chaissac

BRITISH cemeteries are dotted around the Pas-de-Calais, with most of them located on the Artois front. The largest ceme-tery is situated in Étaples, far from the trenches. The expla-nation is simple: Étaples was the base camp for the British, who had established several hospitals on the hill (nowadays occupied by buildings) overloo-king the old town.

“Étaples is the most painful of all the cemeteries. It is here that men killed slowly by gangrene and gas, blind and with their lungs destroyed, are laid to rest. They were buried ten, fifteen, twenty at a time”. In total there are 11,658 graves here, 800 of which fol-lowed the German bombardment in 1918.

The Bull RingWhat we do know is that this cemetery situated above the Canche river, on the road to Boulogne, stood alongside a trai-ning ground, the Bull Ring, in the military camp at Étaples, a compulsory stopping-point for all those who, having disembarked at Boulogne, required training before being sent to the fronts in the Artois and Flanders. It was a veritable hell where men were subjected to extreme discipline and very hard training, and from where they left, with few regrets, for the front. This was, in short, psychological preparation which could have been justified had it not been so excessive that it led to a huge mutiny in September 1917 – a mutiny which Great Britain covered up with a veil of silence.

A six-day revolt Even historians, who were aware of the facts from accounts gathered from the local popu-lation, were unable to get to the very bottom of a story that the vast majority of English, and more widely the British, ignored until 1978, the year a book by William Allison and John Fairley, entitled The Monocled Mutineer, was published. In the view of the his-tory professor Pierre Baudelicque, this work needs to be read with a hint of caution. It was criticised in England, although it had the benefit of forcing an admission that this revolt, which lasted six days, actually took place. It was a controversy at the time, is still a controversy today, and will remain so until 2017, the year in which the cloak of secrecy relating to military archives can be lifted.For all that, the historian from Étaples confirms the majority of

the views put forward in this book translated by Claudine Lesage in 1990, including the fact that a very large number of soldiers deserted to live in the woods, marshland and dunes surrounding the camp, as well as in the tun-nels and caves dug in the chalky landscapes around Camiers. Among these deserters was a cer-tain Percy Toplis, to whom Allison and Fairley attributed an impor-tant role in the sequence of events. According to Pierre Baudelicque, this man was certainly among the deserters and was one of the agitators, but we should attach a little less importance to his role and actions.It appears that the revolt was partly triggered by a tragedy: the killing (by accidental gunshot according to the official report) of Corporal Wood, who was sur-prised by a military policeman while in conversation with a young woman from Aberdeen wearing a WAAC (Women's Auxiliary Army Corps) uniform – a liaison which was strictly forbidden.This was the straw that broke the camel’s back for the soldiers of the camp, who had had enough of the treatment metered out to them by Brigadier General Thomson, the camp commander – described as a model of brutality and tyranny – as well as by military instruc-tors and police. The entire camp was overcome by anger at the kil-ling, which resulted in 3-4,000 soldiers, mainly from Scotland, Australia and New Zealand, stor-ming through the doors and fences surrounding their billets. Their uncontrollable fury was targeted at their “torturers”, as well as at French civilians, nurses etc, and resulted in repeated beatings and rapes.Pierre Baudelicque highlights the

recollections of Lucien Roussel, who was 15 years old at the time, and who witnessed the British troops “attack the town like real savages, pillaging and destroying everything before them”.

A mutiny waiting to happenAt the beginning, Brigadier General Thomson had wanted to convince people that this was just a fit of anger. However, it was much more serious than that given that it lasted for six days.Alongside the brutalities endured by the soldiers, and the death of Corporal Wood, other factors almost certainly contributed to this mutiny which had been sim-mering for some time. The ques-tions that need asking are nume-rous. What information did the soldiers have in their possession? Did they know that there was also talk of mutinies on the French side? What influence was exerted by the deserters who were acting as camp guards and who joined the troops? Had pacifist and com-munist propaganda infiltrated the camp?

Mutineers killed in combatThe opening-up of the archives will perhaps shed new light on this affair which ended on Friday 14 September, the date on which calm was considered to have returned. This was made possible by the arrival of troops whose role was to restore order, including Bengal Lancers who only required a single order to open fire. Faced with this impressive demons-tration of force, the mutineers returned to their ranks and were soon moved to the Flanders front

where General Haig was readying himself to launch the deadly offensive at Passchendaele. Most of the mutineers were killed there without having had the opportu-nity to explain exactly what hap-pened in Étaples, where a com-mission of enquiry identified the ring-leaders.“It is thought that a dozen or so executions took place”, Pierre Baudelicque wrote in his Histoire d’Étaples. Other sentences were also passed. How many men were executed? This is another ques-tion that remains unanswered as the bodies of those shot were taken back to England. Nowadays, all that remains of the Étaples camp is this impressive

cemetery. Nothing, of course, to indicate that the power of the British army had wavered here. Allison and Fairley reaffirmed this. Pierre Baudelicque takes a more level-headed approach: “the Étaples mutiny wasn’t the only one. Others had taken place in Le Havre, in Calais… and in Dover”. What is certain, however, is that cen-sorship had worked effectively and that the British silence had done its job. “The older bro-ther of my mother, who was English, remained in Étaples throughout the war, and never spoke of a revolt among his colleagues”, adds Pierre Baudelicque.

A mutiny

Training in the Bull Ring, the scene of daily bullying and insults. The site was situated alongside the present-day military cemetery.

Abuse in the Bull Ring

Eye-witness accounts gathered from veterans, fifty or sixty years after the event, are edifying. Troops arriving in Boulogne immediately came under the control of the dreaded Canaries (so-named because of their yellow armbands), who would make them walk all the way to Étaples by forced march, with only a half a slice of bread and a glass of water for sustenance during a brief stop in Neufchâtel – a foretaste of what was in store for them once they arrived in Étaples. Cut off from the world, they were the victims of both moral and physical abuse during their entire training period. This breakdown of mental strength was etched on their faces. The poet Wilfred Owen, who viewed the Étaples camp as “an enclosure where animals are left for several days before the final carnage”, expressed this feeling, speaking of the blind look in the eyes of his fellow men, “expressionless, like a dead rabbit”. The Bull Ring was the scene of every kind of bullying and insult on a daily basis. “I was wounded twice but that was nothing compared with what I went through in Étaples”, wrote one veteran. “To tell the truth, I had experiences in Étaples that were as bad as those at the front”, another added, “but nowhere did I feel such a strong sense of anger”. A sentiment that was even more legitimate given that the instructors who were putting them through so much had never set foot in the trenches themselves.

beneath a veil of silence

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10 1914-1918They came from across The globeText : Christian Defrance

“Play for them Laidlaw. For the love of God, play for them!” The piper plays Blue Bonnets O’er the Border then On the Braes O’Mar. Despite being hit twice in the leg, he continues to advance. When his comrades have achieved their target, he returns to the trench with his bagpipes. Piper Laidlaw’s sortie is one of the more unusual epi-sodes of the Great War. Having returned home alive from the conflict, Daniel Laidlaw played himself in the film “The Guns of Loos” in 1928, also appearing five years later in “Forgotten Men”. “On 25 September 1915, my hair turned white in just a few hours”, explained Daniel Laidlaw, who died in 1950. The piper of the 7th Battalion King’s Own Scottish Borderers symbo-lises “to a T” the Scottish pres-ence in the British army – a pres-ence that hardly passed unnoticed given that Scottish soldiers wore their own uniform: a kilt, of course,

along with a leather sporran, and a beret on their heads. These sol-diers made a real impression, so much so that the Germans referred to them as “Damen von Hölle”, the women from hell; the local population was astonished to come across them without any unde-rwear! The “women from hell” was perhaps an apt term as cou-rage and commitment epitomised the Scottish units in every battle they were involved in.Close to 150,000 Scots died during the First World War, which represents 20% of British losses. To get an idea of the slaughter, a comparison needs to be made with Australia. Australia and Scotland each had a population of five million in 1914: 60,000 Australians died in 1914-18 com-pared with 147,000 Scots. The losses were huge during the Battle of Loos: 50% of the men in each of the eight battalions of the 15th Scottish Division who attacked the village and Hill 70.

UNIONISTS and Nationalists. Protestants and Catholics. North and South. An island divided, even more so after the bloody events of the 1916 “Easter Rising” in Dublin (the rebellion against the British occupation and the

terrible repression that followed). However, a similar hell existed in the trenches for the 210,000 Irish who served in the British army during the First World War, in which 35,000 of them lost their lives. Yet, it wasn’t until 1998 that, as a sign of reconciliation, the “Island of Ireland Peace Park” was inaugurated in Messines.

Having arrived in France at Le Havre from 18 December 1915 onwards, the16th Irish Division had their first taste of the trenches in early 1916. From 27 to 29 April, it was fully engaged in the Battle of Hulluch, one of the battles of the Great War in which poisoned gas was used. During the German attack on 27 April, out of the 1,980 victims, 570 died, to be followed by numerous wounded later on as a result of respiratory problems. To incite the Irish, the Germans had placed posters in

front of the trenches recalling the events of the “Easter Rising” on 24 April. In August 1916, the 16th Division adopted new positions in the Somme. In June 1917, the Catholics from this 16th Division joined up with the Protestants from the 36th Ulster Division near Messines, taking the village of Wijtschate side-by-side on 7 June. Following action at Péronne and Hamel, the 16th Division was relieved in early April 1918, following an order for it to return to England via Aire-sur-la-Lys and Samer.

25 SEPTEMBER 1915, the Battle of Loos. The deafening sound of bombs, bullets whistling through the air, and cries of pain and terror. Suddenly, a traditional Scottish

sound seems to drown out the hail of bullets. Piper Daniel Laidlaw has climbed out of the trenches with his bagpipes to accompany his comrades towards the German lines.

23 August 1918 : the 2nd Battalion the Royal Scots attacks the Germans entrenched in Courcelles-le-Comte from the rear. The soldier Hugh McIver, a company runner, heads off alone to attack an enemy posi-tion. He kills six Germans, captures twenty more, and seizes two machine guns. When a British tank homes in on the wrong target, aiming at its own side, McIver climbs on to the vehicle and re-adjusts the shot – heroic acts which earned him the Victoria Cross, awarded posthumously to his parents in 1919 as Hugh McIver was killed on 2 September near the Bois de Vraucourt. He was 28 years old.

During the Great War, the Valenciennes artist Lucien Jonas (1880-1947) painted more than 2,000 sketches and portraits of Allied officers and soldiers, publishing a total of fifteen albums.Photo: “Three Scottish soldiers” (Hugues Chevalier private collection)

23 August 2008 : following consi-derable research, and as a result of the perseverance of Christophe Guéant, a keen local historian who for two years had received the support of The Somme Remembrance Association, Courcelles-le-Comte welcomed men from the 1st Battalion the Royal Regiment of Scotland and forty or so members of Hugh McIver’s family, who had come to attend the inauguration of a “Franco-English-Scottish” memorial to honour the memory of this Scottish soldier, Hugh McIver (born in Linwood, Paisley), but also to “salute the sacrifice made by a generation for freedom”.

Scots, bagpipes, kilts and courageBlue Bonnets O’er the BorderBlue Bonnets O’er the Border

Posters proliferated to encourage the Irish both emi-grants and those who had remained in the country to rejoin English, Canadian and Australian regiments etc.

Irish, “united” in the trenches

O’Leary, an Irish hero, was awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions at Cuinchy

from the north and south

111914-1918 Text : Christian Defrance

In August 1914, a few days after the German attack on Belgium, 43 young Americans started their training with the famous Foreign Legion. Their motivation? Quite simply, their love of France, and the defence of their beloved freedom... plus, of course, a taste for adven-ture! These Americans, the majo-rity of whom were either intellec-tuals, students or artists (such as the poets Alan Seeger and Henry Farnsworth), found themselves alongside Spanish, Greek and Swiss (including the writer Blaise Cendrars) volunteers. Why the Foreign Legion? This was the only option that would ensure that they kept their American citizenship,

given that the United States was not yet at war with the German Empire. These volunteers would see action in some of the bloodiest battles of the Great War, including the French offensive which began on 9 May 1915 (Neuville-Saint-Vaast, Carency, La Targette, Les Ouvrages Blancs) and culminated in the capture of the Notre-Dame-de-Lorette hill.

The Rockwell brothersAsheville, North Carolina, in a valley in the Appalachian moun-

tains. War is declared in Europe. The Rockwell brothers, Paul and Kiffin, buoyed by a spirit of “liberty, equality and fraternity”, write to the French consul general in New Orleans in order for them “to pay their share of the debt to Lafayette and Rochambeau”. They didn’t wait for the reply which was a long time coming and took

the first available ship, to Liverpool, on 3 August 1914. From here they travelled to Le Havre

and Paris, and quickly on to the French Legion on 30 August. Training followed in Rouen, Toulouse and the Mailly camp, before they were “plunged” into the trenches. Wounded at the Chemin des Dames, Paul left active service

and became the war cor-respondent for the Chicago

Daily News. In 1925, he fought in the Rif War and served in the American army during the Second World War. Born in 1892, Kiffin was wounded for the first time in December 1914. Having recovered from his injuries, he joined up with the Moroccan Division and was wounded a second time, this time in the leg, during the charge on La Targette on 9 May 1915. Six weeks of convalescence followed. Kiffin was transferred to air duties and, along with his compatriots Thaw, Cowdin, McDonnell, Prince, Hall and others, he became part of the famous “Lafayette squadron”. On 18 May 1916, he shot down his first German plane over Alsace. Kiffin Rockwell was to become “the king of the skies” as a result of his 141 successful combat missions, which earned him the Military Medal and the Croix de Guerre. On 23 September, he was killed by an explosive bullet during an aerial duel near the place where he enjoyed his first victory. In a letter to his brother, Kiffin wrote: “If France should lose, I feel that I should no longer want to live”.

From Loosto the BountyAn adventurer, soldier, fighter pilot and writer who lived in Iowa, London, Loos-en-Gohelle and Tahiti: this is the incredible life story of James Norman Hall, born in Colfax, Iowa, in 1887. In August 1914, he found himself in London, where he passed himself off as a Canadian in order to enlist as one of Lord Kitchener’s very first volunteers. In September 1915, he took part in the Battle of Loos, where his company was decimated.

Whilst on leave, it was discovered that Hall was American, which resulted in his demo-bilisation. This sol-dier-author was quick to relate his terrible experiences in a book, “Kitchener’s Mob”. He returned to France as part of the Lafayette squadron and covered himself with glory as a captain in the U.S. Air Force, receiving the Légion d’Honneur. In 1920, James Norman Hall and his friend Charles Nordhoff left for Tahiti, embarking on one of the most famous collaborations in American literature as the authors of the “Mutiny on the Bounty” trilogy.

Weeksmother and sonKenneth Weeks was born in Chestnut Hill, a suburb of Boston, on 30 December 1889. He was edu-cated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology then the Beaux-Arts in Paris, and planned to make a career in architecture. Kenneth loved writing, Paris and France; on 21 August 1914, he enlisted in the Foreign Legion, spending the winter of 1914 in the trenches. On 17 June 1915, the American was reported missing near Souchez, and his body was recovered on 25 November and buried in the cemetery in Écoivres, near Mont-Saint-Éloi. His mother, Alice Standish Weeks, lived in Paris from 1915 onwards, providing a lodging in her home for volunteers on leave, and writing to them on a very regular basis. Some of this correspondence from “Maman Légionnaire” (Mother of the Legion”), as she was affectionately known, was subsequently published.

From MassachusettsFar from the somewhat romantic image of the “American colony in Paris”, many U.S. citizens signed up with British or Canadian regi-ments prior to 1917, often using a pseudonym and recruited via Canadian and British missions. This is how, for example, W. Chadwick from the 2nd Battalion of the Royal Welsh Fusiliers, killed in action on 15 September 1918, came to be buried in the Five Points Cemetery in Léchelle. He was just 15 years old. Fifteen! Research has unco-vered the identity of this “teenage soldier”, who was William Hesford, born in Massachusetts, and wit-hout doubt the youngest American soldier to die in the Great War. Several hundred soldiers from Massachusetts have also been iden-tified.

Metcalf from MaineIn August 1914, the mother of 20-year-old William Metcalf learnt that he had left Waite, in Maine, and crossed the nearby Canadian border in order to enlist in the army. She immediately contacted the authorities for them “to return her son”. Upon disembarking in England, William was called by the American ambassador. Are you the young man whose mother is waiting for you at home in Maine? “I’m not that man”, William replied. “I’m from New Brunswick!” – a sta-tement confirmed by his colonel. The ambassador was powerless to do anything. Four years later, on 2 September 1918, William Henry Metcalf, one of the heroes of the Battle of the Drocourt-Quéant Line, was awarded the presti-gious Victoria Cross. Following the Armistice, he returned to his native Maine, where he embarked on a career as a mechanic. He died in South Portland on 8 August 1968.

Americans, from La Fayette to Lorette

LONG LIVE America! On 13 June 1917, around two hundred American soldiers and civilians disembarked in Boulogne-sur-Mer. At their head was General Pershing, commander-in-

chief of the American Expeditionary Force. America was ready to “finish the job in Europe”, and its participation in the Great War would be one of the keys to the Allied victory. On 11 November 1918, a total of two million “Doughboys” or “Sammies” – nicknames for soldiers from the U.S.A. – were in France, a million of whom had already seen combat; and Foch, Pétain and Pershing already had plans for the involvement of four and a half million men in 1919. By the end of the war, more than 100,000 Americans had lost their lives, and 200,000 had been wounded, in places such as Saint-Mihiel, Château-Thierry, the Argonne, Marne and Meuse. This “official story” has somewhat eclipsed the participation of American volunteers in the conflict well before the U.S.A.’s official entry into the war in the spring of 1917.

James Norman Hall, from the Battle of Loos to the Mutiny on the Bounty.Photo: D.R.

Kiffin Rockwell, on the left, and fellow legionnaires in the trenches.Photo: www.scuttlebuttsmallchow.com

A “Doughboy” with a determined look.Photo: Hugues Chevalier documentary collection

12 1914-1918They came from across The globeText : Christian Defrance

“I was aware that villagers had been evacuated, and that the Germans had blown up the church in 1917. My brother had even received a photo of the event sent by a German with whom he corresponded and who had even fought in Sains!” The mayor had even heard talk of the “capture” of the village, of its “reconstruction”, involving the digging of twenty wells, “plus, of course, the British cemeteries”. Except that of the 273 graves at Quarry Wood, 260 are Canadian; of the 257 at the Ontario Cemetery, 142 are Canadian; and of the 227 at the Sains-lès-Marquion British Cemetery, 177 are also Canadian. It was the arrival in Sains of Michel Gravel in 2003 which “set the cat among the pigeons” for the mayor of the village. Since 2001, Gravel, a roof salesman from Cornwall, Ontario, has spent all his time researching Canada’s military past. An inveterate his-tory buff, he has thumbed his nose at academics. In particular, he has published “Tough as Nails” (“Arras à Cambrai par le chemin le plus long”), which pro-vides a new insight into the cap-ture of Canal du Nord. Supporting documentation comes in the form of regimental journals and the recollections of “Hillie” Foley, a roofer from Ottawa. “Gravel told us what happened on 27 September 1918 in Sains-lès-Marquion”, states Guy de Saint-Aubert, “and I wanted to satisfy the curiosity of our local inha-bitants.”

No more fightingHence the inauguration of a com-memorative plaque on the square on 31 August 2008. Ninety years before, on 27 September 1918 to be exact, on the left flank of the Allied offensive against the Hindenburg Line, the 14th Battalion (Royal Montreal Regiment) of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division attacked the Germans who were holding the Canal du Nord. Supported by an artillery barrage and by four tanks from the British Tank Corps, the 14th Battalion established a

bridgehead on the fields to the south of Sains-lès-Marquion. After a brief lull, they went on the offensive again, entering the vil-lage from the rear and taking the enemy completely by surprise, with the Canadian “steamroller” taking five hundred prisoners. “A tactical masterpiece within the Battle of the Canal du Nord, the most complex operation of the Great War, and a plan that was incredibly ambitious”, asserts Michel Gravel. “The battle was won here in Sains, so a monument was needed to commemorate it”, he adds, remembering the memorial at the Bois de Bourlon. Although the famous 14th Battalion lost sixty men on 27 September, a total of 9,000 Canadians were killed along the road from Arras to Cambrai between 26 August and 9 October 1918. All these soldiers had made “the supreme sacri-fice”, Michel Gravel pronounces darkly. “He knows them like the back of his hand”, explains the mayor of Sains. “In front of each grave he will tell you that so-and-so died in Marquion, ano-ther at the hospital, and even the names of their parents.” So it was, therefore, at the end of August, that Michel was able to show Jim Vallance “the exact spot where his great-uncle, James Wellington Young, was killed on 27 September 1918”. Jim Vallance, who was making his second visit to Sains-lès-Marquion, is famous in Canada as a songwriter for Bryan Adams, the Scorpions, Joe Cocker, Rod Stewart, Tina Turner and others. Jim Vallance and Bryan Adams wrote “Remembrance Day” (11 November) in 1986: “The guns will be silent on Remembrance Day. We’ll all say a prayer on Remembrance Day”. In Sains-lès-Marquion, everyone is com-mitted to weapons being silenced forever. Liberated in 1918 by the Canadians, the village is now twinned with the German town of Neuenheerse. “There’ll be no more fighting”, sings Bryan Adams. We hope that is the case.

HE has counted the graves in three military cemeteries in his local commune. Guy de Saint-Aubert is the mayor of Sains-lès-Marquion and has thrown himself

into a commemorative project that he wasn’t in the least bit expecting. He was certainly familiar with the main thread of the turbulent events experienced in his village during the Great War, but there is so much more to the story…

From 1914-18 to today: a Canadian battalion passes through Barlin (above); soldiers from the 14th Battalion are buried at the cemetery in Sains-lès-Marquion where Michel Gravel and Jim Vallance pay their respects (below).

1918-2008

619,000 soldiers mobilisedGloriously sunny skies welcomed Queen Elisabeth II to Vimy on 9 April 2007, where she was presiding over the official inauguration of the restored monument. “Victory at Vimy Ridge enabled Canada to occupy an important place in the world, inspiring a young country to become a magnificent nation”, she said. In Canada, everyone knows about Vimy, however in the grand scheme of things this small part of the Pas-de-Calais is just a single episode in Canada’s participation in the Great War. From October 1914 onwards, Canadian volunteers were already arriving in England and were involved in early fighting near Ypres at the beginning of 1915. The Canadian Expeditionary Force had already distinguished itself in the battles of Ypres and in the face of the horrors of poison gas, as well as in Neuve-Chapelle in March 1915, and Festubert and Givenchy in May and June 1915. From July to November 1916, there they are again in the tragic Battle of the Somme. And then at Vimy Ridge from 9 to 14 April 1917; Arleux; the 3rd Battle of the Scarpe; Souchez; Avion; Hill 70 and the offensive against Lens in August 1917 (the only large-scale urban battle in the Great War); Amiens in August 1918; the breaching of the Hindenburg Line during the autumn of 1918; and the advance from Arras to Cambrai. In total, the Canadian Expeditionary Force committed 619,000 men to the First World War (a figure based initially on volunteers and then on conscription after Vimy, to which Quebec was opposed). There were many immigrants in the Canadian Expeditionary Force, and it is estimated that half of all its soldiers were born in the United Kingdom. Add to these Ukrainians, Russians, Scandinavians, Dutch, Belgians and a plethora of Americans, not forgetting four thousand native Indians, Inuits and Métis. The human cost was a very heavy one: 66,655 dead, of whom 19,660 were uni-dentified. In places such as Achicourt, Vimy, Étaples, Écoivres, Thélus, Villers-au-Bois and elsewhere, 28,785 Canadian officers, non-commissioned officers and soldiers are laid to rest in the six hundred or so cemeteries and burial sites in the Pas-de-Calais.

from Vimy Ridge to the Canal du NordCanadians,from Vimy Ridge to the Canal du Nord

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131914-1918 Text : Christian Defrance

On Monday 22 August 2005, along the Béthune to Lens road, a bronze plaque in three lan-guages (English, French... and Ukrainian) was inaugurated near the Hill 70 battlefield where Filip Konowal’s actions were rewarded with the Victoria Cross, the highest British military dis-tinction. Filip Konowal had a “fascinating yet little-known history”. He served for three years and 357 days in the ranks of the Canadian Expeditionary Force in which 10,000 Ukrainian-Canadians enlisted, while thousands of others were interned in camps as “citizens from an enemy country”. Born on 15 September 1888 in Kudkiv, on the border between the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires, Filip enlisted in the Russian imperial army at the age of 21. In 1913, he emigrated on his own to Canada, working as a lumberjack out West before heading East to Ontario with the aim of quickly being reunited with his family. Having volunteered in 1915, he landed in France in August 1916, where he was involved in the battles of the Somme, Vimy Ridge, and Lens, where we was awarded the prestigious Victoria Cross (alone killing sixteen enemy soldiers in three days) and received a serious head wound. He returned to Canada after the war, learning that his wife had died of hunger in the Ukraine, and that his daughter had been interned in a camp. Having slowly recovered from his injuries, Filip

Konowal worked as a caretaker in Canada’s House of Commons before being assigned the post of custodian of the Prime Minister’s office. He died in Ottawa on 3 June 1959 and was more or less forgotten until the acts of Canadian-Ukrainian reconciliation, which took place after the year 2000 and were overseen by Lubomyr Luciuk, a professor from Ontario. In 1956, describing his heroic actions on Hill 70, Filip Konowal declared to a journalist: “I was so fed up standing in the trench with water to my waist that I said the hell with it and started after the German army!”.

On 16 September, the 22nd reached Saint-Omer, where the general headquarters allo-cated it an interpreter who was heard to exclaim: “mais nom d’un chien, vous parlez tous le français, et l’anglais bien mieux que moi” (“good grief – you all speak French, and English better than I do!”). 1,178 men were readying themselves for the trenches, including 1,078 French-speaking Canadians, 47 French-Americans from New England, 14 French, 10 British, 4 Swiss, 3 Italians, 2 Spanish, 1 Mexican, 1 Argentinian and some Russians! During the course of 38 months of war, and taking reinforcements into account, 5,919 officers, non-commissioned officers and sol-diers served in the 22nd. From September 1915 to August 1916, the 22nd went on the attack, suffered the effects of mud and gas, and demonstrated their bravery and energy around the “Ypres Salient” in Flanders. These “Frenchmen dressed in English style” (i.e. khaki) then headed for the Somme, com-manded by Lieutenant-Colonel Tremblay. On the evening of 15 September 1916, the 22nd

took and held Courcelette “to the final man…” in the terrible battle of the same name: “If hell is as abominable as what I saw in Courcelette, I wouldn’t want my worst enemy to go there”, wrote Colonel Tremblay in his campaign journal. The hell of Courcelette brought with it des-pair and revolt within the bat-talion, in which three soldiers were shot for desertion. On 1 October came the attack on the Regina trench. Men fell in their hundreds, and the four com-panies, their ranks decimated, needed urgent reorganisation; on the 15th they established quarters in Bully-Grenay and at Fosse 10 with the “ch’ti” (the local inhabitants of the Pas-de-Calais), where they were entrenched in the heart of the Angres sector. Their new objec-tive in 1917 was the attack on Vimy Ridge on 9 April – the greatest Canadian victory of the Great War and a joint English- and French-speaking success. Having barely gathered their emotions, the 22nd arrived at Côte 70 (the French transla-tion of Hill 70, named after the 70 marker, a figure which appears on local topographical

maps) in a suburb of Lens, where the attack took place on 15 August 1917. In later years, a ski run in Les Laurentides would be named Côte 70: quite a transition from coal to snow! Following new raids in Belgium, the 22nd spent Christmas and New Year in the “civilised sur-roundings” of Ligny-lès-Aire: “What joy for all our poor tom-mies used to the horror of deso-late ruins to spend a few weeks in a village that had not seen the war, to be able to breathe fresh country air without the burning sensation of powder and poi-soned gas in their throats, and to be able to sleep for an entire night without being suddenly and continually woken by the sound of cannons”, wrote A.-J. Lapointe in “Soldier of Quebec”. The 22nd began 1918 in the Neuville-Vitasse and Mercatel sectors: “filthy sectors, mud up to your knees; no trenches, just shallow ditches with individual holes that men dug as fast as they could”. The battalion made their way through the south of the Artois: Bailleulmont, Bailleulval, Lattre-Saint-Quentin, Bienvillers-au-Bois and Hermaville. Then came the Battle of Amiens in early August and Chérisy at the end of the same month: “...indefa-tigable heroism. All the officers of the 22nd were either killed or wounded”. At Chérisy, Georges Vanier, the future Canadian ambassador to France from 1945 to 1953, and Governor General of Canada (the first French speaker to be appointed to the post) from 1959 to 1967, lost his right leg. The Battle of Cambrai, the Armistice and the

long “march on Germany” then followed. The battalion returned to England on 10 May 1919 aboard the Olympic, the sister ship of the Titanic, and received a hero’s welcome a week later in

Québec City and then Montreal. 1,074 officers, non-commis-sioned officers and other ranks from the 22nd battalion died in combat or as a result of combat, with 2,887 others wounded.

15 SEPTEMBER 1915, 8.30pm, and the steamer Princess of Argyll is berthing in Boulogne-sur-Mer. On the quayside the few spectators “listen attentively”. For

over a year now Boulogne has been used to the sight of British troops disembarking at the port, but this evening the new arrivals are speaking French. The news travels fast: the French-Canadians are heading for the front! “The 22nd caused quite a stir”, wrote Joseph Chaballe in his “Histoire du 22e bataillon canadien-français”, a battalion officially born on 21 October 1914 following the actions of fifty or so individuals “frustrated” by the fact that the first contingent of volunteers which had departed for Europe did not include a single exclusively French-speaking fighting unit within its ranks.

The 22e Battalion «indefatigable heroism»

Included in the list of 1,074 dead from the 22nd Battalion is the name Célestin Hermary, originally from Saint-Floris in the Pas-de-Calais. Having emigrated to Canada with his family in 1907, Célestin signed up in September 1916. Following his arrival in France on 7 September 1917, he was killed near Mercatel on 2 April 1918 and buried at the Wailly Orchard Cemetery.

Filip Konowal,

The medals of Filip Konowal, a hero of both Canada and the Ukraine.

the Ukrainian of Hill 70

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Calais

Teneur

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Ruminghem

Blendecques Arques

Roquetoire

Fauquembergues Thérouanne

MametzClarques

Erny-Saint-JulienLigny-lès-Aire

Lillers

FestubertGivenchy

Béthune

Lens

Loos-en-Gohelle

Hulluch

GrenayBully-les-Mines

SouchezVimy

Fouquières-lès-LensSallaumines

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Mercatel

Ayette

VéluBapaume

Léchelle

Aire-sur-la-Lys

Saint-Hilaire-Cottes

Ambleteuse

Samer

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Montreuil-sur-Mer

Saint-FlorisSaint-Venant

Laventie

Neuve-Chapelle

Neuville-Saint-VaastAubigny-en-Artois

Mont-Saint-éloi

Richebourg

Boulogne-sur-Mer

Wimereux

Saint-étienne-au-Mont

Arras

Chérisy

Cagnicourt

Courcelles-le-Comte

Warlencourt-Eaucourt

Monchy-le-Preux

Sains-lès-Marquion

Neuville-Vitasse

This map of the Pas-de-Calais is marked with the names of towns and villages listed in this document.

Memories of the Great War are everywhere in our département, ranging from the national memorial at Notre-Dame-de-Lorette (with its 3,600 guards of honour) to the Canadian memorial at Vimy and the Wellington quarry in Arras, as well as a plethora of military cemeteries – French, German and British (the latter maintained by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission) – and our own war memorials.

Vimy

Monchy-le-Preux

Recommended reading• World War I. Five Continents in Flanders: Dominik Dendooven & Piet Chielens (Lannoo)• La Première Guerre mondiale: John Keegan (Perrin, collection Tempus)• 14-18 retrouver la Guerre: Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau, AnnetteBecker (Gallimard)• Les cimetières militaires en France. Architecture et paysages:Anne Biraben (L’Harmattan)

• L’archéologie de la Grande Guerre: Yves Desfossés,Alain Jacques et Gilles Prilaux (Ouest-France)

• Dans la Fournaise de Lens 1915-1917.Journal du notaire Léon Tacquet: Les

Dossiers de Gauhéria n° 7(Gauhéria)• Mémoires de guerre(Comité d’histoire du Haut-Pays)• 14-18. La Grande Guerre.Armes, uniformes, matériels: François Bertin (Ouest-France)• Le Guide de la PremièreGuerre Mondiale des Flandresà l'Alsace (Casterman)• La butte sanglante : PierreMiquel (Pocket)• Les Mutins: W. Allison,J. Fairley et traduit parClaudine Lesage (A.M.M.E.Editions)

Notre-Dame-de-Lorette

Saint-Omer

Calais

Teneur

érin

Ruminghem

Blendecques Arques

Roquetoire

Fauquembergues Thérouanne

MametzClarques

Erny-Saint-JulienLigny-lès-Aire

Lillers

FestubertGivenchy

Béthune

Lens

Loos-en-Gohelle

Hulluch

GrenayBully-les-Mines

SouchezVimy

Fouquières-lès-LensSallaumines

Wailly

Mercatel

Ayette

VéluBapaume

Léchelle

Aire-sur-la-Lys

Saint-Hilaire-Cottes

Ambleteuse

Samer

étaples

Montreuil-sur-Mer

Saint-FlorisSaint-Venant

Laventie

Neuve-Chapelle

Neuville-Saint-VaastAubigny-en-Artois

Mont-Saint-éloi

Richebourg

Boulogne-sur-Mer

Wimereux

Saint-étienne-au-Mont

Arras

Chérisy

Cagnicourt

Courcelles-le-Comte

Warlencourt-Eaucourt

Monchy-le-Preux

Sains-lès-Marquion

Neuville-Vitasse

This map of the Pas-de-Calais is marked with the names of towns and villages listed in this document.

Memories of the Great War are everywhere in our département, ranging from the national memorial at Notre-Dame-de-Lorette (with its 3,600 guards of honour) to the Canadian memorial at Vimy and the Wellington quarry in Arras, as well as a plethora of military cemeteries – French, German and British (the latter maintained by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission) – and our own war memorials.

Vimy

Monchy-le-Preux

Recommended reading• World War I. Five Continents in Flanders: Dominik Dendooven & Piet Chielens (Lannoo)• La Première Guerre mondiale: John Keegan (Perrin, collection Tempus)• 14-18 retrouver la Guerre: Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau, AnnetteBecker (Gallimard)• Les cimetières militaires en France. Architecture et paysages:Anne Biraben (L’Harmattan)

• L’archéologie de la Grande Guerre: Yves Desfossés,Alain Jacques et Gilles Prilaux (Ouest-France)

• Dans la Fournaise de Lens 1915-1917.Journal du notaire Léon Tacquet: Les

Dossiers de Gauhéria n° 7(Gauhéria)• Mémoires de guerre(Comité d’histoire du Haut-Pays)• 14-18. La Grande Guerre.Armes, uniformes, matériels: François Bertin (Ouest-France)• Le Guide de la PremièreGuerre Mondiale des Flandresà l'Alsace (Casterman)• La butte sanglante : PierreMiquel (Pocket)• Les Mutins: W. Allison,J. Fairley et traduit parClaudine Lesage (A.M.M.E.Editions)

Notre-Dame-de-Lorette

Saint-Omer

16 1914-1918They came from across The globeText : Philippe Vincent-Chaissac

ARACA stands for the Association de Recherche des Anciens Combattants Amérindiens. In just a few years this

association, whose headquarters is in Loos-en-Gohelle, has been a key player in research into the military role played by Native Americans.

Its president, Yann Castelnot, has even become a spokesperson for the families of those Native Americans soldiers who came to Europe to fight in Canadian, British and, on occasion, French units. Its aim is to honour their memory and to recognise their commitment and sacrifice which have long been ignored.To date, Yann Castelnot has a list of more than 4,000 names of Native Americans who fought in the First World War. These include Mohawks, Onondagas, Oneidas, Tuscaroras, Chippewas, Crees, Algonquins, Malecites, Bloods, Iroquois and Sioux, who came from numerous native nations around North America. How many of them made it to the Pas-de-Calais? It’s a very difficult question to answer at present as historians and researchers have only shown interest in this subject over the past decade.For his part, Yann Castelnot has embarked on a long and painstaking project, as those Native Americans who did enlist did so under French- or English-sounding assumed names. Officially, they were not allowed to sign up for purely political reasons: sending “savages” to the front wasn’t the done thing. In addition, military enlistment papers in 1914-1915 bore no indication as to whether those enrolled were Native Americans or not. The only clue was their place of birth. However, information provided by families also had to be factored in. Many present-day Native Americans are aware that their grandfathers and great-grandfathers left for the war, but most have paid little attention to what happened or what they went through. For many, their

enlistment proved their patriotism. “Native Americans are particularly appreciative of France, which often stood alongside them in their struggle for the recognition of their rights”, explains Annick Bouquet, ARACA’s secretary. Many left with the hope of bringing money to help their families live on their reserves, where the land was not especially fertile. According to a native historian, this was also a way for men to rediscover an active and essential role for themselves, a role which they had enjoyed until the establishment of their reserves. “It was an opportunity for them to escape a life of boredom”. They headed off with enthusiasm, sometimes several from the same family. One source highlights the case of the Algonquins from the shores of the Golden Lake: only three men remained on the entire reserve. Annick Bouquet also points out that women also volunteered as nurses, canteen workers etc. Children remained at home with the older generations. Yann Castelnot adds that on the list in his possession the same family name and place of origin is repeated on several occasions. The proof appears to be conclusive. For a long time it has been difficult to discuss this issue. Firstly, because the Canadian authorities, like the British, were reticent about opening up their archives. In the United States, where the question has been asked in similar terms, it is also almost impossible to make any headway at present. Another problem was that those Native Americans who returned home had, like the European soldiers they fought alongside, found it hard to talk of their experiences. Today, however, they are confronted by the question of their own cultural identity and their spirituality. They are embarking on a process of cultural rebuilding and as such need to know the history of their ancestors. Yann Castelnot, who now lives in Canada, is keen to help them and to obtain from them the information which will assist him with

the research he is carrying out. And with each person he meets, he makes a new friend and is moved by their experiences.

Native Americans

WHILE wandering around military cemeteries and poring over registers,

Yann made his first discovery: the grave of Standing Buffalo, the grandson of the Sioux chief Sitting Bull, who died during the First World War, in the cemetery along the Bucquoy road, in Ficheux.

Far from the image associated with the Sioux, that of semi-savages adorned with feathers, Native Americans were considered unrivalled warriors with qualities that were taken advantage of by military leaders. Because of their ability to move around silently and unnoticed, the most dangerous reconnaissance missions were assigned to them. Prior to an attack, they were sent into no man’s land, often behind enemy lines to bring back valuable information. Excellent spotters, they were also given the role of snipers, whose

aim was to disconcert the enemy. The most famous example is that of Henri Norwest, who is said to have killed 115 soldiers, and was considered the best Canadian shot and perhaps the most accomplished within the combined British forces, to whom the Military Medal was promised for his reconnaissance work and comportment at Vimy Ridge in 1917. Sadly, Norwest was the victim of a German sniper, and is buried at Warvillers in the Somme.Native Americans were numerous among the Canadian troops engaged at Vimy: among them, Mike Mountain Horse, who saw his first action at Vimy and who later wrote in his memoirs: “Lying on top of Vimy Ridge one night, along with a number of other Indian boys, I listened to the deafening enemy bombardment of Allied lines and I asked myself where was this God talked about by white men

Over 4,000 enlisted under assumed names

John Lorenzetto, from the Okanagan nation, had an ancestor who was Italian. Attached to a group of soldiers responsible for bringing provisions to the front line, he was taken by surprise and killed in a bombardment on 8 September 1918. His grave is located in the dominion cemetery between Cagnicourt and Hendecourt-lès-Cagnicourt.

Tom Longboat is perhaps the most famous Native American from the Great War. A marathon cham-pion, he was used as courier.

and in whom they wanted us to believe? Why was he allowing all this destruction? And I prayed that he would bring nations to reason.” Mike Mountain Horse had brothers who also enlisted, including Albert, who took part in the 2nd Battle of Ypres, and Joe, wounded at Arras in 1917. Yann Castelnot also highlights the examples of William Cleary, a Montagnais, and Joseph Roussin, a Mohawk, both lumberjacks, who served in the 22nd French-Canadian battalion and who distinguished themselves in Lens, one by retrieving two wounded men upon his return from a raid, the other for having led a successful solo attack against eight enemy soldiers. These events confirm Annick Bouquet’s view that the Germans were very afraid of the Native Americans. She also mentions an event that is said to have taken place around Lillers in which an Indian, screaming at the top of his voice, headed off alone to

attack a trench occupied by Germans who immediately surrendered to him. She does concede, however, that this anecdote has not been verified, as the difficulty lies in finding historical proof for such stories. True or not, German records exist that confirm this fear. In one of them, there is a tale of a Native American who ran at full speed (many were used as couriers), fell numerous times, got up on each occasion and despite his injuries was still able to surprise his assailant.In another, it is the description of one of these Native Americans, captured at Vimy, which is noted: “he had no hair, just a tuft on the top of his head. His face was painted in red and white”. Such an image was certain to instil fear, but what was most impressive, perhaps, was the steady gaze. Norwest’s stare, with his eyes resembling two polished black marble discs, could be enigmatic, hypnotic and piercing all at once.

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Snipers and runners : Snipers and runners : feared adversaries

171914-1918 Text : Christian Defrance

ARHAM, the Association de Recherches Historiques, Archéologiques et Militaires,

and its president, Dominique Faivre are hugely knowledgeable when it comes to the Indian presence in Northern France during the Great War – a presence that left its mark both as a result of fighting and of soldiers being billeted in the region.

With their dark skin, turbans, hair buns, beards and exotic cuisine, the Indians made a striking impression on local inhabitants. “When I was very little I used to listen to my grandmother from Saint-Venant talk about the Indians.” By listening to the older generations reminisce about these soldiers, Dominique developed a soft spot for this unique army, taking advantage of a long period of illness in 2004 and 2005 to accumulate documents and research British regimental journals. “The subject is hugely complex: this was a skilled army which undoubtedly based its ope-ration around that of the British army, but with the added aspect of numerous ethnic and religious groups”. This local historian had to familiarise himself with the customs of Sikhs, Gurkhas, Balochs, Dogras, Garhwalis, Jats, Pathans, Rajputs and Punjabis before delving further into their battles. The first Indian troops arrived in Marseille in late September 1914, heading north in October via the Cercottes camp near Orléans. “Indians arrived at the railway stations of Arques and Blendecques on the night of 19 to 20 October; the 47th Sikhs were billeted in the Abbaye de Wisques”, Dominique adds. From the 23rd, the Ferozepore Brigade headed down into the trenches around Messines, to be followed by a true baptism of fire a few days later – events which engaged the Indian Corps fully during the battles of Neuve-Chapelle

(28 October and 2 November 1914, then from 10 to 13 March 1915), Festubert (23 and 24 November 1914, and 16 May 1915), Givenchy (19 to 22 December 1914), Aubers (9 May 1915), and Moulin de Piètre (25 September 1915). “Butchery, slaughter, courage, heroism”, says Dominique Faivre. “From Fauquissart to Givenchy-lès-la-Bassée, they spent a year in the muddy trenches, enduring frozen feet and pneu-monia. At Festubert, Darwan Singh Negi was decorated with the Victoria Cross, the highest British military decoration, which George V awarded him perso-nally in Saint-Omer on 9 December.” In the soldiers’ quarters around the villages of Lillers, Auchel and Aire-sur-la-Lys life re-assumed some semblance of normality: “I know that in England there are five hundred unpublished photos of the daily lives of Indian soldiers in Saint-Floris.” A war reporter wrote the following descrip-tion in the magazine Le Flambeau in 1915: “They made themselves at home in our farms as if they had been born there, and our brave peasants were amazed to see them wander around their farmyards with such ease. As for the Indians, nothing surprised them. Provided that the British Supply Corps provided them with plentiful quantities of ghee (clari-fied butter), goat meat – a ritual abat-toir was set up in Aire – or, failing that, mutton, and red pepper, they accepted their lot with the unconcerned attitude that is so typical of Eastern cultures.”Its regiments bled dry and deprived of reinforcements, the Indian Corps left the north and the Pas-de-Calais to be sent to Mesopotamia at the end of September 1915, with only two cavalry divisions left behind. In a little more than a year, the Indian Corps suffered 34,000 losses, taking into account the dead (7,000), wounded and prisoners of war. In Saint-Floris, Saint-Hilaire-Cottes and

Erny-Saint-Julien, the children who observed from near or far the “rest time” taken by these extraordinary soldiers will never forget them. Dominique Faivre reasserts the fact that during a difficult period in his life, “my research into the Indian Corps was

hugely therapeutic”. At some stage he will delve further into the story of the Sikhs and Gurkhas in our region, perhaps at the time when “all the correspondence that was censored and archived in England” will be become freely available to the public.

Unheralded heroes

ARHAM has purchased some magnificent lithographs by Paul Sarrut on the internet. This French liaison officer “wandered” around the camps of Indian troops in Warnes, Isbergues, Allouagne, Erny-Saint-Julien etc in order to capture real-life images of these fascinating soldiers and officers.

It was at a place known as La Bombe, between Neuve-Chapelle and Richebourg, once a cross-roads and now a roundabout, that the Meerut Division attacked in March 1915, and it is here that two stone tigers stand at the entrance to the Indian Memorial, designed by Sir Herbert Baker and inaugurated on 7 October 1927 in the presence of Marshal Foch, the Maharajah of Kapurthala, the novelist Rudyard Kipling and other dignita-ries. The marshal reminded those attending that “over a million Indian troops fought on the French front and in the Dardanelles”. The memorial pays tribute to 4,843 men, listed accor-ding to their unit. “France will never forget those who rushed from all parts of the globe to fight against force and tyranny”, added the Minister of the Colonies. In 1964, a bronze plaque was added bearing the names of 206 Indian sol-diers who had died in Germany, where they were prisoners of war.

In a book published in 1993, “Mon devoir de mémoire” (My Duty of Remembrance), Paul Raoult, the son of the primary schoolteacher in Saint-Floris, also remembered “the unfortunate Indians”. “They had great difficulty adapting to our weather. They suffered from the cold in the harsh winter of 1914, both in the trenches and in the barns in their billets. One of them, who showed particular kindness towards me, knocked on our window one evening. We hesitated as to whether to let him in: “Maman”, he said, addressing my grandmother who was with us at the time, “Moi Maman, beaucoup froid”, and he coughed deliberately to emphasize the fact. In the end my mother let him in. He came in the kitchen and stood quietly by the stove, dressed in his large tunic buttoned at the shoulder and covering him down to his knees. Once he had warmed up, he bowed to thank us then went on his way, but not before handing me a small jar of Chesebrough vaseline, the prophylactic qualities of which I was unaware of, and a few cigarettes that my mother took no time at all in confiscating.”

Indians

“The unfortunate Indians...”“The unfortunate Indians...”“The unfortunate Indians...”Photo: Alain Jacques documentary collection

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18 1914-1918They came from across The globeText : Jean-Yves Vincent

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Out of a population of four million inhabitants, some 313,000 Australians travelled thousands of miles to join in the war effort in Europe. For many of them it was an adventure and a trip of a lifetime, and for 60,000 of them a journey that ended in their deaths. Out of this hell, Australia forged its national identity. Every 25 April – the date on which the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (Anzac) came ashore on a beach on the Gallipoli peninsula – the country commemorates Anzac Day so as not to forget the sacrifice of its soldiers during the First World War, as well as other conflicts in its history.

Battle of FromellesIt is 1916, and the major battles are concentrated around Verdun and in the Somme. While Verdun resists and the early battles in the Somme claim countless lives, Haig asks the Australians to prepare themselves for an attack in the Fromelles sector. He wants to give the impression that a major offensive on Lille is planned to distract the enemy’s attention and to ensure that German troops are not sent as reinforcements to the Somme. At around 6pm on 19 July 1916, the 5th Australian

Division goes on the offensive. The land is flat, the soldiers are inexperienced and many of them are discovering the trenches – where gas, machine guns and charges across enemy lines are part of daily life – for the very first time. On the former battlefield, a stele pays tribute to the soldiers killed in this fruitless and ineffective diversion, which resulted in the deaths of 5,533 men and officers from the 5th Division.

Battle of BullecourtOn 26 and 27 February 1917, the Germans withdraw to the Hindenburg Line, a rearguard action code-named “Alberich”, which results in the liberation of 99 out of 189 occupied towns and villages in the Pas-de-Calais. Most are dynamited, roads and railway lines are destroyed, trees cut down and wells poisoned. On 17 March, the Australians enter Bapaume, which had been occupied since 28 August 1914. Cynically, a German report declares: “Having been ruined, Bapaume was set alight in 400 different places”. At 4.45pm on 11 April, the Australians from the 1st Anzac Battalion launch an attack to the east of Bullecourt. A bitterly cold wind, mixed with hail, sweeps across no man's land. The first wave of men have 600m to cover; the supporting troops posted behind the railway embankment have a further 500m to negotiate. Eleven tanks accompany the attack, and become the immediate focus of enemy fire. Six are destroyed before they have even had the chance to reach the enemy wire. The British artillery has not done its job properly: once they reach the barbed wire, the Australians are forced to run along the defences to find a way through.

The counter-attack starts at around ten o’clock, preceded by a bombardment. Mortars fired from the northeast of Bullecourt take out the trenches captured one after the other; a battery hammers the parapet. Windows in Riencourt are also fired at: with snow as a backdrop, the soldiers are perfect targets. The response of the Allied artillery is ineffective, firing too far and unaware if the Australians had already reached Bullecourt. In the captured trenches it was a case of running for your life. “Many of the wounded who remained were taken prisoner or finished off if their condition was desperate…” This was how the first Battle of Bullecourt ended: 3,000 men lost and 1,142 soldiers and 28 officers taken prisoner. On the German side, the losses in a single day totalled 749 soldiers.Guided by air support, the artillery pounds the enemy positions. This time, most of the networks of barbed wire are destroyed. Hendecourt, Riencourt and Bullecourt are a pile of rubble but in their shelters the Germans are still prepared for an attack. To the rear, hundreds of men are working to repair roads to enable the transport of munitions, supplies and water. On the night of 20 April, around 3,000 gas shells are fired by the Germans, who try to check the Allied attack. Postponed several times, the date of the attack is finally fixed for 3 May. The objectives: Bullecourt and Riencourt for the Australians; Hendecourt

for the British.The numbers are astonishing: in a single day the field artillery fire 70,730 shells and the heavy artillery 19,186. The initial waves of attack are launched. The dead from the attack on 11 April can still be seen caught in the barbed wire. Confusion soon reigns as both the Germans and British use identically coloured rockets to launch their barrages. Attacks and counter-attacks continue until 17 May. Craters caused by wave after wave of shells and grenades compound the situation. Von Moser lost 7,000 men in this second battle, which was considered an act of heroism by the troops of the Würtenberg unit. On the Australian side, the two assaults accounted for a total of ten thousand victims.

“Quoi ? L'Éternité” The role played by Australian troops in the strategy of the Allied forces is therefore clear to see, particularly in 1918 when they countered the last major German offensive. Their combat role in Villers-Bretonneux, where they prevented a breach between French and British forces, has gone down in legend. Viewing this tranquil plain today, dotted with sheep and the occasional copse of trees, it is difficult to imagine the drama that unfolded here, with thousands of corpses littering its fields. “Every time I pass through these former battlefields, as quiet as death on either side of the noisy motorway, in itself as dangerous as life, I am reminded of the past”, wrote Marguerite Yourcenar in “Quoi? L’Éternité”.

Australians Known as the

THESE smiling soldiers full of swagger and with a rifle slung over their shoulders were from a country on the other side of the world. Australian soldiers were affectionately

known as “Diggers” (the word refers to a gold miner), in the same way that the British were known as “Tommies” and the French as “Poilus”. On their heads they wore their characteristic tilted “slouch hat”, with the left side folded up to enable their rifle to be carried on their shoulders. On the turned-up side, the “Rising Sun” symbolised the sun rising on the huge British Empire, to which Australia belonged at the time.

In the same way that Vimy resonates with Canadians, Bullecourt is a name that Australians of every genera-tion are familiar with, given that details of the battle are still taught at school. Down Under, a town in Queensland is called Bullecourt, and another Bapaume. Every year, hundreds of Australians brave the 12,000 miles separa-ting them from the Artois and the Somme to pay their res-pects at the graves of their grandfathers and great-grand-fathers. These pilgrims paying tribute to the memory of the “Diggers” regularly visit the tourist office in Bapaume. In 2007, a couple arrived with a photo of a painting that they own: “The Australians entering Bapaume” by Mervyn Napier Waller. At the end of August 2008, another Australian couple came to the tourist office to show some extracts from the “war diary” of their grandfather. “They visited all the places described in the journal”, explains Pascale Jannoty. William Gilbert MacKenzie, a “Digger” who had fought in all the major Australian battles, was so marked by his experiences in the Somme and Artois during the Great War that upon his return to Tasmania he erected a sign on his house pointing towards “Vélu” (a village near Bapaume).

“The Australians entering Bapaume” is a canvas by Mervyn Napier Waller (1893-1972) which is unknown to the French public. The artist was seriously wounded at Bullecourt in May 1917, resulting in the amputation of his right arm. During his convalescence, he learnt to write and draw with his left hand. Upon his return to Australia, he became a renowned artist.

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191914-1918 Text : Marie-Pierre Griffon

November 1916, the military headquar-ters of the French army: General Nivelle is preparing the Chemin des Dames offen-sive. The operation is planned for the spring of 1917 and a diversionary plan is developed. A few days before the general assault, British troops in Artois would need to attack the German lines. The plan was a contro-versial one but ended up being adopted. However, the situation in Arras was disastrous: the town had withstood daily bom-bardment since October 1914, was almost comple-tely destroyed and only a thousand or two inhabi-tants, managing to survive amid the ruins, remained.

Deep undergroundIn order to attack the German lines, the British had on several occasions tried to cross the two or three kilometres of destroyed land that separated the two camps, but had suffered huge losses every time. It was then that they came up with an ingenious plan. Instead of trying to cover the distance above ground, why not pass undiscovered beneath ground and then appear right under the noses of the Germans? Digging was the key, but with French, English and Scottish miners already at the front, the call went out to New

Zealand, who sent five hundred sappers from the other side of the world to Arras.

Six months of workThe region’s sub-stratum was already full of wells, caves and cavities, dug by stone-

cutters since the Middle Ages. Consequently, what the New Zealand sap-pers needed to do was to connect up this under-ground network, dig new quarries, create new sectors etc. After six months of toil, they had managed to create a 20km-long network with a barracks that included a kitchen, chapel, showers, a 700-bed hospital, rai-lway lines for supplies etc... and all with electrical power and running water.

In total, 24,000 men could be billeted here – similar to the population of Arras before the war! “This was a work of

art unique in the entire history of the British army,” comments Alain Jacques, the director of the archaeological depart-ment for the town of Arras.

The Wellington quarryTo ensure ease of communication inside the underground galleries, the New Zealanders and British named the various sections in honour of towns and cities

in their respective countries. The main quarry was known as Wellington. Even today, some of these adopted names can still be seen on the stone, and the drawings and prayers of soldiers are still visible on the walls of the quarries.A few days before the battle, planned for Easter Monday, the bombardment began. At the start, only half of the gun batteries were used – there was no point in revea-ling the Allies’ full artillery power. The 24,000 men remained in the cold and damp galleries and quarries for eight days. Each pillar was numbered and allocated to a company.

The surprise attackAt 5.30 in the morning on 9 April 1917, the British army appeared suddenly just in front of the German lines. In their trenches, manned only by lookouts, the enemy was taken by surprise, and there was no time for a warning to be sent to their troops. The British soldiers found their German counterparts in their pyjamas in the houses around Tilloy-lès-Mofflaines and in various shelters. The first three days of the battle were a great success for the British, as the Germans were forced to withdraw. However, the arrival of reinforcements resulted in violent counter-attacks lasting for six weeks. Four thousand men a day lost their lives here…

A war cryThe New Zealanders were given the res-ponsibility of maintaining these tunnels until 1918, when the group rejoined the combat units in the south of the Pas-de-Calais and further north. The sappers even went on to take Le Quesnoy with the help of ladders, just like in the Middle Ages. Some lost their lives there but the majo-rity returned home. The archaeological department in the town of Arras is currently searching for their families as it is hosting, along with the Wellington museum, an exhibition on the decoration and graffiti of the trenches, entitled “Le Cri de guerre” (The War Cry), which will undoubtedly be a very moving experience for all who view it.

New Zealanders deep

AT the time of the Great War, New Zealand, still a British colony, had a population of just over a million inhabitants. As a consequence, it was difficult for the British to enlist a large number of men for the front. It

was decided, therefore, only to make use of those with specific professional expertise. Tunnellers fell into this category. The country’s coal and silver mines had turned a good number of inhabitants into outstanding sappers; because of this, five hundred New Zealanders found themselves in Arras in 1917 to dig underground tunnels that would save the lives of thousands of men.

In total, the “Kiwis” dug an underground network nearly 20km in length beneath the Artois.

9 April 1917, D-Day... British troops head off to attack enemy lines. Thanks to the work of these five hundred New Zealanders, thousands of lives were saved.

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The walls of the quarries have preserved their graffiti - historical testimonies that time and humidity have been unable to remove.

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In 1914 the population of New Zealand was a little over one million. In total, 120,000 New Zealanders served during the Great War, 103,000 of them overseas. 18,500 Kiwis died during or just after the conflict (12,500 on the Western Front), and 50,000 were wounded.

underground in Arras

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20 1914-1918They came from across The globeText : Christian Defrance

A close look at the names inscribed on the tombstones of military cemeteries confirms the global dimension of the Great War

in the Pas-de-Calais. In the extension of the communal cemetery in Aix-Noulette, three graves in particular draw the attention: resting side by side are Kichimatsu Sugimoto, killed on 24 August 1917; Tagakichi Fukui, killed on 21 September 1917; and Yoichi Kamakura, killed in combat near Lens on 26 August 1917, at the end of the battle for Hill 70.

Awarded the Military Medal on 4 July 1917, Kamakura was born in Japan in 1882 and arrived in Canada in 1908. The participation of the Japanese-Canadians in the First World War is a brief but uplifting tale within a much bigger story!The Japanese started to arrive in the Canadian province of British Columbia from the 1870s onwards. When war broke out in August 1914, Japanese-Canadians were keen to enlist in the Canadian army, hoping to prove their loyalty to their new homeland, but were met with a categorical refusal, so the most determined of them headed to the country’s west coast. Close to two hundred Japanese – 196 to be precise

– were finally incorporated into English-speaking battalions in Alberta, and set sail for Europe. In 1916, for example, the 52nd battalion included 42 Japanese soldiers: 14 were killed, buried in Aix-Noulette, Maroeuil, Vimy, Aubigny etc. Of the two hundred volunteers, 55 were never to return to their adopted homeland.

S e r g e a n t MitsuiAnother Japanese-C a n a d i a n o r Canadian-Japanese soldier distinguished himself with the 10th Infantry Battalion during the 3rd Battle of Ypres and then on Vimy Ridge in April 1917. Sergeant M a s u m i M i t s u i , who was born on 7 October 1887, settled in Port Coquitlam near Vancouver, and was awarded the Military Medal at Vimy. He was then present during the fighting around the Canal du Nord in September 1918. Upon his return to Canada, where, like all Japanese veterans, he obtained the right to vote in 1931, Masumi Mitsui prospered as a poultry farmer, although his land and all his possessions were confiscated during the Second World War. Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, he was separated from his children and interned in camps along with the other 22,000 Canadian-Japanese judged to be “hostile

foreigners”. Appearing before a security committee, the furious veteran searched in his pockets, retrieved his medals and threw them on the floor, shouting: “What use are these?” It was only in 1985 that the Canadian government apologised for actions committed against its citizens of Japanese origin and on 2 August of the same year Masumi relit the flame at the monument that had been built in Stanley Park, Vancouver, in 1920 to pay homage to the country’s soldiers of Japanese extraction during the Great War. The flame was extinguished after Pearl Harbor. Sergeant Masumi Mitsui died on 22 April 1987, a few months before his 100th birthday. On 8 September 2003, David Mitsui, the sergeant’s grandson, was invited by the Canadian Michel Gravel to attend

the official naming ceremony of Place McKean in Cagnicourt, as Masumi had been involved in operations in this sector. As can be seen from the above examples, the Japanese-Canadians are also part of the history of the Pas-de-Calais.

Japanese-Canadians in the Great War

From a paradise in the middle of the Pacific to the hell of the trenches – this is the extra-ordinary journey undertaken by Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna, a chief from the Fijian islands, who fought in the Champagne and Artois regions and was awarded both the Military Medal and Croix de Guerre. Josefa Lalabalavu Vana’ali’ali Sukuna was born on 22 April 1888 on the island of Viti Levu. His family were part of the archipelago’s nobility and as a young boy received a very “British” education, which included studies at Oxford University. He was in England when the First World War broke out and was keen to see battle. However, this Fijian student was black, and the British army refused to enlist non-whites. No matter, for the Fijian crossed the Channel and joined the Foreign Legion – the American Henry Farnsworth spoke of a “prince as black as ink”. It is spring 1915 and the prince and his legionnaires are in the trenches in Berthonval. With the first brigade of the Moroccan Division, part of the 2nd infantry regiment of the 1st Foreign Legion company, Sukuna mounts an assault on the “Ouvrages Blancs” near Neuville-Saint-Vaast on 9 May 1915. Carency and Souchez followed, with their scenes of blood and fury, where the Fijian was to receive

his first citation for acts of bravery. In September 1915, Sukuna took part in the Battle of Champagne and on the 28th, in Souain, he was wounded in the temple and hospitalised in Lyon. “I am conscious of doing my duty”, he wrote to his family, “but war is hell. The sight of blood makes me nauseous, and the effect of the conflict on the local population brings tears to my eyes”. In January 1916, the British authorities

urged him to return to his homeland. He disem-barked in Suva on 30 March, his head swathed in bandages. As a native islander subject to the decisions of the colonial authorities, Sukuna became a civil servant and tried to convince the British to send Fijians to the front. He was to return to France in May 1917, not as a soldier but as a sergeant and worker in the Fiji Labour Corps. In Calais, Sukuna and a hundred other men worked at the port. In January 1918, they were sent to Marseille and from there to Taranto in Italy. Eleven of his co-workers died in France and are buried in either Calais, Marseille or Taranto. In September 1918, the Fiji Labour Corps set sail for the Pacific. After a short period as a barrister at the London Bar, this Fijian “to the core” became a leading politician in the islands. During the Second World War, he exhorted Fijians “to spill their blood for Great

Britain”: two thousand fought alongside the Allies. During Fiji’s decolonisation process, Ratu Sukuna was president of the legislative council. The “father of modern Fijians” retired in April 1958 and died on 30 May on board a ship taking him to England. Henceforth, in the Fijian islands, the last Monday in May became a public holiday known as Ratu Sukuna Day. Fiji: a Pacific idyll home to rugby and a hero of the Great War.

Sergeant Masumi Mitsui with his medals. Photo: Michel Grav

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Kamakura, Mitsui etc Japanese-Canadians in the Great War

A group of workers from the Fiji Labour Corps. In Calais they were petrified of air raids: “back home some would think that the day of the Last Judgment had come”, wrote one worker to his family.

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Fijians lA prince “as black as ink”

211914-1918 Text : Christian Defrance

FIVE impressive bronze caribou memorials in Beaumont-Hamel, Courtrai, Gueudecourt,

Masnières and Monchy-le-Preux immortalise the suffering and worth of soldiers from Newfoundland.

This province, the oldest colony of the British Empire, had a population of 250,000 inhabitants in 1914. Its citizens participated in the Great War and during the four years of the conflict, the Newfoundland Regiment mobilised over 6,000 men. 1,200 died in Belgium, in the north, the Somme and the Pas-de-Calais.1 July 1916, the first day of the Battle of the Somme, near Beaumont-Hamel: 802 Newfoundlanders attack the enemy trenches... the following morning only 68 of them were still capable of fighting. On 12 October 1916, the same regiment is involved in the Battle of Le Transloy and takes the German entrenchments in Gueudecourt.On 14 April 1917, the 1st battalion of the Essex Regiment and the Newfoundland Regiment capture Infantry Hill to the

east of Monchy-le-Preux. However, they walk straight into a huge German counter-attack and almost all are killed or captured. In Monchy, the military leaders of the Newfoundlanders put up heroic resistance (thanks to their elite snipers) to all enemy attempts to take the village. A dozen or so men succeed in holding 200-300 Germans at bay for four hours before relief arrived. The Newfoundland Regiment is almost obli-terated: 166 dead, 141 wounded, 153 taken prisoner. At the end of June 1917, the Newfoundlanders were posted near Langemark in Belgium, returning to France in mid October, distinguishing themselves once more near Masnières. Their determination resulted in the king of England awarding the title “Royal” to the Newfoundland Regiment, who, in September 1918, took part in the last major offensive of the war around Ypres.The “best sniper” in the regiment was one of the fifteen Inuit volunteers from Labrador, John Shiwak, a hunter and trapper who was killed during the Battle of Cambrai on 20 November 1917.

To invade France, the Germans had to pass through Belgium and violate its neutrality. Consequently, they declared war on their neighbours on 3 August 1914. The entire country was occupied incredibly quickly. King Albert, who was at the front with his soldiers, was par-ticularly popular with the French public. He was decorated with the Military Medal, and a “Belgian flag day”, on which badges were sold for the benefit of refugees, was created.The French public’s affection even led to a dessert of Austrian origin being renamed “café lié-geois” ! The Belgian Minister

for War set up his headquarters in Dunkirk and the army set up military hospitals in Calais, Normandy and Brittany. At the same time, the influx of refugees meant that civilian hospitals needed to be established. The one at the Chartreuse Notre-Dame des Prés in Neuville-sous-Montreuil, which existed from 1915 to April 1919, was “placed under the patronage of Her Majesty the Queen and His Excellency the Belgian Interior Minister”. Yann Hodicq, a First World War enthu-siast and author of “Montreuil-sur-Mer: 1914-1918” explains that “the hospital had 700

beds, and the medical staff from Belgium was made up of nuns, a chaplain and two or three doctors.” According to Yann Hodicq, it is impossible to work out now many patients were treated there : “one supposes that the number is very high if

you look at the numbers who died there. 610 were registered with the town hall in Neuville alone…”, not counting the times when military personnel were also treated there. On some occasions the number of dead was so high that two bodies had to be buried

at once. To deal with the ever-increasing roll call of wounded arriving unexpectedly at the rai-lway station in Montreuil, the hospital was forced to evacuate its most able-bodied patients to other towns on a regular basis in order to free up beds.

A Belgian army camp near Arras. Photo: Alain Jacques documentary collection

WHEN Belgium was invaded by the Germans in 1914, many of its inhabitants fled. As was the case elsewhere in France, the Montreuil-sur-Mer area

witnessed the influx of a large number of these refugees. Initially, they were warmly received. However, after four years, having all these new mouths to feed was taking its toll and these poor Belgians were sometimes referred to as the “the Bosch of the North”. However, this exhausted population, some of whom were wounded, needed to be taken care of, hence the establishment of a hospital for them.

DELVILLE Wood, Butte de Warlencourt. Death inhabits the corner of the wood and

the blood of thousands of soldiers fills the furrows of the fields of the Somme and the Artois. A catastrophe for the 1st South African Infantry Brigade.

Having taken part in military operations in Egypt and Libya, South African troops came ashore in Marseille on 20 April 1916 and headed north to the trenches. Acclimatisation was harsh in Flanders. On 2 July, the brigade entered the Battle of the Somme head on. 537 men lost their lives in the first week of fighting alone. And this was just the beginning as the fighting frenzy continued.On 15 July, the South Africans (121 officers and 3,032 men) were assigned the mission of taking Delville Wood and to hold it whatever the cost. The Germans outnumbered them and the result was a slaughter. A week later, the brigade was left with only 780 able-bodied men; 763 had been killed and 1,709 wounded.

War fails to learn from its lessons. On 12 October 1916, the South African bri-gade was once again annihilated at the Butte de Warlencourt, a hill just 50ft in height. Losses were high. No rest was in store and from 1917 the South Africans saw action at Arras, Ypres and elsewhere. “Reduced to the size of a battalion” in March 1918 during the German offensive, the valiant brigade distinguished itself in Meteren in July.It is estimated that 5,000 South Africans (almost all of them white) were killed, which brings us to the subject of the black workers of the SANLC (South African Native Labour Corps), from which 25,000 volunteers left Cape Town between October 1916 and January 1918. Alongside Egyptians, Chinese, Fijians etc, they unloaded millions of tonnes of munitions and supplies in the ports of Dunkirk, Calais, Boulogne-sur-Mer etc. In Europe, the SANLC lost 1,120 men, and those who returned to South Africa did not even have the right to receive the Inter Allied Victory Medal, such were the odious effects of apartheid.

South Africans NewfoundlandersNewfoundlanders

For Belgian refugees in France:a civilian hospital in Neuville-sous-Montreuil

Text : Marie-Pierre Griffon

22 1914-1918They came from across The globeText : Christian Defrance

ON 24 February 1916, at the request of its old British ally, Portugal inspected 36 German

merchant ships anchored in its ports. On 9 March 1916, Germany declared war on the young and still fragile Portuguese republic. On 17 January 1917, The Portuguese Expeditionary Corps (Corpo Expedicionário Português or CEP) was officially established, taking its orders from British military HQ. From 2 February 1917 to 28 October of the same year, some sixty thousand men left Portugal for France.

Portuguese troops arrived in Mametz in the spring of 1917 for additional training in the use of gas masks and the han-dling of grenades and bayonets in the camp in the hamlet of Marthes. “A camp whose location is impossible to find today”, adds Matthieu Fontaine regretfully, but not for a lack of trying by 30-year-old Matthieu, who has questioned many of the village’s older inhabitants. A great fan of oral history, he has been able to deduce that “the 1914-18 war was an introduction to the 20th century for villagers who witnessed the arrival of the British, Indians, Portuguese etc”. For the past ten years he has continued

his research into the Portuguese, trying to put a face to a name – that of his own very own great-grandfather. A story of war and love at first sight!On 14 October 1919, Héléna was born in Crecques, ano-ther hamlet in the area around Mametz. Olga, the mother, was eighteen; the father a Portuguese soldier. “His name had been frenchified: Matthieu Lerias. A bachelor. Brown wavy hair. He could read and write and take care of horses. Olga’s father had refused to let her go to Portugal with him. And that’s just about all we know”. Olga was not ostracised by her family. She just changed her life, writing regularly to Matthieu; until 1949 at least, when a letter was delivered to Mametz announcing the death of the soldier. “She then burnt everything”, sighs Matthieu Fontaine, the grandson of Héléna, who passed away at the beginning of 2008. Since 1999, along with his sister, Matthieu has been trying to find out who this other Matthieu was. Up until 2005 he found nothing. Portugal’s military archives remained silent on the matter: “Nothing was filed. The Great War is a difficult period in Portugal’s history.” Nothing in France either. Given the time that he had already spent, Matthieu, a doctoral student in modern history, was not about to give up the ghost. Finally, in 2005, a letter arrived from the very same military archives in Portugal enclosing photocopies of the file of Héléna’s father: Matheus de Matos Lerias, born in 1895, originally from Maçao (in the

centre of Portugal), a soldier in the 8th artillery regiment. A birth certificate followed in 2006. After that, the information dried up. “Historians aren’t familiar with the 8th artil-lery regiment!” So, Matthieu Fontaine followed closely all the events relating to the 90th anniversary of the Battle of the Lys, and made useful contacts withPortuguese associations in France, as well as with Portuguese TV, with the aim of finding out even more about Matheus. “I’ll definitely be heading to Portugal and Maçao”. Although he may face disappointment and disillusionment, Matthieu Fontaine will never give up!

Three long days at sea, accompanied by the fear of submarine attack before reaching Brest... followed by an 800km journey of a similar duration to the train station in Aire-sur-la-Lys. The 1st Division, led by General Gomes da Costa, established its headquarters in Thérouanne, while the 2nd, under the command of General Simas Machado, based itself in Fauquembergues. The CEP’s command post was in Roquetoire in the Château de la Morande (whose grounds were the setting for the Croix de Guerre ceremony on 13 October 1917 in the presence of the President of the Portuguese Republic). The Portuguese troops got on well with the local population, attending processions, funerals, and festivals such as the Feux de la Saint-Jean summer solstice celebration, where they played the cavaquinho, an instrument resembling a guitar. On a more serious note, the military education of these troops gathered momentum in early 1917 at Mametz, Clarques and Audincthun. From 11 May to 5 November 1917, their units took up position on the front line; the Portuguese sector formed the shape of a trapezium around Neuve-Chapelle, Laventie, La Couture

and Saint-Venant, where the Manoir de la Peylouse became the official residence of Fernando Tamagnini, the commander of the CEP, in June 1917.

“Georgette”and the sacrificeThe winter was a terrible one in the trenches with snow and hard frosts, plus the soldiers hated the British rations. Enemy raids were devastating and there was a revolution in the Portuguese ranks. Reinforcements stopped arriving and moral was at its lowest ebb, with the CEP already having lost over five thousand men, a fifth of whom had been killed. The British military authorities decided to relieve the troops on the 6 and 9 April 1918. Luck was not with them, however, as the Germans were readying an attack. Operation “Georgette” started at 4.15am on 9 April. The horror of

the Battle of the Lys speaks for itself: 100,000 super-trained Germans and an artillery barrage against 20,000 powerless Portuguese soldiers. “They resisted as best they could, fighting with great bravery”. At 11am they found themselves at the village of Laventie, holding La Couture until 11.45 the following morning. Slaughter ensued: close to 400 dead, 6,500 prisoners and 35% of the CEP’s troops out of action. The Corpo was unable to survive this cataclysm, and withdrawal to Ambleteuse and the coast followed... and then the Armistice. On 1 December 1918, a final military parade was held at the Trézennes aerodrome near Aire, from where the first train carrying four hundred Portuguese soldiers left for Cherbourg. On 18 January 1919, a Portuguese delegation took part in the Versailles Peace Conference, and on the following 14 July, a contingent of

four hundred men from the CEP took their legitimate place in the victory parade in Paris. Legitimate, but what a sacrifice: 2,160 dead, 5,224 wounded, and 6,678 prisoners. Established in 1935, the Portuguese military cemetery in Richebourg-l’Avoué contains the graves of 1,831 men. Opposite the cemetery stands the Notre-Dame-de-Fatima chapel, built in 1976. Inaugurated on 10 November 1928, the monument to Portuguese heroes in La Couture depicts a soldier fighting a skeleton armed with a scythe. Aire, Roquetoire, Marthes, Saint-Venant, Laventie, Richebourg, La Couture: names which serve as a reminder of Portugal’s involvement in the Great War. “Portugal didn’t deserve this”, wrote Manuel do Nascimento in a recent book on the Battle of the Lys, which official British historians still refer to as the Battle of Estaires or the 4th Battle of Ypres.

Portuguese soldiers fought with great bravery at the Battle of the Lys, an area where they left a significant legacy...

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FOR a long time tucked away in the footnotes of history, or else completely forgotten, Portugal’s far from insignificant involvement

in the First World War is finally attracting the attention it deserves from Portuguese, French and British researchers, military history enthusiasts and genealogists, in addition to the grandchildren and great-grandchildren of those soldiers from Lisbon, Oporto and Braga who remained in France, in particular in the Pas-de-Calais, after the Armistice. Nowadays, it is easy to follow the experiences of the Corpo Expedicionário Português (CEP) in the region, in places such as Aire-sur-la-Lys, Laventie, La Couture, Roquetoire, Mametz etc.

The Portuguese The Portuguese

resisted as best they couldresisted as best they could

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231914-1918 Text : Christian Defrance

Poles

“When, on 21 August 1914, the Minister for War authorised that foreigners could join the French army, several hundred Poles made their way to enlistment offices without hesitation”, explains Robert Wabinski*, who is writing a book on the “Bajonczycy” (Bayonnais in Polish) in readiness for their centenary in 2014. The first wave of volunteers, five hundred in Paris, the same number in Toulouse, and three hundred in Abbeville and Douai (made up of a mix of students, miners, labourers and aristocrats), responded to the appeals from different patriotic circles, associations and unions such as the “Sokol” and “Strzelec”, in the hope of seeing the rebirth of their “motherland” which by now had been divided up between the German, Austrian and Russian empires. “The French authorities did of course have to take into account the sensitivities of Russia, an allied country, which frowned upon the formation of a Polish army in France”, adds Robert Wabinski. “The volunteers were assigned to the infantry regiments of the Foreign Legion”.A detachment of four hundred men quickly made its way to the training centre in Bayonne, which would soon become the 2nd company of C battalion of the 2nd infantry regiment of the 1st Foreign, better known by the name of “2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment”. Robert Wabinski also became interested in the military standards of these volunteers: “the first flag, bearing a white eagle, was

carried by Wladyslaw Szuyski, who was killed on 27 November 1914; a second was created by the painter Styka; and a third embroidered with gold thread by the women of Bayonne”. After two months of training, the “Bayonnais” were subjected to their own “stations of the cross” in the Champagne region. They took part in the harsh Battle of Sillery on 22 November 1914, and then arrived in the Artois, where they suffered a slaughter on 9 May 1915 outside Arras. Tobie Aberbach was reported missing in action in Berthonval, André Adamski was killed in Mont-Saint-Éloi, André Budzinski in Berthonval, along with Henri Chocinski, who was lost in action to the north of Arras, and Guibel Goldberg, killed in the sector of Berthonval… the alphabetical list of dead and missing is a long one and ends with Edmond Wiweger and François Zawieja. On 16 June 1915, the “Bayonnais survivors”

attacked with bayonets to take the cemetery at Souchez. “The surviving soldiers of the division were almost completely lost”. “The commitment and sacrifice of this first-rate unit was demonstrated in particular on 9 May 1915, when, placed at the head of the column attacking the “Ouvrages Blancs”, it distinguished itself brilliantly in capturing enemy positions hitherto defended stubbornly, not stopping until it had fulfilled its objectives, despite very heavy losses”, the citation states in the military order of the day.On 11 November 1918, Poland regained its independence. The 1920s saw a large wave of emigration to the Pas-de-Calais. The “Bayonnais” were not forgotten, however. A monument was erected in 1929 alongside the main road in Neuville-Saint-Vaast, and was officially inaugurated on 21 May 1933 by the Polish ambassador. Destroyed by the

Germans in 1940, it was subsequently rebuilt. Damaged by the storms of February 1967, it was once again reconstructed by volunteers thanks to a fund set up by the newspaper, Narodowiec. The monument was renovated in 1995, and provided with better signage in 2007 on the occasion of the “Year of Poland” in the Pas-de-Calais.

* Born in 1949 in Calonne-Ricouart, the son of a miner and a legionnaire, Robert Wabinski went on to study law in Lille. His career started at the Kourou space centre in French Guiana in 1975. He has spent his professional life at the National Space Research Centre, and is now working as an adviser to the Director of Human Resources in Paris. Robert Wabinski is a colonel in the French army reserve.

ON 4 June 1917, a decree signed by President Raymond Poincaré, ratified the creation

of a Polish army on French soil. Under the command of General Jozef Haller, it would comprise over 30,000 men by the end of the conflict: Polish émigrés from America, prisoners of war, deserters from enemy armies, the few Poles living in France prior to 1914 etc. However, from 1914 and 1915 on, and before this “Blue Army” came into existence, a small group of Polish volunteers fought in the ranks of the Foreign Legion. These men entered into history by the name of “Bayonnais”.

and « Bayonnais »

Charles Bezdicek, aged 27, a soldier in the 2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment, died for France on 9 May 1915 in La Targette, killed by enemy fire. He was a Czech hero. In the Artois, Karel Bezdicek was the standard-bearer of the “Nazdar” (translation: “Salute our success”) company made up of Czechoslovak volunteers – a minority which at the time was part of the Austro-Hungarian empire. Bezdicek fell in the German trenches wrapped in the Czech flag – a powerful symbol indeed. Names such as Dostal, Dubisz, Houska, Kramata, Kubanek, Marek, Pribyl and Stetka, who died in the trenches of Berthonval, La Targette and Souchez, are buried in the Czechoslovak cemetery between La Targette and Souchez. At its

entrance stands a monument unveiled in 1925: “Z Volili Zemriti Za Svobodu” (They chose to die for Freedom).

Examples include Josef Pultr, who was also killed on 9 May 1915 and was the Sokols’ instructor during their month of training in Bayonne; and Josef Sibal, 49 years of age, who died on 10 May 1915 as a result of his war wounds, and who was the president of the Rovnost association. From the summer of 1914 onwards, the Sokols in Paris and the socialists of Rovnost had decided they would enlist if war broke out; the Czech colony in Paris (made up of artists and artisans) organised one demonstration in front of the Austro-Hungarian embassy and another on Place de la Concorde. Enlistment forms were printed in the two languages. Every able-bodied Sokol was quick to fill them in and sign them, and on 22

August they marched behind the Sokol flag to the offices of the recruitment board.On 23 October 1914, a battalion of 250 men trained in Bayonne headed for the Champagne front with the 2nd Infantry Regiment, which was attached to the Moroccan Division. On 11 December, the first Czech legionnaire was killed. On 9 May 1915, the division went on the offensive in the Artois, resulting in eleven hours of fighting and culminating in the legion’s withdrawal. Following the attacks in May and June 1915, the “Nazdar” company ceased to exist as an independent unit and its remaining troops were divided up between the various formations within the Legion’s infantry regiment. In 1918, a Czechoslovak brigade was established in France, returning to its homeland in the autumn of 1919. In total, 650 Czech legionnaires perished in France during the course of the First World War.

“Even in Bayonne the story of Polish volunteers has been forgotten”, says Robert Wabinski. Photo: Robert Wabinski private collection

Czechs and « Nazdar »

24 1914-1918They came from across The globeText : Marie-Pierre Griffon

Paul Mauk, the boy soldier

PAUL Mauk, the youngest soldier to enlist in the Great War, is laid to rest in the section set aside for German soldiers at one end

of the cemetery in Lens-Sallaumines, surrounded by his 15,645 comrades. He was just 14 years of age. On 6 June 1915, a stray bullet tore off his forearm and set fire to the ammunition he was carrying in his pocket. He died the next day, “without making the slightest complaint”.

War broke out during the year of his communion. “Paul Mauk was a very open young man who never hid his feelings”, writes Ernst Jünger*, a German essayist and novelist. “He had a natural kindness”, the German goes on to add, “and a straight-forward cheer-fulness”. When he was little, Paul wanted to become a doctor “to ease suffering and to be of service”.The boy loved flowers, as well as tales of battle. Those of Felix Dahn in particular and above all the novel “A Struggle for Rome”, in which the character Tolita was his favourite hero. Paul Mauk was the sixth in a

family of eight children. Born on 19 July 1900 in a village in the Black Forest, he grew up “surrounded by love” in Freiburg, and was particularly close to his brother Walther, who was just a year older than him.

Dressed in a communion suitWhen war was declared, these two young boys “aware of their responsibilities” signed up at barracks 113, wea-ring their communion suits to disguise their youth and to lend them a serious air. They were also well-built and mature for their age so it would not have been so difficult to deceive their interviewers. The two brothers obtained a certificate of aptitude for all types of firearms and were enlisted in reservist companies. Following tough training in the 4th company they were sent to the 3rd, “where Paul was noted for his humour, enthusiasm and talent as a sniper”. When Christmas came along, the Mauk brothers took care of the tree, gifts and sur-prises for their comrades within the company – they were, after all, little more than children. It was in the spring of 1915 that they set foot on a battlefield for the first time. Paul was “conscious of being among those who were going to contribute to the future of the fatherland, and to influence world history.” The 113th Baden infantry regi-ment, of which he was now part, witnessed the fall of Saarburg, the Lorraine and the Toul region. The next objective was the Lorette hill. It was here, in rest quarters, that they chanced upon their elder bro-ther Karl, who was wounded. Karl had a role as an adviser, providing information on the situation at the front. He related to his younger brothers and other volunteer sol-diers stories of the bitter and tragic fighting in the trenches. However, this wasn’t enough to discou-rage Paul, who headed off to the fighting “full of enthusiasm”. The youngster saw combat everywhere, including Meurchin, Wingles, Hulluch and Béthune. “He was consumed with an exalted sense of pride…” , Ernst Jünger adds. Yet in the troops’ rest quarters, Paul also joined in all the fun.

“He was fascinatedby lights”On 9 May 1915, as he crept under enemy barbed wire, Paul Mauk was wounded in the temple by a gre-nade fragment, yet still found it

difficult to leave the battlefield. “He was fascinated by the lights that linked the world of the trenches to no man’s land, where the silhouettes seemed to him to be almost ghost-like.” It was impossible to keep him in the infirmary for long. Removing his white bandage himself, he quickly rejoined his comrades, with whom he shared “the same destiny, the same misery, but also the same joy and the same pride”. With his troop, he headed towards Liévin to replace the 112nd infantry regiment. For an entire day, the 4th company came under French fire and lost many men. On the evening of 6 June, when Paul had been relieved from duty and found himself in a small ditch not far from the line of the trenches, a stray bullet struck his arm, setting light to the ammu-nition he was carrying in his pocket. His injuries were terrible. His brother, who had also been hit, couldn’t help him.Paul Mauk was quickly transported to the 1st bat-talion’s infirmary in Liévin. Aware of his critical condition, the young boy complained not once. To his tearful brother, “he spoke calmly of his inju-ries”, Ernst Jünger continues, “maintaining the quiet pride of a young man who has his destiny in his own hands.” This boy soldier remained digni-fied in the face of death. The sun of the morning of 7 June 1915 “greeted a boy sleeping peacefully (...) whose lips were set in a smile for eternity.” Paul Mauk was buried in the German military cemetery in Lens-Sallaumines. The news of his death reached his village and his brother Karl, by now a lieutenant

in the regiment of chasseurs. He also would lose his life on the battlefield on 7 April 1918. A poem extolling the virtues of his younger brother was found in his personal possessions.

“My brother, my beloved bro-ther , Let me see once more the brightness of your little eyes, More alive and happy I will embark upon the next combat, With the true cou-rage of the German soldier (…)”

*Die Unvergessenen (Les Inoubliables) by Ernst Jünger. Paul Mauk, by Walter Schmidt.

In the German military cemetery in Lens-Sallaumines:

Paul Mauk,

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Paul is laid to rest in the German military cemetery in Lens-Sallaumines, in row 11, grave 268.

The German military ceme-tery in Lens-Sallaumines was built by German troops in 1914. It was known as the “Lorette Cemetery” or the “Cemetery of the 4th Armoured Corps”, as it was here that the majority of sol-diers killed in combat around the Lorette hill were buried.Troops who died in action in the region around Lens

would subsequently be laid to rest here also. In 1917-1918, allied artillery fire completely destroyed the cemetery, which the French authorities rebuilt after the war.

In 1926, following an agreement with the French military autho-rities, the “Volksbund Deutsche Kriegsgräberfürsorge” (German War Graves Commission) undertook work to improve the condition of the cemetery.This private association, which has over a thousand members, as well as 150 employees on French soil alone, is still

responsible for the upkeep of German cemeteries abroad and 90% of its finan-cial resources are from donations and subscriptions.The majority of German military ceme-teries blend in perfectly with their envi-ronment, almost as if they are commu-ning with nature, in the pure tradition of Germanic mythology inherited from Scandinavia. If a tree stands in the middle of a row of crosses, it is never moved. Instead, the cross is placed either in front or behind the tree. The cemetery in Lens-Sallaumines abides by this rule.

German military cemeteries in the Pas-de-Calais :

Lens-Sallaumines, Billy-Montigny, Sailly-sur-la-Lys, Laventie, Billy-Berclau, Carvin, Meurchin, Pont-à-Vendin, Oignies, Courrières, Dourges, Achiet-le-Petit, Écourt-Saint-Quentin, Rumaucourt, Sapignies, Saint-Laurent Blangy, Villers-au-Flos and Neuville-Saint-Vaast, the largest German military ceme-tery in the whole of Western Europe.

Germans

Paul Mauk, just 14 years of age, and a volunteer in the 4th Corps of the 113th infantry regiment (5th Baden regiment based in Freiburg), “was noted for his humour, enthusiasm and talent as a sniper”.

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251914-1918 Text : Christian Defrance

On 1 January 2008, Erich Kästner, the last “known” German veteran from the First World War passed away in a retirement home in Cologne at the age of 108. His death went completely unnoticed in Germany, a country which has difficulty overcoming “the shame of the Nazi genocide”, to the extent that soldiers from the Great War remain a mere footnote in history – a lost generation, the memory of whom is swamped by the horrors of the Second World War. Contrary to the British, French, Americans or Australians, the Germans do not have an official list of soldiers who died between 1914 and 1918, thousands of whom lost their lives in the Pas-de-Calais. Furthermore, Germany’s Ministry of Defence was unable to provide the international media with any information on Erich Kästner – the same media which, three weeks later, would highlight in great detail the war of Louis de Cazenave, the last but one French “Poilu”, who died at

the age of 110. Born in Leipzig-Schönefeld on 10 March 1900, Kästner joined the Imperial German Army in July 1918, apparently serving in Flanders. He was present when the Kaiser reviewed his troops in November 1918. After the Great War, Erich Kästner studied for

a doctorate in law. Enlisted in the Luftwaffe during the Second World War, he returned to France, after which he settled in Hanover in 1945 and went on to become a judge.2,057,000 Germans lost their lives during the Great War and more than four million were wounded. In 1914, the German Empire was made up of twenty-five federal states: the kingdoms of Prussia, Saxony, Württemberg and Bavaria, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities and three Hanseatic free towns. Alsace-Lorraine was also governed like an Imperial state. Almost every state had its own regiments –

regiments which incorporated soldiers from minorities (Poles, Danes from Schleswig, Jews etc). Around 60,000 Jews from Germany (who obtained civil rights in 1871) served in the Imperial Army during the Great War.

In his first editorial, the editor-in-chief (undoubtedly Doctor Körber, the senior doctor at the hospital, according to Gaston Dégardin) explained that the newspaper, which was written by soldiers of the 4th Corps “in occupation” in Bapaume, “would serve as a link between them and their families in Germany”. He added: “Everyone is invited to contribute articles of a historic, scientific or humorous nature, as well as poems and songs.” In subsequent editions, the paper’s soldier-journalists published articles on the region’s villages, castles and churches – blown up during the German withdrawal of 1917 – and, of course, “several articles by General Von Stein to rally his troops”. When the printing workshop (at 25, rue d’Arras) was destroyed in July 1916, Der Schützengraben seems to have moved to the Château d’Havrincourt. On 9 May 1917, Doctor Schnabel, the new editor-in-chief, hailed the 50th edition of the news-paper. The Trench then ceased its operation suddenly in June 1917, when just a single article appeared in the last edition highlighting “external circumstances forcing the paper to close as a result of the dispersion of members of the Corps to other locations on the front”. While consulting the translations, Gaston Dégardin remarked: “The articles and poems were not published to set German soldiers against civilians. Their authors did not revile the French; instead they made sure that they gave the British a rough ride at every possible opportunity”.

Prior to 1916, Der Schützengraben (The Trench) was full of local adverts: a currency exchange in Place Faidherbe, a clothes’ shop, a tobacconist, the 4th Corps’ library, baths for officers at the Hôtel de la Fleur, in Rue d’Arras in Bapaume, the Ligny-Thilloy thermal spa, the Havrincourt theatre, the Warlencourt casino, not forgetting films at the “Bapaumer Lichtspiele”, a Bapaume

cinema known as the Bali and “snubbed by civilians”.“During the first few months it also included adverts for the market in Bapaume: game, poultry, eggs, vegetables etc. Were these adverts cancelled due to their lack of success? I did wonder who could have brought game to the market,” noted Gaston Dégardin in his book.

A German hospital damaged by British fire. Photo: Hugues Chevalier documentary collection

The ImperialGerman Army and its six million victims

Der SchützengrabenThe German newspaper in BapaumeDer Schützengraben

IT was called The Trench for obvious reasons given it was a newspaper published in Bapaume, a town occupied by the Germans since the end of August 1914. In his book

“La vie quotidienne de Bapaume dans la première guerre mondiale” (The Daily Life of Bapaume during the First World War), a wonderful research tool for historians, Gaston Dégardin translated and read every page of Der Schützengraben from its very first edition, on 22 August 1915, to its last, dated 7 June 1917. Bapaume was liberated by the Australians in the spring.

26 1914-1918They came from across The globeText : Christian Defrance

“I noticed some tombstones with ideo-grams on them in the cemetery in Ayette and asked myself why they were there?” This question has long gone unanswered, as the fortunes of Chinese labourers in our region have been barely researched – hardly at all, in fact. Things are starting to change, however: there was even a 3-day international

conference on the subject in 2008, which took place in the Chinese city of Weihai, in the province of Shandong (in the northeast of the country), where the majority of the 95,000 Chinese who worked for the British army from 1917 to 1920 were recruited. 44,000 workers also made this long journey to work for the French army (the bay of Canton was a French enclave at the time). André Coilliot takes out his “Chinese” file and pulls out a photocopy of a map indica-ting the numerous camps – and cemeteries – of the Chinese Labour Corps: Arques, Audruicq, Berguette, Boulogne, Calais, Dannes-Camiers, Érin, Étaples, Hardelot, Houdain, Moulle, Ruminghem, Saint-Omer, Seninghem, Tournehem, Wimereux etc – and there are still some missing. The camp in Bouvigny-Boyeffles has been rediscovered and researched by Serge Thomas and his pupils in the school in Sains-en-Gohelle. To their amazement, the school was inundated with stories. Hundreds of Chinese were indeed based in Gohelle, in the Ternois region. “In Érin they repaired tanks”, recalls André Coilliot. There was a huge fac-tory, and the tank museum in Bovington, in England, has some photographs of Chinese workers (51st, 69th and 90th companies) from the Tank Central Workshops located

in the Ternoise valley, in Érin and then in Teneur.

Clearing the trenchesFrom 1916 onwards the British and French suffered terrible losses and so turned to China (which declared war on Germany on 14 August 1917) for a vital labour force which they put to use mainly in ports. It appears that the French were the first to “formalise a contract” for 50,000 workers, which saw Marseille receive a Chinese contingent in July 1916. Following negotiations with Peking, the British recruited an initial group of a thousand “strong peasants capable of withstanding the differences in climate” from Weihai in November 1916, and the Chinese Labour Corps (CLC) was offi-cially established on 21 February 1917. Over a thirteen-month period, some 84,000 Chinese embarked on some extraordi-nary journeys via South Africa, the Suez and Panama canals, Jamaica and New York! The main route was across the Pacific: arriving by ship on Vancouver Island (on the west coast of Canada), they would then make the long journey by train to Halifax, Nova Scotia, continue by boat to Liverpool or Plymouth, cross the Channel from Folkestone to Boulogne-sur-Mer, before ending their journey by train to Noyelles-sur-Mer and the headquarters of the Chinese Labour Corps. The Chinese in the CLC didn’t wear a uni-form, and were split – at a distance of at least ten miles from the front – in companies of five hundred men, each with its own British major or captain, and an interpreter. Their lives consisted of two meals a day, ten hours of work a day, seven days a week, rest on the days of festivals in the Chinese calendar, and a modest daily wage, part of which was sent back to China.Although they occasionally worked in kitchens and laundries, these workers were mainly responsible for loading and unloading ships in ports, repairing roads and railway lines, building aerodromes etc. At the end of the war, the Chinese filled in trenches and bomb craters, searched for unexploded shells, cleared mines, salvaged barbed wire, and “recovered” the mutilated bodies of victims before burying them in graves that they had already dug, in so doing playing their part in the creation of military cemeteries. During their “free time”, the Chinese workers had a reputation as master craftsmen in the trenches, creating beau-tiful objects made from bullets, grenades and shells. “The Chinese who helped the French were happier than their compa-triots who helped the British: there was

less racism”, suggests André Coilliot. “In February 1919,

over five thousand Chinese from the colonial workforce helped to clean up the region around Arras, in places such as Boisleux, Boiry-Saint-Martin, Bucquoy, Berles, Bienvillers, Foncquevillers, D o u c h y - l è s - A y e t t e , Ransart, Basseux and Rivière. Unfortunately, due to the lack of surveillance, acts of pillage took place in the temporary camps.”

The first ChinatownIn total, around two thousand Chinese workers died in France, victims of illness, bombardments and explo-sions while they were “clea-ring” the trenches, a few exe-cutions and above all Spanish flu. Between 1918 and 1923

the Chinese military autho-rities gradually sent their

workers back to their homeland. Between

two and three thou-sand remained in France, taking to

their heels as they were being transported to the port of Marseille, and creating the first Chinese district in the Ilot Chalon near the Gare de Lyon railway station in Paris. The district has since disappeared, although a plaque was unveiled on Rue Maurice-Denis on 28 November 1988 “in homage to all those Chinese citizens – both workers and volunteers – who died for France.” Did some of them stay in the Pas-de-Calais? According to André Coilliot, “I recall one Chinese worker getting married in a vil-lage in the south of the Artois region and that he had a son !”

The Pas-de-Calais is home to nine Chinese cemeteries, including those in Ayette, Saint-Etienne-au-Mont and Ruminghem, where the compatriots of this Chinese labourer (or “coolie)” are laid to rest.

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A German soldier with Chinese prisoners.

A valued labour force in the Great War

For more than a half a century André Coilliot has been collecting “souvenirs” of all

shapes and sizes from the two world wars, including vehicles, uniforms, books etc. Although he has sold the majority of his “wartime treasure” to Avril Williams, an Englishwoman who has opened a museum near her tea-room in Auchonvillers in the Somme, this former railway worker from Beaurains remains one of the major figures with regard to “local history during the two conflicts”, and is an acknowledged expert on the “dark days of May 1940 in Arras” and on “Beaurains under fire from 1914 to 1917”. He is also intrigued by the presence of Chinese workers in our département during the Great War.

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Further reading…

Remembrance Trails :Ninety sites make up the four “Remembrance Trails of the Great War in Northern France”. Detailed information files are available for each of these sites, allowing visitors to discover the history of a soldier, a regi-ment, a battle or a site. The file will also include practical information and ideas for places to visit, ensuring that your trip to these memorial sites is a success.

www.remembrancetrails-northernfrance.com

Commonwealth War Graves Commission :Established by Royal Charter in 1917, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission pays tribute to the 1,700,000 men and women of the Commonwealth forces who died in the two world wars.

www.cwgc.org

Volksbund Deutsche Kriegsgräberfürsorge :German war graves organisation

www.volksbund.de

Online resources & partnerships

The virtual exhibition

"On the ways of the Great War"explores the history of the movement of civilian

and military populations during the First World War.

Discover a rich and varied content :Themed exhibitions, educational packages, and a wealth of archives

www.thewaysofthegreatwar.co.uk

This project is co financed by the European Union under the "INTERREG IVA France-Wallonie-Vlaanderen” Programme.

Follow Guillaume from the strategic heights of the Mont-Saint-Eloi, the hills of Notre-Dame-de-Lorette and Vimy to the subterra-nean galleries of Arras.You will discover the diversity of the remembrance sites that honour soldiers from all over the world who came to fight in the Pas-de-Ca-lais during the battles of Artois.

This free mobile appli-cation is part of the series “Diaries 14-18” which links five histo-rical self-guided tours in the Flanders Fields (Belgium), Nord, Pas-de-Calais, Aisne and the Somme.

Free download from the Appstore and Google Play.

www.remembrancetrails-northernfrance.com

Discoverthe Great WarRemembrance Trailsin Northern FranceNorthern France is home to a cornucopia of heritage rela-ting to the First World War, much of which is little known. These military cemeteries, war memorials, archaeological remains and urban monuments subsist as the silent and poignant reminders of that great conflict.

Four trails, featuring 90 historic sites, explore the

major themes of the Great War:

• The front

• The war of movement and

the first German occupation

• The Allies' logistics base on the Channel coast

• The reconstruction in the devastated areas

Boulognesur-Mer

Montreuil sur-Mer

Béthune

CambraiMaubeuge

ARRAS

LILLE

Trails 14-18

www.1418remembered.co.uk

Remebrance

Scan the QR Code anddownload the app for free !

RemembranceDue to its strategic geographical situation, Pas-de-Calais has always been a major stake in the conflicts which have shaped the European and World History.Traces of these battles remain numerous.Many people still come to the area to follow the path of their ancestors.

Route de la Trésorerie - 62126 Wimille - FRANCE - 00333 21 10 34 60

http://wartimehistory.pas-de-calais.com

Vimy - the Wellington Quarry - notre-dame de lorette

Share their history and prepare your stay in Pas-de-Calais, visit http://wartimehistory.pas-de-calais.com

interactiVe map – reserVation – cemeteries, memorials and museums - guided Visits