15:1 Science as a Social Institution

Essential Question: What factors have contributed to the institutionalization of science? How do the norms of scientific research differ from the realities of scientific research?

What so Sociologists want to know about science?

• Science: the pursuit of knowledge through systematic methods

• Sociology of Science: Sociologists want to know how the structure of society and the organization of science have affected scientific development

The Birth of Science• 300BC-100BC: Greeks studied math,

astronomy, biology, etc. Had libraries/centers for learning

• Middle Ages/Catholic Church: trade diminished/lack of exchange of ideas. Reverted to emphasis on philosophy and religious explanations for natural world

The Rebirth of Science• Renaissance: eastern trade made lots of $$ which

was used to support arts and learning• Moveable Metal Type/Printing Press: scientific

knowledge spread when books were made efficiently

• Age of Exploration: astronomy and math used to improve navigation looking for routes to Asia. New plants/animals sparked scientific curiosity

• Protestant Reformation: emphasis on individual path to salvation allowed for the questioning of traditional church explanations for natural events

Enlightenment• Philosophical movement that

stressed scientific method (objective and systematic way of collecting information and arriving at conclusions) and reason over religious explanations

• Consequence: spread of democracy and state supported systems of education, teaching, research

Modern Science…not just general curiosity anymore.

• Industrial Revolution: looking for progress, efficiency, new technology also ways to improve standards of living

• Specialization of Science: narrow fields of research supported by universities

• Professionalization of Science: universities, industries, government

4 Norms of Scientific Knowledge

• Existing values and norms of a society influence the quest for scientific knowledge

1. Universalism: research should e judged solely on the basis of quality to ensure that pursuit of research is open to everyone regardless of social characteristics

2. Organized skepticism: scientific findings should always be questioned so that scientific knowledge doesn’t stagnate and “facts” are not blindly accepted

4 Norms of Scientific Research

• Communalism: all scientific knowledge should be made available to everyone because new science builds on old science, scientists need access to existing knowledge

• Disinterestedness: scientists should seek truth for the sake of truth, not for personal gain, and should not alter data to gain acceptance, should not criticize work of others who may have contrary positions

Counter Norms of Science• When scientific research issues are not well defined

or are controversial, scientists adopt a set of counter norms– Particularism- evaluation based on “who” did the

research, reputation– Organized dogmatism- no doubt of own findings and

complete doubt of any contrary findings– Solitariness- their findings are their own personal

property– Interested approach- decisions influenced by special

interests such as the business/organization to which they belong

Realities of Scientific Research• Fraud– Piltdown Hoax: the “missing link” skull and

jawbone found in 1912 proven to be fraudulent in 1953

– Scientific “misconduct” falsifying data, failure to acknowledge source of work (solitariness)

Realities of Scientific Research• Competition causes norm violations– Achievement is measured by peer recognition– Fear of being “beaten to the punch”– Pressure to publish linked to job security

• Causes– Intentional inaccuracies to “throw off” competition– Not sharing information with colleagues

(solitariness)– Premature publishing can = misinformation

Realities of Scientific Research• Matthew Effect (Particularism)– If 2 scientists make the same discovery at the

same time, or if a group of scientists work on a project together, the most famous one will get the credit.

– + can speed rate at which information is incorporated into existing knowledge

– Can hamper careers of young scientists

Realities of Scientific Research• Conflicting Views of Reality (organized dogmatism)• Bubonic plague was caused by God or by the Jews

rather than flea infested rats?• Paradigm-set of shared concepts, methods, and

assumptions that make up scientific reality and determine what topics are appropriate for scientific inquiry

• “normal science” society shares a common paradigm

• Politics/Science- political ideologies can slow scientific progress

Mass Media as a Social Institution

• Essential Questions:– What are the major developments in the history

of mass media and what are the types of mass media in the U.S.?

– How do the sociological perspectives of mass media differ?

– What are some contemporary mass media issues?

Mass Media• Diversified media technologies intended to reach a large

audience by mass communication• Evolution of Mass Media:

– 3000 B.C. Sumerians: Cuneiform (pictograms)– 1800 B.C. Middle East: 1st Alphabet– 3100-2500 B.C. Egyptians: Papyrus paper– 200B.C. Greeks: Parchment paper– 1400 Germany: Gutenberg’s Printing Press revolutionized

availability of information– Late 1800s-1900 Industrial Revolution: increased literacy rate,

increase in disposable income, advertising– 1900s shift from printed word to electronic media and beyond….

2000s: “Seven Mass Media”• Print from the late 15th century: books, pamphlets, newspaper, magazines, etc.• Recordings from late 19th century: gramophone records, magnetic tapes,

cassettes, cartridges, CDs, DVDs)• Cinema from about 1900• Radio from about 1910• TV from about 1950• Internet from about 1990• Mobile phones from about 2000

• U.S. is an information society- a society in which the main social and economic activity is the exchange of information.

Print Media

• Books/e-books, newspapers, magazines, outdoor media (billboards, pamphlets, signs, sky banners etc.)

• Newspaper and magazine sales and advertise revenue declining as online use increases. 23% Americans read the newspaper.

• Book sales remain steady despite e-book sales which represent 23% of the book sale industry

Audio Media

• Sound recordings, radio, ITunes, • Radio: The “original mass medium” reaches

90% of Americans across all demographics. We listen to 2.5 hours/day.

• Music Sales down overall: $36.9 billion in 2000 to $15.9 billion in 2010 includes digital sales

• ITunes-largest music retailer

Visual Media

• Movies, TV, DVD, games• Box Office Sales $10.5 billion• Rentals $18 billion (Redbox $2 billion)• Last 300 Blockbusters closed Nov. 2013• Games 14.8 billion

Online Media

• Internet, WWW, Email, facebook, twitter, shopping, podcasts, etc.

• 78% Americans have internet access at home• 61% have Smart Phones• Digital Use surpassed TV use in 2013 with

adults watching 4:31/hr on TV and 5:09 using digital media

Convergence

• Media convergence-the result, in part, of the integration of different media technologies

• Newspapers, radio stations available online• E-books or online version of books like

textbooks• Cable company packages: Comcast has

TV/Internet/Phone/Netflix, etc. all in one package.

Walt Disney Company

• Largest multinational mass media company in world

• Cable, publishing, movies, theme parks, broadcasting, radio, web portals

• $45 Billion 2013

Media Consumption

Functionalist Perspectiveon Mass Media

• Maintains the stability and smooth operation of society– Productive citizens need to know what’s going on– Provide explanations as to why things happen– Reflect societies’ issues– Passes on basic skills, values and beliefs– Provides entertainment

What does Hunger Games represent about America? The World?

• Pro Democracy• Haves v. Have Nots• America-Capital starving people around world• Reflects “cut throat” world of young people in

American society• Personal Appearance of those in the Capital• Extreme Punishments in other countries

Conflict Perspective on Mass Media• Maintains the existing social order, persuades

people to accept existing power structure• Power Elite controls the media and therefore the

flow of information, and how it is presented• Knowledge Gap Hypotheses-the educated and

wealthy acquire new information faster than others

• Digital Divide-gap between those that have access to new technology and those who don’t

Conflict Theorist• Perpetuates stereotypes and bias– Minority representation is concentrated in crime,

sports or entertainment– Lack of positive representation in programming

socializes minority children to be less ambitious and expect less from life

– Encourages whites to view minorities negatively

Mass Media and Children

• 35 hours/week under 9• Only 18 out of 1000s of studies dispute the correlation

between aggressive behavior and exposure to violence on TV– Exposed to lots of violence– Causes aggressive behavior/use of violence to solve problems– Insensitivity to suffering– Fear and distrust of world

• TV/Movie/Game Rating Systems• V-Chip-all TVs 2000+ have to have them-blocks shows of a

certain rating

Effects of Mass Media on Civic/Social Life

• Social Capital- social networks and reciprocal norms associated with those networks that encourages people to do things for each other

• Less socialization after school/work-become loners

• Less civic participation in religious organizations, community organizations, school organizations etc.

Power of the Media

• Spiral of silence- people who disagree are less likely to voice opinion if the media is all “on the same page”

• Agenda setting- deciding what issues are covered affects political platforms and policy setting

• Gatekeepers- media executives can block transmission of news

• Opinion Leader- respected individuals in the community and have influence over friends and acquaintances