13108 - NCERT · Training, Pitampura, New Delhi (e-mail:achanchalgupta@ rediffmail.com) – Chapter...

Basics in

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ISBN 978-93-5007-283-7

Textbook for B. Ed. Course

EducationBasics in

Basics inEducationTextbook for B. Ed. Course

First EditionJune 2014 Jyaishtha 1936

PD 1 T MJ

© National Council of Educational Research and Training, 2014

` 210.00

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ISBN 978-93-5007-283-7

Publication Team

Head, Publication : N. K. GuptaDivision

Chief Production : Kalyan BanerjeeOfficer

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Chief Business : Gautam Ganguly Manager

Editorial Assistant : Mathew John

Production Assistant : Subodh Srivastava

Foreword

What is ‘Education’? What is its primary purpose, and what is not? Which approaches support it, and at which levels of cognition? So many basic questions that many of our ‘trained teachers’, among others, ask. And very few fora to discuss the limited responses they have found so far. Therefore, the need for a book of this kind, on basic concepts and introductions to various relevant theories, was felt. The present textbook, ‘Basics in Education’, is related to one of the core components of the two-year B. Ed. Programme, introduced by NCERT recently. It aims to help the student-teachers understand and analyse diverse concepts related to education, their premises and contexts. It discusses crucial concepts like the nature and goals of education, the processes of education, different forms of knowledge and the process of knowing, organisation of knowledge in school curriculum, autonomy of the teachers and the learners, and the role of education in inculcating values among children. The textbook has been written in a self-instructional format, which provides the student-teachers with considerable scope for engaging in the processes of inquiry, critical analysis and intellectual discourse. Each chapter, in addition to the relevant content, carries Learning Checks, Activities, Summary, Review Questions, and References/Further Readings, providing opportunities to the student-teachers to engage with those concepts. As you go through it, you will see that the material reflects and propagates inclusiveness too. The NCERT gratefully acknowledges the joint effort of all the educationists involved in preparing this material, and particularly Professor Bharati Baveja for reviewing it. We hope that the book will be a meaningful resource to student-teachers, teachers, teacher-educators and all stakeholders in the schooling systems in our country.

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We would appreciate receiving feedback from you to bring further improvements in the book, which can be sent to the Editor of the book, Professor A.K. Srivastava (e-mail: [email protected]).

Parvin Sinclair

DirectorNew Delhi National Council of EducationalJune 2014 Research and Training

TexTbook developmenT Team

ContributorsChanchal Goel, Lecturer, District Institute of Education and Training, Pitampura, New Delhi (e-mail:[email protected]) – Chapter 7

Daya Pant, Professor and Head, Department of Educational Psychology and Foundations, National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi (e-mail:[email protected]) – Chapter 10

G.L. Arora, Professor and Head (Retd.), Department of Teacher Education, National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi (e-mail:[email protected]) Chapter – 2

Girishwar Misra, Professor, Department of Psychology, University of Delhi, Delhi (e-mail: [email protected]) Chapter – 11

Kiran Walia, Associate Professor, Department of Teacher Education, National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi (e-mail:[email protected]) Chapter – 8

Manjula P. Rao, Professor, Regional Institute of Education, Mysore. (e-mail: [email protected]) Chapter – 1

Naresh K. Gupta, Associate Professor, Division of Educational Research, National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi. (e-mail: [email protected]) Chapter – 3

Poonam Agrawal, Professor, Division of Educational Research, National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi (e-mail: [email protected]) Chapter – 9

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Ramesh Babu B., Professor at Regional Institute of Education, Bhopal (e-mail: [email protected]) Chapter – 4

Sunil Behari Mohanty, (Retd.) Professor of Education, presently residing at Puducherry (e-mail: [email protected]) Chapter – 6

Uma Vyas, Associate Professor and Head, Departmnet of Teacher Education, Bareilly College, Bareily (e-mail:[email protected]) Chapter – 5

EditorAshok K. Srivastava, Professor and Head, Division of Educational Research, National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi (e-mail:[email protected])

ReviewerBharati Baveja, Professor, Department of Education, University of Delhi, Delhi (e-mail:[email protected])

acknowledgemenT

A number of scholars contributed towards the development of the textbook. The planning meeting was held in January 2010. The following scholars contributed towards the planning of the book: Professor M. Sen Gupta, Gurgaon; Professor M.D. Usha Devi, ISEC, Bangalore; Professor H.K. Senapati, RIE Bhubaneswar; Professor G.L. Arora, Gurgaon; Dr. Minal Narawane, Pune; Professor A.K. Mishra, NERIE, Shillong; Professor A.K. Srivastava, NCERT; and Dr. N.K. Gupta, NCERT. During the period April 2010 to November 2012, the work related to the development of textbook was coordinated by Professor Poonam Agrawal, NCERT; and Dr. Sharad Sinha, NCERT. A review meeting was held in February 2012 in which the following scholars contributed: Dr. S.B. Mohanty, Puducherry; Dr. Seema Joshi, Jaipur; Dr. Shivani Vij, Delhi; and Professor D.K. Bhattacharjee, formerly with NCERT. Professor G. Ravindra, Bangalore sent his comments by post. The Director, NCERT assigned the task of finalising the book to Professor A.K. Srivastava in November 2012. The final editing of the chapters was done by him. Professor Bharati Baveja, University of Delhi took the painstaking task of reviewing the chapters and gave valuable insights. The finalised versions of the chapters were looked into by the respective authors and modifications were suggested by them. The final manuscript was relooked by Professor Anupam Ahuja, NCERT from the perspective of inclusion (gender and disable friendly). The contributions of all the scholars are thankfully acknowledged.

conTenTs

Foreword iii

1. Concept and Meaning of Education 1

2. Goals of Education 42

3. Processes and Modes of Education 71

4. Knowledge: Meaning and Facets 91

5. Process of Knowing 112

6. Organisation of Knowledge in Schools 135

7. Teacher Autonomy and Accountability 160

8. Learner Autonomy 185

9. Values: Concept and Context 202

10. Education and Values 225

11. Values in the Emerging Social Context 246

Chapter 1

Concept and Meaning of Education

STRUCTURE• Introduction• Objectives• WhatisEducation?

– Etymologicalmeaning– NarrowandBroadermeaning– Educationasprocessandproduct– Conceptandmeaningofeducationaccordingto

Indianthinkers– Westernviewsoneducation– Analyticalconceptofeducation

• WhetherEducationisNaturalorSocialProcess?• WhetherEducationisIntentionalorUnintentional?• WhatDoesEducationCompriseof?• Does Education Occur only in Educational

Institutions? LetUsSumUp ReviewQuestions References

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Basics in Education

InTRodUCTIonTheterm‘education’isaverycommonandapopularwordthatisutteredbymanyofusbutunderstoodbyaveryfewinitsrightperspective.Itisinonewayortheotherappearstobeasoldasthehumanrace,thoughduringthecourseoftime,itsmeaningandobjectiveshaveinevitablyundergonecertainchanges.Asastudentofeducationcourse,and,asa future teacher, it is essential for you to understand themeaningofeducation,itsconceptualfeaturesanddifferentperspectivesthathaveshapeditsmeaningfromtimetotime.Understanding the concept of education and its dynamicfeatureswillhelpyoutodevelopinsightsaboutthepurposeof becoming a teacher and help youwhile educating yourstudents. ThischapteranalyzesdifferentperspectivesandviewsofIndianandwesternthinkersoneducation.Thecontemporarymeaningofeducationisdiscussedherefromanalyticalviewpoints. Education as a natural and a social process andalsoeducationasanintentionalactivityarediscussedwithsuitable illustrations.Thedifferentprocessesofeducationand understanding the role and the need of institutionsineducatingthe individualsarealsoexaminedbydrawingrelevancetoschoolcontext.

objECTIvESAftergoingthroughthischapter,youwillbeableto:• Analysevariousperspectivesandviewsontheconceptof

education.• Explaintheconceptofeducationasaninitiationprocess

inthewesternandeasternperspectives.• Explaintheconceptofeducationasaworthwhileactivity

inthecontextofschooleducation.• Differentiatebetweeneducationasanaturalprocessand

asasocialprocesswithsuitableillustrations.• Understand the dimensions of education and their

relevance.• Understand the role and the need of institutions in

educatingtheindividuals.

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ConCept and Meaning of eduCation

WhaT IS EdUCaTIon?Youare,bynow,familiarwiththeterm‘education’,‘educatedperson’‘educating’andsoon.Youmusthavealsousedthesetermsonseveraloccasionsinconversationwithothers.Whatdowemean by education?Does ‘teaching’ or ‘instructing’becomeeducation?Orisitlearninginaninstitution?Doesdeveloping the child into good human being known aseducation?Isitpossibletohaveonemeaningofeducation?Therearemanymoresuchquestionsthatcometoourmindwhenweattempttounderstandtheconceptofeducation. The term ‘education’ has been interpreted by differentpeople indifferentways.Somepeople refer to it as formalschoolingor to lifelong learning.Someothersrefer to itasacquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes. Some saythateducationisnothing,buttrainingofpeople’smindinaparticulardirectiontobringaboutdesiredchanges.Ifyouaskastatesman,anartisan,ateacher,aparent,aphilosopherand a student aboutwhat educationmeans to them, youwouldbesurprisedtoknowthemultipleinterpretationsandviews people have about education. This only shows thateducation doesn’t have one precise universally accepteddefinition. Ithasvariousmeaningswithvarious functions.Analysis of these meanings would help us to understandwhateducationreallyis.Tobeginwith,letuslookintohowthe term ‘education’has evolvedand someof the viewsofgreatthinkersthatexemplifiestheconceptandmeaningofeducation.

EtyMologiCal MEaningEtymologicallyspeaking,thewordeducationisderivedfromtheLatinword‘educare’meaning‘toraise’and‘tobringup’.Accordingtofewothers,theword‘education’hasoriginatedfromanotherLatinterm‘Educere’whichmeans‘toleadforth’or ‘to come out’. These meanings indicate that educationseeks tonourish thegoodqualitiesanddrawout thebestineveryindividual.Educationseekstodeveloptheinnateortheinnerpotentialitiesofhumans.Someothereducationistsbelievethattheword‘education’hasbeenderivedfromtheLatinterm‘Educatum’,whichmeanstheactofteachingortraining.Themeaningsoftheserootwordsleadustobelieve

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Basics in Education

thateducationaimstoprovideanourishingenvironmentthatwouldfacilitateorbringoutanddevelopthepotentialitiesinanindividual. If you refer to Dictionary of Education (edited by C.V.Good,1973),youwillfindthateducationisdefinedas“theaggregate of all the processes bywhich a persondevelopsabilities,attitudesandotherformsofbehaviourofpracticalvaluesinthesocietyinwhichs/helives;thesocialprocessbywhichpeoplearesubjectedtotheinfluenceofselectedandcontrolledenvironment(especiallythatoftheschool),sothattheymayobtainsocialcompetenceandoptimumindividualdevelopment”.Theconceptofeducationhasbeenusedinavarietyofcontextswithdifferentmeanings.Togiveaprecisedefinitionofeducation,justaswedefinecertainconceptsinscienceor other technical subjects, isdifficult, as there isnoonemeaningofeducationheldincommonbypeople.Letustrytoexplorethedifferentmeaningsandviewpointsoneducation.Understandingtheseconceptionswouldhelpyoutoanalyzethekindofeducationthatisinvoguenowandtowhatextentitisjustified.

narrow and BroadEr MEanings of EduCation

Narrow Meaning of EducationYou must have come across people who consider thatinstruction imparted in schools and higher educationinstitutionsisnothingbuteducation.Theaimsofeducationin these contexts are measured in terms of degrees orcertification or promotion. There is a deliberate effortmadewithadefinitepurposetodevelopcertainamountofknowledge,skills,attitudesandhabitsintheseinstitutions.Thisisanarrowconceptofeducation,whichisconfinedonlytoafewspecific,deliberate,andplannedeffortsthathaveabearingonthedevelopmentoftheindividual.Theeducator,in the narrow sense, aims at producing the literate or aprofessionalpersonsuchasanengineer,adoctor,ateacher,abusinessmanandsoon.Here,theindividualisdeliberately‘taughttothink’aspredeterminedbytheeducators.Thus,inanarrowsense, education isnothing,butapurposefulactivity,deliberatelyplannedfortheoptimumdevelopmentofanindividual’spotentials.

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Education in the narrow sense does not include self culture and the general influences of one’s surroundings, but only those special influences which are consciously and designedly brought to bear upon the youngster by the adult persons of the community whether through the family, the church or the state.

—ThomasRaymont(1906)

Broader Meaning of EducationInthebroaderorwidersense,educationisnotlimitedtoaclassroomoraschoolonly.Itisconsideredtobealifelongprocess,whereall theexperiences,knowledgeandwisdomthat an individual acquires at different stages of one’s lifethrough different channels (i.e., formally, informally andincidentally) are termed as education. The broader viewconsiderseducationasanactorexperiencethathasformativeor additive effect on the personality of an individual. It isbelievedthateducationisnotonlyaninstrumentofsocialchange, but also an investment in national development.Suchaviewofeducationencompassesall lifeexperiences,asthereisashiftinemphasisfromindividualdevelopmenttonationaldevelopment.Itisconsideredthateducationisalifelongprocessthatincludesallexperiencesthatthechildreceives in the school or at home, in the community andsocietythroughinteractionsofvarioussortsandactivities.The broader meaning of education implies the processof development, wherein the individual gradually adaptshimself/herself to variousways tohis/herphysical, socialandspiritualenvironments.

Whatever broadens our horizon, deepens our insight, refines our reactions, and stimulates our thoughts and feelings educates us.

—Lodge

It is really life that educates us.—ThomasRaymont(1906)

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Basics in Education

learning Check 11. AnalysetheviewsofRaymontoneducation.

Education as Process and ProductThereisalwaysacontroversywhethereducationisaprocessoraproduct.Mostly,weconsidereducationasaproduct,thatis,somethingthathasbeenproducedasaresultofcertaininputswhich in this case is instructionor experiences. Inthis sense, it is the sum total ofwhat is received throughlearning — the knowledge, skills, values that are theoutcomesoflearning.Theconceptofeducationasacquisitionof knowledgewas prevalent since the beginning of historyof education. Many literature sources and the religiousdoctrines have propounded that ‘knowledge is power’ and‘knowledgeisvirtue’.Evennowitisbelievedthatknowledgeleads towisdom.Educationbecomesaproductonlywhenitassimilatesthecultureofanysociety,andistransmittedfromonegenerationtoanother.Educationfostersvaluesinpeople,whichareuniversallyacceptedasvaluableatagivenpoint of time. Transmission of knowledge or skills whichtakesplaceasapurposefulactivityinavarietyofwayscouldbetermedastheproductofeducation. Educationcanalsobereferredtoasaprocess.Inthissense,education is referred to theact of developing the intellect,criticalthinkingabilities,socialandculturalunderstanding,andunderstandingofone’sownself.Educationisconsideredas an active and a dynamic process which takes placecontinuouslyduringone’slifebywayofvariousexperiencesthrough either in a formal or in an informalmanner. Theindividual continuously learns. In this process, he or shelearnstoutiliseone’sexperiencesinlearningnewthingsandalsotoreconstructnewthingsintheplaceofoldones.Thusthe learningtakesplacethroughout lifewhich isanactiveandadynamicprocess.Thisdynamicprocessisnothingbuteducation.So,itcanbesaidthateducationisaproductaswellasaprocess. Besidestheabove,educationisviewedinvariousotherwaysbydifferentphilosophersandeducationists.SomeofthemaregivenhereinActivity1foryoutoexploreandfindouttheirmeanings.

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activity 1Discuss the following meanings of education byreferringtothebookscitedinthereferencelistattheendofthischapterorbygoingtothelibrary.• Educationaspreparationforlife• Educationasdirection• Educationisalifelongprocess.

learning Check 21. Explaintheetymologicalmeaningsofeducation.2. Whyisthebroadmeaningofeducationpreferred

tothenarrowmeaningofeducation?3. ‘Education is considered as a dynamic and an

activeprocess’.Explain.

ConCEpt and MEaning of EduCation aCCording to indian thinkErsBesides knowing the narrow and the broad meanings ofeducationandvariousotherinterpretations,itmayalsobedesirable to explore into the educational thoughtsof greatthinkersinordertogetadeeperunderstandingoftheconceptandthenatureofeducation. The great philosophers and thinkers, through differentperiods of human civilisation, have attempted to defineeducation and, in doing so, have reflected their ownphilosophical ideals and thoughts. Let us try to trace theeducational thoughts of someof the great Indian thinkerswhomyouare familiarwith.WeshallalsoexaminebrieflyhoweducationwasconceivedinancienttimesinIndia.

Education in Ancient IndiaIn India, there isa rich traditionofeducationdatingbackto the dawn of human civilisation, where the Gurukulas and Guru-Shishya parampara (teacher-disciple tradition)developedthousandsofyearsago.TwoprominentwordsinSanskrit stand out as equivalents of the term ‘education’.ThesewordsareShiksha andVidya.The formerhasbeenderivedfromtherootwordShasmeaning‘todiscipline’or‘tocontrol’,thelatter,Vidya,isderivedfromtheverbalrootword‘Wd’meaning‘toknow’.Thesemeaningshadtheirrelevance

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Basics in Education

tothepurposeandthenatureofeducationimpartedintheancient India. Inancient India, learningwaspursued,notforitsownsake,butforthesakeofandasapartofreligion.Itwassoughtasameans for theultimateendof life (i.e.,salvation). Themain aim of educationwas training of themindasan instrumentofknowledgeand thedischargeofone’sdharma (dutyormoral-ethicalvalue).Educationwasalsoconceivedasthemeanstodevelopthephysicalandthesubtlebody,sothattheinnerspiritorthepureconsciousnesscanexpressitselfwithoutgettinghamperedbytheillusionsof the world. In this context, it was felt that the purposeof educationwas to train and exercise thefive sheaths orlayers – physical (gross body), vital (subtle body), mental,intellectual and spiritual–in suchaway as tomake themthesoundinstrumentsforleadingagoodlife(Kabir,1961).However, the meaning and aims of education underwentachangeaccordingtothesocial,politicalandtheculturalconditions of different periods. For instance, education inmedievalIndiawasconfinedtotheidealsandgoalsoflife. Themeaningofeducationhasbeenvisualisedindifferentwaysinthepost-independenceperiodbytheIndianthinkersandeducationists.Amongthemanygreatthinkerswhohavecontemplated on themeaning of education, a few of themhavebeendiscussedhere.

Mahatma GandhiAsyouallmusthavestudied,duringthepre-independenceperiod,theeducationsysteminIndiawasgovernedbytheBritish. The goals of education duringBritish periodwerenot akin to the Indian ways of thinking. The medium ofinstructionwasEnglishwhichwasforeigntomanyIndians.MahatmaGandhi’s interest in educationwas the outcomeofarevoltagainsttheBritishsystemofeducationthathadmanylimitationsanddrawbacks.Hiseducationalthoughtsemerged out of his own experiments with truth and non-violence.AccordingtoMahatmaGandhi,educationnotonlymouldsthenewgeneration,butreflectssociety’sfundamentalassumptionsaboutitselfandtheindividualswhocompriseit. By education, he meant, an all-round developmentdrawingoutofthebestinthechild’sbody,mindandspirit.Hestatedthatliteracyisnottheendofeducation,andnot

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eventhebeginning.Itisonlythemeansbywhichmenandwomen can be educated.In his opinion, education shouldaimatdevelopingself-reliance,wherepeople learn toearntheir livelihood.Hisaimsofeducationalsoemphasisedoncharacter formation and all round development (physical,mental, social, moral, aesthetic, and religious). Accordingtohim, education shouldmake children idealmembers ofthedemocratic society.Hewanteda school to be a ‘doingand thinking school’, rather than a listening school. Heemphasisedonexperientiallearningthroughwhichthechildacquiresknowledgeandutilisesitfortheunderstandingandcontrolofhissocialenvironment.Heaspiredthateducationshouldenablethechildtorelatewhatislearntintheschooltothereallifesituations.Hisconceptofbuniyadi talim (basiceducation)stressesonlearningthroughcraft,whichfavoursthechildbelongingtotheloweststratumofsociety.Educationthroughcraftwasfeltdesirableasitrelievesthechildfromthestressofpurelyacademicandtheoreticalinstruction.Theprogrammeofbasiceducationwasconceptualisedinsuchaway that canbring about social transformation.MahatmaGandhi believed in integrated education. He believed thatthechildhasseveral innatepotentialitieswhichshouldbefacilitatedthrougheducationalprocess.Healsobelievedthateducationshouldtransmittheculturalheritagetoenrichthehumanlives.AccordingtoMahatmaGandhi,educationhastobelifeitselfandthroughlife.

I hold that true education of the intellect can come only through a proper exercise and training of the body, hands, feet, eyes, ears, nose, etc. In other words, an intelligent use of the bodily organs in a child provides the best and quickest way of developing his intellect. But unless the development of the body, and mind goes hand in hand with a corresponding awakening of the soul, the former alone would prove to be a poor lop-sided affair.

—MahatmaGandhi

Mahatma Gandhi was a strong advocate of providingeducationtothegirlchild.Accordingtohim:“The real difficulty is that people have no idea of whateducationtrulyis.Weassessthevalueofeducationinthe

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Basics in Education

samemannerasweassessthevalueoflandorofsharesinthe stock-exchangemarket.Wewant toprovideonly sucheducation as would enable the student to earnmore.Wehardlygiveanythoughttotheimprovementofthecharacteroftheeducated.Thegirls,wesay,donothavetoearn;sowhyshouldtheybeeducated?Aslongassuchideaspersistthereisnohopeofoureverknowingthetruevalueofeducation.”(inSrivastava,2003).

Swami VivekanandaSwami Vivekananda (1863-1902), a great thinker andreformer of India, providesan insight intowhat educationoughttobe.Accordingtohim,“Educationisthemanifestationofthedivineperfection,alreadyexistinginman”.Theword‘manifestation’impliesthatsomethingalreadyexistsandiswaiting to be expressed. Themain focus in learning is tomakethehiddenabilityofalearnermanifest. Vivekanandabelievedthatthesystemofeducation,whichexistedatthattime,didnotenableapersontostandonhis/herown feet,nordid it teachhim/herself-confidenceandselfrespect.ToSwamiVivekananda,educationwasnotonlycollection of information, but somethingmoremeaningful.Hefeltthateducationshouldbeman-making,life-givingandcharacter-building.Theaimofeducation,accordingtohim,istomanifestinourlivestheperfection,whichistheverynature of our inner-self, which resides in everything andeverywhere, which is known as ‘satchitananda’ (existence,consciousnessandbliss).Hence,education,inVivekananda’ssense,enablesone tocomprehendone’sselfwithinas theselfeverywhere.Theessentialunityoftheentireuniverseisrealisedthrougheducation.Therefore,man-makingrelatestotheharmoniousdevelopmentofthebody,mindandsoul.Inhis scheme of education, great emphasis is laid on the

learning Check 31. What were the aims of education in ancient

India?Aretheyrelevanttothepresentsystemofeducation?Discussinyourgroups.

2. HowwaseducationconceptualisedbyMahatmaGandhi?

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physicalhealth,becauseasoundmindresides inasoundbody.Alongwiththis,hepaysspecialattentiontothecultureofthemind,powerofconcentration,andpracticeofethicalpurity.Inhisopinion,educationisnotamereaccumulationof information, but a comprehensive training for life. Toquotehim:“Educationisnottheamountofinformationthatisput intobrainand runs riot there,undigested, all yourlife.” Education, according to Swami Vivekananda, meanstheprocessbywhichcharacterisformed,strengthofmindisincreased,andintellectissharpened,asaresultofwhichonecanstandonone’sownfeet. As regards education of girls, Vivekananda consideredmenandwomenastwowingsofabird,anditisnotpossibleforabirdtoflyononlyonewing.So,accordingtohim,thereisnochanceforthewelfareoftheworldunlesstheconditionofwomanisimproved.

Sri AurobindoSri Aurobindo, a great philosopher and anationalist,whowasbornin1872,contributedtoeducationimmensely.Hiseducational ideascanbeobtainedfromtwobasicsources:On Education (1990) and A System of National Education(1907).According toSriAurobindo, education ismeant tobringoutthebestinman,todevelophispotentialitiestothemaximum,tointegratehimwithhimself,hissurroundings,his society, his country and humanity to make him the‘completeman’,the‘integralman’.Thepurposeofeducationcannotbemerelytocreatealiterateindividual,orahighlyinformedpersoncrammedwithinformationandfacts,ortocreateanindividualtofindajob.Themoreimportantaspectsof an individual arehis character,hispersonality andhisvalues.Accordingtohim,theprocessofeducationmustbeintegralaimingatthetotalandcompletedevelopmentoftheindividual:astrong,supple,wellformedandhealthybody;asensitive,unselfishandmatureemotionalnature;apositivelyenergetic vital, an enlightened mind, a wide ranging andvibrant intelligence,astrongwill,abalancedandpleasingpersonality; and the subtler spiritual qualities that canchannelise,harmoniseanddirectallthedifferentpartsofanindividualintoalifethatisbeneficialtotheindividualandtohisfellowmen.Inshort,SriAurobindosaysthateducationshouldbeintegral,sothatitdevelopsthephysical,mental,

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Basics in Education

vital,psychicandspiritualaspectsofthehumanpersonality.Accordingtohim,eachindividualandeachnationhavetodevelop according to their own individual characteristics,swadharma. The desirable evolution of humanity is thenfacilitated. Sri Aurobindo observed that the then existingdifferent education trends were inadequate for impartingtrueor integraleducationthattakesthestudenttohigherlevelsofconsciousness.Heproposedamethodofeducation,that is, integral education, for achieving higher level ofconsciousness,whichcan radicallyand favourablychangethesocial,economicandpoliticalspheresoflife.

Education which will offer the tools whereby one can live for the divine, for the country, for oneself, and for others and this must be the ideal of every school which calls itself national. —SriAurobindo

Rabindranath TagoreRabindranathTagorewasbornin1861inCalcutta,andwasoneoftheearlyeducationistsofIndiawhoseideasgleamedthrough his variouswritings and educational experimentsatShantiniketan.Asanalternativetotheexistingformsofeducation,hestartedasmallschoolatShantiniketanin1901thatdevelopedintoauniversityandaruralreconstructioncentre, where he tried to develop an alternative model ofeducationthatstemmedfromhisownlearningexperiences.In general, he envisioned an education that was deeplyrooted in one’s immediate surroundings but connected totheculturesofthewiderworld,predicateduponpleasurablelearningand individualised to thepersonalityof thechild.Hefeltthatacurriculumshouldrevolveorganicallyaroundnaturewith classesheld in the open air, under the trees,to provide for a spontaneous atmosphere. In his opinion,schools shouldnot be factories, but shouldprovide a freeatmosphere for the pupils to have close contact with thenature anduniverse. To Tagore, “the highest education isthatwhichdoesnotmerelygiveusinformationbutmakesourlifeinharmonywithallexistence.Butwefindthatthistypeof education isnot only systematically ignored in schools,butitisseverelyrepressed.Fromourverychildhoodhabitsare formed and knowledge is imparted in such amanner

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thatourlifeisweanedawayfromnatureandourmindandthe world are set in opposition from the beginning of ourdays”.Tagoresaweducationasavehicleforappreciatingtherichest aspects of other cultures, while maintaining one’sown cultural specificity. Freedom, creative self expressionandactivecommunicationwithnatureandmanarethethreecardinalprinciplesofhiseducationalphilosophy.Accordingto him, education should aim at the development of theactivetendenciesofthechild.Itshouldbefordevelopinganindividualinto‘wholebeing’.Educationshouldalsopromotepeace,love,kindness,andidealsandshouldaimatgainingasenseoffreedomandofsympathywithallhumanity.Tagoreconsiderededucationasessentialneedofhumanlife.Inhisview,educationisthatsocialprocessbywhichmanattainsphysicalprogressandspiritualwholeness.Trueeducation,accordingtohim,consistsinknowingtheuseofanyusefulmaterialthathasbeencollected,toknowitsrealnatureandtobuildalongwithlife,arealshelter for life.Besidesthis,Tagoreconsideredthatgodpervadesineveryparticleofthenature, and felt that the ultimate aim of human life is toexperiencethisspiritualunitywhichisthesupremeaimorfunctionofeducation.

activity 2ReadthebookOn EducationbySriAurobindoandfindoutmoreabouttheintegraleducation,itsmeansandimplementationintheschoolstartedbyhimandthemother.Makepresentationsinyourclass.FindoutaboutthekindofeducationpractisedinShantiniketanduringTagore’stimes.

Jiddu KrishnamurthiJiddu Krishnamurthi, a philosopher and one of the 20thcentury’s most influential teacher, devoted his life to theawakening of ‘intelligence’ and transformation of society.Krishnamurty’sinterestineducationwaslongstandingandalwayspassionate.Headdressedthenatureofeducationinmajorityofhisbooksaswellasinhisspeechestothepublicand students in India as well as abroad. Krishnamurthi’s(1994)ideasoneducation,thoughradical,attempttomeet

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Basics in Education

thechallengesoflivingataprofoundlevel,andtheydosoatatimewhensuchinsightsaredesperatelyneeded.Accordingtohim,moderneducationisunabletopreparestudentsforthefundamentalchallengesofliving.InhisbooktitledEducation and the Significance of Life (1962),we see his concern foreducationandhisviewsonrightkindofeducation.AccordingtoKrishnamurthi,theeducationsystemthatexistsisquiteconventional.Theeducationalsysteminpracticenowleadstoconformitywhereindependentthinkingisnotpossible.Itproducesthekindofhumanbeingswhoseprimaryinterestistofindsecurity,tobecomesomebodyimportant,ortoachievesomedegreesandjobs.Whilediscussingaboutsignificanceoflife,hepropoundsthataslongaseducationdoesnotcultivateanintegratedoutlookonlife,ithasverylittlesignificance.Inhisview,today’seducationhasverylittlesignificanceasitmakesussubservient,mechanicalandthoughtless,thoughitawakensusintellectually;itleavesusincompleteinwardly,stupefied anduncreative. Thepurpose of education isnottoproducemerescholarsandprofessionals,butintegratedmenandwomenwhoarefreefromfear,foronlyamongsuchhumanbeingscantherebeenduringpeace.Tobringabouttherightkindofeducation,Krishnamurthiemphasisesuponunderstanding themeaning of life as awhole. In order toachievethis,onehastobeabletothinkdirectlyandtruly,butnotconsistently.Heimpliesthataconsistentthinkeris‘apersonwhoconforms toapattern,and repeatsphrasesandslogans.’Withthisanalysisabouttheeducationsystemanditsnarrowlydeterminedgoals,heviewsthefunctionofeducationasnotmerelyacquiringknowledge,andgatheringandcorrelating facts,buttocreatehumanbeingswhoareintegratedand,therefore,intelligent.Inhisview,“Intelligenceisthecapacitytoperceivetheessential,thewhatis;andtoawakenthiscapacity,inoneselfandothers,iseducation”.Inhisopinion,educationshouldaimtohelppeopletodiscoverlastingandtruevalueswhichcomewithself-awarenessandunbiasedself-investigation;tohelptobreakdownthenationalandsocialbarriers,astheybreedantagonismandviolenceamonghumanbeingsandtoawakenthecapacitytobeawareofoneselfandnotmerelyindulgeingratifyingself-expression. AbriefaccountoftheeducationalideasofafewIndianthinkers reveals that education is viewed differently bydifferent people. The philosophical ideals of the thinkers

activity 31. ReadthebookWhy are you being educated?byJ.

Krishnamurthi,whichconsistsofsixtalksgivenbyhimintheIndianUniversitiesandattheIndianInstitutesofTechnologybetween1969and1984.Make a list of questions that he asks studentsabout education and their future. Discuss hisviewswith reference to the existing educationalscenario in our country. Is it possible to bringchanges in our education system based on hisviews?Analyse.

2. Find out about Rishi Valley school run byKrishnamurthi Foundations of Education.Whatare the educational practices followed in thisinstitution? How does it differ from the othereducationalinstitutions?Explorethedetailsandmakeapresentationfollowedbydiscussion.

15


thechallengesoflivingataprofoundlevel,andtheydosoatatimewhensuchinsightsaredesperatelyneeded.Accordingtohim,moderneducationisunabletopreparestudentsforthefundamentalchallengesofliving.InhisbooktitledEducation and the Significance of Life (1962),we see his concern foreducationandhisviewsonrightkindofeducation.AccordingtoKrishnamurthi,theeducationsystemthatexistsisquiteconventional.Theeducationalsysteminpracticenowleadstoconformitywhereindependentthinkingisnotpossible.Itproducesthekindofhumanbeingswhoseprimaryinterestistofindsecurity,tobecomesomebodyimportant,ortoachievesomedegreesandjobs.Whilediscussingaboutsignificanceoflife,hepropoundsthataslongaseducationdoesnotcultivateanintegratedoutlookonlife,ithasverylittlesignificance.Inhisview,today’seducationhasverylittlesignificanceasitmakesussubservient,mechanicalandthoughtless,thoughitawakensusintellectually;itleavesusincompleteinwardly,stupefied anduncreative. Thepurpose of education isnottoproducemerescholarsandprofessionals,butintegratedmenandwomenwhoarefreefromfear,foronlyamongsuchhumanbeingscantherebeenduringpeace.Tobringabouttherightkindofeducation,Krishnamurthiemphasisesuponunderstanding themeaning of life as awhole. In order toachievethis,onehastobeabletothinkdirectlyandtruly,butnotconsistently.Heimpliesthataconsistentthinkeris‘apersonwhoconforms toapattern,and repeatsphrasesandslogans.’Withthisanalysisabouttheeducationsystemanditsnarrowlydeterminedgoals,heviewsthefunctionofeducationasnotmerelyacquiringknowledge,andgatheringandcorrelating facts,buttocreatehumanbeingswhoareintegratedand,therefore,intelligent.Inhisview,“Intelligenceisthecapacitytoperceivetheessential,thewhatis;andtoawakenthiscapacity,inoneselfandothers,iseducation”.Inhisopinion,educationshouldaimtohelppeopletodiscoverlastingandtruevalueswhichcomewithself-awarenessandunbiasedself-investigation;tohelptobreakdownthenationalandsocialbarriers,astheybreedantagonismandviolenceamonghumanbeingsandtoawakenthecapacitytobeawareofoneselfandnotmerelyindulgeingratifyingself-expression. AbriefaccountoftheeducationalideasofafewIndianthinkers reveals that education is viewed differently bydifferent people. The philosophical ideals of the thinkers

activity 31. ReadthebookWhy are you being educated?byJ.

Krishnamurthi,whichconsistsofsixtalksgivenbyhimintheIndianUniversitiesandattheIndianInstitutesofTechnologybetween1969and1984.Make a list of questions that he asks studentsabout education and their future. Discuss hisviewswith reference to the existing educationalscenario in our country. Is it possible to bringchanges in our education system based on hisviews?Analyse.

2. Find out about Rishi Valley school run byKrishnamurthi Foundations of Education.Whatare the educational practices followed in thisinstitution? How does it differ from the othereducationalinstitutions?Explorethedetailsandmakeapresentationfollowedbydiscussion.

aboutlifeandthehighestformofknowledgetobeattaintedbyhumanbeingsarereflectedintheirviewsoneducation.WefindthatIndianthinkerswereagainstthenarrowaims/vision of education and rigid pedagogical methods whichwereteacher-centred.Ingeneral,wefindthatalltheabovethinkershaveviewededucationasanintegralprocesswhichhelpsintheallrounddevelopmentoftheindividuals.Whatweneedtounderstandisthat,theseeducationalthoughtsandconcernsinfluencetheeducationalaimsandtheeducationalpractices in the society. The educational aims that aredeterminedbythephilosophical,andthesocialperspectives,aswellasbythenationalconcernsandpriorities, inturn,determine the nature of educational processes right fromcurriculumconstructiontopedagogicalpractices.

learning Check 41. WhywasMahatmaGandhiopposedtotheeducation

system prevalent during the British rule?Whatkindofeducationheproposedandwhy?

2. WhatistherightkindofeducationaccordingtoJ.Krishnamurti?

3. ExplainSriAurobindo’sconceptofeducation.

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Basics in Education

wEstErn ViEws on EduCationLetus also trace someof the viewpoints on education intheWest and try to find out how the presentmeaning ofeducationevolvedoveraperiodoftime.Theviewpointsandthe attempts to define education by several educationalthinkersandphilosophershavebeensynthesisedcollectivelyanddiscussedhereunderbroaddimensions.

Classical ViewsThe various approaches to educational thoughthavebeenclassifiedasconservativeversusliberalistic,traditionalversusmodern, and so on.Whatwe call as conservative positionineducationfinds itsorigin in theeducational thinkingofPlato,aGreekphilosopher,andhis contemporaries.Manytraditional philosophers, who were also the educationalthinkers,believedthatmaniscomposedofbodyandsoulormind,ofwhichmindistheknowingaspectofman’snature,whilethebodyisthesensingandfeelingaspectofhis/hernature.Thisviewasserts thatonly ‘academicsubjects’areworthyofthename‘education’;anyactivitiesinvolvingthebodysuchasmanualskills,crafts,andvocationalpreparationarenoteducation,buttraining.Thisclassicalviewassertsthat only the activities of mind designed to develop therationalpartofthecomposedbeingaretrulyeducative.Theclassical educationists alsobelieved thathumannature iseverywhereandatalltimesessentiallythesame.Therefore,theyheldaviewthatthemainpurposeofeducationshouldbe the same throughout the world, from which it followsthattheformalcurriculuminschoolsshouldbeessentiallythesame,allowingsomesmallvariationstolocalneedsanddifferences. This belief accounts for the emphasis placedupondeveloping the rational powers ofman.According tothiscontention,education–asa formaldiscipline–needstobeimpartedinthesamemannertoeveryone.Insuchasituationthereisaverylittlescopeofvariation.Theviewsofsomeoftheclassicalphilosophersoneducationaregiveninthebox.

Liberalists’ Views on EducationDiametricallyopposedtotheclassicalviewswasthepositionheld by another group of philosophers in the seventeenth

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and eighteenth centuries which was the beginning ofliberalism.Sincethe17thcentury,theideahasgrownthateducationshouldbedirectedatindividualdevelopmentforsocial living. Revolting against the mind-body dichotomyof theconservativeeducationists, thisgroupheld theviewthat true education is based upon the needs, interests,and the natural desires of the child. The child is viewedas an evolving organismconstituted of the same elementsasnaturearoundhimandthatthemanisnoteverywhereandatall times thesame,but is ina stateof continuouschange and development. Based on this, education wasviewedasacontinuousprocesswhichresultsinemotionaldevelopment, social adjustment, physical well-being andvocational competence. Some philosophers like Rousseau,Pestalozzi,Froebel,Basedowandothercontemporariesweretheprimemoversof thisview. Itwas felt that theschool’spurposeshouldbebroadenedtoincludeallfacetsofhumandevelopment.Theydidnotaffirmthattheschoolsshouldnotdeveloptheintellectualpowersofpupils,buttheyassertedthatalltheactivitiesofhumanlifearetheconcernsoftheschool.

activity 4Analyzeanddiscussthefollowingviewsoneducationinyourgroups:

socrates: “Educationmeans the bringing out oftheideasofuniversalvaliditywhicharelatentinthemindofeveryman.”plato: “Educationisthecapacityto feelpleasureandpainat therightmoment. Itdevelops in thebodyandinthesoulofthepupilallthebeautyandalltheperfectionwhichheiscapableof.”aristotle: “Education is the creation of a soundmindinasoundbody.Itdevelopsman’sfaculty,especiallyhismindsothathemaybeabletoenjoythe contemplation of supreme truth, goodnessandbeautyofwhichperfecthappinessessentiallyconsistsof.”

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Basics in Education

activity 5Analyzeanddiscussthefollowingquotationsinyourgroups:rousseau: “Education of man commences at hisbirth;beforehecanspeak,beforehecanunderstandheisalreadyinstructed.Experienceistheforerunneroftheperfect.”spencer:“Educationiscompleteliving.”pestalozzi: “Education is natural, harmonious andprogressivedevelopmentofman’sinnatepowers.”froebel:“Educationisunfoldmentofwhatisalreadyenfoldedinthegerm.Itistheprocessthroughwhichthechildmakesinternalexternal.”

Progressivists’ Views

Theseviews,propagatedinthe17thand18thcenturies,grewsomewhatslowlyandtookabettershapeinthe20thcentury.Educationreformsappearedinmanyguisesintheopeningdecades of the twentieth century. Progressive educationcameintofocuswiththerenownedandreformphilosopherslikeJohnDewey,FrancisW.Parker,andWilliamWirtwhowere also known as progressivists. Progressive educationmovementwasinfluencedbythenewscientificoutlookandthe empirical discoveries whichwere at their peak duringthattime.ThinkerslikeJ.S.Mill,Spencer,JohnDeweyandhisfollowersreflectedontheconceptofeducation,influencedby thesocialandeconomicconditions,whichshifted fromtheindividualtogrouporcollectivefreedom.Itwasfeltthatman’snature issocial inoriginandhencetheeducationalactivitiesareofprimeimportanceinmakingmanofwhatheis. The educational institutionswere viewedas the agentswiththeresponsibilityfornotonlymakingthesocialnatureofthepupilsandalsoforthereconstructionofsocietyitself.Itwasalso implied thatwhat the child is, orwill become,dependsuponsociety.Educationisseenfromthenotionofindividual’s free choice. Extending further, itwas also feltthattheeducationgivenbyteacherswhounderstandgrowthanddevelopmentwillsomehowpredeterminethepersontomakechoiceswhichareinharmonywithnature.

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According to John Dewey (1916), “Education isreconstruction or reorganisation of experiencewhich addstothemeaningofexperienceandwhichincreasestheabilitytodirect the course of subsequent experiences.”This viewimpliesthatthechildalreadyhasacquiredsomeexperiencesfrom his/her interaction with the environment. Andeducationplays a role in reconstructing these experiencesin therequireddirection inorder toaddmeaning to thoseexperiences. Let us take an example from your childhoodexperiences.Trytorecallyourideaabouttheearthandtheothercelestialbodieswhenyouwereachild.Throughyoureveryday observations, youmust have felt that earth wasflat,andyouareontheflatsurfaceoftheearth,andthesun,moonandstarsmovearoundtheearth.Butafteryoujoinedtheschoolandwereexposedtotheknowledgethat‘theearthisround,notflat;itisnotthesun,moonandstarsthatgoroundtheearth,butitistheearththatgoesroundthesun’,withproperscientificexplanationbytheteacher,supportedby visuals, you must have changed your idea about theearth,itsmotionandyourplaceontheearth.ThisiswhatmeantbyJohnDeweyas‘reconstructionofexperience’thatresultsinknowledgewhichfurtherhelpsinunderstandingsubsequentknowledgethroughsubsequentexperiences.

activity 6Explain the following educational quotations givenbyJohnDewey.Howaretheyrelevanttothepresenteducational system? Support your responses withsuitable illustrationsdrawnfromschoolexperiencesandotherinformalcontextsoflearning. Educationisasocialprocess…. Educationisgrowth... Educationisnotpreparationforlife... Educationislifeitself.

Analytical Concept of EducationIn the 20th century, a group of educationists who wereinfluenced by the analytical and linguistic philosophyanalyzed the concept of education. Among them, it isnoteworthy to mention the philosophical and educationalthinkers like R.S. Peters, Flannery O’Connor, Paul HirstandAlfredNorthWhitehead.Accordingtothem,education

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Basics in Education

isnotasimpleunitaryconceptanditdoesnotrefertoanyoneparticularprocess.Forexample,itisnotaconceptlikegardeningwhichisaspecificactivity.It isliketheconcept‘reform’. For example, if you are asked the question, ‘howdo you reformapersonwhohas committedamistake, ora crime or disobeyed the rules?’, you may have differentresponses,likebypunishing,orbycounselling,orbymakingthepersontorepentandsoon.Fromthis,weunderstandthat,reformpicksouttonoparticularprocess.Peoplecanbe reformed by counselling, reading a religious book, bypreventivedetention,etc.Similarly,peoplecanbeeducatedbyreadingbooks,byexploringtheenvironment,bytravel,byhavingaconversationwithothersandintheclassroomaswell.Itencapsulatescriteriatowhichanyoneofafamilyofprocessesmustconfirm.AsproposedbyR.S.Peters(1956),thelogicallynecessaryconditionsfor‘education’are: thatitisconcernedwiththetransmissionofknowledge; whichisworthwhile,andinwhich; the transmission of knowledge is done in a morally appropriatemanner. Eachoftheseconditionsisconsiderednecessarytodefinewhateducationis.Theycouldnotbemerelycontingentand,therefore,notpresentinacorrectapplicationoftheconcept.Takenjointly,theyaresaidtobetheconceptofeducation. Education is also consideredasaprocess of initiation,likesaying,thatitisanactivityratherthanitisaconceptor idea.Youmusthavecomeacrosstheculturalpracticesincertaincommunitiesof initiating thechild into learningwhich is celebrated as a ceremony (Akshara Abhyasa). InancientIndia,theboyafteraparticularagewasinitiatedintoVedic learning,whichwascalledasUpanayana Sanskara.Thispracticeofupanayanaiscarriedoutevennowinsomecommunities.Even insomeof the tribal communities, themale child, at a particular age, is initiated into the familyoccupation,forexample,hunting,bythetriballeadersandfamily heads. Similarly, the above educational viewers,especiallyR.S.Peters,considerededucationasaprocessofinitiationintowhatisconsideredasworthwhileforthechildtolearn.Heextendshisideasfurther,sayingthateducationinvolves essentially certain processes which intentionallytransmit what is valuable in an intelligible and voluntarymannerandcreatesinthelearneradesiretoachieveit.

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Insum,fromvariousinterpretationsandviewsoneducationthathavebeendiscussedsofar,wecansaythateducationisacomplexconceptwhichdoesnotrefertoaparticularprocess.Ithasbeenviewedvariouslysuchasacquisitionofknowledge,transmissionofculture,drawingoutanddevelopingthebestpotentialsinanindividual,etc.Byeducatinganindividualweattempttodirecthim/hertowardsdevelopmentofsomedesirable knowledge, understanding, skills, interests,attitudesandcriticalthinking,etc.Througheducation,onedevelopsproperunderstandingaboutthenaturalandsocialphenomenaaroundandtendtoliveharmoniously.Educationalsohelpsonetodevelopcertainessentialskillslike,reading,writing,communicating,handlingobjects,decisionmaking,examiningandanalyzingthings,groupliving,etc. thatarerequired inone’sday-to-day lifesituations.Educationalsohelpsinvalueandmoraldevelopmentofindividuals.Ithelpsone to be committed to tasks, goals and positive desiresandpursuethemintrinsically.Educationreferstoessentialprocessesthatareworthwhiletobetransmittedandwhichhelpsinchangeofattitudesandvaluestowardsthedesirableones.Weshalllookintowhattheseessentialprocessesareinthefollowingsections.

activity 7Collecttheviewsofschoolteachers,ofpeoplebelongingtootherprofessionsandofsomecommunitymemberson ‘what education and educated person mean tothem?’Analysetheirviewswithreferencetowhatyouhaveunderstoodbyeducationinthissubsection.

learning Check 51. Compare the classical views with that of the

Liberalistsviewsoneducation.2. What is the role of educational institutions

accordingtoprogressivists?3. WhydoesJohnDeweyview‘educationasaprocess

ofreconstructionofexperiences’?4. WhyisEducationnotaunitaryconcept?5. ‘EducationisaprocessofInitiation.’Explain.

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Basics in Education

WhEThER EdUCaTIon IS naTURal oR SoCIal PRoCESS?EduCation as a natural proCEssInyourexperienceasastudentforsomanyyears,youmusthaverealisedthatalllearningdonottakeplaceinaformalsettinglikeaschooloracollegealone.Youmusthavelearntmany things by observingnature, andby interactingwithpeoplearoundyou.So,weallknow thatchildren learn toidentifymanythingsontheirownfromtheirsurroundings,thoughlatertheylearntoidentifythemwithanamesuppliedtothemwiththehelpofparents,oreldersorteachers. Education is considered to be a natural process, bysome educationists. In their view, education takes placespontaneously inhumanbeings through their experiencesinnature.Thisviewassumesthatanindividualdevelopsorgrowslikeaplanttobecomesomethingthatispresumedtobedesirable.Asabiologicalorganism,thehumansinteractwiththe environment and gain experiences. These experiencesleadtosomesortoflearning,which,inturn,resultsinthedevelopment of the individual. In other words, educationbecomes a life-long process and with every experience,the individuals gain an understanding of the self as wellas of the environment. According to this view, educationisnot onlypreparation for life, but it is synonymouswithlife. Thus, education is concernedwith imparting survivalskills; developing the child’s innate potentialities; makingthe individual fit for his/her environment; and socialisingthechild.MariaMontessori,agreateducationist,statedthateducationisnotwhattheteachergives,itisanaturalprocessspontaneouslycarriedoutbythehuman individualand isacquirednotbylisteningtowords,butbyexperiencingintheenvironment.Inthiscontext,thetaskoftheteacherbecomesthatofpreparingaseriesofactivitiesspreadoveraspeciallypreparedenvironmentand letchildren learn through theirobservations,interactions,andtaskscarriedout. The process of education which makes human beingssuccessful in their respective environment continuesthroughout life. Life involves a constant and continuousmodification of experiences. As a consequence, the ideas,

23


perceptions,skills,attitudesandvaluesundergoachange.Thishelpsthechildtoadjustandaccommodatetothefastchanging world. Educational adjustment of the child isfurtherconditionedbythenatureofdemandsofthesocietytowhichthechildshouldbeadaptedandattuned. According to Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, a greatphilosopher, “Education is natural, harmonious andprogressive development of man’s innate powers.” It isbelieved that education consists in the development fromwithinofpotentialitiesratherthan ‘moulding’externally. Itisalsoassertedthatcurriculumshouldarisefromtheneedsandinterestsofthechildratherthanfromthedemandsoftheteacher.Self-expressionisconsideredmoreimportantthanmasteringofthesubjectmatter.ManyoftheIndianandthewesternthinkerslikeRabindranathTagore,J.Krishnamurthi,Rousseau,FroebelandMontessoriconsideredtheeducationof the child in the natural environment where the childexploresandlearnsthroughhis/herexperiences.Thenaturalprocessofeducationconsistedinpreparingthemostnaturalandlife-supportingenvironmentsforthechildandobservingthechildlivingfreelyinthisenvironment. Thoughthisviewcanbeappreciated,weseethatitsuffersfrom certain limitations. It does not answer the questionslikewhataretheworthwhilethingsthattheindividualwouldlearnwhichtheycanapplytotheirlifesituationsandwhattheycanpassontoothers,andwhatarethecriteriabywhichwecansaythattheyhaveachievedtherequiredstandards.

There is no end to education. It is not that you read a book, pass an examination, and finish with education. The whole of life, from the moment you are born to the moment you die, is a process of learning.

—Krishnamurti

Education is a natural process carried out by the child and is not acquired by listening to words but by experiences in the environment.

—MariaMontessori

We have come to this world to accept it, not merely to know it. We may become powerful by knowledge, but we attain fullness by sympathy. From our very childhood habits are formed and knowledge is imparted in such a manner that our life is weaned

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Basics in Education

away from nature and our mind and the world are set in opposition from the beginning of our days. Thus the greatest of educations for which we came prepared is neglected, and we are made to lose our world to find a bagful of information instead. We rob the child of his earth to teach him geography, of language to teach him grammar. His hunger is for the Epic, but he is supplied with chronicles of facts and dates...Child-nature protests against such calamity with all its power of suffering, subdued at last into silence by punishment.

—RabindranathTagore

EduCation as a soCial proCEssWhile some educationists felt that education is a naturalprocess, which takes place in the interaction between theindividuals and the environment, there were others whofeltthateducationisasocialprocess,andoneoftheprimefunctionsoftheschoolistohelpinthesocialisationofthechild.Letusexaminehoweducation functionsasasocialprocess. Amongalllivingorganisms,youmusthavenoticedthatitisthehumanchildthatdependsontheparentsforrelativelya longer period for nourishment, shelter and for learningbasic skills. Thisprolonged childhoodalsohelps the childtopreparehimself/herselfbetterforadultlife.Duringthisperiod,thechildlearnsthenecessaryskillsforhersurvivalin this world. Since human life is not only the result ofbiologicalandphysiologicalfunctions,thechildhasalsotogettrainingintheintellectual,socialandculturalaspectsofexistence.Ithastolearnthenormsandvaluesofthegrouptobecomeanacceptedandeffectivememberof thegroup.Inotherwords,achildneedstobesocialised,acculturisedandprovidedwithknowledgeandskillsofsurvivaltogether.Homeisthefirstplacewherethechildreceivesthiseducationinaninformalway.Later,schoolplaysanimportantroleasaformalagencytoimparteducation.Itexertsgreaterinfluenceineducating thechild, inaddition toothersocialagencieslikehome,neighbourhood,community,religion,media,etc.Itiswellknownthathumanisasocialanimalandthisbeliefgivessupporttotheconceptofeducationasasocialisation

25


process.Thisisalsoderivedfromthephilosophythatchildneedstobeeducatedinadesirableway. The process of education thus takes place in socialsettings,andsocietyasawholeexercisesgreatcontroloverits process. Every society uses education as a means forpromotingitsowninterests.Whileeducationissubjectedtothecontrolofsociety,italsoinfluencessocietybycontributingtoitsgoals.Educationperformsathreefoldsocialfunctionbymaintaining,transmittingandcreatingsocialvalues,ideals,beliefsandculture.Forthispurpose,educationprovidesalearningplatform forchildren todevelopavarietyof skillsandotherdimensionssuchassocialinteraction,emotionalgrowth,physicalawareness,awarenessoflifearoundusandintellectual and emotional dispositions such as attitudesandvalues.Thevalues,ideals,goals,mores,traditionsandcultureofsocietyareinculcatedinachildthrougheducationinordertomakehim/heraneffectivememberofthesociety.Infact,alleducation,beginningwithfamily,hasthetaskofsocialisingchildrenandadolescents.Themodernconceptofeducationalsogivesimportancetosocialsettingsinwhichinteractionbetweentheteacherandthetaughttakesplace.Butitisnotenough,ifthereisjustaninteractionbetweenthe teacher and the children. There ought to be an activeinteraction among children, as they learn quite a lot fromeachothers’experiences. Tounderstandthatsocialisationofthechildisamajorsocial process of education, let us turn to John Dewey,accordingtowhomalleducationproceedsbytheparticipationoftheindividual inthesocialconsciousnessoftherace.Itmeansthatanysystemofeducationthatisdevoidofsocialenvironment is not education at all. You have learnt thateducation is initiating the child into worthwhile activitiesin the preceding sections. Socialisation is the process ofinitiatingan individual intonormsofagroupand intohisownroleor roles in it.Educationasasocialprocessdoesincludeinitiationintothenormsandrolesofthesocietyingeneral. Education is thusbothanaturalandasocialprocess,whereindevelopmentoftheuniquenessandindividualityofthechildisconsideredastheveryessenceofeducation,and

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Basics in Education

atthesametimeinitiatinghim/herintothesociety,forwhichschoolprepareshim/her.Theindividualismeanstoanend–theendofperpetuatingthesocialorderinthesocialisationprocessandtheindividualisanendbyhim/herselfintheeducativeprocess.

learning Check 61. Identify the role of school in the socialisation

processofthechild.2. What role should the school play to make

educationasanaturalandasasocialprocess?3. As a teacher, how would you contribute to the

educationofachildforsocialisation?

WhEThER EdUCaTIon IS InTEnTIonal oR UnInTEnTIonal?Mostofouractionsorworkthatwedoisdirectedtowardssomegoals.LetustakeanexampleofyoujoiningtheB.Ed/B.Sc.Ed/BA.Edcourse.Youmusthavejoinedwithanaimofbecomingateacher inschool.Someofyoumaybehavingan aim of pursuing your post graduate course and thenbecoming a teacher. Most of our actions or decisions aregearedbysomeintentionswhichmaybeeitheratconsciousorunconsciouslevel.Letusexamine,whatkindofaprocess‘education’is–whetherintentionalorunintentional. Education is an intentional activity which necessitatesachievementofsomegoalortheother.Forexample,whenamanhaslostsomething,hedoesn’tlookoutside,nordoeshe

activity 71. Giveillustrationstoshowhoweducationreceived

athomehelpsinthesocialisationprocessofthechild.

2. Haveyoucomeacrossaschoolwhereeducationis treatedasanaturalprocess? Ifso,prepareapapergivingalldetailsandshareyourexperienceswiththeentireclass.

27


producesomethingdifferentfromtheactivityheisengagedin. He tries to find out what he has lost. He achieves orattainstheendwhichisinternaltotheactivityinwhichheisengaged.Similarlyeducationisintentionalwhichinvolvescertain processes or tasks in which the individual getsengaged for considerable period of time. Thus, it becomesintentional,goaldirected,orvaluedirectedor‘normative’. Education has instrumental (‘knowledge for practicalends’)andintrinsicdimensions(‘knowledgeforitsownsake’).Forexample,teachingcarpentryisbothvaluableinitselfandvaluable as ameans of increasing production of furnitureorconstructionofhouses.Similarly,theinstrumentalvalueis something extrinsic to education, while the intrinsic isvaluable for itsownsake. Ifaperson isdoingaparticularcourse,inordertogetajobortoearnmoney,wecansaythatthepersonhasaninstrumentalvalue.Ontheotherhand,ifapersonisdoingacourse,justfortheloveofthesubjectorwantedtolearnmoreinthatfield,wecansaythatthepersonhasanintrinsicvalue.Adeliberateefforttoplaneducationalactivitiessuchascurriculum,textbooks,school,etc.inordertobringinsomechangesinthelearnerinadesireddirectionistheinstrumentaldimensionofeducation.Therecouldbecertainaimsofeducationthathaveanintentionofinitiatingeverymanandwomanintothekindofeducationalactivitieswhichmakethemtotakerightplaceinthesociety;developvocationalskills,sothattheybecomeselfreliantwhiletherecouldbesomeaimstodevelopathirstforknowledgeforitsownsakeandtodevelopaestheticsenseintheindividuals. Education suggests that, not only what develops insomeoneisvaluable,butalsothatitinvolvesthedevelopmentofknowledgeandunderstanding.Inlearningatschool,thepracticalends,besidestheintrinsicendsarealsoimportant,asthelearningsituationisoftengearedtoapproval,passingexams, and moving to the higher classes based on one’sperformanceandsoon.Thenon-instrumentalorknowledgeforitsownsakeinvolvesnoexteriormotiveorintentionorapurpose.Thepersoninlearningenjoysdoingso,justforthesheerjoyinvolvedinit.

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Basics in Education

activity 91. Identifythevariouseducationalactivitiesthatare

carried out in schools with a purpose. Analysethepurposeoftheeducationalactivitiesandtheirrelevanceineducatingchildren.

2. Is it possible to have education with intrinsicvaluesalone?Discussandpresentyourviewsintheclass.

3. Identify the activities of schools that are non-instrumental?

Thougheducationisintentional,itisnotasingleaimedactivity. It has multiple aims which are directed towardsthe individual and national development. The imperativecharacterofeducationforindividualgrowthanddevelopmenthasbeenuniversallyaccepted.Itencompassesteachingandlearningspecificskillsandsomethinglesstangiblebutmoreprofound,i.e.impartingofknowledge,soundjudgementandwisdom.Educationalsotakesuponitselftheresponsibilityfor striking a balance while developing these abilities, sothat a ‘harmonious personality’ becomes the outcome. Asanindividualinthesociety,onehastothinkcriticallyaboutvarious issues in lifeandtakedecisionsabout thembeingfreefrombiasandprejudices,superstitionsandblindbeliefs.Education intends through its processes, develops in anindividual the capacity for critical and analytical thinkingandchangeshis/herapproachtolife.Itaimsatawakeningcuriosity,stimulatecreativity,developappropriateinterests,buildessentialskills,attitudesandvalues,andthecapacitytothinkandjudgeindependently.Educationalsointendstodevelopcertainsecular,democraticandsocialvalues,therebyservingasthemeansofrealisationofnation’sgoalsandideals.

According to the Education Commission (1964-66), ‘education must serve as a powerful instrument of social, economic and cultural transformation, necessary for the realisation of national goals’.

WhaT doES EdUCaTIon ComPRISE of?With an understanding of the concept of education andits intentions, let us look into what education comprises

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of. According toR.S.Peters (1967), education comprises ofnormative and cognitive aspects. It comprises of certaincriteriabywhichwecanexplaintheeducativeprocess.

thE norMatiVE aspECt of ‘EduCation’Education develops appreciation for certain norms orstandards. For example, how do you judge a person goodinhousekeeping? Is itnotwhengoodhousekeepingmeetscertain standards, certain criteria to satisfy? Similarly,educationhascertainstandardsorcriteriatobefulfilled.Itconsistsofinitiatingothersinto(a)doingactivitiesthatare‘worthwhile’,and(b)modesofconductandthoughtswhichhavestandardswrittenintothembywhichitispossibletoact, think,and feelwithvaryingdegreesofskill, relevanceandaestheticsense.Educationhasnormativeimplicationsasitimpliesthatsomethingworthwhileisbeingintentionallytransmitted inamorally acceptablemanner.For example,canwesay thataperson ‘x’ is educated, yet therearenochangesinhiswaysofthinking,attitudes,andbehaviour?Itwouldbecontradictiontosaythis.Therefore,therearecertainnormsorstandardsbywhichwecallapersonaseducated.Italsoimpliesthatthepersonhasundergonesomeworthwhileactivitiesthatwecallaseducativeprocesses.Inthiscontext,whatbecomesimportantisthetaskachievementorprocessesthatareworthwhileandintentional,inwhichoneisengagedinamorallyacceptablemanner.Forexample,youknowverywellthateducationinvolvesteachingandinstructiontosomeextent,yetonemaynotbesurewhetherallteachingresultsineducation.Thoughitmayormaynotresultineducation,definitely,itisnotmorallyobjectionable.Butwhenapersonusesconditioningasamethodtoeducateanindividual,justlikethewaysanimalsareconditionedtocertainbehaviourby rigorous training, then it is morally objectionable. So,conditioningorindoctrinatingmightberuledoutastheonlyprocessofeducation. Fromtheabove,wemayinferthateducationalpracticesarethoseinwhichpeopletrytopassonwhatisworthwhileaswellasthoseinwhichtheyactuallysucceedindoingso.Successmaybeevidentbysomeofthecharacteristicssuchassenseofrelevance,precision,applicabilityofknowledge,powertoconcentrate,higherorderofthinkingabilities,andsoon.

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Basics in Education

thE CognitiVE aspECt of EduCationOther important requirements describe education as thefamilyoftasks.Theseare(a)knowledgeandunderstanding,and (b) the cognitive perspective. Let us examine thesecharacteristicsinordertounderstandwhateducationisinthetotalsense.

Knowledge and UnderstandingLetusgobacktoourearlierquestion‘Towhomdowecallasaneducatedperson?’Dowecallanindividualasaneducatedpersonjustbecausehehasmasteredskills inaparticulararea?Definitelywedonotcallapersonas ‘educated’whohasmasteredskills,eventhoughtheskillshehasmasteredmaybehighlyrecognisedinthesocietyorhighlyprized,likeengineering, dealingwithmachines, computers, etc. For aperson to be educated, he should alsohave somebody ofknowledgeandsomekindofconceptualunderstandingtorise above the level of a collectionofdisjointed facts. Thisimpliesunderstandingofprinciples for theorganisationoffactswhichenablesanindividualtoapplywhathehaslearnttohis/herlifesituations.Amerelyinformedpersonisnotthesame as a truly educatedman orwoman. For example, apersonmaybehavinganumberofmastersdegreesandlotsof information regardinghissubject,buthe/shemay lackcertain qualitiesneeded to describehim/her as ‘educated’man.Onemustalsoknowthe‘why’ofthings.Further,theknowledgeacquiredbytheindividualmustnotbe‘inert’.Itmeans that theknowledgeacquiredshouldnotbea ‘deadweight’oruselesswhichcannotbeapplied.Forexample,theknowledgeof scienceshouldnotstopat theacquisitionofscientificfactsandprocedures,butshouldenablethelearnerto look at the nature, earthly phenomena, the cause andeffectrelationships,thediscoveriesmade,thespeculationsofmanaboutlifeoccurrencesinthepast,understandingthepresentinlightofthediscoveriesmadeandlookintofuturepossibilitiesaboutlifeonearthandtheuniverseasawhole.The knowledge acquired should also enable one to havebetterattitudesandapproachesto life,ratherthangettinglost in unfounded beliefs, dogmas and irrational thinking.This differentiates between a merely ‘knowledgeable’ manandan‘educatedone’.Scientificthinkingdoesnotjustmean

31


knowing the evidence based on certain assumptions, butoneshouldalsoknowwhatcountsasevidenceandensuringthatitcanbeobserved.Educationalsoimpliesthekindof‘commitment’thatcomesfrombeing‘ontheinsideof’aformofthoughtandawareness.Itrequiresonetounderstandandtocarefortheinternalstandardsofthosethoughts, formsand awareness. Without such commitment, one gets lostinthe informationgathered inthenameofknowledgeandsuchpersoncannotbecalledasaneducatedperson,whoseknowledgeispurelyexternalandinertoruseless.

Cognitive PerspectiveAfurtherrequirementofeducationiswhathasbeentermedas‘cognitiveperspective’.Thismeansthateducationmustinvolveessentialprocessesofknowledgeandunderstandingandtheholisticviewofallaspectsofsituationsthatwouldenableonetoapplytheknowledgeandunderstandingratherthanbeinginert (deadweight, useless andworthless knowledge). Thecognitiveperspectiveislinkedwithunderstandingandthereisnoplaceforinertnesswhichisuselessorworthless.Forexample,wecanhaveknowledgewhichweunderstandandwecanmakeuseofsuchknowledgeinactuallifesituations.Onthecontrary,wecanhaveknowledgewhichwecannotuse it,becausewedonotunderstandit (inert).Ascientistmaybegoodinhis/hersubject,verythoroughwithscientificprinciples,andyetdoesnotseetheinterrelatednessinthefieldwith rest of the thingsaround, in thepatternsof lifein the universe.What he/she is lacking here is ‘cognitiveperspective’.Suchanindividualcannotbereallyconsideredas educated. Education cannot be tied down into specificcompartmentsandspecialisedskills,viz.scientist,teacher,doctor,engineer,andsoon.Educationisconcernedwiththedevelopmentofwholemanandnotjustapartofhim.

Criteria of educative process(i) Education implies transmission of what is

worthwhile to those who are committed to it.(ii) Education involves not only knowledge and

understanding, but also some sort of cognitive perspective which stresses on interrelating the knowledge with the world around.

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Basics in Education

(iii) Education must be carried out through procedures that uphold dignity and autonomy of persons and secure and utilise their willingness, purposiveness and capabilities.

(iv) Education is concerned with the development of the whole man, and each activity must contribute to it.

—R.S.Peters(1967,1971)

activity 101. Identifythequalitiesofan‘educated’person.What

Qualities do you expect an educated individualshouldhave?

2. Read the UNESCO report on ‘Learning to be’.Identifythepointsthatdescribethedimensionsofeducation.Discusstheirrelevancetothecriteriaofeducationmentionedabove.

3. Analyse the role of the school in satisfying thecriteriaofeducation.

EduCational proCEssEsYou have already seen that education does not refer to asingle process, but to a family of processes leading to theachievementofbeingeducated.Itis,therefore,necessarytoisolatethedifferentaspectsofbeingeducatedandconsiderwhicheducationalprocessesareofparticularrelevance.

TrainingTrainingreferstothedevelopmentofspecificskillswhicharetobeexercisedinrelationtoparticularendsorfunctionsinaccordancewith the rulespertaining to theactivity.Skillsofreading,writingandcomputationsaresomeofthebasicskills to bemasteredbefore formal education canproceedfurther.Askillcannotbelearntinstantaneouslybyjustseeingsomebodyperformingit.Itrequiresakindofdrillorconstantpractice,especiallyunder thesupervisionof the instructorortheteacherwhoisteachingtheskill.Theteacherwhoisteachingaskillalsoprovidesamodeloftheperformanceandcorrects it tobring it toperfection. In this case, very littleemphasisisgiventotheunderlyingrationaleforperforming

33


askill.Forexample,apersonwhowantstoplaymusiconan instrument cannot perform the skill unless he or shepracticesitconstantlyforalongperiod.Trainingalsocarrieswithitanapplicationoftheskillwhichiswiderthanmerelearningoftheskill.Forexample,whileundergoingphysicaltrainingcourse,apersonnotonlylearnstheskillsofdoingexercises, games and so on, but also learns good habitsof keeping him/herself fit, healthy, punctual, eating righttypeoffood,etc.Suchlearningcannottakeplacesimplybyimitatingsomeoneblindly. Training consists of a systematic series of activitiesinvolving instruction, practice, etc. to produce desirablehabitsorbehaviourinparticularaspectsoflifeorvocation,forexample,militarytraining,technicaltraining,computertraining,etc.Thustrainingaimsatdevelopingandpromotingspecific skills in a chosen area with a view to make theindividualundergoingtraininganexpertinthefieldortaskconcerned.Itisakindofcapacitybuildingofanindividualinaparticularskill.

activity 111. Whatdoestheterm‘training’meantoyou?2. Canwecallyourcoursewhereyouaretaughtto

becomea teacherasa trainingcourse?Discussyourmeaningoftraininginthegroups.Listdownthedifferenttypesoftrainingcoursesthatyouareawareof.

3. Discusshowtrainingisdifferentfromlearning.

learning Check 71. Which part of your course has a training

componentinit?2. Doestrainingresultineducation?3. Doeseducationofapersoninvolvetraining?

Instruction and Learning by ExperienceInstruction is a process which helps in the acquisition ofknowledge.Itisthemeansemployedtobringaboutdesirablechanges in learners. Instruction involves communicationof ideas, values, skills, information and knowledge to the

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Basics in Education

students. Instruction may also involve use of systematicand scientific methods of communication for effectivetransaction. Instruction aims at effective learning inindividualswithaviewtoeducatethem.Thus, instructionbecomes the instrument of educating individuals alongwith his/her educative experiences. In acquiring a bodyof knowledge, instruction serves as one of the means ofproviding experiences. This does notmean that a teacherhas to make children sit passively in the class and giveinstruction. By nature, children are very curious to knowthingsaroundthembydirectlyobservingorbyexploringontheirown.Theteachercanfacilitatetheirlearningcapacitiesby creating appropriate learning opportunities and be athandwhenchildrenaskquestions.Inthisway,therecanbenodangerof instructionbecomingateacher-centred.Mereexperiencealonewillnothelpthechildtodiscover.Toenablethechild todo that, therightsortofquestionshave tobeaskedattheappropriatetimeandhis/herexperiencehastobeguidedinaproperdirection.Itisthetaskoftheteachertohelpandguidechildrenintheirknowledgeexploration,anddevelopmentofskillsandvalues.

Understanding of PrinciplesAs you have already learnt in the preceding sections,understanding of principles does not depend uponaccumulationofisolatedbitsofinformationandknowledge.Rather,itrequiresreflectiononwhatonealreadyknowsandrelatingthemtootherfactsandconcepts,sothatunderlyingprinciples between the facts and the concepts could beknown.Itshouldbenotedthatunderstandingofprincipleshasnomeaningunlessonehasacquiredknowledgeoftheconcepts.Forinstance,therecouldbenoappealtoprinciple,unless there is an experiential or direct knowledge of theconcepts.Inourdailylifeinstances,wecomeacrossmanynaturalandphysicalphenomena.Whenwelookatthem,wedon’tmerelyobservebutacquireknowledgeaboutthem.Wedotrytoseerelationshipsamongdifferenteventsandalsotry to identify a common thread that runs across.We trytoidentifytheprinciplesthatgoverncertainoccurrencesinnature.Forexample,whenyouunderstandtheconceptofaplant,youalsotrytounderstandtheprinciplethatgoverns

35


thegrowthoftheplant–whytherootsofaplantalwaysgrowtowardstheground?Andwhydothe leavesandfruits falldown?andsoon.Inmorals,similarly,principlesareneededifonehastojustifythehumanconduct.Therefore,thegraspof principle is not just acquisition of knowledge, but goesbeyonditinstatingtherulesandtherelationships.

Logical and Critical ThinkingLogicalandcriticalthinkingisoneoftheeducationalprocessesinvolvingthepurposefulapplicationofcognitiveabilitiesinorder to attain more and higher cognitive structures andcapabilities.Developmentofsuchhighercognitiveprocessesin children is another important aspect of teaching. Theresponsibilityofa teacher is tocreate learningcontexts insuchawaythattheconceptsandmeaningsarediscoveredandat the same timea critical attitude towards themarealso developed.Creating appropriate learning environmentto develop logical thinking and critical thinking is a partof educative process. Further, mere passing on a body ofknowledgeorprincipleswithoutanysystematicattempttoexplainor justify themdoesnotconstitutetrueeducation;rather it leads to indoctrination. Indoctrination meansimposingtheprinciplesofaparticularschoolofthoughtsoastocreatefaithinthoseprinciplesinthemindsoflearners.Youmusthavecomeacrosscertaininstitutionsorschoolswhichimposetheirdogmaticbeliefsandidealsonchildrenwithoutlettingthemtoquestionorinquireintothem.Educationcannevertakeplaceinanindoctrinatedenvironment,wheretheindividualsaretreatedasmereobjects,butnotasthinkingminds. Learningandteachingistheprocessofeducation.Inthisprocess,theteacherandthelearnerinteractwitheachother,exchangethoughtsandideas,askandanswerquestions,etc.Incontrast,theindoctrinationdoesnotallowanyreasoningor development of critical mindedness. Developing criticalmindedness involves an attempt to explain and justifybeliefsandpractices,givinganopportunitytoquestionthefundamental assumptions onwhich the beliefs are based,lookingforevidencesforbelief,probingintopresuppositionsand thinking in a clear, coherent and rational way. Theimportance of critical thinking in a democratic society is

36

Basics in Education

necessaryforindividualstotakerightplaceinthesociety.Infact,thesuccessofdemocracyrestsontheindividuals’abilitytothinkcriticallyandnottobecarriedawaybypropaganda.Thusdevelopmentoflogicalandcriticalthinkingconstitutesanotherimportantaspectofeducationalprocess.

activity 121. Identify the extent to which skill development,

factuallearning,andscopefordevelopinglogicaland critical thinking are attempted throughcurricularareas.

2. What kind of educational processes would youadoptinthefollowingcontexts? • Students want to set up an experiment in

science. • Studentswanttopractisecomputerskills. • Students want to solve the mathematical

problems. • Studentswanttodevelopspeakingandreading

skillsinEnglish. • Students want to know why the objects fall

downwhendroppedfromheights. • Studentswanttoknowwhyshipsdonotsink

whereas the other heavier objects sink inwater.

doES EdUCaTIon oCCUR only In EdUCaTIonal InSTITUTIonS? Wheredoeseducationtakeplace? Ifyouaskthisquestionto yourself or to others, probably youmay get an answerfrommost of them, that it take place in the institutions.Educationdoesnotnecessarilytakeplaceonlyininstitutionslike schools, colleges and universities. Education is oftenbeingconfusedwithschooling,relyingonthepremisethattimespentinschoolisdirectlyrelatedtoeducation.Trytorecallallthatyouhavelearntduringyourschoolingdays.Itispossiblethatmostofushavelearntthingsevenoutsidetheschool. Inschools,wefind thatwhatonehas to learnispredeterminedwhichmayormaynotberelatedtoone’scontext.Theexperiencesgainedoutsidetheschoolhelp in

37


understanding the school content. Many times, we cameout with knowledge that is personally relevant and easilytransferabletonewsituations. Manypeoplehaveastrongbeliefthatsomehowspendingtimeinschoolwillmakeapersoneducated.This isoneofthebiggestmisnomersthatprevailsthroughoutoursociety.Certainly, there are many wonderful, authentic, relevantlearningexperiencesthattakeplace inschoolatall levels.Butthatisnottheonlysourceofeducation. Theprocessofeducationtakesplaceinallpersonalandsocial situations. Education in this sense would certainlyinclude all efforts for inculcation of values, attitudes andskills that the society desires to be imparted to children.In contrast to this broader notion, education occurring ininstitutionslikeschoolsandcollegesisanactofconsciouslyimparting values, knowledge and skills in accordancewith the requirements in a formal situation. Schools andcolleges also impart deliberate and systematic training inspecialisedsubjectareasthatmaynotbeotherwisegainedthroughtheinformalprocess.Initsessence,schoolingisalimitededucationalexerciseintermsofrangeofexperiencesprovided.Itisalsolimitedtoaspecificperiodofhumanlife,i.e.,fromchildhoodtilloneleavesschool,whiletheprocessof education continues throughout the life.We learnmostfrom our surroundings, from our friends and from otherpeople who share our interests. Besides school, there arenumberofinstitutionsinthesocietywhicharetheagenciesofeducation,suchasthefamily,thecommunity,thetemple,the church, etc. These institutions are also known asagenciesofeducation.Theprocessesofeducation intheseinstitutionsaredeliberatelyplannedwithacontinuousefforttogivecertaintypeofknowledge,skills,orattitudes. In the institutions like schools and universities, theknowledge is systematised and classified into subjects.Educationalactivitiesofaschoolareunderstoodintermsofthesubjectswhicharetaughtinit.Theschoolsasthesocialinstitutions, in fact, are establishedwith the presupposedobjectiveofimpartingknowledge,skillsandattitudestothefuturemembersofthesociety,asitisconsideredimportantforlivinginthesociety.InancientIndiawehadinstitutions

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Basics in Education

likeguru ashrama, guru kula, vihara, sangha, pathasala and vidhyapitha which played a prominent role in the processof socialisation and transmission of knowledge and richcultural heritage of India. In themedieval period, we hadmaktabs(schools)andmadarasas (colleges).ItisduringtheBritishrule,theconceptofschoolsystememergedinIndia. Educationalsotakesinformallyoutsidetheinstitutions.For example, we also learn through the library, thenewspapers,themagazines,themassmediaandinteractivecommunicationtechnology,interactionwithlearnedpeople,andothers,etc.Allthesesourcesentaillearning.Interactingwitha farmermight leadonetoacquireanunderstandingof what kinds of crops are grown every year in differentseasons;howmuchisinvestedbythefarmerforproductionof crops;howmuchdoesheprofit from theproduction ofcrops; the hurdles faced by the farmer inmarketing, etc.Thislearningtakesplaceinformallywithoutanystructuredways andmeans like curriculum, teacher or textbooks oran institution. Itopenswiderpossibilitiesof learning fromothers’ experiences and get connected to the questions,issuesandfeelingsthatareimportanttopeople.Incontrastto this, education that takes place in the institutions ismoreformalandstructured,thattendstotakeplaceinanorganised manner with lots of instructional planning andsupportwhicharedeliberatelyplanned. Itmustberememberedthatthereissomeknowledgewhichishistoricalandrootedincertainsocialtraditionsandhadbeenaccumulated fromgeneration togenerationonwhichthe community depends considerably for developmentalpurposes. The community depends upon the agency likeschoolsforthetransmissionofsuchknowledge,skills,andvalues to children which may not be possible otherwiseto learn everything through informal means. Besides,the school environment can also eliminate the unworthyfeatures of the existing environment from influencing thechildrenindevelopingunhealthyattitudesandvalues.Theschoolhasthedutyofomittingthingsliketheundesirablesocialissuessuchasdiscrimination,inequality,genderbias,communalism,etc. Itisnecessarytohaveacommoncoresubjectmatterandvalues to have a unity of outlook upon a broader horizon

39


thanbeingconfinedtoasmallgroupnormsandculture.Theschoolasaninstitutioncoordinatesthediverseinfluencesofthevarioussocial environments fromwhich the individualstudentscomefromandprovidesaneducativeenvironmentinwhichtheindividualsinteract,socialiseandlearnthosethat are ‘worthwhile’. Thiswould develop a common andbalancedoutlooktodiversities insociety,acriticalandananalyticalmindwhichappliesrationallywhatislearnttothelifesituations.

activity 13Read the National Curriculum Framework – 2005.Analyze the ideas related to ‘learning beyond theclassroomandtheschools’.

learning Check 81. Explain the roleofaschoolasan institution in

educatingstudents.2. Whataretheotherpossiblethingsthatthechild

learnsfromhis/herenvironmentbeforecomingtoschool?

lEt us suM upThewordeducationisderivedfromtwoLatinwords‘Educare’and‘Educere’.Thefirstonemeaning‘toraise’andto‘tobringup’,whilethesecondonemeansto‘toleadforth’or‘tocomeout.’Thenarrowmeaningofeducationisconfinedonlytoafewspecific,deliberate,plannedinfluencesthathaveabearingonthedevelopmentoftheindividual.However,educationismuchmorethanthis.Itisconsideredtobealifelongprocess,which includesall the events, experiences,knowledgeandwisdom that an individual acquires at different stages ofone’slifeformally,informallyandincidentally. EducationinancientIndiawasaimedattrainingofthemindasan instrumentofknowledgeand thedischargeofone’sdharma. The contemporary Indian thinkers linked itwiththehumanandsocietaldevelopment.Thewesternviewoneducationhasalsochangedovertimefromitbeingtheactivities of mind to reconstruction and reorganisation of

40

Basics in Education

experiences.Educationisbothanaturalandasocialprocess,whereindevelopmentoftheuniquenessandindividualityofthechildisconsideredastheveryessenceofeducation,andatthesametimeinitiatinghim/herintothesociety,forwhichschool prepares him. Education does not refer to a singleprocess,buttofamilyofprocessesleadingtotheachievementof being educated. Some of the processes are training,instruction and learning by experiences, understanding ofprinciples,andlogicalandcriticalthinking.

rEViEw QuEstions1. Compare the views of Indian thinkers with western

thinkers on the concept of education. How did theconceptofeducationundergochangesoveraperiodoftime?Explainwithjustification.

2. Analyse the following statement and give yourinterpretation.“Youdonoteducateamanbytellinghimwhathe knowsnot, but bymakinghimwhathewasnot.”–Ruskin.

3. Explain the concept of education as (i) initiation, (ii)worthwhileactivitywithexamples.

4. Whatarethecriteriaofeducation?Whicharethecriteriathatyouthinkaresatisfiedbyschooling?Explainwithexamples.

5. Discusstheconceptof‘educatedman’withreferencetotoday’seducationalcontext.

6. Whyeducationdoesnot refer toaparticularprocess?Justifyyouranswer.

7. Whichofthetwoisimportant–‘Educationasanaturalprocess’or‘Educationasasocialprocess’?

8. What kind of educational processes are important indeveloping an inquiring mind? Support your answerwithsuitableillustrations.

9. Does education take place through training andinstruction? Justify your response with suitableexamples.

10. Whydoeseducationcompriseofdevelopmentofcriticalattitude?Givereasons.

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11. Whatarethesourcesotherthanschools,throughwhicheducation takes place? Do those sources satisfy thecriteriaofeducativeprocess?

12. Explaintheroleofaninstitutionineducatingaperson.Whataretherequirementsofeducationthataresatisfiedinaninstitution?

rEfErEnCEs/furthEr rEadingsAurobindo. S. 1990. On Education. Aurobindo Ashram,

Pondicherry.dewey, J. 1916.Democracy and Education, TheMacmillan

Company,NewYork.Good, C.V. (Ed.)1973.Dictionary of Education(3rdedition).

McGrawHill,Michigan.KAbir, HumAyun. 1961. Indian Philosophy of Education,Asia

PublishingHouse,Bombay.KriplAni, K. 1980. Rabindranath Tagore: A Biography,

Viswabharathi,Shantiniketan.KrisHnAmurtHi, J.1994.Education and the Significance of Life.

KrishnamurthiFoundation,India.mAni, r.s. 1996.Educational Ideas and Ideals of Gandhi and

Tagore (A Comparative Study).NewBookSocietyofIndia,NewDelhi.

National Council of Educational Research and Training.2005. National Curriculum Framework, NCERT, NewDelhi.

peters, r.s. 1967. The Concept of Education. Rutledge &KeganPaulLtd.GreatBritain.

peters, r.s. 1971.Ethics and Education.GeorgeAllenandUnwin,London.

rAymont, t. 1906. The Principles of Education. Longmans,Green,andCompany,London.

sriVAstAVA,G.2003.Compiler.Reflections of Eminent Indian Thinkers about Women - A Monograph. NCERT (DWS),NewDelhi.

tHApAn, m. 2006. Life at School: An Ethnographic Study.OxfordUniversityPress,NewDelhi.

UNESCO.1996.TheTreasurewithinLearning.

Chapter 2

Goals of Education

STRUCTURE• Introduction• Objectives• BasesofEducationalGoals

– SocialDesiresandAspirations– VisionaboutanEducatedPerson

• NatureofEducationalGoals– Universality– CountrySpecificity– Responsiveness to Changing Socio-economic

Realities• GoalsofEducationinIndia

– SocietalAspirations– QualitiesofanEducatedPerson– DocumentsinIndia– Educational Goals in the Emerging Indian

Society• FunctionsofEducationalGoalsLet Us Sum UpReview QuestionsReferences

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Goals of Education

InTRodUCTIonIn Chapter 1, you studied the meaning and nature ofeducation; how and in what situations it occurs. It wasmentioned that education is a pre-planned as well as anincidentalprocesswhichtakesplaceinsocialsettings.Itisahumanenterpriseorganisedbyasociety for itssurvival,stabilityorperpetuation,and induecourseof time italsobecomes an agent of transformation of the society. Likeany other pre-planned and deliberate human enterprise,educationalsohaspre-specifiedgoalswhichmakeitfocussedandgoal-oriented. Inthischapter,youwillstudythesourcesandnatureofeducationalgoals.Thegoalsarederivedfromtheuniversalgoalsofthehumankind,nationalgoalsandlifegoalsoftheindividuals. The educational goals are universal as wellas culture-specific and are modified from time to time inaccordance with the changing desires and aspirations ofthesociety.Youwillalsostudy in thischapter thedesiresandaspirationsofthecontemporaryIndiansocietyandourvisionabouttheattributesofeducatedIndians.Youwillalsocome to knowabout the views of various commissions oneducation in the independent Indiaabout the goalswhichthecountry’seducationsystemendeavours toachieve.Weshallalsotakenoteofthewaysinwhicheducationalgoalsaffect various educational processes such as curriculumcontent, curriculum transaction, evaluation, educationalmanagement,andsoon.

objECTIvESAftergoingthroughthischapter,youwouldbeableto:1. Explainthebasesofeducationalgoals.2. Describemajorcharacteristicsofeducationalgoals.3. Analysethebasisofeducationalgoalsinthepresentday

Indiansociety.4. Examine the rationaleof educationalgoalsarticulated

in the reports of various Commissions and policydocuments.

5. Describe how educational goals influence the contentandprocessofeducation.

6. FormulatedesirablegoalsofeducationinIndiafortheseconddecadeofthe21stcentury.

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Basics in Education

baSES of EdUCaTIonal GoalSThe educational goals are drawn from different sources.Theseare:(a)Desiresandaspirationsofthesociety,and(b)Visionaboutaneducatedindividual.Thissectiondiscussesthesetwogoalsinsomedetail.

Social DESirES anD aSpirationS Thehumansocietyoperatesatdifferentlevels,suchasglobal,national and provincial or sub-national. The aspirationsof the society cannot be the same at all levels because ofvariationsinneeds,challengesandopportunities.Global AspirationsThe aspirations of the global society are reflected in thecharters of theUnitedNations, and its specialised organslike UNESCO (United Nations Educational Scientific andCultural Organisation), international laws and treaties,declarations and resolutions adopted by the GeneralAssembly of the United Nations, and the report of theInternationalCommissionsonEducation.Asperitscharter,theUnitedNationswasestablishedtomaintaininternationalpeaceandsecurity.Tothisend,ittakeseffectivecollectivemeasuresforthepreservationandremovalofthreatstothepeace,andforthesuppressionofactsofaggressionorotherbreachesofthepeace.Italsoaimsatachievinginternationalcooperationinsolvingproblemsofeconomic,social,culturalorhumanitariancharacterandinpromotingandencouragingrespectforhumanrightsandforfundamentalfreedomsforallwithoutdistinctionastorace,sex,language,orreligion.The human rights elaborated in theUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,adoptedbytheGeneralAssemblyof theUnited Nations on 10December 1948, provide a commonstandard of ‘achievement for all people andall nations’. Itemphasisesthatallhumanbeingsarebornfreeandequalindignityandrights;everyonehas theright to life, libertyandsecurity;nooneshallbeheldinslaveryandsubjectedto torture or inhuman treatment; all are equal before thelaw and are entitled without any discrimination to equalprotectionofthelaw,andeveryoneisentitledtoalltherightsandfreedomswithoutdistinctionofanykind,suchasrace,colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion,nationalorsocialorigin,property,birthorotherstatus.The

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Goals of Education

ConventionontheEliminationofallFormsofDiscriminationagainst Women adopted by the General Assembly of theUnitedNations in1979condemneddiscriminationagainstwomeninallitsformsandemphasisedtheneedtoembodytheprincipleoftheequalityofmenandwomenintheirnationalconstitutionsandtoadoptappropriatelegislativeandothermeasuresprohibitingalldiscriminationagainstwomen.TheconventionontheRightsoftheChildadoptedbytheGeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNationsin1989re-emphasisedthatthechild,byreasonofhisphysicalandmentalimmaturity,needsspecialsafeguardsandcareincludingappropriatelegalprotection,beforeandafterbirth.Itfurtheremphasisesthateverychildshallhave the right to freedomof the thought,conscienceandreligionandthedisabledchildshallhavetherighttospecialcareonaccountofhis/herspecialneeds.Itenjoinsonthenationalgovernmentstotakeallappropriatelegislative,administrative,socialandeducationalmeasuresto protect the child from all forms of physical or mentalviolence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment,and maltreatment or exploitation including sexual abuse.B.Lindqvist,UNRapporteur,in1994,observed:“All children and young people of the world, with theirindividual strengths and weaknesses, with their hopesand expectations, have the right to education. It is notoureducationsystem thathavea right tocertain typesofchildren. Therefore, it is school system of a country thatmustbeadjustedtomeettheneedsofallchildren.” Besidesadoptingdeclarationsandconventionsonhumanrights and freedoms, theUnitedNationshas also adopteda number of declarations and accords on environmentalpollutionandprotection,globalwarming,energyconservation,reduction in carbon emissions, sustainable development,conservationofnatural resources,etc.Theseeffortsof theinternationalcommunityhaveemphasisedtheresponsibilityofthepresentgenerationtoleavebehindtheresourcesandkindofearthworthlivingforthefuturegenerations. Emphasisingtheroleofeducation,theUNESCOcharterstates that since the wars begin in the minds of humanbeings, thedefencesofpeaceshallhave tobeconstructedinmindsonly. Thisprofound statementbrings to the forethepotentialofeducationtoguideandfacilitatethedesired

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Basics in Education

change in theperceptionsandattitudesofhumanbeings.Therefore,thepotentialofeducationneedstobeexploitedtopromotepeaceandinculcaterespectforhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedoms. In nutshell, the global society aspires for the establishment of:

• World order free from injustice, exploitation anddiscrimination;

• World order based onuniversal respect for humanrightsandfreedoms;

• Peacefulworldcommittedtotheresolutionofconflictsthroughpeacefulmeans;and

• Worldcommunityconsciousofitsresponsibilityandobligationtowardsthefuturegenerations.

activity 1Visit a library, pick up documents related to variousorganisationsoftheUnitedNations.Listdowntheirrolesandfunctions.

National SocietiesBeingpartoftheglobalsociety,mostofthenations,toalargeextent, share their aspirations with global societies, withmodificationsinaccordancewiththeirhistoricalandculturaltraditionsandcurrentdevelopmentalstatus.Theaspirationsofanationalsocietyarereflectedinitsconstitution,lawsandpolicypronouncements.Anunder-developedsocietyaspirestoimproveitspositiononvariousdevelopmentalindicatorsandadevelopingsocietymayaspiretostrengthenitscloutandprestige in the comityofnations.A liberaldemocracymay strive to develop democratic values, openness andliberal attitudes, while a totalitarian and authoritativesociety may expect citizens to conform to the establishednorms. A secular society expects its citizens to developsecularvaluesandrationaloutlook.Amultilingual,multi-religious andmulticultural societymay aspire to promotenational and emotional integration, and develop feelingsof togetherness and respect for diversity. It is well knownthatmanysocietiesintheworlddonotallowwomenequalopportunitiesfordevelopment,whileliberaldemocraciesdonotallowanytypeofdiscriminationonthebasisofgender.Atheocraticstategivespreferentialtreatmenttothecitizens

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following a particular religion.Anational society generallyexperiencestensionbetweenitsurgetogetintegratedwiththeworldsocietyandtopreserveitsseparatenationalandculturalidentityandpromoteitsworldview.Theaspirationsof the contemporary Indian societyarediscussed indetailelsewhereinthischapter.

Sub-national SocietiesA number of nations in the world having federal set uparedivided intogeographicalregionswithconcentrationofpeoplebelonging toaparticularethnicor linguisticgroup.InIndia,eachstateconstitutesadistinctsocio-culturalunit.EachunitnotonlysharesaspirationsofthebiggerIndiaaswellasglobalsocietybuthasquiteafewitsownaspirationswhich inform the formulation of state-specific educationalgoals.Forexample, eachunitmaynourishadesire togetintegrated with the national stream and make a mark indifferentspheresofhumanactivitylikescience,technology,industry, sports, education, etc. At the same time, itmayhaveanurgetopreserveitsseparateculturalidentityalongwith itscustomsand traditionsandpromote its language,wayoflifeandartforms. Thus,whileformulatingeducationalgoals,asocietyneedstotakeintoaccountsocialaspirationsatallthethreelevels,namely,global,nationalandsub-national.Ithastostrikeabalanceiftheaspirationsatdifferentlevelsareatvariancefromeachother,andsetlongtermandshorttermpriorities.

activity 2Howmany States and Union Territories does Indiaconsistof?Listdowndiversitiesexistingbetweenthem.Thinkaboutthe implicationsthesediversitiesmighthave for the educational goals of people inhabitingthoseStates.

ViSion about an EDucatED pErSonInourconversationsweoftendifferentiatebetweenaneducatedandanuneducatedperson.Weexpectaneducatedpersontopossesscertaincharacteristicswhichanuneducatedpersonnormallydoesnotpossess.Butallthehumanbeingsdonothavethesamevisionaboutaneducatedpersonasitdepends

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on their educational, social and professional background.Likewise,thevisionofdifferentsocietiesaboutaneducatedpersondependson theirnatureaswellason their social,political and economic goals. A secular society expects aneducatedpersontobeliberalinoutlook,ademocraticsocietyexpectsaneducatedpersontobetoleranttowardsconflictingviewpoints, anda socialist societyperceives the educatedperson as the one who possesses scientific and rationaloutlook and cooperative attitude. In a religious society, apersonwhobelievesintheexistenceofasupremepowerandperceivesthehumanbeingsasareflectionofthesupremeisconsideredaneducatedperson. You know that a person is called upon to performdifferentrolesindifferentsituations.Insomesituations,he/she behaves as a learner; in the work place, he/she actsas aworker; and in social situations he/she functions asacitizen.Aboveall,his/herover-arching roleasahumanbeing permeates in all other functions. As a learner, aneducated person demonstrates his/her inclination to seektruththroughacquisitionandconstructionofknowledge.Asaworker,he/sheobserveshigherstandardsofworkethicsandstrivestoimprovethequalityofhis/herworkthroughapplication of theoretical knowledge related to the field.Asa citizen, an educatedperson values the constitutionalprinciples and always gives precedence to the unity andprogress of the nation vis-à-vis his/her personal interestsorthoseofthecommunity.Asahumanbeing,aneducatedpersonrisesabovethenarrowconsiderationsofcaste,creed,regionornationality. Realising the importance of self knowledge, the DelorsCommission(1996)recommendedthatitshouldbeintegralpartofeducationcurriculumatalllevels.Weallknowthathumanbeingsknowmuchaboutnaturalphenomena,socialphenomena,theachievementsandfailingsofotherhumanbeings,societiesandnations,buthaveverylittleknowledgeoftheirownself.Aneducatedpersonnotonlyunderstandshis/herownstrengthsandweaknessesbuthasthecapacitytoexaminehis/herbeliefs,values,attitudesandprejudices.He/shehasthecapabilitytofurtherstrengthenhispositivethinkingandattitudesandcapacity to evolve strategies togetridofnegativefeelingsandattitudes.

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activity 3Listyourvisionofaneducatedperson.Discussitwithfriendsandteachers.Notethecommonalitiesanddifferences.

In this section, you have learnt that educational goalsarederivedfromtheaspirationsoftheglobal,nationalandsub-nationalsociety.Themaintenanceofpeace,resolutionofconflictsthroughpeacefulmeansandinculcationofrespectforhuman rightsand fundamental freedomsare themostobvious aspirations of the global society. Besides sharingthe aspirations of the global society, a national or a sub-nationalsocietyaspirestomakeamarkattheinternationalandnationallevels,respectively.Theaspirationsofanationarereflectedinitsconstitutionandpolicystatementsadoptedfrom time to time. The educational goals across societiesdifferbecauseofvariations in theiraspirations.Thevisionofaneducatedpersonisanothersourcefortheformulationofeducationalgoals.Thevisionofaneducatedpersoninasocietydependsonitsnatureaswellasonitssocial,politicalandeconomicgoals.Asa learner,aneducatedpersonnotonlyacquiresknowledgethroughdifferentsources,butalsoconstructsknowledgeonthebasisofhispersonalexperiencesandobservations.Asacitizen,hehasfaithinthesocialandpoliticalidealsofthesociety.Besidespossessingknowledgeofself,aneducatedpersonalsohastheabilitytoanalysehisownstrengths,weaknesses,beliefs,attitudes,prejudices,etc.

learning check 11. Which documents/sources you shall consult to

formulategoalsofeducationforyourcountry?2. Mention two goals which should be adopted by

educationalsystemsofallcountries.3. Whatisyourvisionofaneffectivelearner?

naTURE of EdUCaTIonal GoalSAs discussed in the previous section, educational goalsare derived from the vision of a society about its futureanspirations, and about the qualities and values of aneducatedperson.Thisimpliesthateducationalgoalsbelong

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totwobroadcategories,namely,socialgoalsandindividualgoals.Someofthegoalsinthetwocategorieshaveuniversalcharacter,thatis,thesegoalsarecommonacrossculturesandnations.Ontheotherhand,theremaybecertaingoalswhich are specific to a country or group of countries. Inthis section, an attempt has beenmade to examine someimportantfeaturesofeducationalgoals.

uniVErSality Youmight have read or heard that education aims at the‘all round development’ of the child’s personality. Someeducationistsholdtheviewthatoneofthegoalsofeducationshouldbetoenableapersontorealisehis/herpotential.Thatis,throughtheinstrumentalityofeducation,achildshouldbeequippedtobecomewhatsheiscapableofbecoming.Youwillrealisethatthisstatementhasauniversalappealand,therefore,isequallyrelevantforalmostallcountriesoftheworld. The UNESCO’s Commission on Education in the 21stCentury,headedbyJacquesDelor,initsreportLearning the Treasure Within (1996),identifiedthefollowingfourpillarsoflearningwhichoughttobethebasisfortheorganisationofeducationinanypartoftheworld.1. Learningtoknow2. Learningtodo3. Learningtolivetogether4. LearningtobeLetusexaminethesegoalsinsomedetails.

Learning to KnowAstudenthastocontinuouslystriveto‘know’thingsbyadoptingavarietyofmethodssuchasreading,listening,questioning,discussion, exploration, observation, experimentation, etc.However,itisnotenoughforapersontoobtaininformationabout certain things or to know certain facts. He mustdeveloptheabilitytoexaminetheobtainedfactsandpiecesof information to arrive at conclusions leading to learningofconceptsandprinciples.Inotherwords,alearnershouldbe enabled to learn ‘how to learn’ andnotonly toacquireknowledgeonherownbutalsotoconstructknowledgeonthe

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basisofherownobservations,experimentationandanalysisofavailabledata.

Learning to DoIn addition to acquisition of knowledge and reflection onconcepts and principles, a person in today’s world has topick a large number ofwork skills for day-to-day life andalsoforspecialisedworksituations.Itisforthisveryreasonthat some sort of work education or work experience isincludedintheschoolcurriculaallovertheworld.However,thisdoesnotmeanthatlearnerscanlearnworkskillsonlyin work education classes. Instead ‘work’ has to bemadeintegral toall learningareas in theschool.Moreover,withtheadvancementofexistingtechnologiesandemergenceofnewtechnologies,learnershavetocontinuouslyrenewandupgradetheirskills.Aboveall,thelearnersneedtodeveloptheattitudethatallworkisdignified.Learning to Live TogetherInthepresentday’sworld,therearetensionsandconflictsatalllevelsbetweenindividuals,betweenethnicgroups,betweenracial groups, between religious groups, and between thenationstates.Inmanyfamilies,differentmemberssometimesfinditdifficulttogetalongwithoneanother.Withinanationstate,therearesometimestensionsamongvariouslinguistic,religious, regional or ethnic groups because of conflictinginterestsandaspirations.Also,manycountriesintheworldhavestrainedrelationswithothercountries,especiallywiththeir neighbours. In view of the abovementioned realitiesofthepresentdayworld,individuals,groupsofpeopleandnations must learn to live with others in harmony whichis possible if they are not only tolerant towards others’viewpoints,butalsoshowgenuinerespectforthem.

Learning to BeEvery individual is born with potential for certainmental abilities. During the process of growing up, shegets opportunities to realise her potential through theinstrumentalityofformalandinformaleducation.Shealsodevelopsherownviewpoints,beliefsandvaluesystemsonthe basis of critical analysis of her own observations andexperiencesandknowledgeofsocialaspirations.Inaddition,

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shehastolearntoactualisehispotentialindifferentspheres,that is, shehas to persistently strive to becomewhat sheis capable of becoming. A student must learn to acquireknowledgeaboutherown‘self’,thatis,sheshoulddevelopthe ability to identify her strengths and weaknesses andto develop a viewpoint on various social andmoral issuesandaccordinglydevelopprinciplesgoverningherconductindifferentsituations. The fourpillarsof learningdiscussedaboveare in factindividualgoalsofeducation,whichareuniversalinnature.Theeducationsysteminallthecountrieshastobeguidedbythesegoalsofindividualdevelopmentandstudentsallovertheworldmustacquirethem.

learning check 21. Whyareuniversalgoalsofeducationneeded?2. Whatwillhappeniftherearenouniversalgoals?3. Giveexamplesoffourpillarsoflearning.

country SpEcificity Inadditiontouniversalgoals,eachcountryalsoformulatesitsowneducationalgoalsintunewithitsculture,polityandeconomy.Astheworldisfastbecomingaglobalvillage,thecountries aim to produce citizenswhonot onlyhave faithinsocialistideologybutalsopractisesocialistvaluesinlife.Likewise,youmusthavenoticedthat,inrecentyears,thereisfastdevelopmentinthesocieties,fastmeansoftransportandcommunication,andlargescalemigrationofpeoplefromonecountrytoanother.Asaresultofsuchmigration,countrieslikeUnitedKingdom(UK),Australia,USA,Canadaandmanyothershaveadopted‘multiculturalism’asagoalofeducationto promote respect and harmony among different culturalgroups.AcountrylikeIndia,withmultiplediversitiesbasedon religion, language, ethnicity, etc., emphasises ‘nationaland emotional integration’, or development of nationalunityandspirit of togethernessas the goals of education.A democratic country like India emphasises developmentof democratic values like tolerance, accommodation andrespectfordivergentviewpoints.Insuchasociety,thevisionofeducatedpersonisthatofatruedemocrat.Ontheotherhand,countiesatdifferentstagesofindustrialdevelopment,

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formulate their educational goals in accordance withtheir needs of industrial growth in future. ‘Acceleration ofmodernisation’isgenerallyacceptedasgoalofeducationinsocietieswhicharerelativelybackwardonvariousindicatorsofmodernity.

rESponSiVEnESS to chanGinG Socio-Economic rEalitiESTheeducationalgoalsineverysocietyperiodicallyundergoachangeintunewithchangingsocialrealitiesandaspirations.WhilepleadingfortheintroductionofEnglisheducationinIndia,LordMacaulayhadstatedthathisaimwastoprovidesuch education to Indians which will equip them to runthe government offices in the country. During the entireBritish period, educating Indians to become loyal citizensto the British Empire remained the goal. However, afterindependence,nationaldevelopmentbasedontheprinciplesof democracy and secularismwas accepted as the goal. Anumber of countries during the past few decades haveaccepted ‘multiculturalism’as thegoalafter theyacceptedmigrantsfromdifferentcountries.TheeducationalgoalsinthepresentdayRussianFederationcannotbethesameasithadasapartofUSSR.Astheworldinthe21stcenturyshallbe different from theworld of the 20th century in severalways,itwillhavedifferenteducationalgoalstoo.Recognisingtheneedforhavingdifferenteducationalgoalsandstrategiesinthe21stcentury,theUNESCOappointedaCommission.ThefourpillarsoflearningidentifiedbytheCommissiononEducationin21stCenturyhavebeendiscussedabove.

Excerpts of T. B. Macaulay’s Minutes on Indian Education, dated the 2nd February 1835.

...I have no knowledge of either Sanskrit or Arabic. But I have done what I could to form a correct estimate of their value. I have read translations of the most celebrated Arabic and Sanskrit works. I have conversed, both here and at home, with men distinguished by their proficiency in the Eastern tongues. I am quite ready to take the oriental learning at the valuation of the orientalists themselves. I have never found one among them who could deny that a single shelf of a good European library was worth

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the whole native literature of India and Arabia. The intrinsic superiority of the Western literature is indeed fully admitted by those members of the committee who support the oriental plan of education.…But there is yet another argument which seems even more untenable. It is said that the Sanskrit and the Arabic are the languages in which the sacred books of a hundred millions of people are written, and that they are on that account entitled to peculiar encouragement. Assuredly it is the duty of the British Government in India to be not only tolerant but neutral on all religious questions. But to encourage the study of a literature, admitted to be of small intrinsic value, only because that literature inculcated the most serious errors on the most important subjects, is a course hardly reconcilable with reason, with morality, or even with that very neutrality which ought, as we all agree, to be sacredly preserved. It is confined that a language is barren of useful knowledge. We are to teach it because it is fruitful of monstrous superstitions. We are to teach false history, false astronomy, false medicine, because we find them in company with a false religion. We abstain, and I trust shall always abstain, from giving any public encouragement to those who are engaged in the work of converting the natives to Christianity. And while we act thus, can we reasonably or decently bribe men, out of the revenues of the State, to waste their youth in learning how they are to purify themselves after touching an ass or what texts of the Vedas they are to repeat to expiate the crime of killing a goat?…In one point I fully agree with the gentlemen to whose general views I am opposed. I feel with them that it is impossible for us, with our limited means, to attempt to educate the body of the people. We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern – a class of persons Indian in blood and colour, but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect. To that class we may leave it to refine the vernacular dialects of the country, to enrich those dialects with terms of science borrowed from the Western nomenclature, and to render them by

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degrees fit vehicles for conveying knowledge to the great mass of the population. (italics added)Downloaded from h t t p : / / w w w . c o l u m b i a . e d u / i t c / m e a l a c /pritchett/00generallinks/macaulay/txt_minute_education_1835.htmlon 14th April, 2013.

Inthissectionwehavediscussedthateducationalgoalsareuniversalaswell as country specific.The two typesofgoalshavetobecomplementarytoeachotherinanysociety.Whiletheuniversalgoalsarecommonforallthecountries,the country-specific goals are different for each country.Aboveall,theeducationalgoalsarenotstaticasthesehavetochangefromtimetotime.

learning check 31. Whyisitnecessarytosupplementuniversalgoals

ofeducationbycountry-specificgoals?2. Whatwillbetheconsequencesiftheeducational

goals are not re-formulated in accordance withthechangingsocialrealities?

3. Comparethevisionsaboutaneducatedpersoninademocraticandatotalitariansociety.

GoalS of EdUCaTIon In IndIaIn the previous sections, you have studied that goals ofeducation inasocietyarebasedon itspresentand futureaspirations,ontheonehand,anditsvisionaboutaneducatedperson,ontheother.Someofthegoalsareuniversalwhileothersarecountry-specificbuttheyhavetobeperiodicallyreviewed in the light of changing realities and aspirationsofthesociety.ThissectiondescribesIndia’sthinkingaboutthegoalswhichhaveguidedhereducationalsysteminthepast and the goals which should guide reconstruction ofthe system in the future. But before discussing the goalsof education, it seems appropriate to briefly reflect on theaspirations of the Indian society and its vision about aneducatedperson.

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SociEtal aSpirationSThevisionandidealoftheIndianpeopleareemphasisedinthePreambletoourConstitution: WE,THEPEOPLEOF INDIAhavingsolemnlyresolved

to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALISTSECULARDEMOCRATICREPUBLICandtosecuretoallitscitizens:

JUSTICE,social,economicandpolitical; LIBERTYofthought,expression,belief,faithandworship; EQUALITYofstatusandofopportunity; andtopromoteamongthemall FRATERNITYassuringthedignityoftheindividualand

theunityandintegrityoftheNation; IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth

day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACTANDGIVETOOURSELVESTHISCONSTITUTION.

The resolve of the founding fathers of our constitutionmandatesadoptionoftheprinciplesofsocialism,secularismand democracy as the bases of all aspects of nationalendeavourincludingeducation.Thevaluesofjustice,liberty,equality and fraternitymust be the guiding forces for theorganisationofvarioussocial,politicalandeconomicsystemsincludingeducation.TheunityandintegrityoftheNationhastobetheoverridinggoalofeducationasitisthepre-requisitetoachievebreakthroughinanyotheraspectofnationallife. The visionof the founding fathershasbeen elaboratedandinterpretedatregularintervalsthroughalargenumberof policy resolutions, statements and legislations. In the21stCentury,thecountryhasavisiontodevelopaspoliticalandeconomicsuperpower,ontheonehand,andtoensureinclusive and balanced development across regions andcommunities in the country, on the other. In the field ofeducation, the country aspires to achieve excellence with

activity 4Inviteteachersandstudentstoparticipateinaseminaron the topic “Preamble to Indian Constitution”.RequesteachoneofthemtopickonebasicprincipleoftheConstitutionandaddressthegatheringonthesame,withparticularfocusoneducation.

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equality,thatis,tostriveforproducinghumanresourceofexceptionalcalibrewhileensuringequalityinopportunitiesforallcitizensofthecountry.

QualitiES of an EDucatED pErSon InancientIndia,aneducatedpersonwasexpectedtofollowfourfundamentalgoalsofhumanlife;Dharma(righteousnessormoral-ethicalvalue),Artha(economicpursuit),Kama (worldlypleasures) andMoksha (deliverance). It was recommendedthatthehumanbeingsmayacquireworldlypossessionsandpursueworldlypleasuresduring lifebut itshouldbedonefollowingthepathofdharma.However,thesupremegoalofhuman life is to strive forMoksha, that is, liberation fromtheshacklesof limitlessdesiresandevils likeKama (lust),Krodha (anger), Mada (intoxication), Lobha (greed), andMoha(attachment).Educationwasperceivedasameansofliberationordeliverance (sa vidya vimuktya –education isthe one that liberates), and therefore, an educatedpersonwasonewhohadrisenabovealltypesofbondagesofdesiresandnegativefeelingsemanatingfromthem. TherelevanceofthevisionaboutaneducatedpersonbasedonthefundamentalgoalsofhumanlifehasnotdiminishedinthecontemporaryIndiansocietyand,therefore,ithastobeincorporatedinitsvisionofaneducatedperson. The qualities of an educated person required in thecontemporary time, as construed from the Constitutionalgoals and values, reports of Commissions on education,policyresolutions,etc,havebeensummarisedbelow:• Being a true democrat, he/she practises democratic

values in all aspects of life, specially appreciates andaccommodatesdivergentviewpoints;

• Believesinsecularismand,therefore,possessesuniformfeelingsforallreligions(sarva dharma sambhav);

• Beingavotaryofsocialjustice,he/shesupportspromotionofdisadvantagedsectionsofthesociety;

• Takesprideinhis/herIndianidentityand,therefore,isnotswayedbydivisiveforcesbasedonreligion,language,caste,region,etc.;

• Being a rationalist, he/she engages with personal andsocialproblemswithscientificbentofmind;

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• Being a seeker of knowledge, he/she also contributesinthegenerationofnewknowledgeonthebasisofhis/her own observations, experimentation and analysis ofexistingsituations;and

• Observes instinctively fundamental duties of citizensenunciated inArticle51of theConstitutionof India inletterandspirit.

activity 5According to you, what should be the qualities ofan educated person? Give the particular behaviourassociatedwithaqualityinacontext.

DocumEntS in inDiaIntheearliersection,wehavediscussedtheaspirationsofthe contemporary Indian society and also its vision of aneducatedperson.Thediscussionmayappeartobesufficientfortheformulationofeducationalgoalsforthe21stcentury.However,beforeattemptingthis, itwouldbeworthwhiletobriefly reflect on the goals of education enunciated in thereportsofvariousCommissionsoneducationandimportantpolicystatements.

The University Education Commission (1948-49)The Commission, set up immediately after independenceunder the chairmanship of Dr Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan,deliberatedontheaimsofuniversityeducationinthecontextofnewpoliticalchangesinthecountryandexpectationsfromthe universities as organs of civilisation. The Commissionvisualised education as ameans of building new India byundertakingthefollowingsteps. (i) Strengthening Democracy: The Commission

emphasisedthateducationshouldaimatthedevelopmentofbody,mindandspiritofeachindividual.Therefore,each individual in a democratic society needs to berecognisedasavaluableassetandshouldbeenabledtodevelophis/herpotentialitiesinalldimensionsandgetadjustedtothesociety.

(ii) promotion of Social Justice: Promotion of socialjusticeisanimportantpre-requisiteforthesuccessofademocracy.Intheabsenceofequitabledevelopmentof

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allsectionsofthesocietyitwillbedifficulttostrengthendemocratictraditionsinthecountry.

(iii) Valuing liberty: The autonomy of each individualneeds to be respected and protected. The individualsmustlearntoprotecttheirownlibertyinthoughtandexpressions but at the same time should be ready toallowfreedomtoothers.

(iv) promoting Equality:Inordertoensuredemocraticwayoflife,itisessentialtoprovideequalityofopportunitiestoallindividualsforwhicheconomicbarriersshallhavetobedismantledbyprovidingassistance tobackwardcommunities.

(v) promoting fraternity—national: In order to build astrongnew India, it is imperative topromote fraternalbonds between different segments of the society andbetweendifferentregionsofthecountry.Itneedstotheemphasisedthat,inspiteofdiversities,thereisculturalunityinthecountry.

(vi) india’s cultural heritage and past history: TheIndian culture has continuously evolved since theperiod of Indus civilisation and is still evolving. As aresult of interactions among several cultural streams,acompositeIndianculturehasevolvedinthecountry.Thereisneedtostudythepasthistoryofthecountry.

(vii)promoting fraternity—international: There is aneed to strike a balance between world mindednessand national sentiments. By broadening the spirit ofpatriotism, we need to move towards the concept ofpositivepeaceandworldcitizenship.

Theabovediscussiononaimsofeducationmakesitclearthatwecannotpreserverealfreedomunlesswepreservethevaluesofdemocracy, justice, liberty,equalityandfreedom.

learning check 31. Whatismeantbydevelopmentofbody,mind,and

spirit?2. WhatpositiondidtheChairmanoftheUniversity

EducationCommissionfinallyoccupiedinIndia?3. What is the difference between promoting

fraternityatthenationalandinternationallevels?

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Our educational system must find its guiding principlesintheaimsofsocialorderforwhichitpreparesandinthenatureofthecivilisationithopestobuild.

Secondary Education Commission (1952–53)

The Secondary Education Commission, withDr A. Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar in chair, emphasisedtheneedforformulatingtheaimsofeducationwithspecialreference to the needs and ideals of our country. TheCommissionidentifiedthefollowingaseducationalneedsofdemocraticIndia. (i) Developing Democratic citizenship: Democracy is

basedonfaithinthedignityandworthofeverysingleindividualandhumanbeing.Buteveryindividualmustacquiremanysidedartoflivinginthecommunityandqualitieslikediscipline,cooperation,socialsensitivenessandtolerance.

(ii) Improving Vocational Efficiency: Improvement invocationalefficiencyofindividualsisnecessarytoraisethe productivity of the individuals and of the countryasawhole.Thereisaneedtointroducevocationalandtechnicalcoursesineducationalinstitutionstoimprovethevocationalefficiencyofindividuals.

(iii) Development of personality: In order to release thesources of creative energy in the students, courses inarts,crafts,music,drama,etc.mustbeintroduced.

(iv) Education for leadership: Since the Commissionspecificallydealtwithsecondaryeducation,itemphasisedthatsecondaryeducation,initsideologyandapproach,shouldgrowfromtheeducationthatisbeinggivenatthemasslevelandshouldconsequentlybecloselyintegratedwithbasiceducation.Thesecondaryeducationshouldaim at developing leadership at intermediate level aseveryone cannot join higher education, Secondaryschoolsshouldtrainpersonswhowillbeabletoassumetheresponsibilityofleadershipintheirownsmallgroupsofcommunityorlocality.

It is evident that the Commission has attempted tostrike a balance between aims of individual and socialdevelopment.TheneedsofademocraticIndiaaresoughttobemetbydevelopingpersonalityofindividualsandraisingtheirvocationalefficiency.

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Education Commission (1964–66)TheReportoftheEducationCommission(1964-66),underthechairmanshipofDrD.S.Kothari,wastitledas‘Education and National Development’. The title of the report isindicativeoftheCommission’sthinkingaboutthepotentialof education. The Commission perceived education as thegreatenterpriseofnationalreconstructionwhoseprincipalobjectivewastoraisethestandardoflivingofpeoplewhichnecessitatesdevelopmentofhumanresources.Thecountryneeds educational revolution which necessarily meansrelatingeducationtolifeneedsandaspirationsofthepeople,whichcertainlyshallgoalongwayinmakingitapowerfulinstrumentofsocial,culturalandeconomictransformationnecessary for the realisation of our national goals. TheCommissionsuggestedthatinordertorealisethenationalgoals,thefollowingshouldbethegoalsofeducation: (i) Enhancing productivity: Education must aim at

enhancingthelevelofproductivityofindividuallearnersindiversefieldsandtherebyenhancingtheproductivityof theentirenation. Science,mathematicsandworkexperiencesascompulsoryareasofschoolcurriculumandadvancedlevelresearchinscienceandtechnologyaresomeofthemeanstoraisethelevelofproductivityof the manpower. However, enhancing productivitydoesnotmeanincreasingproduction.Instead,itmeansraisingthelevelofefficiencyandworkoutputofworkersinanyfieldofhumanactivity.

(ii) promoting Social and national integration: In viewofthestrainsandtensionsamongdiversecommunitiesandregions,theCommissionfeltthattherewasurgentneedtopromotesocialandnational integration inthecountry. The development of ‘national consciousness’,nodoubt,isthepre-requisitefornationaldevelopment.

(iii) accelerating modernisation: Education must begeared to accelerate the pace ofmodernisation in thecountry, which is an indicator of social and nationalprogress.Theadvancementsinscienceandtechnology,development of infrastructure and increasing use oftechnology in different aspects of life are importantmanifestations of modernisation. But more importantisthemodernisationofattitudesandperceptions, i.e.,developingscientificandliberalattitudes.

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(iv) character formulation based on Social, moral and Spiritual Values: Nationaldevelopmentdoesnotmeanonly development of infrastructure and advancementsinscienceandtechnology.Italsomeanspreparationofcitizens of strong character possessing and practisingsocial,moralandspiritualvalues.Theyneed tostrikebalance between secularism and religion, on the onehand, and between science and spirituality, on theother, and adopting open mindedness, tolerance andobjectivityasguidingprinciplesoflife.

learning check 4Find out the similarities and differences inthe recommendations of Secondary EducationCommissionandEducationCommission.

National Commission on Teachers (1983-85)The National Commission on Teachers (1983-85), alsoknown as Chattopadhyaya Commission, enunciated fournationalgoalsinitsreporttitled ‘The Teacher and Society’.TheCommissionfurtherrecognisededucationtobethemostimportantinstrumentfortheattainmentofthesegoals.Thegoalsaredescribedbelow. (i) a united Secular india: During the tenure of the

Commission,thecountrywitnessedstrongstressesandtensionsinthenameofcasteandreligion.Themixingofpoliticswithreligionandcastehadfurthercomplicatedthesituation.TheCommissionnotedwithgreatconcernthat ‘Indians’hadbecomethesmallestminorityinthecountry,whilepeopleowingallegiancetocaste,religion,languageorregion-basedgroupswere inmajorityandrelished their separate identity at the cost of theiridentityas‘Indian’.Inviewofthestrongdivisiveforces,theCommissionconcludedthatthemosturgentneedofthehourwastodevelopanationalspiritandanationalidentity.

(ii) a modern nation: Modernisation does not merelymeandevelopmentofworldclassinfrastructureandtheincreasinguseof latest technologies.TheCommissionopinedthatitessentiallymeansgivingprimacytoreason,an openness and flexibility ofmind, and an ability to

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fashion life andenvironment, andnot to surrender tounknownforces.Thescientifictemperandspiritmustpermeatethelifeofallourpeople.Sciencehasindeedrevolutionisedallaspectsofhumanlife.Ithasdiscoverednew areas of knowledge, and, therefore, the emergingsocietywillneedhighlyskilledandqualifiedmanpowerin the new areas of knowledge. The modernising ofIndiaispossibleonlyifsuchmanpowerisavailableforwhichtheeducationsystemshallrequireexpansionanddiversification.

(iii) a productive people: In order to accelerate the paceof modernisation, the country needs hard workingand disciplined people, who ought to be conscious ofquality in their work. They shall have to develop andobserve work ethics in their respective spheres ofactivity.Througheducation,weshallhavetoraisetheproductivityofourpeoplebyundertakingprogrammesofskillupgradationalongwithinculcationofvaluesofhardworkanddiscipline.

(iv) a humane and caring Society: Today’s world is,by and large, governed by the principle of ‘survival ofthe fittest’. The richer and powerful individuals andnations endeavour to utilise maximum resources fortheir personal ends leaving very little for themajorityofweakerindividualsandnations.However,therehasbeenastrongcurrentofempathyandfellowfeelinginmany civilisations.OurConstitutionhasalsoa visionofrenderingsocial,politicalandeconomicjusticetoallcitizensofthecountry.Thepolicyofreservationinjobsand educational institutions for the weaker sectionsofthesocietyisasteptowardstheestablishmentofacaring society. However, the constitutional provisionsneed to be reinforced by refining the sensitivities ofpeoplethroughthemechanismofeducation.

National Policy on Education (NPE-1986)As per the NPE-1986, the following ideas constitute theessenceandroleofeducation: (i) Educationisfundamentaltoourall-rounddevelopment

–materialandspiritual.(ii) Education has an acculturating role. It refines

sensitivitiesandperceptionsthatcontributetonational

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cohesion,ascientifictemperandindependenceofmindand spirit – thus furthering the goals of socialism,secularismanddemocracy.

(iii) Education develops manpower for different levels ofeconomy.Itisalsothesubstrateonwhichresearchanddevelopment flourish, being the ultimate guarantee ofnationalselfreliance.

(iv) Educationisauniqueinvestmentinthepresentandthefuture.

The above mentioned statements in the NPE-1986,emphasisethefollowingasgoalsofeducation:

• All round development of learners – both physicalandspiritual.

• Furthering the goals of socialism, secularism anddemocracybyattemptingmodificationinthemindsetandvaluesystemsofindividuals.

• Attainingnationalself-reliancebydevelopingskilledmanpowerfordifferentlevelsofeconomy.

Insum,theNPE-1986reiteratesthatfortheattainmentofnationalgoals,thetotaldevelopmentoflearners,andthattoointheappropriatedirection,mustbeensured.

National Curriculum Framework–2005The Position Paper of National Focus Group on ‘Aims ofEducation’madeanattempttoseekanswertothequestion.‘Whatoughttobetheaimsofeducation’?ThefollowingaretheaimsofeducationasperNCF–2005. (i) Theschoolmusthelpthecreationofvitallinksbetween

children’s experiencesathomeand in the communityandwhattheschooloffersthem.

(ii) Selfknowledgeshouldbe theaimofeducation,whichcan be achieved through continuous process of selfdiscovery,oflearningthetruthaboutoneself.

(iii) The child or the adolescent must be convinced ofthe superiority of a life of virtues to a life of vice andwickedness. The virtues must incorporate morality,comprising truth and love, or ahimsa. Truth meansfreedomfromselfdeception.

(iv) Education should aim at promotion of respect forculturaldiversity in thecountry, that is,achildmustlearntorespectanddojusticetotheculturesofothercommunities.

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Goals of Education

(v) Individual differences are as important as culturaldifferences. Education must, therefore, promote andnourishaswidearangeofcapacitiesandskillsinourchildrenaspossible.

(vi) Sinceknowledgeisnotaunitaryconceptandtherearedifferentkindsofknowledgeaswellasdifferentwaysofknowing, educationmust giveasmuch importance toliteraryandartisticcreativityas toseekingknowledgethroughlaboratoryexperimentsordeductivereasoning.

(vii)Educationmustbeseenasaliberatingprocess,thatis,asameanstoliberatechildrenfromtheshacklesofallkindsofexploitationandinjustice(e.g.poverty,genderdiscrimination,casteandcommunalbias).

(viii)Educationshouldtakeplaceinanenvironmentthatisaestheticallypleasingandstudentsshouldtakeanactivepartincreatingsuchanenvironmentforthemselves.

(ix) Educationmustenableeverychildtobeproudofhis/hernation,forwhichitmustfosterwithinthechildanintimacy with people who are directly connected withachievementswhicharepartofournationalheritage.

TheeducationalaimsmentionedabovewereusedasaninputforthedevelopmentofNCF–2005.Itisevidentthattheaimsgiveprimacytotheaimsofindividualdevelopment.Thesocialornationalgoalsaresoughttobeapproachedthroughthedevelopmentofappropriatequalitiesinchildren.

EDucational GoalS in thE EmErGinG inDian SociEtyThe aspirations of the contemporary Indian society, thevisionaboutaneducatedpersonandthesurveyofgoalsofeducationarticulatedinthereportsofvariouscommissionsofeducation,mayformthebasisfortheformulationofgoalsfortheemergingIndiansociety.Thefollowingcanbesetastheparametersfortheformulationofgoals.• Thereisaneedtostrikeabalancebetweenthedevelopment

ofanindividualandofthesociety.• Indiaaspires to join the leagueofdevelopednationsat

theearliest• A developed country is in a position to ensure higher

standard of life for her citizens because of availabilityofhighclassinfrastructure,healthcareandeducationalfacilities.

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• In order to realise her dream of becoming developedcountry,Indiashallhavetomoveaheadonthepathofinclusivedevelopment encompassingall sectionsof thesocietyandallregionsofthecountry.

• The gigantic task of national development is possiblethrough scientific and technological advancements andeconomicprosperitywhichareinturnpossiblethroughdevelopmentofhighlyskilledmanpower.

• The qualified and skilled manpower is not enough fortransforming the society into a modern, caring andhumanesociety.Thisshallrequirecitizenswithmodern,liberal and scientific outlook and with strong sense ofnationalidentityandspiritoftogetherness.

We have discussed above six parameters for theformulationofeducationalgoals.Youcanthinkofafewmoreparametersormodifyorelaboratefurthersomeofthem.Inthelightofmodifiedlistofparameters,itshouldbepossibleforyoutoformulategoalsofeducationintheemergingIndiansociety.

activity 61. Critically examine the parameters suggested

above.Prepareamodifiedlistafterdiscussionintheclass.

2. Dividetheclassintotwogroups.Thegroupsmayprepare separate lists of individual and socialgoals of education respectively fordiscussion intheplenary.

3. Organiseadiscussionontherelativeimportanceofindividualandsocialgoalsofeducation.

learning check 51. What suggestions were given by Kothari

Commission for the modernisation of Indiansociety?

2. WhydidChattopadhyaCommissionemphasisedtheneedforacaringandhumanesocietyinIndia?

3. AsperNPE-1986,what is sought tobe realisedthroughacculturatingroleofeducation?

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fUnCTIonS of EdUCaTIonal GoalSIn the present section you will engage yourselves withquestionslike‘Whyshouldweformulategoalsofeducation?’and‘Howdogoalsimpactdifferentprocessesofeducation?’Thewell-articulatededucationalgoalsarethemajorsourcefromwhichobjectivesofdifferentstagesordifferentsectorsofeducationarederived.Likewise,theobjectivesofdifferentcurricularareasarealsoinfluencedbytheeducationalgoals.Theeducationalgoalof‘skilledandqualifiedmanpower’shallleadto‘expansionanddiversificationoftechnicaleducation’,as an objective of higher and technical education. The‘modernisationof society’, asa goal shallmeanpromotionof science and technology and ‘development of scientifictemperament’asobjectivesofcurriculum.Theeducationalgoals also impact educational programmes, curricularprovisions and curriculum transaction methodologies.‘Enhancing productivity’ as a goal shall necessitateintroduction of ‘work education’ and ‘vocational courses’in schools, colleges and technical education institutions.It shall alsonecessitatedevelopmentofproperworkethosandapproachingalltypesofworkasdignified.‘Nationalandsocial integration’,asagoal,shallnecessitate ‘inclusionofthestudyofdifferentculturesandlifeandpeopleofdifferentstates’,inthecurriculum. Theaboveexamplesindicatethattheeducationalgoals,evolved on the basis of consensus, set the parameters forsetting the curricular objectives, content of curriculum,evaluation procedures, educational schemes, financialtargets,etc.Theclarityaboutthetargetstobeachievedleaveslittlescopeforanydoubtorconfusionabouttheprogrammesorschemestobelaunchedorinterventionstobemade.Thewell articulated goals serve as the lighthousewhichmakesit easier for the wandering ships to move forward in therightdirectiontoreachtheirdestination.Theusefulnessanddesirability ofany educational intervention is determinedagainstthecriteriaofeducationalgoals. In short, the educational goals are the targets whichare sought to be achieved through the implementation ofa variety of educational programmes and schemes. Thecurricula and teaching-learning materials should be such

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ashave thepotential torealise thegoalsof individualandsocialdevelopment.Theeducationalgoalsthusserveasthebasisfordelineatingobjectivesofdifferentlevels(elementary,secondary, collegiate) and sectors (technical, vocational,professional). The educational goals also provide directionto the task of educational planners and administrators,curriculum development institutions, examining bodiesand teachers. In theabsenceofproperlyarticulatedgoals,adhochismmayprevailintheworkoftheabovementionedpersonsandinstitutions.

activity 7Divideyourselvesintofivegroups.Eachgroupmaybeaskedtoselectoneofthefollowinggoals:1. StrengtheningDemocracy2. ModernisingSociety3. PromotingNationalUnity4. LearningtoLiveTogether5. NurturingIndividualTalents Each group shall be required to work outimplicationsof theselectedgoal forthecontentandprocess of education and present its report in theclassfordiscussion.

learning check 61. Whyisitnecessarytolaydowngoalsofeducation?2. Whatroledogoalsplayindeterminingthesuitability

ofeducationalschemesandprogrammes?3. Howshallabsenceofwell-articulatedgoalsimpact

theworkofcurriculumdevelopmentinstitutions?

lEt uS Sum up

In this chapter we have engaged with a few questionsconcerninggoalsofeducation,suchaswhatformsthebasesfortheformulationofeducationalgoals,whatisthenatureof educational goals, what goals of education have beenidentified by various commissions and policy frame-works

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Goals of Education

in thecontemporary Indiansocietyandwhatgoalsshouldbeformulatedastheguidingprinciplesfortheorganisationof the educational system in the 21st century. We havediscussedthattheeducationalgoalsatanypointoftimeareformulatedonthebasisofthecurrentandfutureaspirationsof the society and its vision about an educated person.The aspirations of the Indian society are reflected in thePreambleoftheIndianConstitutionwhichvisualiseIndiaasasecularanddemocraticrepubliccommittedtothevaluesof justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. Thepresent dayIndiansocietyalsoaspirestoensurebetterstandardoflivingtoitscitizensbyjoiningthegroupofdevelopednations.Aneducatedpersoninourperceptionisonewhohasscientifictemperamentandliberaloutlook,andiscapableoforiginalthinkingandgenerationofnewknowledgeon thebasisofhis/herownobservations,experimentationandreflection. Theeducationalgoalsarecharacterisedbyuniversalityaswellascountryspecificity.Thegoalsconcerningpersonalitydevelopmentof individualsmaybeuniversal innaturebutsuchgoalshave tobesupplementedby thegoalsofsocialdevelopment which cannot be the same across countries.Thegoalsformulatedataparticularpointoftimeshallhaveto be revised periodically in view of the changing needs,realitiesandprioritiesofasociety.Thesurveyofeducationalgoalsarticulated in the reportsof variouscommissionsoneducation, presented in this chapter has also confirmedtheviewthateducationalgoalshavetoberesponsivetothechangingneedsandconcernsofthesociety.Inthebeginningof the 21st century we aspire to strengthen democracybasedonsecularandliberaltraditionsandensureinclusivedevelopmentencompassingallsectionsofthesocietyandallregionsofthecountry.Wealsoaspiretobeatechnologicallyadvanced and a knowledge driven country and strongeconomicpowerforwhichtheeducationsystemshallhavetoberestructured.

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Basics in Education

rEViEW QuEStionS1. ‘Learning to live together’, is one of the fourpillars of

educationemphasisedbytheDelorsCommission.Howis it related to development of social and emotionalintegrationasanationalgoalinIndia?

2. WhatpromotedtheEducationCommission(1964-66)toemphasise‘Modernisation’and‘Productivity’asnationaldevelopmentgoals?

3. Iseducationameanstorealisesocialgoalsoris itanendinitself?Giveargumentsinfavourofeitherofthetwoviewpoints.

4. Howshallyoujustifyaccepting‘Selfknowledge’asoneoftheeducationalgoalsandalsoasanareaofcurriculumatallstagesofeducation?

5. How far is Indiaa ‘CaringandHumaneSociety’?Howshallyoujustifyitsacceptanceasanationalgoal?

rEfErEncES/ furthEr rEaDinGSMinistry of Education, Goi. 1949. Report of the University

Education Commission(1948-49),NewDelhi.——. 1953.Report of the Secondary Education Commission

(1952-53),NewDelhi.——. 1966.Report of the Education Commission (1964-66),

NewDelhi.——. 1984.Report of the National Commission on Teachers

(1983-84),NewDelhi.MHrd, Goi. 1986. National Policy on Education, New

Delhi.NCERT.2005.National Curriculum Framework–Report of the

Focus Group on Aims of Education,NewDelhiUNESCO.1996.Learning the treasure within; Report of the

UNESCO Commission on Education in the 21st Century,Paris.

Processes and Modes of Education

STRUCTURE• Introduction• Objectives• EducationasanActivityoraProcess

– EducationasanActivity– EducationasaProcess

• ProcessesofEducation• ModesofEducation

– InformalEducation– FormalEducation

- Face-to-FaceMode - DistanceEducationMode

– Non-FormalEducation• InclusivenessofSchoolEducation• NeedofSchoolingforallChildrenLet Us Sum UpReview QuestionsReferences

Chapter 3

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InTRodUCTIonInthepreviouschaptersyouhavereadaboutthemeaning,scopeandgoalsofeducation.Youknowthattheeducationisaproductofsocialaspirations,nationalprioritiesandthefuturistic perspectives of the individuals and the society.It has to keep pace with the national and internationaldevelopmentsaswell.Itisnotarestrictedactivityoraone-time affair with rigid nature or water tight boundaries. Itis not a transitional activity which could be conducted atrandom.Rather,someaspectsofeducationaretransmittedacrossgenerationsintheformofknowledgeorskills.Inthischapterwewilldiscusswhethereducationisanactivityorthe process and how the transmission of education takesplacefromonegenerationtothenext.Thischapterwillalsohelpyoutounderstandwhatarethedifferentprocessesofeducationandinwhatmannerthiswholeprocessiscarriedoutandwhyisschoolingessential?Thischapterwillhelpusinunderstandingdifferentprocessesandmodesofeducation.

objECTIvESAftergoingthroughthechapter,youwouldbeableto:1. distinguish between the education as an activity or a

process;2. explaintheprocessesofeducation;3. differentiatebetweendifferentmodesofeducation;and4. analysethelinkagebetweenschoolingandtheoutside

experiences.

Education as an activity or a ProcEssWhenwegetupinthemorning,wedoanumberofthingssuchasexercise,meditation,planningouractivitiesfortheday.Whilegettingchildrenreadyforschool,parentsdotalkabout their culture and traditions and indirectly advocatesomevalues.Theparentssendtheirwardtoschoolforgettinggoodqualityeducation.Intheforegoingdiscussionyoumightgetanimpressionthattherearecertainactivitieswhichareconsciously or unconsciously performed by the individualevery day. Thus, an activity may be the task performedby an individual in a conscious or unconscious manner.Similaristhecasewitheducation.Educationbeginsathome

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Processes and Modes of education

withparents tellingchildrenabout traditions, values, etc.,through festivals, stories or ceremonies. Also, the societyandtheschoolimparteducationforsocialisationofchildrenthroughalotofactivities. To a commonperson, education is regarded as awell-thought activity that is consciously imparted by variousinstitutionsincludingfamily,society,schools,etc.Theschoolsplayimportantroleinimpartingeducationwhereteaching-learningcomprisesofdifferentdisciplinesorsubjects,eachhaving a set of actions/tasks divided into different levels.When youask aperson the question relatedhis/her levelofeducation,itgenerallyreferstotheassumptionthatthepersonwouldbeinapositiontoperformcertainmentaltasksappropriate to his/her level of education. The performingofmental tasks is an activity.But is educationmerely anactivity? Does education consist of the same or differentactivities?Inthefirstunityouhavestudiedthateducationisreferredtobysomepeopleaslifelonglearning.Itshowsthateducation isnotmerelyanactivitybut ismore than that.Lifelonglearningcannotbeactivityaloneratheritindicatesabouttheprocess.Thequestionarisesiswhethereducationisanactivityortheprocess?Youalsoknowthateducationhasbeenconceptualisedbysomephilosophersasdrawingout the best out of the individual. Some others refer to itasacquisitionofknowledge,skillsandattitudes.Somesaythat education isnothingbut training of people’smind inaparticulardirection tobringaboutdesiredchanges.Twodefinitionsfocusontheactivity. Indoinganyactivityyouthink,act,evaluate,reformulateandlearn.Theactionsinvolvedinperformingtheactivityaredoneinasequentialmannerandanorderisfollowed.Therecouldbemorethanoneactivity.Thesequenceofactionsindoingoneormoreconnectedactivitiesisknownasprocess. Aprocessisthemannerorthewayinwhichanactivitytakesplaceoranactivityisconceptualisedordone.Educationisregardedasasocialisationprocess.Learningcannotbeanactivityalone.Developmentofpersonalitythrougheducationmayinvolveaprocessofsocialinteraction.Educationisanongoingprocessbywhichthechildlearnswaysandnormsofthesociety.Itisaprocessbywhichanindividuallearnsthe values, attitudes, norms and other attributes of one’s

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culture.Educationisacomplexandlongprocessofacquiringatleastafewqualities.Itmay,however,bedifficulttodrawadistinctionbetweentheactivityandtheprocess.Ifyouaskastatesman,anartisan,ateacher,aparent,aphilosopherand a student aboutwhat educationmeans to them, youwouldbesurprisedtoknowthemultipleinterpretationsandviewspeoplehaveabouteducation.Alargemajorityoftheseviewsfallinthemiddle.Nowletustrytounderstandthesetwoissuesseparately.

Education as an activityWheneducation is consciously imparted througha formalprocess, it can be called as an activity taking place in aninstitutionorelsewhere.Whenwetalkofinstruction,itisanactivityconductedwithadefinitepurpose.Wheneducationfocusesonthedevelopmentofskillswithanobjectiveandrationale,itisanactivity.Providingdegreesthrougheducationmay be termed as an activity. Whenever we want to getknowledge,wehavetoresorttoanactivityandthusgainingknowledgeisaneducationalactivity.Impartingknowledgeisalsoaneducationalactivity.Learningtoocannotbewithoutanactivitywhatsoever itmaybe.Teachingor instructionsprovidedforeducationarealsoactivities.Reading,writing,calculating, performing, etc., are activities associatedwitheducation.Alltheseindicatorssuggestthateducationisanactivity.Tomeetthedesiredgoalsorinordertoachievetheobjectivesofeducationtheactivitieswillhavetobeperformed. Nowletustaketheexampleofdevelopmentofskills.Canthe skills be developed without an activity? For example,if you want to develop the skill of carpentry or fishery orwritingorreading,howwillyoudoso?Theskillscanonlybedevelopedthroughsomeactivities.Developingtheseskillsiscoveredundereducationandthuseducationisanactivity.Notonlydevelopment,buteventestingoftheskillsorshowinghowtoperformaskill,repeatingsomethingorrecapitulationalso involve activities. Thus, even development of skillssuggeststhateducationisanactivity.Further,applicationofknowledgetonewsituationsiscoveredundereducation.How this application of knowledge can be understood ortaught?Thisispossiblethroughactivitiesonly.Apersoncanbetaughtapplicationthroughexamplesasactivities.

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activity 11. Organiseapaneldiscussionofyourclassmatesto

showthateducationisanactivity.2. Givetwoexamplestosuggestthateducationisa

purposefulactivity.3. Devisewaystoshowthatapplicationofknowledge

canberegardedasaneducationalactivity.

Education as a ProcEssWediscussedthateducationisanactivitywhichisorganisedto achieve some desirable goals. But is education onlyan activity? Education is certainly not only restricted toactivities. Letustakeanexampleofadayinaschool.Itbeginswithmorningprayerinvolvingprayers,exercises,yoga,NationalAnthem,etc.Whyalltheseactivitiesaredoneduringmorningprayer? These are consciously done to promote physicalandmentaldevelopmentofchildren.There isawayandarationaleforperformingtheseactivities,whichmaybecalledasprocessoforganisingmorningprayers.Thenclassesareheld in organisedmannerwhichagain involves aprocess.Children learn games, or a concept through the processof thinking and doing. Learning from simple concepts tocomplex concepts involves a process. In a way, educationisacontinuouslifelongprocessasanindividualcontinuestolearnoneorotherthingsfromthetimeofbirthtilldeath.Somepeopleequateeducationwithformalschoolingwherethechildlearnsthingsinagradedfashion.Theschoolinginthegradedmanner isalsoaprocess.Learningor teachingisaprocesswhichinvolvesaseriesofactivities.Educationconcerned with all round development of the child is aprocess. Developing one’s potential to its optimum levelthrough education is a process. Understanding, using orapplying knowledge gained through education accordingto situations also refer to the processes of education.Observationanddrawing inferences from theobservationsare also educational processes. Education as you knowhelpsinatransmissionofknowledge,skills,societalvaluesand processes from one generation to the next and thuseducation canbe considered as a process of transmission

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of all these virtues. It is a continuous process concernedwiththedevelopmentofanindividual.So,fromtheongoingdiscussionsyoumaybetemptedtoconcludethateducationis both an activity aswell as a process.Now letus try todiscusshoweducationtakesplace?

Learning check 11. What is thedifferencebetween education as an

activityandeducationasaprocess?2. Which definition of education suggests that

educationisanactivity?3. Analysedifferentmeaningsofeducationfromthe

pointofitbeinganactivityoraprocess.

PRoCESSES of EdUCaTIonThoughyoumustbefamiliarwithsomeoftheprocessesofeducationbutletusdiscusssomeoftheseprocessesforthesakeof convenienceandunderstanding.Theprocess refertoactivitiesthattakeplaceundertheumbrellaofeducationandthewaytheseactivitiestakeplace.Youwillbetemptedtosaythatineducationalprocessesreadingtakesplaceorthewritingtakesplace.Youmayalsosaythateducationalprocesses are nothing but teaching and learning. Buteducational processes may include many things besidesteachingandlearning.Itmayincludeunderstanding,training,instructing, developing skills, acquisition of knowledge orinformationandmuchmore.Theprocessescouldalsoincludethe verification of knowledge, revision and reinforcementaswell as creation ofnewknowledge.Education is also aprocessof learningvalues,attitudes,normsandattributesofculture.Itisaprocessofunderstandingsocialinteraction,knowingtraditions,religions,etc.Alltheseprocessesleadtotheeducationofthechild. Theprocessesofeducationincludethesocialisationofthechild;developmentofhis/herpersonality,physical, social,emotionalandcognitivedevelopment,aswellasharnessingthe innate potential. These processes of education arepractised throughseveralmeansandmodes. Letusbeginwith the means and we will discuss different modes ofeducationinthelatterpartofthischapter.

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Education is imparted through the above mentionedprocesseswiththehelpofsomesetofactivitiesintheformofsomedefinedcurriculuminagradedmanner.Thesesetofactivitiesarethentranslatedintosyllabiandtransactedusingvariousapproaches.YoumusthaveheardofNationalCurriculumFramework–2005.Whatisthis?Thisisabroadframework to givea commonshape to the set of activitiesdesired to be undertaken at different levels in India andhasaninbuiltscopefortheflexibilitysuitingtothediverseneedsofthepeople.Theapproachfollowedtotransactthiscurriculumintheformofactivitiestoovaries.AccordingtotheNCF–2005,theapproachsuggestedtobefollowedistheconstructivist approachwhere the child is supposed tobethecreatorofone’sknowledgeandtheteacherissupposedtobethefacilitatorintheprocessofeducation.YoumightbelearningmoreaboutNCF–2005andconstructivistapproachin subsequent chapters. All these processes of educationcould formanactivity in itself or canbea set ofdifferentactivitiesinthesameprocess.Youwillhaveabetterideaofalltheseprocesseswhenyougoforyourteachingexperienceprogramme. Processes and approaches to education mayvaryaccording tomodesof education.Letusnowdiscussabout these modes of education. Details about all theseprocesseswillbetoldtoyouinyourfoundationofeducationcourseslikepsychologyandsociologyofeducation.

ModES of EdUCaTIon Theways inwhicheducation takesplaceor theprocessesarecarriedoutineducatingthechildareknownasmodesofeducation.It isthemannerinwhichalltheeducationalactivities are carried out. In order to understand differentmodesofeducation,letustrytounderstandhoweducationhasdevelopedhistorically.Youmustbefamiliarthatearliereducationwasconfinedtoa limitednumberofpeoplewhocouldaffordit.Thiswastheprivilegedclassorthesocalledeliteswhoonlyhadareachtoeducation.However,withthepassageoftimeandrealisationoftheimportanceofeducationbyallnationsincludingIndiatowardsitscontributioninnationbuilding,theoutreachofeducationhasnowbeenexpandedtoeverycitizen.Withtheimplementationofnationalschemes

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likeDistrictPrimaryEducationProgramme(DPEP)andlaterSarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) and Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA),compoundedbytheRight to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009inIndia,thespreadofeducationhaswidenedtoagreatlevel.Inordertomeetthishuge demand of education and with the advancement intechnologies,lotsofwaysandmeansormodesareavailabletoprovide educationat everydoor step. Itmay takeplaceformallyorinformallyandsometimesconsciouslyinanonformalmanner.Inthefollowingsections,youwillreadaboutthedifferentmodesofeducation:Informal,FormalandNon-formal.

activity 2 1. Discuss among your colleagues how they have

got their education till now and classify themin different categories by thinking of differentpossibleclassifications.

2. Askyourclassmatestomakealistofsomeotherwaysinwhichtheeducationcantakeplace.

inforMaL EducationEvenwhenfewpeoplehadanaccesstoeducation,allhumanslearntalotofthingswithoutmakinganyconsciouseffortforthesame.Anilliterateperson,withoutevenhavingfamiliaritywithasinglealphabet,possessesalotofknowledge.Fromwhere did he/she acquire knowledge? Who taught them?Everychild,or for thatmattereveryhumanbeingorevenanimals,hasatendencytolearn.Everyonelearnsalotofthings consciously or unconsciously through observation,experienceorimitationathomeorinthesurroundings,fromparents, peers, familymembers and the community. Thiskindofeducationearnedbyanindividualfromthesources,otherthantheonesthatarepurposelymeantforimpartingeducation,iscalledinformaleducation.Thetypeoflearningresulting from daily life activities related to work, familyor leisure is called informal learning. It is not structured(in terms of learning objectives, learning time or learningsupport)andtypicallydoesnotleadtocertification.Informallearningmaybeintentionalliketheonefrommothertelling

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the daughter about the traditions, but inmost cases it isnon-intentional (or “incidental”/random) (Cedefop 2001).Informaleducationtakesplaceallthetimesandthroughoutthe life of an individual. It does not have any limit orboundaries. Informal education, or in otherwordswe callitassocialisation,beginsathome.Itmaybeaccidentalorincidental. Itmaybeconsciousorunconscious.Educationthroughmassmediaandexposuretootherexperienceslikeexhibitions,films,newspapers,visitstodifferentplaces,etc.,also constitute informal education. However, tutoring athomeorprivatetuitionsarenotcoveredunderthismodeofeducation.

activity 31. Organiseapaneldiscussionwithyourclassmates

to find out the characteristics of informaleducation.

2. Observeachildforafewdaystounderstandtheroleofinformallearninginthedevelopmentofthechild.

3. Makealistofwaysinwhichinformaleducationcantakeplace.

4. List,withthehelpofyourfriends,differentwaysinwhichinformaleducationtakesplaceatplacesotherthanathome.

forMaL EducationSinceancienttime,educationisconsciouslyimpartedthroughdifferentinstitutions.TheGuru-Shishya Parampara(Teacher-Pupil tradition),prevalentduringancientdays,desiredthepupil to live in theashram of theGurus, calledGurukuls,forgettingeducation.Thiskindofinstitutionalisedefforttoprovideeducationmaybetermedasformaleducation.Thus,formallearningisthelearningthatistypicallyprovidedbyaninstitution,isstructured(intermsoflearningobjectives,learning time or learning support), and often leads tocertification.Formallearningisintentionalfromthelearner’sperspective (Cedefop,2001).With thepassageof time, theformal mode of education took the shape of schooling.The most popular and effective mode, formal mode of

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education,helpsindevelopingthecapabilitiesofindividuals,transmitting requisite knowledge from one generation totheother,inventingnewknowledge,advancement,etc.Theformalmodeofeducationissupplementedbytheinformalmode thatan individualgets fromothersources includingtheexperience.Formaleducationalsotakesplaceinvariousmanners. Depending upon the way of delivery of formaleducation,itcanbeclassifiedindifferentcategories.

Face-to-Face ModeWhenthelearnerisindirectcontactwiththeinstructorina face-to-face situation, it is called the face-to-face modeof imparting education. Such a situation exists in case ofclassroom teaching in the schools where teacher and thepupilsphysicallyremainpresentinaface-to-facemanneratthetimeofgettingeducation.Thisisregardedasthemosteffectivemodeofeducationasthereisagreaterscopeforalearnertointeractwiththeteacherandtheteacheralsocanexplainaspertheneedandrequirementofthelearner.Thisisthemostusedandthemostdemandedmodeofeducation.Itisalsoknownasthetraditionalortheconventionalmodeofprovidingeducation.Theface-to-facemodecanbeorganisedfulltimeorparttimedependingupontheneedofthelearnerandthetimedevotedforthepurpose. Whenthe learnerdevotesthetimeordoestheworkasper the time prescribed for the education one intends toget, itmay be called full time face-to-facemode. It is thelearningaccordingtherequisitehoursofthecourseperdayat one stretch without breaking it into parts. The learnerinsuchasituation learnsat thepaceof the institutionorthecourse.Thelearnerisregisteredwithinstitutionfortheperiodneededfortheeducationandattendstheinstitutionaccordingly.Thistypeofeducationisusuallybeingprovidedinschoolsacrossthecountry.Mostoftheformaleducationisavailableinthismodeatalllevels. Ifthelearnerisnotinapositiontodevotetheprescribedtime for the coursebecause of one’s compulsions, the fulltimecoursesarebifurcatedintoparttimecourses.Itisforconvenience of the learners to get more time to completethe courses at their pace. In sucha case, the duration ofthe same coursehas tobe increased. It ismostlydone to

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accommodate the learners already in job or having someothercompulsionssothattheyarenotdeprivedofeducation.Inthismode,exceptfortheincreaseddurationofthecourse,allotherthingsremainthesameasinfulltimeface-to-facemode.Itisanalternativetothefulltimeface-to-facemode.Itmaybenotedherethatthesemestercoursesarenotparttimecourses,rathertheyarefulltimecourses.

Distance Education ModeAsanalternativetoface-to-facemode,andinordertocoverthe larger groups of learners who could not be educatedthroughface-to-facemodefordiversereasons,themodeofdistance education has come into existence. As the namesuggests,thismodeadoptsanapproachinwhicheducationisprovidedfromadistance.Thelearnerandtheteachermaygeographicallybelocatedatdifferentplacesandtheeducationis imparted using means other than direct interaction orface-to-face teaching-learning. However, even though thetwoarenotface-to-facetoeachother,thelearnerisvitallyintouchwiththeteacher.Inaway,thedistancemodehasalsosomeinbuiltcomponentofface-to-faceinteractionbetweenthe teacher and the taught.Distancemode,however, alsoassumesvariousmeans. Distance education through correspondence is earliestmode of distance education. In this mode the educationprovider develops the learning material, which is sent tothelearners.Inthismode,theteachinglearningmaterialisdevelopedinalearner-friendlymannerintheformofsomemodulesor lecturesandsent to the learnersbypost.Thelearnercaninteractwiththeteacherthroughcorrespondencebypostorotherwise.Theprogressofthelearnerismonitoredthrough feedback and assignments. This method is stillpartlyprevalentthoughithasbeensupplementedwithmoremodes. Teleconferencing is amode where the teacher and thetaught are connected with the help of satellite and thereare possibilities of interaction through communicationtechnology. Distance mode through teleconferencing isused as an adjunct to the correspondence education. Theteleconferencingislargelyusedforinteractionwithstudentsinordertoclarifytheirdoubtsortoprovideeducationtothe

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learnersofdistanceeducation.YouknowthatnowinIndiaEDUSATisusedforthispurpose.Inthismodethelearnersgetinstructionsfromaneducationalstudioatoneend,whiletheythemselvesremainphysicallypresentattheotherdistantend.Itcouldbeatwo-waycommunicationthoughsatellitewithdifferentmeansavailableforquestioningbythelearnersliketelephone,internetorothertechnologicalmeans. Distanceeducationthroughvideo-conferencingissimilarto teleconferencing where both the instructor and thelearnerscanseeandinteractwitheachotheralthoughbothmayremainphysicallythousandsofkilometresapart.ThisisdoneinvariouswaysthroughinternetlikeSkypeorthroughasatellitebasedtwo-wayinteractionsystemsasisthecaseofteleconferencing. Distance education is also done through mass medialiketelevision,newspapersandradio.Gyan VaniandGyan Darshanare thepopularmassmediaprogrammesbesideseducational TV and other radio programmes of variousnatureandduration,whichareinusefordistanceeducationofthelearnersandareairedforeducationatdifferentlevels. In the distance education through online, the learnersget education at their convenience,where place, time andduration do not constitute the barriers. In thismode, thetotalcoursematerialisuploadedonthesiteofthelearnersorsentasanattachmentbye-mailandthelearnersenjoythe facility of using this interactive material as per theirconvenience.Theseonlinecoursesneedaproperplanningandimplementationwithafacilityforonthespotclarificationofthedoubts. e-learning mode of distance education is a recentdevelopmentwhichistotallycomputerbased.Inthismode,the learner is provided with computer-based interactivematerials having several alternatives and solutions of theproblems. The teaching-learning process takes place withuseofinternet,e-mails,anddiscussionforums,inadditiontothebasicmaterialandthesupportingteachers.Itutilisesthe facility of both the computer technology as well ascommunicationtechnology.Nowevene-bookshavestartedcominginthemarkettofacilitatee-learning. Likee-learninganewconceptofdistanceeducation,calledm-learning or learning throughmobile, has begun to take

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shape.Inthistypeoflearning,inadditiontoeducationalorinstructionalmaterialsthatismadeavailabletothelearners,themobileisusedforonlineinteractionbetweenthetutor(s)and the learners. At present, it is in very limited use buttimeisnotfarwhenm-learningcouldalsobecomeapowerfulmode. Itmay bementioned here that no singlemode can besaid to be self-sufficient and if different modes are usedin combination they could have a compounded effect oneducationofthelearners.

Learning check 21. Whatisformalmodeofeducation?2. Howcanformaleducationbeimparted?3. Discussdifferentwaysofface-to-faceeducation.4. Is distance education an alternative to formal

education?Discuss.5. What are different modes in which distance

educationisimpartedtothechildren?6. Whichmodeofeducationdoyouthinkispreferable

andwhy?7. How EDUSAT can be a powerful mode of

education?Discuss.8. Can you think of somemoremodes of distance

educationthanthosediscussedinthisunit?

non-forMaL EducationThere are other modes too through which educationtakes place.Do youknowhow literacy campaignshelp ineducatingmasses?Therearemanyotherprogrammes,suchasawarenesscampaigns,adultliteracy,etc.,whichmaynotconformtotherequirementsofformaleducationalmodebutareequallyimportantandarecarriedoutwithspecificaimsandobjectives.Thesealternativemodesarecallednon-formalmodesofeducation.Thisnon-formaleducationisamixofformaleducationandinformaleducationinthesensethatittakesplaceinformallyinaformalenvironment.Non-formaleducation,therefore,referstotheorganisedandsustainededucationalactivitiesthatdonotcorrespondexactlytothedefinitionof formaleducation.Non-formaleducation takesplace both within and outside educational institutions,

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andcatertopersonsofallages,dependingonthecountrycontexts. It may cover educational programmes to impartadultliteracy,basiceducationforoutoftheschoolchildrenormaybedevelopmentoflifeskills,workskills,andgeneralculture for vocational courses such as sewing, stitching,ormusic, etc.Non-formal educational programmesdonotnecessarilyfollowtheladdersystemandmayhavedifferingduration, andmay not confer certification of the learningachieved(UNESCO,1997,41).Hobbycourses,smalldurationvocationalcourses,educationprovidedthroughmassmediaor theadulteducationor the trainingofentrepreneurs forspecialtrainingscouldbecoveredundernon-formalmodeofeducation.

activity 4 1. Organise a seminar on non-formal mode of

education.2. Discussinyourclasshownon-formaleducation

isusefulandwhy?3. Discuss with your teacher about the utility of

non-formaleducationforunorganisedsector.4. Maketwogroupsinyourclassandhaveadebate

onformalandnon-formaleducation.

incLusivEnEss of schooL EducationIndiaisacountrywithlotofdiversitiesintermsofreligion,socialgroup,culture,etc.Inordertoestablishtheintegrationofoutsideexperienceswiththeschoollearning,itbecomesimperative that the school education be inclusive. Thismeansthattheschoolshouldtrytoprovideanenvironmentconducive to allow the integration of experiences to takeplacewiththatofschoolfunctioning.Theschooleducationshould provide experiences that may be beneficial to thechildintheoutsideworld.Forexample,itneedstohelpindevelopment ofmeaningful life skills. The inclusiveness ofschooleducationmayincludephysicalinclusion(intermsoftheinfrastructureandresources),socialinclusion(inclusionofall typesofsocial,culturalandracialgroups)andotherkindsofinclusionsasenshrinedintheIndianConstitution. Inclusivenessofschooleducationispossibleonlywhenthechildrenlearntorespectallreligions,culturesandsocial

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groups.Theschooleducationneedstodevelopvaluesthathelp in developing an attitude of appreciation among thechildfordifferentsocialandreligiousgroupsintheschooland the society. The school education is expected tomeetall thesechallengesandwork foran inclusivesocietywithpeaceandharmonyforallkindsofdiversegroups.Itneedstocreateunityindiversity.Youmusthavestudiedaboutallthesediversitiesandthe inclusivenessof Indianeducationsysteminotherpapersaswellas inyourpreviousclassesalso. Inclusiveness also includes the inclusion of homeexperienceswiththeschoolexperiences.Thiscanbepossibleonlywhentheteachersgetanautonomyandfreedomtodoactivitiesaccordingtotheneedoftheinclusivesociety. Inclusiveness in education is also concerned withembracing children with disability and the differencesarisingduetosocio-economicdisadvantagedconditions.TheNational Policy on Education (NPE,1986)stressedtheneedfor integrating children with disability with other groups.Theobjectivetobeachieved,asstatedinNPE1986, is“tointegrate the physically and mentally handicapped withgeneral communityasequalpartners, toprepare them fornormalgrowthandtoenablethemtofacelifewithcourageandconfidence”.TheNational Curriculum Framework2005(p.84)enumeratedthecharacteristicsofinclusiveeducation(seeBox1).

Box1:CharacteristicsofInclusiveEducation

• Inclusive education is about embracing all.• Disability is a social responsibility – accept it.• No selection procedures to be adopted for denying admission to learners

with disabilities.• Children do not fail, they only indicate failure of the school.• Accept difference... celebrate diversity.• Inclusion is not confined to the disabled. It also means non-exclusion.• Learn human rights ... conquer human wrongs.• Handicap is a social construct, deconstruct handicap.• Make provisions – not restrictions: adjust to the needs of the child.• Remove physical, social and attitudinal barriers.• All good practices of teaching are practices of inclusion.• Learning together is beneficiary of every child.• If you want to teach, learn from the child. Identify strengths not

limitations.• Inculcate mutual respect and inter-dependence.

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nEEd of SChoolIng foR all ChIldREnEducationhasassumeddifferentmeaningindifferenttimes.Earlierthepeoplewereeducatedforcommunicatingwitheachother,orforthepurposeofgettingjobsinofficestocarryoutadministrativefunctionsofthecountryortheregimes.Butnowithasbeenverywellrecognisedthateducationmeanssocialisation of human beings. If you see the definitionsand explanations about education in previous chapters orelsewhere, youmustappreciate that education isnotonlyneeded for the development of innate potential of humanbeings but is also an essential component needed for thedevelopmentofanation.Throughouttheworld,itisreiteratedthateducationisrequiredforallthehumanbeingsinordertoharnesstheirpotentialsandmakebestuseof it forthehumanity.Providingeducationtoallthechildrenhasbeenonprioritiesinthecharterofallthecountriesthroughouttheworld.Theeducationhasbeenacceptedasan instrumentofconstructivechangeandupliftmentofhumanity.UnitedNations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation(UNESCO)hasbeentryingfortheeducationofallchildreninallthecountries. India is committed to the education of all the childrenup to the age of 14 years since the implementation of itsConstitution, initially through the Directive Principle 45,whichlatertooktheshapeoftheRightofChildrentoFreeandCompulsoryEducationAct,2009(RTE).Toachievethisgoal,theActenvisagestheresponsibilitiesofgovernments’,schools and teachers. The governments’ responsibilityis to ensure compulsory admission, attendance andcompletionofelementaryeducationbyeverychild;provideaneighbourhoodschool;andinfrastructureincludingschoolbuilding,teachingstaffandlearningequipment.TheActalsoexpectseveryteachertoberegular,punctualandconductaswellascompletetheentirecurriculumwithinspecifiedtimeand assess the learning ability of each child. The schoolswillhave1:40teacher-pupilratiowhichhastobeensuredby the respective governments. TheAct has also prepareda schedule of norms for number of teachers, buildings,minimumnumberofworkingdays/instructionalhoursinanacademicyear,minimumnumberofworkinghoursperweekfor a teacher, teaching-learning equipment, library, play

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materials,gamesandsportsequipments.Localgovernmentsandcommunitiescanplan,monitor the implementationofRTEthroughSchoolManagementCommittees.TheparentsarethekeyfunctionariesofSchoolManagementCommitteeswhich are supposed to draw school development plan asperRTEnorms,managetheirimplementationintheschool,superviseandsupporttheimplementationofplans,monitorthe finance,management, academic progress, etc., ensureaccountability and transparency in the system, make aliaisonbetweentheschoolandtheauthoritiesforreleasingandgeneratingfundsfortheschools.ThusschoolingortheteachinglearningsystemunderRTEisacollaborativeeffortamongtheteacherandthecommunity.ThedetailsofthisActmaybefoundintheJournal of Indian Education(2011,Vol.XXXVII,Number2,pp.141-153). Educationhasbeenacceptedastheonlymeanthatcouldbringthedesirablechangesinthebehaviourofthechildren.School is the formalsocialisingagency thatcouldbeusedfor modification of the behaviour of children and developthesocialandindividualvaluesneededforwellbeingofthesocial system. Schooling is the largest networkwhichhasbeencreatedtofulfilthishugetaskofprovidingeducationtoallthechildreninthecountryorforthatmatterallovertheworld. Ithasbeenassignednotonly theresponsibilitybutalsobeenprovidedwithall the resources to carryoutthisworkeffectivelyandefficiently.Noothersystemintheworldispowerfulenoughtoowetheresponsibilityandlargeenoughtocarryoutthishugetask.

Learning check 31. Why education has been made a Fundamental

Right?2. Isthereaneedtomakeeducationaright?

activity 51. Organise a debate on the issue of Right to

Educationinyourinstitution.2. Makedifferentgroupsinyourclassanddiscuss

the utility of different modes of education inseparategroup.

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LEt us suM uPIn thischapter,youhave learnt thateducation isbothanactivity as well as a process. There are several modes ofeducation. We all get educated through various informalmodes as is imbibed at home or through observation andexperience.Educationcanbeimpartedthroughformal,non-formal or informal modes. Formal education is the mostpractisedandlargestsetofinstitutionalisededucationalmode.Itcanbeprovidedthroughface-to-facemodeorthedistancemode.Face-to-faceistheclassicalsystemofeducationasisprovidedinschools.Educationthroughdistancemodecouldbeprovidedinvariouswayslikecorrespondenceeducation,onlineeducation,teleconferencing,videoconferencing,etc.e-learning, and m-learning are the latest additions tothe distance learning mode. Non-formal education is theeducationprovidedthroughuntraditionalmodeliketheoneprovidedthroughmassmediaortheadulteducation,etc.Itisclarifiedthatnoonemodecouldbesaidtobeinferior,orsuperiortotheother.Everymodehasitsownadvantagesaswellaslimitations.Everymodehasaspecificpurposeandneedtobeusedaccordingly.Twoormoremodesofeducationcanalsobeusedsimultaneously. Educationdoesnot takeplace in theschoolsonly.Theexperiences gained by an individual outside the schoolalso contribute immensely to his/her education. In fact,theschool educationbecomesmoremeaningfulwhen it isintegrated with the outside experiences. The education inschoolshastobelinkedtooutsideschoolexperiences.Theeducationhasbeenverywellrecognisedasanactivitythatneedstobeprovidedtoeveryindividualandtheschoolsarethebesttheforemostsoughtmeanstoprovideit.Theschoolscanmeet thedemandaswell as theneedof educationaspertheindividualandsocialrequirement.EducationistheFundamentalRight of an individual. Itmeets thenationalprioritiesaswellastheindividualandsocialneeds.

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rEviEw QuEstions

1. Whyiseducationknownasanactivity?2. Iseducationaprocessoranactivity?Justifyyouranswer

withappropriateexamples.3. Differentiate between differentmodes of education on

thebasisoftheirobjectives.4. What is the informalmode of education?Howdoes it

helpineducation?5. Whichmodeofeducationismostsoughtof?6. Throughwhatmeans can education throughdistance

modebeimparted?7. Whatistherelationshipbetweentheschooleducation

and the outside experiences? How can the two beintegrated?

8. Whyeducationintheformofschoolingisneededtobeprovidedtoallcitizens?

rEfErEncEsEaton, Sarah ElainE.2011.Formal,non-formalandinformal

learning. http://www.infed.org/archives/e-texts/eaton_formal_nonformal_informal_learning. htm] Archived 22May2011.

CEdEfop GloSSaryhttp://www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/about-cedefop/projects/validation-of-non-formal-and-informal-learning/european-inventory-glossary.aspx]

MC GivnEy, v. 1999.InformalLearningintheCommunity:ATriggerforChangeandDevelopment(Leicester:NIACE).CitedinHelenColley,PhilHodkinsonandJaniceMalcolm(2002), Non-formal Learning: Mapping the ConceptualTerrain.AConsultationReport.Leeds:UniversityofLeedsLifelongLearningInstitute.Alsoavailableintheinformaleducation archives:http://www.infed.org/archives/e-texts/colley_informal_learning.htm]

hodkinSon, phil; CollEy, hEllEn and JaniCE MalColM. 2003.The Interrelationships between Informal and FormalLearning.Journal of Workplace Learning,15,313–318.

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Eraut,M.2000.Non-formalLearning,ImplicitLearningandTacit Knowledge. In F. Coffield (Ed), The Necessity ofInformalLearning.PolicyPress,Bristol.

BillEtt, S. 2001. Participation and Continuity at Work: ACritiqueofCurrentWorkplaceLearningDiscourses.PapergivenattheconferenceContext,PowerandPerspective:Confronting theChallenges to ImprovingAttainment inLearningatWork,SunleyManagementCentre,UniversityCollegeNorthampton,8–10November.

fEutriE, M. 2007. Validation of Non-formal and InformalLearninginEurope:ComparativeApproaches,ChallengesandPossibilities.Paperpresentedattheconferenceon.RecognitionofPriorLearning:Nordic-BalticExperiencesandEuropeanPerspectives.,Copenhagen,8March.

unESCo. 2005.Community LearningCentresAsiaPacificProgrammeforEducationforAll.retrievedfromhttp://appeal/topic.01.htm

——.1997.InternationalStandardClassificationofEducation.UNESCO,Paris.

——. 1994.Forum on Education for All, UNESCO,Paris.——. 1996.International Consultative Forum on Education for

All, UNESCO,Paris.

Chapter 4

Knowledge: Meaning and Facets

STRUCTURE• Introduction• Objectives• UnderstandingKnowledge

– DefinitionofKnowledge• KnowingandKnowledge

– WaysofKnowingandFormsofKnowledge• KnowingandKnowledge:TheIndianWay• FormsofKnowledge• CharacteristicsofKnowledge• FacetsofKnowledgeLet Us Sum UpReview QuestionsReferences

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InTRodUCTIonTheschoolisoneoftheagencieswhichwritedown,transact,andtransformknowledgeandtherebyinfluencethelivesofchildren who attend the school for a specified number ofyears. Schools facilitate and distribute knowledge amongitsinmates.Thoughhumanindividualgetsknowledgefromeveryexperienceinlife,theknowledgethatachildreceivesinschooldecideshis/herfuturelifeandplaceinthesociety.Sinceteachersasprofessionalsdealwithknowledge,thereis a need to understand the concept of knowledge itself.Therefore,thischapterfocusesonunderstandingthenatureofknowledgeandknowing,ingeneral,anditsmanifestationin theschool context, inparticular.Reflective reading isaprerequisitetomakemeaningofthecontentpresentedinthischapter. Therefore, students, while ‘reading’ this chapter,needtobemorereflectiveaboutthe ‘content’ofknowledgeandknowing.

objECTIvESAfterreadingthischapter,youwillbeableto:• describemeaningsofknowledge;• understand the non-material and abstract nature of

knowledge;• formulateone’s‘own’meaningofknowledge;• identifydifferentfacetsofknowledge;• classifyknowledgeintodifferentformsandidentifydiffer-

entwaysofknowing;• understandthenatureofschoolknowledgeandtheircor-

respondingwaysofknowing;and• becomeconsciousofcriticalroleofcultureinknowingin

schooledcontext.

UndERSTandIng KnowlEdgEKnowledge isalwaysconcernedaboutknowingsomething.Thissomethingcouldbenaturalobjects,man-madethings,events,processes,persons,theiractivities,theirrelationshipsandmany others. All of these andmany other ‘objects’ ofknowledge may, collectively, be called as phenomena.Therefore, knowledge always refers to comprehension

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of some or the other phenomenon. Knowledge is sum ofhumanunderstandingoftheworld,beitphysical,biological,social,mentalandspiritual.Insimplebutgeneralisedway,knowledgeissumofhumanunderstandingofmaterialandmental reality – given and constructed. The acquisitionof knowledge, or the build-up of knowledge, is by its verynaturealwaysreferstoaprocessortheroadfromignorancetoknowledge,fromnotknowingthingstoknowingthem.Thetransitionfromlackofknowledgetoacquisitionofthesameisshapedbythehumanactivity,whichinvolvesseeinglackof relationwith a phenomenon to seeing the relationwithphenomenon. Knowledge, the noun, is used in different contextsand situations to convey different meanings to differentpeople. Knowledgehas different aspects, kinds and levels.Knowledge, in common sense understanding, signifiesall the human meanings, beliefs about matters of facts(things,objects,events),aboutrelationshipsbetweenfacts,and about principles, laws, theories that are at work inthenatureandsociety.Knowledge isunderstandingaboutthe relationships; the relationship of the knower with theknown.Inotherwords,it istherelationshipofthesubjectwith theobject.Knowledge is the resultofknower’sactiveengagementwiththeobjectofknowledge.Knowledgeanditsintensitydependontherelationshipbetweentheknowerandthe known. Further, knowledge is understood in terms ofenlightenment.TheIndiantraditionconsidersitasbreakingtheveilofignorance.Inpractice,knowledgeisaclaiminthesensethattheknowerproclaimsthatheorsheisawareofthephenomenon.Thisistosaythathavingknowledgeofthephenomenonmeansbothbeingawareofthatphenomenonandalso stating that the awareness is true. In the schoolcontext,knowledge is thesumofconceptions, ideas, laws,andpropositionsestablishedandtestedascorrectreflectionsofthephenomenon.

Learning Check 11. Give examples of acquisition of knowledge from

thedailylife.2. Differentiatebetweenignoranceandknowledge.

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DeFinition oF KnowLeDge Many believe that the knowledge cannot be defined. Theproblem of definition of knowledge is ongoing and is aneverendingdebateamongphilosophers.Knowledge,saysPrichard(1976,P.100),‘issui generis,and,assuch,cannotbe explained’. Since knowledge is sum total of definitionsandexplanationsofphenomena,itisnotpossibletodefineknowledge.Inspiteofthisdifficulty,philosophershavemadeattemptstodefineknowledge. Themost accepted definition of knowledge is that it isa justifiedbelief. Inoneofhisdialogues,Theaetetus, Platoexaminedthreedefinitionsofknowledgethatwerewidelyincirculationatthattime.Thethreedefinitionsoftheknowledgeare(asgivenin Encyclopedia of Philosophy):1. KnowledgeisPerceptionorsensation;2. KnowledgeisTruebelief,and3. Knowledge is True belief accompanied by a rational

accountofitselforground. Afterthoroughexamination,Platodefinedknowledgeas,‘justifiedtruebelief’.AccordingtoPlato’sdefinition,humanknowledge, in order to be given the ‘status’ of knowledge,shouldfulfilltheconditionofbeingabelief–trueandjustified.John Locke, the founding father of empiricism, and whodefined‘mindastabula rasa’,surprisinglydefinedknowledgeas“theperceptionoftheagreementordisagreementoftwoideas”.ForpragmatistDewey(2010),knowledgedenotesan‘inferencefromevidence’. The National Curriculum Framework–2005, whileplacingtheexperienceoftheknoweratcentre,alsodefinedknowledge. According to it, “Knowledge can be conceivedas experienceorganised through language intopatternsofthought(orstructuresofconcepts),thuscreatingmeaning,whichinturnhelpsustounderstandtheworldwelivein.Itcanalsobeconceivedofaspatternsofactivity,orphysicaldexteritywiththought,contributingtoactingintheworld,andthecreatingandmakingofthings.Humanbeingsovertimehaveevolvedmanybodies of knowledge,whichincludearepertoireofways of thinking,of feelingandof doing things,andconstructingmoreknowledge(P.25).” The process of understanding themeaning or definingknowledge direct us to identify, at least, three aspectsassociatedwithknowledge.Theseaspectsare:

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1. Processesinvolvedinknowledgeacquisition/generation/construction; this eventually enters into the domainof ways of acquisition/generation/construction ofknowledge;tobepreciseitiswaysofknowing;

2. Formsofknowledge;sinceknowledgeissumofhumanunderstanding, there ought to be different forms ofunderstandingortypesofknowledge;and

3. Purposeofknowing/knowledge.Thepurposeofknowingisdifferentindifferentcontexts.

Therefore, instead of labouring in understanding ordefiningknowledgeinitsproductform,itmaybeappropriateto focus on knowing – the process, which explicates andexplainsand,toalargeextent,determinethemeaningandalsonatureofknowledge.

Activity 11. Collect various definitions of knowledge, and

analyze the differences and similarities amongthem.

2. Thinkofvariousgoalsandfunctionsofknowledgeindifferentcontexts.Discussitwithfellowstudentteachers.

3. Organiseagroupdiscussiontodeliberateonthevariousformsofknowledgeandtheiruses.

KnowIng and KnowlEdgEEpistemology is one of the branches of philosophy, whichisconcernedwith the theoryofknowledge. It refers to theorigin,natureandlimitsofhumanknowledge.Itdealswithsomeimportant issues,suchaswhetherknowledgeofanykind is possible, whether knowledge is innate or learnt,whetherknowledge isamentalstate,andsoon.Assuch,epistemology, deals with two fundamental problems ofknowledge–originofknowledgeandvalidationofknowledge.Thediscussiononoriginofknowledgefocusesontherelativerolesofknowerandtheknowninthemakingofknowledge.Intheprocessitgeneratedwealthofknowledgeonbothwaysandformsofknowingandknowledge.Inordertoknowtheoriginofknowledge,itisrequiredtofocusonprocessofhowdowecometoknow.Processofcomingtoknowbeginswithknower’s (the subject) engagement with to be known (the

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object). The knower’s engagement and relationship beginswithhis/her contactwith tobeknown.The contact takesplace through senses in a context – physical, biological,socio-culturalandothers. In thiscontext, theknowerowninitiatives for seeking knowledge employing different waysassumesignificance.

Activity 2Select a piece of knowledge (e.g. physical exerciseis good for health, one should drink a lot ofwater,etc.)fromyourdailylife.Trytoestablishrelationshipbetweentheknowerand theknown for theselectedpieceofknowledge.

wAys oF Knowing AnD ForMs oF KnowLeDge As described earlier, knowing is both a process and aproduct. As a process, it refers to the method of comingto know the phenomenon. Knowledge, as a product, isresultantofknowing–theprocess.Knowinghappensthroughperception,reason,andemotion;andcodificationisdoneinthelanguage.Similarly,therearemeansorsourceofeverywayofknowing.Thesesourcesaretheknower’ssensesandmind.Differentsourcesofknowingconstructdifferentformsofunderstandinganddifferenttypesofknowledge.

Activity 3Selectapieceofknowledgefromyourschooltextbook.Reflectonthevariousprocessesorwaysofproducingthat particular knowledge. Prepare a flow diagram.Discussitwithothers.

Sense Perception: The Beginning of KnowingThe acquisition of knowledge begins with the reception ofexternalstimulibyoursenseorgans,whichisimmediatelyconverted into the formof perception. Perception refers tohaving knowledge about a stimulus that impinges on oursenseorgans.Thus,knowledgestartswithexperienceofthefacts or matters through sense organs – individually andcollectively–attheindividuallevelorwhileparticipatingin

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socialactivity.Theultimatesourceofallhuman’sknowledge,says Nathaneil Branden (1971), is the evidence of realityprovidedbythesenses.Throughthestimulationofvarioussensory receptors, the humans receive information whichtravelstohisbrainintheformofsensations(primarysensoryinputs). These sensory inputs, as such, do not constituteknowledge;theyareonlythematerialofknowledge.Human’sbrainautomaticallyretainsandintegratesthesesensationswiththealreadyavailableinformationinthebrain–therebyformingpercepts.Perceptsconstitutethestartingpointandbaseofman’sknowledge: thedirect awarenessof entities,their actions and their attributes. Since the sense-organsplayvitalroleintheoriginofknowledge,theseareconsideredas ‘gatewaysofknowledge’.TheIndianphilosophy, in fact,referssensesas ‘gyanendriyas’.Eachsenseorgan,namelyeye,ear,nose,tongue,andskin,bythewayofcomingintocontact with the object, provide ‘information’ about thequality/propertyoftheobject.Integrationofthese‘discreteinformation’ about different qualities/properties of objectsintomeaningful concepts is the knowledge proper of thatobject. This integrating role, it is believed, is done by themind. Will Durant (1966), by conducting a journey intoantiquity, brings up the irrefutable role of sensation inestablishingnotonlyknowledgebutalsoinitsvalidation(i.e.theestablishmentofthetruth).Accordingtohim,thesensesarethetestoftruth.Butallthesenses;onealonemaywelldeceive us, as light deceives us about colour, or distanceabout size; and only another sense can correct the errorwhichonesensehasmade.Truth is consistent sensation.Butagain,‘sensation’mustincludeallthatwelearnfromtheinstrumentswithwhichweenlargeandsharpensense.Thesensationmustincludetheinternalsense;ourinward‘feel’ofourownlife,andmindisasimmediateandtrustworthyasanyreport,tothatlifeandmind,fromthesense-organsthat variously touch the external world. There are otherpersons than ourselves in this world, and their senses—andthereforetheir‘truths’—willnotalwaysagreewithours.Therefore,truthmustbesociallyconsistentsensation;andwhenmorethanonemomentoftimeisconcerned,itmustbe permanently consistent sensation. Sensation, however

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consistentmaybe,provideuswith ‘information’aboutthephenomenon;butitisthepersistentreasonthattranslatesperceptionintomeaningsandconcepts.Letusseehowthisprocessisconstructed.

Learning Check 21. Describethecharacteristicsofsensation.2. Howissensationconvertedintoperception?Give

anexamplefromyourreallife.

Perception to ConceptionThefirstrequisiteforbuilding-upofknowledgeisobtainingperceptions, that is, making observations arising out ofvarious relationships with phenomena. Secondly, havingentered into relationship with phenomena and obtainedobservations about them, we must go on to formulatejudgmentsorpropositionsaboutthemandtheirpropertiesandrelations. All theanimalshaveperceptions,andtheirperceptionscontaindefinite,concrete‘information’aboutthings.Intheabsence of those concrete things in the context, animalsfail to ‘perceive’ things; this iswhatAdlercalls ‘PerceptualAbstraction’, an abstraction that is possible only in thepresence of an appropriate sensory stimulus andnever initsabsence.However,humansperceivethingsevenintheirabsenceduetotheirconceptualfaculty.Theuniqueabilitytoconceptualisethingsandexpressthemintheformofideas,propositions,andlawsenableshumanstocreateorgenerateknowledge.However,thereisabasicdifferenceinactiveandconsciousroleoftheknowerintheprocessofmovingfromsensation to perception and perception to conception. Itmustberememberedthattheprocessbywhichsensationsare integrated into percepts is automatic. However, theintegration of percepts into concepts is a deliberate effortonthepartofhumanbeings.Itisavolitionalprocessthatmanmust initiate, sustainand regulate.Thus,perceptualinformationisthegiven,theself-evident.Ontheotherhand,the conceptual knowledge requires a volitionally initiatedprocessofreason. Youmayliketoknowtheprocessinvolvedinconvertingperceptionintoconceptionand,thereby,resultingknowledge

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insomedetail.Thesenseperception reproduces thingsasthey immediately appear to sense organs. The senses giveonlyparticularpiecesofinformationaboutparticularthingsconditioned by the particular circumstances under whichwe perceive them. After that, due to conceptual faculty,particular properties, relations and motions of particularthings,areunifiedtomorecomprehensiveknowledgehavingtheirownlawsofexistence,changeandinterconnections.Inthefirststage,ourknowledgeexpressesmerely‘theseparateaspectsofthings,theexternalrelationsbetweensuchthings’.Inthesecondstage,wearriveatjudgmentswhichnolongerrepresenttheappearancesofthings,theirseparateaspects,ortheirexternalrelations,butembracetheiressence,theirtotality and their internal relations. The passage from thefirst stage to the second stage involves, in the first place,activeobservation.Inthesecondplace,itdoesalsoinvolvea process of thought arising from observation—a processofsiftingandcomparisonofobservations,ofgeneralisationand formationofabstract ideas,of reasoninganddrawingconclusions fromsuchgeneralisationandabstraction.Thefirststageofknowledgeis‘perceptualknowledge’,becauseitconfinesitselftosummarisingwhatisreceivedbythesenseorgans,andthesecondstage,i.e.theconceptualknowledge,is concerned with making the perceptual knowledgerational,logicalandcomprehensive.Toavoidtheriskofoversimplification,thewholediscussionaboutwaysofknowingandtherebyresultingformsofunderstandingandtypesofknowledgeisgiveninTable1.

Table1ways of Knowing and Forms of Understanding

Sl. No

Means of Knowing

Modes of Knowing

Forms of Understanding/Type of Knowledge

1. Senses Experience Perception;Descriptionoffactsofmatter;Perceptualknowledge;Empiricalknowledge.

2. Mind Reason Reasoning;RationalKnowledge;ConceptualKnowledge;Causalknowledge;KnowledgeofRelationships;InterpretativeKnowledge.

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Activity 4Selectanyschooltextbook.Organiseadiscussionintheclasstoidentifytopics,chapters,subjectsthatfallintodifferentmodesofknowinganddifferentformsofunderstanding.

Learning Check 3Mentionthecharacteristicsofconceptualknowledge.Differentiate between sensory, perceptual, andconceptualknowledge.

Alongwiththeabovementionedtwofundamentalsources,it is argued that emotion (suchas joy,happiness, sorrow,etc.)isonemoresource/meansofknowingthatissituatedwithinindividualperson.‘Emotion’alsoactsasmeansandcontributestotheconstructionofknowledge.However,atthesametime,criticsconsiderthattheemotionsareobstacleinthepursuitof‘real’knowledge.

Language as Means of KnowingApartfromtheabovementionedsources/meansofknowing,thecultureorthesocialcontextintowhichachildisborn,acts,inmorefundamentalways,asthemeansofknowing.Asknowingisameaningmakingprocess,themeaningstotheconceptsareprovidedbythelanguageofthesocietyandtheculturalcontext.Youmusthaveexperiencedthatmeaningof the same object or thought varies from one culturalcontexttoanother.Forexample,apersonconsideredtobeintelligentinoneculturalcontextmaynotbeconsideredsoinanotherculture.Studieshaveshownthatapersonwhospeakslessbutplacestheargumentsinitsrightperspectiveis considered intelligent in Asian and African context. Incontrast, the European and African cultures value thepersonwho is fastandtalksmore.Thus, theveryprocessof experiencing reality is facilitated by the cultural tools.Therefore, inadistinctway from internal sources, cultureactsasmeansofknowingandknowledge.Thisisalsotrueinthecaseofschoolknowledge.Because,schoolknowledgeistextualandbeginswithwords;inawayitiswordedworld.Itisprimarilyconceptualknowledge.Inconceptualknowledge,wordsplayvitalroleinunderstandingabstractmeaningof

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concrete. In fact, says Nathaniel Branden (1971), “Words,enableman todealwith suchbroad, complexphenomenaas‘matter’,‘energy’,‘freedom’,‘justice’whichnomindcouldgrasporholdifithadtovisualisealltheperceptualconcretestheseconceptsdesignate.”

Activity 5Inyourschool,youwillnoticethatchildrencomefromdifferentbackgrounds.Observethemandnotedownthe variations in their conceptual understanding ofsameobjects,events,orphenomenon.

It may be further noted that the ideas do not merelyrepresentthings intheir immediateexistenceaspresentedto the senses, but represent properties and relations inabstraction from particular things. This is a product ofthe second signal system in humanbrain. Sensations aresignal’s immediate connections with concrete particularobjects. Words are ‘signals of the first signals’, and theirreferenceisnotonlytoparticular,concretethingswhicharesignaledbysensations,but to the things ingeneralwhichproducesensationsofadefinitekind.Hence,bymeansofwords,wecanexpressgeneralconclusionsaboutthingsandtheir properties, and about how they are to be used. Thesecondsignalsystem,fromwhichcomestheuseofwords,doesnotandcouldnotariseanddevelopasthepersonalorprivatepossessionofindividuals.Thesecondsignalsystem,therefore,candeveloponlybytheformationofalanguage,commontoasocialgroup.

Culture and KnowingThe preceding discussion highlights the role of socialand cultural factors in knowing and construction ofknowledge.YoumusthavereadthatJeanPiaget,theSwisspsychologist,describedintelligenceintermsofassimilation,accommodation, and adaptation. He viewed that cognitivedevelopment among children takes places through fourstages. These are sensory-motor stage (0-2 years), pre-operationalstage(2-7years),concreteoperationalstage(7-12years),andformaloperationalstage(12+years).However,Piagetwascriticisedforoverlookingtheeffectsofsocialand

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culturalenvironmentinknowingandcognitivedevelopmentamongchildren.ThestagesofcognitivedevelopmentobservedbyPiagetarenotnecessarily‘natural’forallchildrenbecause,to some extent, they reflect the expectation and activitiesof children’s culture. Lev Vygotsky’s theory of cognitivedevelopmentsuggeststhatourcognitionisafunctionofbothsocial and cultural forces.Peopleusepsychological tools—language, signs, symbols, etc.,— tomaster the function ofperception,memory,attentionandsoon.Aseachculturehasitsownsetofpsychologicaltools,onemightobserveculturalvariationsinthemeaningattachedtoasituation/object/event.

KnowIng and KnowlEdgE: ThE IndIan wayInIndianphilosophicaltradition,variousschoolsofphilosophyhave discussed differentmeans of valid knowledge. Theseare,inbrief,givenbelow. Pratyaksha, or sense perception is the natural anddirectwayofknowingexternalthings.Itleadstoimmediatecognition. It is the principal means of knowledge ofphysicalworld.Perceptionistheprimarysourceofhumanknowledge.PerceptionisalsodefinedbytheNyaya schoolasthatknowledgewhichiscausedbythecontactofanorgan(indriya)withitsobjectandisinfallible. Broadly speaking, perception (pratyaksha) is twofold—externalandinternal.Perceptionbyanyofthefivesensoryorgans(ofhearing,sight,touch,taste,andsmell)isexternal.Mental perception (of pain or pleasure, of knowledge orignorance,ofloveorhate,andsoforth)isinternal. Another method of knowledge is inference (Anumana).Man alone is capable of this method of knowing. Basedon sensible facts, it goes beyond the reach of the senses.It explores the unseen. Perception acquaints us with theparticularsofathing,andinferencewithitsgeneralnature. A third means of knowledge in the Advait tradition isverbaltestimony,Sabda,thatis,authenticwords,spokenorwritten.Itaddsvastlytoourstockofknowledge.Infact,itistheprincipalmediumofformaleducation. Along with these three means of valid knowledge, theVedanta considers three other means of knowledge. Theyare, comparison (upamana), postulation (arthapatti), andnon-apprehension(anupalabdhi).

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Learning Check 41. Whatismeantbypratyaksha?2. ExplainAnumana.3. Describe the role of sabda in knowledge

acquisition.4. Whatare themeansofknowledge,asdescribed

byVedanta?

FoRmS oF KnowlEdgESofaryoureadthattheknowledgeissumofideas,conceptsaboutobject.Therefore,allknowledgehastwoelements—theobjectandtheconceptualisationoftheobject.Knowledgeofthereal,saysClarenceIrvingLewis(1929),“involvesalwaystwo elements, of givenand ineffablepresentation, and theelement of conceptual interpretation which represents themind’s response.Wemight say that the conceptual is theformal element, of order or relation, and the given is thematerialorcontentelement.” Sincetheknowledgeconsistsofmultipleobjectsandtheirdifferent conceptualisations, it is categorised into differentforms.Further,humanknowledgeisclassificatory;theveryprocessofconceptualisationresultsintothecategorisation/classification of objects and, thereby, the knowledge.Categorisationcouldbedoneeitheronthebasisofobjectoftheknowledgeoronthebasisoflevelofunderstandingofthephenomenon.Knowledgecanalsobeclassifieddependingonthe purpose and the perspective. Thinkers have classifiedthe knowledge into the knowledge of appearance and theknowledge of essence. It is also classified as immediateknowledgeandmediateknowledge.JohnLockedistinguishedthreekindsofknowledge(cited in Encyclopedia of Philosophy).Theseare:1. Intuitiveknowledge,ofsuchthingsasthefactthatred

isnotgreenandthefactofone’sownexistence;2. Demonstrativeknowledge,whichincludesmathematics,

morality,andtheexistenceofGod;and3. Sensitive knowledge, which is concerned with “the

particularexistenceoffinitebeingswithoutus.” Knowledge, in a practical way, can be classified intofollowing categories on the basis of means used in the

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processofknowingbywhichaparticular‘class’ofknowledgeisgenerated.

• ExperientialKnowledge,aformofknowledgethatcanonly be obtained through experience. For example,theknowledgeofwhatitisliketoseecolours,whichcannotbeexplainedtoapersonbornblind.

• ExperimentalKnowledgeisbasedonorderivedfromexperience,orempiricalevidences.

• ReasonedorLogicalKnowledge isknowledgeof thetruthsandprinciplesofdeductivelogic.

• IntuitiveKnowledgeistheknowledgethatisacquiredwithoutinferenceand/ortheuseofreason.Itcomesfromwithinbylookinginsideorcontemplation.

• RevealedKnowledge,factsthataresimplyapparenttopeopleandcan’tbedenied,astheyseeit.

At the beginning, we have seen that the Knowledgeis always knowledge of some phenomenon/thing/object.Therefore,simplestandmostpracticalbasisofclassifyingtheKnowledgeisthephenomenon/objectwhichtheknowledgeprobes into.Selection of school/disciplinaryknowledge isbasedonthiscategorisation.Table2containstheobjectofstudy,itsconceptualisation,methodsofunderstandingandvalidation,ifany.

Activity 6Selectachapterfromsciencetextbook.AnalyseitwithrespecttothedimensionsgiveninTable2.Repeatthisexerciseforothersubjects.

ChaRaCTERISTICS oF KnowlEdgEKnowledgehasfollowingcharacteristicsthatexplicatesandbringsforthitsnature.

non-MAteriAL AnD AbstrACt nAtUre oF KnowLeDgeThe various definitions of knowledge, be it common sensemeaning of knowledge that the knowledge is sharedunderstanding; be it justified belief, or verified belief, oragreement between two ideas or knowledge is sum ofconcepts, ideas,principles, laws;pointout thatknowledgeisnon-materialandabstractinnature.Inadditiontothis,

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Table2

Kno

wle

dge

Cla

ssifi

cati

on

Sl.

No

Scho

ol

Subj

ect

Phen

omen

on/O

bjec

t of

Stu

dyN

atur

e of

the

Kno

wle

dge

Mod

es o

f U

nder

stan

ding

Nat

ure

of V

alid

atio

n

1.Natural

Science

Nature–Physicaland

Biological

‘Con

cretethings’

Cau

sal;‘Objective’w

ith

littlesubjectivity

Observation

,Experim

entation

Verification

/falsification

2.Social

Science

Societyin

allits

aspects

Dynam

ic;

Normative;

Interpretative

Interpretative

Understanding;

Criticalevaluations;

Dialogu

e.

Con

stan

tlyreconstructed

inthelightofvaluesand

utilities;Judgedin

thelight

ofNormativeresolution

s

3.Maths

Numbers,S

ymbols

andLogic,

‘Abstractthou

ght’

Human

con

structionand

Highlystructured

Axiom

atic;

Abstractan

dGiven

LogicalD

eductions

Proof

4.Langu

age

Words,G

rammar;

Culture;

Human

con

structionbut

Highlydynam

ic;

Inter-subjective;C

reative

Narration

s;

Creative

expression

s

Utilitarian

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Basics in Education

knowledge has certain other characteristics, such as it issocial in nature, it is cumulative and perspectival, and islimitedandlimitless.Letusanalysethesecharacteristicsofknowledge.

soCiAL ChArACter oF KnowLeDgeKnowledge is a socially shared understanding. Thus, it isessentiallyasocialproduct.Itisbuiltupsocially,asaproductof thesocialactivityofmenandwomen.Knowledge isnotthe handiwork of isolated individualmind; it is the resultof collectivepursuit of the society. Though contributionofindividualsinknowledgegenerationisimmenseandtheroleindividuals inaccumulationof knowledge,atanypointofhistory,istremendous,alltheindividualsdothishistoricalactofgeneratingandaccumulatingtheknowledgepreciselyby participating in social activity and processes. Not onlythat,theknowledgestock,intowhichindividualsareborn,providesindividualswithasenseofunderstanding.Withoutthis,noindividualcouldhavecontributedtotheknowledge.Every individual acquires a great deal of knowledge fromhisownexperience;buthewouldnotdosoapartfromhisassociationwithfellowhumans.Therefore,theknowledgeisacquiredandbuiltuponly insociety,and its roots lies inthesocialactivitiesofman.Hence,knowledgeisessentiallysocialincharacter.

CUMULAtive nAtUre oF KnowLeDgeKnowledge is cumulative in nature because it is sociallypreservedandtransmittedfromonegenerationtothefuturegenerations.Itisnotstatic,butalwaysgrowsanddevelopsin generations. Indeed, as there is scope for newer andnewerunderstandingofreality,knowledgeoftherealitygetsexpanded.Ashumanrelationswithworldofobjectsandtheirutilities,ideasandtheirrelevanceassumesnewerdimensionsovertime,humanunderstandingoftheworldofobjectsandtheworldofideasundergoeschangeandintheprocessaddsnewknowledge to the existing stock of knowledge. In thisway, incomplete understanding moves towards completeunderstanding of the reality. Knowledge grows througha process of not only adding to but also perfecting and

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correctingthealreadyexistingbodyofknowledge.Innofieldisknowledgeeverperfect,finalandcomplete.Knowledgeisnecessarily cumulative; knowledge once constructed doesnotperish;because,knowledge,unlikematerialthingsthatperishaftersometime,isnon-materialinnature.Therefore,accumulationisinevitable.

KnowLeDge is PersPeCtivAL Knowledge does not simply ‘explain’ the objective realityhanging‘outthere’;itconstructstherealitywithinthelimitssetbyexperience.Itisnotsimplyexplanatoryincharacter;rather, it is interpretative in character and nature. It isinterpreted in a social context. This inherent character ofinterpretiveness of knowledgemakes it perspectival ratherthan simply perceptual. Knowledge develops perspectivesamongknowers.

KnowLeDge is both LiMiteD AnD LiMitLessThecumulativecharacterofknowledgealsoinformsusbothlimit and limitless nature of knowledge. At any particularstage in the development of humanity, knowledge comesup against limits set by the limited character of availableexperienceandbytheexistingmeansinobtainingknowledge.Therefore,knowledgeisalwayslimited,andisatthesametimelimitless.Inotherwords,theknownisalwaysboundedbytheunknownbutnottheunknowable.

Learning Check 51. So far, you have seen the role of perception

in knowledge. As perception is conditioned/facilitated/limited by biological constitution/factors as well cultural factors that include,language, beliefs and normative orientation ofindividual, critically examine the roles of thosefactorsintheirknowing.

2. Whatistheroleofperceptionindifferentareasofknowledge?Howdoesitdifferacrossvariousschooldisciplines/subjects—language, mathematics,socialscience,artsandscience?

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FaCETS oF KnowlEdgEKnowing is an act of identification that invariably andinstantaneously includes differentiation; to identify wedifferentiateandtodifferentiateweidentify.Forexample,firstofallyoumayidentifythefacilitiesavailableintwoormoreschools and differentiate between them, which is a betterone,basedontheidentifiedcharacteristics.Unificationanddifferentiationare simultaneousdimensionsof knowingorcognition.Conceptformation,saysNathaneilBranden(1971),“movesfromtheapprehensionofsimilaritiesanddifferencesamongexistents(entities,attributes,actions,relationships)toanexplicitidentificationofthenatureofthosesimilaritiesand differences. Concept formation involves a process ofdiscriminationandintegration.” Therefore,conceptmeansacognitiveact(s)ofunificationofdifferentinternalaspects/properties/characteristicsofanobjectwhileseparatingitfromandestablishingrelationshipwithotherthings.Itisnon-materialcodificationofmaterialreality. It is making ‘general’ statement of ‘particulars’.Thus, knowledge has two facets: identification of specificcharacteristics of different objects and drawing generalconclusionsbasedupon the specificities. It is pertinent toquoteJeromeBruner(1972)tomakemeaningofrelationshipof two facets – particular and general – of knowledge. Hesays, “We organise experience to represent not only theparticular that have been experienced, but the classes ofevents of which the particulars are exemplars.We go notonlyfromparttowhole,butirresistiblyfromtheparticularto the general.” Knowledge is sum ofmeanings, concepts,laws, and principles, that are ‘universals’ of particularphenomenon;knowledgeisabstracted(whichareuniversals)concretes(whichareparticulars).Tobeprecise,knowledgeisabstractionofconcretereality.Abstractideaistheexpressionofvariousconcretepractices.Itisthetheoryofpracticethatemanates from the practice and shapes future practice.Abstractionhasvariouslevels.

the LeveLs oF AbstrACtionAbstracts and concretes are relative to context and levels.Sense ‘perception’ is an abstraction of concrete reality.Here qualities of the perceived object are abstracted by

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the perceiver; at the same time sense ‘perception’may besaidtobeconcreteincomparisonwiththeabstractnessofconcepts/ideas, since sensations are signals of particular,concrete objects, whereas concepts/ideas are formed by afurther process of abstraction. The concept/idea of cat,for example, is an abstraction formed out of the repeatedperceptionofparticularcat,andexpresseswhatiscommontomany observed particulars. The abstraction involved inconcepts/ideasis,therefore,ofanotherorderofabstractionfromthatofperception.Perceptioninvolvestheabstractionofparticularaspectsofathingfromtheconcretething,whereasconcepts/ideas abstraction involveswhat is common fromamong many particulars. Thus, again, the concept/ideaof ‘animal’ ishigher levelofabstraction thanconcept/ideaof aparticular ‘kindof animal’. Still further abstraction isspecies. It goes on and on. The only absolute distinctionwhichcanbedrawnbetweentheabstractandtheconcreteisthedistinctionbetweentheconcretenessofphenomenonandtheabstractnessofitsreflectioninconsciousness.

inForMAtion, beLieF, AnD trUthKnowledge isexpressedorsharedintheforminformation,belief,andtruth.Infact,whenknowledgeisstatedintheform

Table3Knowledge in relation to information, belief, and truth

Information Belief TruthItisrawdata;Itisdiscrete;Pre-meaningstageofknowledge;Prerequisitetoknowledge;Preliminarylevelofknowledge;Itisaboutfactsofknown;Publiclyavailable.

Beliefispersonalandprimarilysubjectivefeelingandexpectation,thoughsharedbyothers;Couldbeverifiedorbeyondverification;Pre-linguisticexperiencemaybecalled‘belief’Preparednessfordelayedreactiontoasituationisbelief–beittrueorfalse;preparednessfordelayedreactionthatisonlytrueisknowledge.Pre-intellectualresponsetoasituation;Unverifiedknowledge;pre-verifiedstageofknowledge;Unquestionableknowledge.

Verifiedknowledge;Truthisapropertyofbeliefs,andderivativelyofsentenceswhichexpressbeliefs.

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of concepts, principles, laws, propositions, and theoremsandentersintopublicdomainforconsumption,itassumesvariousformsdependingonthecontextandtheemotionitevokesinknower.However,thereisdifferencebetweenthese‘terms’.Table3informsusdistinctfeaturesofeachterm.

Learning Check 61. Howdobeliefsinfluencethepursuitofknowledge?2. Whataredifferentknowledgeclaims indifferent

subjectareas?Haveaninter-disciplinarydialogue.3. Whatkindofreasoningwedo insocialsciences

andnaturalsciences?Dowefindanydifference?

Let Us sUM UPWebeganthischapterbyexaminingthenatureofknowledge.You have read that knowledge is both a process and aproduct. You further read that sensation, perception, andconceptformationaretheessentialprocessesofknowledgeacquisition. The Indianway of knowing gives emphasis ofpratyaksha (sense perception), anuman (inference), sabda(word),andupamana(comparison),arthapatti(postulation),and anupalabdhi (non-apprehension). Further, theknowledgecanbecategorised indifferentcategoriesbaseduponitsnatureandmeansofacquiringknowledge.Includedamong the characteristics of knowledge are its abstractnature,socialembeddedness,cumulativeness,perspectival,and limited and limitlessness. Information and belief playimportantrolesinformationofknowledge.

review eXerCises• Explainwhentheknowledgeisconsideredtobeaprocess

andaproduct.• Describe the role of sensation, perception and concept

formationinknowledgeacquisition.• ExplaintheIndianwayofknowing.• Whatarethevariousclassificationsofknowledge?• Explainthecharacteristicsofknowledgewithexamples.• Whatarethedifferentfacetsofknowledge?

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reFerenCes/ FUrther reADingsBranden, nathaneil. 1971.Psychology of Self-esteem,Bantam

Books,NewYork.Bruner, J.S. 1972. The Relevance of Education (Edited by

AnitaGil).GeorgeAllen&UnwinLtd.,London.dewey, John. 2010. Essays in Experimental Logic, Aakar

Books,Delhi.durant, will.1966.The Pleasures of Philosophy.Simonand

Schuster.NewYork.Encyclopedia of Philosophy.1967.Macmillan.lewiS, C.l.1929.Mind and the World-order.DoverPublications

Inc.,NewYork.loCke, John. 1690. An Essay Concerning Human

Understanding.NCERT. 2005. National Curriculum Framework. 2005.

NationalCouncilofEducationalResearchandTraining,NewDelhi.

ruSSell, Bertrand. 2003. Human Knowledge. Routledge,London.

Swami SatprakaShananda. 1995. Methods of Knowledge according to Advaita Vedanta. Advaita Ashrama(PublicationDepartment),Calcutta.

Chapter 5

Process of Knowing

STRUCTURE• Introduction• Objectives• ProcessofKnowing• WaysofKnowing

– SensePerception– Language– Reason– Emotion

• ProcessofKnowledgeConstruction– EssentialsforConstructionofKnowledge– TheProcessofConstructivism– GuidingPrinciplesofConstructivistLearning

Let Us Sum UpReview QuestionsReferences

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InTRodUCTIonInChapter4,youhavelearntaboutthenatureofknowledge.Nowthequestionarisesisthathowdopeoplecometoknowthe various things happening around them. What is themechanismorprocessofknowing?Youshouldunderstandthat ‘knowing’ isnotaone-timeaffair;rather,peoplelearnthings daily and it is a life-long process. Life experiencesaregreat sourcesofknowledge.Wekeepon learning fromchildhood to adulthood till old age, and gather knowledgethrough various sources and methods. You will read inthischapter theprocessesofknowing,what it entailsandwhatdeterminesit.Youwillalsolearnthenumerouswaysof knowing and the role played by each in the process ofknowledgeconstruction.Thevarioustypesofknowledgeandtheirmutualinteractionarealsoenumeratedupon.

objECTIvESAfterreadingthisunityouwillbeableto:• describethemeaningofknowledge;• identifythedifferentwaysofknowing;• describetheprocessofknowledgeconstruction;and• enumerate the relative roles of knower and known in

knowledgetransmissionandconstruction.

PRoCESS of KnowIngAs you know, in today’s world, the knowledge and thecapabilitytocreateandutiliseknowledgeareconsideredtobemostadvantageoustoanindividual.Knowledgecreationisadialecticalprocess,whichinvolvessystemisationofvariousfactsthroughdynamicinteractionsbetweenindividualsandthe environment. Knowledge creation is a spiral that goesthrough seemingly opposing concepts such as order andchaos,micro andmacro, part andwhole,mindandbody,tacitandexplicit,selfandother,deductionand induction,andcreativityandefficiency.Thereisaneedtounderstandthatknowledgecreationisatranscendingprocessthroughwhich entities (individuals, groups, and institutions) gobeyondtheboundaryoftheoldintoanewselfbyacquiringnew knowledge. In the process, new conceptual artifactsand structures for interaction are created, which provide

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possibilitiesaswellasconstraintheentitiesinconsequentknowledge creation. Thus, knowledge creation is a cyclicprocess. You have learnt in the last chapter that knowledge isnotpartof thereality. It isarealityviewed fromacertainangleorcontext.Thesamerealitycanbevieweddifferentlydependingontheangle(context)fromwhichoneseesit.TheIndiancontextalsoemphasisesontheroleofdesh(ecology),kala (time),andpatra (person).Thesamereality is vieweddifferently by different persons, in different times, and indifferentcontexts.Itmeansthat,inknowledgecreation,onecannotbefreefromone’sowncontext.Thesocial,cultural,and historical contexts are important for individuals,becausesuchcontextsgivethebasisto individualstogivemeaning to it. That is why, limited interaction with theenvironment and externalisation of personal knowledgecanleadtoontologicalillsandfallacies,becausethewholecomplexityofgivenphenomenonmayremainundiscovered.Hence, in knowledge creation, one tries to see the entirepictureofrealitybyinteractingwiththosewhoseetherealityfromotherangles. It is importanthere tounderstandhowtheinteractionsamongtheparts(individuals,workgroups,etc.)aredynamicallylinkedtoformacontinuouslyevolvingwhole,which, in turn, impacts theenvironmentwhere thelearningactuallytakesplace. Knowledgeiscreatedthroughinteractionsbetweenhumanagencyandsocialstructures.Ouractionsandinteractionswiththeenvironmentcreateandenlargeknowledgethroughtheconversionprocessof tacitandexplicitknowledge.Weenactouractionswith twomain levelsof consciousness –practical consciousness and discursive consciousness inour daily lives. The discursive consciousness gives us ourrationalisationsforactionsandreferstomoreconsciousandthereforemoreexplicitly theoreticalknowing.Thepracticalconsciousnessreferstothelevelofourlivesthatwedonotreallythinkaboutortheorise.Inthatsense,wecansaythattacitknowledgeisproducedbyourpracticalconsciousnessand explicit knowledge is produced by our discursiveconsciousness. Anytheorythatattemptstodefinetheprocessofknowingis required to explain as to how information is accessed,

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stored, and retrieved in order tounderstandhow learningtakesplace.Knowingbeginswithundifferentiatedperceptionof personal space and time along with undifferentiatedsensorial reactions to internal and external stimuli. Withtheacquisitionoflanguage,formulationsofselfandnon-selfco-emergeasdifferentiatedentitiesthatarestored,recalled,imagined, and communicated with maximum contextualrelevance. Since, during the precursor stage, thoughts,emotions, and symbolic language are not fully functional,theprocessofknowing is limited to learningpre-linguisticvisual-spatialcontextualrelevance. Figure 1 illustrates the levels of the mind and therelationshipamongknower,processofknowing,andknown.The level of awareness of the knower determines thecorrespondingprocessofknowing,aswellasthenatureofthe knowledge gained. Education traditionally trains theknowertousedeeperlevelsofthemindtogainmoreusefulandfulfillingknowledge.Knowerandknownareunitedonthe ground of transcendental consciousness. The result iscomplete knowledge of natural law, and on that basis,thoughtandactionarespontaneouslymosteffective.

Figure1: Knower-known through the process of knowing

Theprocessofknowingisapersonalised,individualtaskthatisinfluencedbyexperienceandunintentionalcontextualcues. There are three aspects of knowledge – the knower(theconsciousnessoftheparticipant),theknown(thefieldofstudy),andtheprocessofknowing (whichconnects theknowertotheknown).Moderneducationfocusesonlyonthe

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known,thefieldofstudy,andexcludestheothertwo-thirdsofknowledge,theknowerandtheprocessofknowing.

Activity 11. Thinkofhowknowledgeconstructionisthespiral

process.2. Selectafewsocialincidentsorphenomenon.Try

toanalysehowtheirmeaningsvaryaccordingtothecontext.

Learning Check 11. Whyis it importanttoknowtheviewsofpeople

having diverse perspectives in the process ofknowledgeconstruction?

2. Differentiate between practical and discursiveknowledge.

3. Explaintherelationshipbetweenknower,processofknowing,andknown.

wayS of KnowIngWecome to knowabout the environment through variousways.Intheearlierchapter,youreadthatperception,reason,logicandlanguageareallvalidwaysofknowingandallhaveaparticularpurposeandplace.Achild,frominfancytoearlychildhood,reliesheavilyonsenseperceptionforknowledgeacquisition.Itisonlyaftersteppingintolatechildhoodthattheotherthreewaysofknowingstarttakingplace.Languageand emotions are followed by reason. By adulthood, it isa combination of all the four that actively converge in theprocessofknowledgeacquisition.

Activity 21. Observe children of different age groups. Note

down the incidents that reflect the children areusing perception, reason, logic and language inknowledgeacquisition.Notedowntheiragesalsowhentheybeginusingtheseprocesses.

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A teacher needs to train the students in the criticalevaluationofknowledge,sothattheycanseehowdifferenttypes of knowledge have to be judged in different ways.Critical evaluation will also allow them to evaluate newknowledgeas theyrelate tospecificknowledge issues.Thedifferentwaysbywhich students canbe initiated into theprocessofknowingare:• By perceiving concrete objects and acquiring sensory

knowledge.• Byexperiencingsituationsthemselves.• Byrelatingtopreviousknowledge/associations.• Byrelatingtoreallifesituations.• By dealing with problematic situations and developing

rationalandabstractknowledge.• By interacting with others and gaining knowledge of

relationships.Letusdiscussthefourwaysofknowinginsomedetail.

SenSe PerCePtionThoughsenseperception is themostbasicand immediate‘wayofknowing’,sometimesitmightnotbeaveryreliablesource. All the five senses, i.e., touch, taste, sight, smelland hearing, contribute immensely towards our quest forknowledgeacquisition.Theyaresometimesreferredtoasthegatewaysofknowledge.

Some questions pertinent to Sense Perception• How do sensation and perception differ?

Perceptionisdescribedasaprocessofregisteringsensorystimuliasmeaningfulexperience.Acommondistinctionbetween sensation and perception is that sensationsare simple sensory experiences, while percepts arecomplexconstructionsofsimpleelementsjoinedthroughassociation.Another is thatperception is influencedbyexpectations,needs,unconsciousideas,values,conflicts,andpastlearningoftheperson.

• to what extent do our senses give us knowledge of the real world?Allthefivesenses(touch,taste,sight,smellandhearing)contributeinprovidinguswiththeknowledgeoftherealworld.

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• in what manner does our physical constitution (mind/intellect) influence and limit our sense perception?Senseperception isasubjectiveactivityhence itvariesfrom individual to individual, depending upon one’sinnate abilities. Our intellect defines the limits of oursenseperception.Youmusthavereadtheproverbwhichsaysthatweseethingsasweare,notasthethingsare.Our physical conditions, motivational dispositions andmentalstatedirectsoursenseperception.

• What are the various stimuli (range of stimuli) that make us respond?Humanbeingsareabletodetectarangeofstimulifromtheexternalenvironment,someofwhichareuseful forknowledge acquisition and communication. All objects,events, phenomenon, living and non-living things, etc.constitute the stimuli. Any change around in one’senvironment elicits a responsewhich is a precursor toknowledgeconstructionandconsolidation.

• What is the actual mental construction of sense perception?Perception is the process of attaining awareness orunderstandingof theenvironmentbyorganisingandinterpretingsensorystimuli.Perceptionisnotthepassivereceiptofthesesignals.Itisshapedbylearning,memoryandexpectation.Itdependsoncomplexfunctionsofthenervoussystem,butseemsmostlyeffortlessbecausethisprocessinghappensoutsideconsciousawareness.

• How is perception interpreted?Perceptionismerelytheinterpretationoftheinformationgathered through thefive sense organs into a cohesivewhole.

• How does technological advancement alter/affect our sense perception?Theadvancementintechnology(e.g.,useofaudio-visual,multi-media, animation, etc.) in some ways, deepensoursensorycontactwithrealitywhilealsoreducingitatother levels. In the near future, technologywill extendanddeepenournaturalperceptionsbymakingoursenseperceptionmoreevolved.Wewillseemoreoftheworld,penetrate into itsmysteriesmorefullywithoursenses,andperceiveitmoreaccuratelythanwedotoday.With

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virtualworldsbecomingarealitytheonlyfearisthatwemaylosecontactwithrealityinsomesense.

• What do perceptual theories have to say about the process of knowing?Weperceivetheworldasitis.Thewaythatthingslook,feel,smell,taste,andsoundarethewaythattheyare.Weseecolours,forexample,becausetheworldiscoloured.Thisviewofperceptioniscalled,somewhatdismissively,naive realism.

Plausibly, the perception is a lot more complicatedthanthis.Thoughthingsmayappeartobecolouredtous, our experiencesof colouraremerely representativeofthesurfacepropertyofobjects;thephysicalpropertyofreflectingcertainwavelengthsof lightandthecolour‘red’ aswe experience it are two quite different things.Thisiscalledrepresentative realism,whichsuggeststhatperceptionisnotthepassiveprocessthatthenaiverealistsuggests.Rather,weareactivelyinvolvedinperception,supplyingmuchof thecontentof our experiences,andmustbearthisinmindifwearetoknowwhattheworldisreallylikeinitself.

More extreme than either naive or representativerealismis idealism.Idealists,persuadedbythethoughtthatwehavedirectaccessonlytoourexperiencesoftheworld,andnottotheworlditself,havequestionedwhetherthereisanythingbeyondourexperiences.Amorerecenttheory,phenomenalism,whichbearssomesimilaritiestoidealism,hasalsobeenproposed.

• How sensory stimuli are restructured into structured knowledge?Perceptionisthebackgroundofexperiencewhichguideseveryconsciousaction.Theworldisafieldforperception,andhumanconsciousnessassignsmeaningtotheworld.Wecannotseparateourselvesfromourperceptionsoftheworld. Experience is the primary source of knowledge,andknowledgeisderivedfromsensoryperceptions.Forexample,duringavisittoapark,childrenreactdifferentlyto their surroundings.While some students are drawnto the colours of the flowers, others react to the sweetsmells and some completely ignore the flowers, optingtoplaywiththeswings.Lateron,whenaskedtorelate

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theexperience,somestudentsdescribethecoloursoftheflowers,others,thesmells,someothersjustdescribetheplaythingsinthepark.Eachstudentdescribesaccordingtohis/herownsense perception.Whenaskedtorecognise‘rose’,somerecogniseitbycolourandshape,whileothersbyitssmell.Thisindicatesthateachstudentconstructshis/herown imageabout theflowerusinghis/herownsense perception.

Learning Check 21. Whysenseorgansareconsideredthegatewaysof

knowledge?2. Why knowledge acquired through sensory

perceptionisnotconsideredreliable?3. Giveexamplesofexternalstimuli.Howare they

differentfrominternalstimuli?4. Describetheroleoftechnologyinsenseperception.5. Whatistheroleofexperienceinsenseperception?

LAnguAgeLanguage acts as a carrier or medium for conveying theknowledge from one individual to the other. It integratesknowledgeacquiredthroughvariedsourcesatvariedplacesandnames it (concept-name). Ithelps inmemorisingandrecalling.Inthiscontext,thefollowingsshouldbekeptinview.

Contribution of Language to Knowledge Acquisition and TransmissionTheacquisitionofafirstlanguageoccurssoeasilyformostpeople,andcommunicationwithothersissoeffortless,thatthe influence of language in shaping thoughts is seldomnoticed.Theappealofawell-constructedargumentcanbesensed even without any formal training in logic or otherformsofreasoning.Language issomuchapartofhumanactivitythatitiseasilytakenforgranted.Theissuesrelatedto language and knowledge call for conscious scrutiny inordertorecogniseitsinfluenceonthoughtandbehaviour.

Knower–Known RelationshipLanguage facilitates the process of knowing. The role oflanguage in constructing knowledge is vital. Language is

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commonlyunderstoodasa tool todescribeandreport thereality. However, this is a limited view of language sincelanguageisnotonlycontent;italsoprovidescontextandawaytore-contextualisecontent.Wedonotonlydescribeandreportwithlanguagebutwecreatewithit.Itisarguedthatlanguagesignificantlyinfluenceshowweconstructknowledgewhileinteractingwitheachother.Wordsexpressedthroughlanguageandtheirmeaninginfluencehowweperceiveandinterprettheworldaroundus.Languageaffectsourthinking.Whileconstructingknowledge,weareprocessingcognitionsthrough language. Therefore, language is considered as avehicleofthought. Itisanacceptedfactthatknowledgeissociallyconstructed.However,howknowledgeisconstructedandwhatsustainsitislesscommonlyunderstood.Languageandmeaningplaysa crucial role in knowledge construction. In analysing therole of language and meaning in knowledge constructionthreeissuesmaybepointedout:

• Weknowmore,thanwecantell;• Wesaymore,thanweknow;and• Whatissaid,willbeinterpreteddifferently.

Activity 3Think of concrete examples of three issues relatedto the role of language and meaning in knowledgeconstructionanddiscussthemwithyourteacher.

reASonDevelopingrationalandcritical thinkingabilities ispivotaltoacquiring reliableknowledge. It involvesbothconsciousandunconsciousreasoning.Sometimeswhathashappenedin the past (previous experience) teach us to reason withreference to the future. Developing association betweenpast,presentandfutureoccurrencesispartofthereasoningprocesscreatingpatterns/chainsinprocessoflearning. In logic, we often refer to the two broad methods ofreasoning as the deductive and inductive approaches.Deductive reasoning works from the more general to themore specific. Sometimes this is informally called a ‘top-down’approach. Inductive reasoningworks theotherway,

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movingfromspecificobservationstobroadergeneralisationsandtheories.Informally,wesometimescallthisa‘bottom-up’approach.Itisoftenthecasethatwhendisputesariseoverknowledgeclaims,whatisatissueisnotonlythesubstanceorfactsofthematter,butalsothelogicorreasonsgivenforacceptanceofthefacts,andtheproceduresusedinreachingaconclusion.

Activity 4Thinkofexamplesofdeductiveandinductivereasoningfromscience,language,maths,etc.Discussthemingroupwithotherstudents.

emotionTheemotionsandtheirexpressionvaryacrossculturesandhence knowledge so acquiredmaynot be as reliable. It issubjectiveandlessmeasurable.Ithelpsaswellashindersin the process of knowledge construction. The training ofemotionsisakeyfactorinenhancingtheteaching-learningprocess.Arousingpositiveemotionsintheknowerfacilitatessmoother transmission of knowledge. The teacher shouldhelpcreatepositiveemotionsintheknowerabouttheknown.Curiosityandeagernessarethemostessentialones.

Learning Check 31. Describethecharacteristicsofsensoryknowledge.2. How does language shape the acquisition of

knowledge?3. Differentiate between deductive and inductive

reasoning.4. What role do emotions play in knowledge

acquisition?

PRoCESS of KnowlEdgE ConSTRUCTIonInthecontextofschool,theknowledgeconstructionprocessrelates to the extent to which teachers help students tounderstand, investigate, and determine how the implicitcultural assumptions, frames of references, perspectives,andbiaseswithinadiscipline influencetheways inwhichknowledgeisconstructed.Threeprocessesaresingledoutas

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crucialtoconstructingthisknowledge:activationofexistingknowledge, communication between stakeholders, andenvisioningofhowanewsystemwillchangeworkpractices. Activating knowledge refers to making it explicit andaccessibletoallstakeholders.Bothusersanddevelopersofknowledgebenefitfromactivation. Communicationbetweenstakeholdersconsistsofcreatingasharedunderstandingthroughinteractionamongpeople.Itisasocialactivityinwhichallparticipateandcontributeto knowledge construction. It does not simply refer totransmissionofinformationfromonepersontoanother.Theunderstanding created through communication can neverbeabsoluteor complete,but instead isan interactiveandongoing process in which common ground, i.e., assumedmutualbeliefsandmutualknowledge,isaccumulatedandupdatedthroughnegotiationandaccumulationofmeaningovertime. Envisioning is the third key knowledge constructionprocess.Envisioningisaconstructiveprocessinthesensethatitisbasedonpriorunderstandingsbutextendstowardthefuture.Itis,therefore,differentfromactivationbecauseitbuildsnewunderstandings,ratherthansurfacingexistingones.

Activity 5Think of concrete examples of three processes ofknowledge construction,mentioned above from reallifeexperiences.

The recent thinking about knowledge constructionassumes that knowledge is not something which canbe transmitted from one person to another; rather, it isjointly constructed by all parties involved in the processof knowledge construction. Constructivism is basically atheory,basedonobservationandscientificstudy,abouthowpeoplelearn.Accordingtothistheory,peopleconstructtheirown understanding and knowledge of the world, throughexperiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.Whenoneencounterssomethingnew,onereconcilesitwithone’spreviousideasandexperiences,maybechangingwhatone believes, ormaybe discarding the new information as

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irrelevant.Inanycase,onebecomesactivecreatorsofone’sownknowledge,askingquestions,exploring,andassessingwhatoneknows.Asteachers,wemustencouragestudentsto constantly assess how the activity is helping them togain understanding. By questioning themselves and theirstrategies, students in the constructivist classroom ideallybecome ‘expert learners’. This gives them ever-broadeningtools to keep learning. With a well-planned classroomenvironment, thestudents learn ‘how to learn’.Onemightlookatitasaspiral.Whentheycontinuouslyreflectontheirexperiences,studentsfindtheirideasgainingincomplexityandpower,andtheydevelopincreasinglystrongabilitiestointegratenew information.Oneof the teacher’smainrolesbecomestoencouragethislearningandreflectionprocess. example: A group of students in a science class arediscussingaprobleminphysics.Thoughtheteacherknowsthe‘answer’totheproblem,shefocusesonhelpingstudentsrestate their questions in useful ways. She prompts eachstudent to reflect on and examine his or her currentknowledge. When one of the students comes up with therelevantconcept, the teacherseizesupon it,and indicatesto thegroup that thismightbea fruitfulavenue for themto explore.Theydesignandperform relevant experiments.Afterward, the students and teacher talk aboutwhat theyhave learned,andhowtheirobservationsandexperimentshelped (or did not help) them to better understand theconcept.

Learning Check 4What are the variousways throughwhich teacherscanhelpstudentstoconstructtheirknowledge?Giveexamples.

eSSentiALS for ConStruCtion of KnoWLedgeConstructivism as a paradigm hypothesises that learningis an active, constructive process. Here, the learner is anactive constructor of information. In this process, thelearners actively construct or create their own subjectiverepresentations of objective reality. New information islinked to prior knowledge, giving mental representationsits subjective nature. Here, learning involves an active,

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contextualised process of constructing knowledge ratherthan merely acquiring it. Each person distinctly interpretthe information and engages in his/her own knowledgeconstructionprocess.Constructivismdoesnotconsiderthelearner a blank slate (tabula rasa), but assumes them topossessacompositeofpastexperiencesinaculturalcontext.There are certain essentials for knowledge construction.Thesearedescribedbelow.• Previousknowledgeofthelearnerworksasthefoundation

forbuildingthefutureknowledge.• The background and environment of learner:Constructivism

takes intoaccount thebackgroundandenvironmentofthelearner.Forexample,wecannotexpectalearnerwholivesinLeh(acolddesertarea)tounderstandtheconceptof evergreen fir tree because he has not seen any treearound.

• ‘Hands-on’ experiences:Sometheoristsofconstructivismbelieveinlearningbydoing.Forexample,youcannotlearnswimmingbytheoreticalclasses,you’vegottojumpintothewater.Itmay,however,benotedthatconstructivismdoesnot essentiallymean learningbydoing somethingphysicallyonly.Itcouldbelearningbydoingmentallyaswell.

• Constructivism does not believe in transmission ofknowledgefromonepersontoanother.It’snotasifwearefillingabucketwithwateroutofawell.Theknowledgetobeeffectiveandlonglasting,eachlearnerhastobuildone’sownknowledgebase.

• The teacher provides direction to the learner. He/shehelpsindevelopinginquisitivenessamongthelearnerssothattheycanmovetowardsfindinganswers/solutionstothequestionandtherebygrasptheconcept.Theteacheralso identifiesthe levelacquiredbythe learnerandthelevela learner is capableofattaining.The teacheralsoreasonsoutwiththe learnertheconsequencesofotheralternatives. For example, while teaching fourth gradelearners about houses inmountains; it would amounttostiflingthe learningprocesstosimplytalkabouttheslopingroofsandwoodenstructures.Theknowershouldmotivatethelearnertoprobewhatwouldbetheresultifwehadflatroofandthatchedroofs?Whywoodismore

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viable than marble or stone (cost factor, convenience,transportation,etc.)?

• The teacher also helps the learner to chart the courseof learningsothat learner isnotthrownoff track.Thisisdoneby layingdownspecific learningobjectivesandexpected learning outcomes. With every new concept,theknower(teacher)shouldrestrictherselftominimumachievableobjectives.

• The teacher should inter-relate concepts, subjects andactivitiesacrossthecurriculumsothatwhatislearnedinoneactivitygetsstrengthenedandreaffirmedinanother(IntegrationofConcept).

Learning Check 51. Whatarethebasicpremisesofconstructivism?2. Show with examples how does hands-on-

experienceshelpinconstructingknowledge?3. Describe the role of teacher in the process of

knowledgeconstruction.4. What is meant by internalisation of concepts?

Giveexamples.

tHe ProCeSS of ConStruCtiviSmIn the classroom that follows constructivist approach,students work primarily in groups, and learning andknowledgeresultfromthedynamicinteractioninthegroup.There isa focusedemphasisonsocialandcommunicationskills,aswellascollaborationandexchangeofideasamongthe groupmembers.Contrary to the traditional classroomin which students work primarily alone and learning isachievedthroughrepetitionwhereinthesubjectsarestrictlyadheredtoandareguidedbya textbook, inconstructivistclassroomsvariousactivelearningactivitiesareencouraged.Someactivitiesencouragedinconstructivistclassroomsare:• Experimentation: students individually perform an

experimentandthencometogetherasaclasstodiscusstheresults.

• Research projects: students research a topic and canpresenttheirfindingstotheclass.

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• Field trips: Thisallowsstudentstoputtheconceptsandideas discussed in class in a real-world context. Fieldtripswouldoftenbefollowedbyclassdiscussions.

• Films: These provide visual context and thus bringanothersenseintothelearningexperience.

• Class discussions: This technique is used in all of themethodsdescribedabove.Itisoneofthemostimportantdistinctionsofconstructivistteachingmethods.

Activity 61. Select a concept from science textbook and

perform an experiment to personally verify thenatureoftheconcept.

2. Organiseafieldtriptoazoowithotherclassmates.Observeandnotedownthebehaviourofanimals.Findoutsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweentheirbehaviour.

Intoday’sICT-friendlylearningenvironment,constructivistapproachescanalsobeusedinonlinelearning.Forexample,toolssuchasdiscussionforums,wikisandblogscanenablelearners to actively construct knowledge. Constructivistapproaches tend to validate individual and culturaldifferencesanddiversity.Intheconstructivistclassroom,theteacher’s role is topromptand facilitatediscussion.Thus,theteacher’smainfocusshouldbeonguidingstudentsbyasking questions thatwill lead them to develop their ownconclusionsonthesubject. In constructivist paradigm, the following instructionalapproachesmaybeemployedeffectively. Direct Instruction:Theteacherusuallyspendssometimelecturing; then the teacher guides the students through acomplexproblem,withtheproblembrokendownintosimplesteps; thenthestudentsaregiven,onebyone, thesimplesteps to carry out on their own; finally, the students aregivenoneormanysampleproblemstoaccomplishontheirown.Mostmathematicsteachersapplythistechnique. Expository Teaching: The teacher presents the subjectmatteranddirectsthestudentsthroughthelesson.Aruleispresentedwithanexampleandthenpracticeisprovided.The teacher focuses the students’ attention on the key

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points of the subject andmay use graphics, diagrams, orotherrepresentationstoelaborateonthesubject.Examplesinclude pictorial relationships, application of the rules,context through historical information, and prerequisiteinformation.Suchexamplesareprovidedtogivecontextualelaborationandtohelpstudentsseethesubjectmatterfrommanydifferentperspectives. Guided Exploration: In guided exploration, problemscanbeincorporatedintolecture,laboratorywork,andfieldcourses.Theyfitbeautifullyintotheexploratoryphaseofthelearningcycleapproachtoteachingandworkbestwhentheyare assigned before any lectures or readings on the topic.Because guided-discovery problems are time-consumingandfosterdeeplearning,theyarebestusedtoteachcoursematerialthatisespeciallyimportant,conceptuallydifficult,orcounterintuitive. Cooperative/Collaborative Learning:Inthismethod,eachmemberofateamisresponsiblenotonlyforlearningwhatistaughtbutalsoforhelpingteammateslearn,thuscreatinganatmosphereofachievement.Studentsworkthroughtheassignmentuntilallgroupmemberssuccessfullyunderstandandcompleteit.Cooperativeeffortsresultintheparticipantsstriving formutualbenefitsothatallgroupmembersgainfromeachother’sefforts. Inquiry or Problem-based Learning:Inthistypeoflearning,the learner attempts to investigate questions, scenarios,oftenassistedbytheteacher.Forexample,toteachchildren‘How canwe enhance and preserve our beautifulWorld?’,childrencouldbemadetoexperiencewhatitmightbelikeinourenvironmentintheyear2020.Childrencouldwearfacemasks,workinahotenvironment,andhavelimitedaccessto water. This will stimulate lots of discussion aboutwhyourworldmightbecomelikethisandintroducetheconceptof sustainability. Let us take another example. A scienceteachermightprovidestudentswithabriefdemonstrationofhowperceptionsofcolourchangedependingontheintensityof the lightsourceandthenask themtodesign theirownexperiment to further examine this relationship. In thisexamplethestudent is lefttodiscoverthecontentonhis/herown.

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Table1Constructivist Learning Situation

(fromNational Curriculum Framework-2005,p.19)

Process Science LanguageSituationLearnersreadatextonmammalsandviewavideoonlifeofmammalsindifferentlocals.Sucheventsoractivitiesconsistofmammalsmovingingroupsonlandorinwater,grazing,attackingaprey,givingbirth,flockingtogetheratthetimeofdangerandrelatedevents.

SituationLearnersreadthestory‘Kabuliwallah’.Later,theyaregivenbackgroundmaterialwithillustrationofcertainscenesofthestoryandbriefdescriptions.Afewlearnersenactoneortwoscenesdepictedintheillustrations.

Observation Learnersmakenotesofthekeyeventsorbehaviouroractivitiesofanimals.

Learnerswatchthescenesenacted.

Contextualisation Theyrelatetheiranalysistothetext.

Theyrelatestoryofthetextwiththeillustrationofthebackgroundmaterial.

Cognitiveapprenticeship

Teacherillustrateshowhe/shewouldanalyseandinterpretsuchinformationusingtheexamplesofmammals.

Usingasceneenacted,theteachermodelshowtointegratereadingthestoryandillustrationofthebackgroundmaterial.

Collaboration Learnersformgroupstoworkonthelearningtaskwhiletheteachersuggests/guidesthemastheyproceed.

Learnersworkingroupstogenerateinterpretationswhiletheteachersuggests/guidesthemastheyproceed.

Interpretationconstruction

Learnersanalyseandgenerateevidencetoverifytheirhypothesisrelatedtomammalslivingonlandorwater,etc.

Theyanalyseandgeneratetheirowninterpretationofthestory.

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Multipleinterpretations

Theyprovideinterpretationsanddefendtheirideasorhypothesisusingtheiranalysesandtextbothwithinandbetweengroups.Evidenceandargumentsalongwiththetextexposethemtovariouswaysoffindinganswersorinterpretingdata.

Comparingtheinterpretationswithinandbetweengroupsgivesthelearnerstheideathatpeoplecanhavedifferentreactionstothestory‘Kabuliwallah’.

Multiplemanifestations

Bygoingbackandforththroughtheprocessandrelatingeachcontextualbackgroundonvariouseventsandbehaviourofmammals,thelearnersnoticethatthegeneralprinciplesembeddedinwhattheyaredoingbecomemanifested.

Usingthetext,backgroundillustrationsandtheirownreflections,thelearnersseehowthesamecharactersandthemescanbemanifestedinseveralways.

role of the teacher: In thiscontext, the teacher isa facilitatorwhoencourages learnerstoreflect,analyseandinterpret intheprocessofknowledgeconstruction.

guiding PrinCiPLeS of ConStruCtiviSt LeArning• Learningisanactiveprocessinwhichthelearneruses

sensoryinputandconstructsmeaningoutofit.• People learn to learn as they learn: learning consists

of constructingmeaning fromwhatever is learnt. Eachmeaning we construct makes us better able to givemeaning to other sensations which can fit a similarpattern.

• The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental;it happens in the mind. Physical actions, hands-onexperience may be necessary for learning, especiallyforchildren,but it isnotsufficient;weneedtoprovidelearnerwithactivitieswhichengagethemindaswellasotherfaculties.

• Learning involves language. The language we useinfluenceslearning.languageandlearningareinextricablyintertwined.

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• Learning is a social activity.Our learning is intimatelyassociatedwithourconnectionwithotherhumanbeings,our teachers, our peers, our family as well as casualacquaintances,recognisingthesocialaspectoflearningand conversation, interaction with others, and theapplicationofknowledge.

• Learningiscontextual.Wedonotlearnisolatedfactsandtheoriesinabstractmannerseparatefromtherestofourlives:welearninrelationshiptowhatelseweknow,whatwebelieve,ourprejudicesandourfears.

• Someformofpriorlearningisessentialfornewlearningtotakeplace.Itisnotpossibletoassimilatenewknowledgewithouthavingsomestructuredevelopedfrompreviousknowledge to build on. Any effort to teach must beconnectedtothestateofthelearnerandprovideapathinto the subject for the learnerbasedon that learner’spreviousknowledge.

• Ittakestimetolearn.Learningisnotinstantaneous.Forsignificantlearningweneedtorevisitideas,ponderoverthem,trythemout,playwiththemandusethem.

• Motivationisakeycomponentinlearning.Motivationnotonlyhelpslearning,itisessentialforlearning.

• Unless the learner knows ‘the reasons–why’, he/shemaynotbeinvolvedinusingtheknowledgethatmaybeinstilledinhim/her,evenbythemostsevereanddirectteaching.

Major Shifts Envisaged in Constructivist Learning ParadigmTosummarise,Table2containsthemajorshiftsforteacheras envisaged in constructivist learning from traditionallearningapproach.

Table2major Shifts

(TakenfromNational Curriculum Framework–2005,p.110)From ToTeachercentric,stabledesigns Learnercentric,flexibleprocessTeacherdirectionanddecision LearnerautonomyTeacherguidanceandmonitoring Facilitates, supports, and

encourageslearning

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Passivereceptioninlearning ActiveparticipationinlearningLearning within the four walls oftheclassroom

Learninginthewidersocialcontext

Knowledgeas‘given’andfixed KnowledgeasitevolvesandcreatedDisciplinaryfocus Multidisciplinary, educational

focusLinearexposure MultipleanddivergentexposureAppraisal,short,few Multifarious,continuous

Activity 7Discusstheimplicationsofmajorshiftsgivenintable2withyourteacherandclassmates.

Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (17 November, 1896 – 11June,1934)wasaRussianpsychologist,the founder of an original holistictheory of human cultural and biosocialdevelopment commonly referred to ascultural-historical psychology, andone of the chief proponents of socialconstructivism theory. His majorworks include Educational Psychology, The Socialist Alteration of Man, Ape, Primitive Man, and Child: Pedagogy of the

Adolescent, Thinking and Speech, Tool and Symbol in Child Development, Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes, Thought and Language.

Let uS Sum uPKnowledge creation is the integration of opposing aspectsthrough a dynamic process of dialogue and practice. Theprocessofknowingisapersonalised,individualtaskthatisimpactedbyexperienceandunintentional contextual cuesand ‘learning’ as an intentional process of conveying andreceivingknowledge.Therearethreeaspectsofknowledge–theknower(theconsciousnessoftheparticipant),theknown(the field of study), and the process of knowing (whichconnectstheknowertotheknown).Knowledgeresultsfromthecomingtogetheroftheknower,theprocessofknowing,

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and the object of knowing–knowledge blossoms in thetogetherness of knower, process of knowing, and known.Therefore,knowledge is thecompositestructurecomposedof the knower, process of knowing, and known. Moderneducation focuses only on the known, the field of study,andexcludestheothertwo-thirdsofknowledge,theknowerandtheprocessofknowing.Thedifferentwaysofknowingare:senseperception,language,reasonandemotion.Threeprocesseswhicharecrucialtoconstructingknowledgeare:activation of existing knowledge, communication betweenstakeholders, and envisioning of how a new system willchangeworkpractices.Knowledgeinvolvestheknowerandtheknown, the existential and the situational. The role ofthe knower and the known in the process of knowledgeconstruction thus becomes crucial. Knowledge comes tolife inside the realmofexperience. It isconstructed,madebyrelationsthatunveilthemselvesintime.Constructivismas a paradigm hypothesises that learning is an active,constructive process. Learners actively construct or createtheir own subjective representations of objective reality.A few instructional approaches which may be used in aconstructivist classroom are: direct instruction, expositoryteaching, guided exploration, cooperative/collaborativelearning, inquiry/problembasedlearning,pureexplorationanddiscoveryapproaches.

revieW QueStionS1. Whatarethevariousaspectsofknowledge?2. Whatarethedifferentwaysofknowing?3. Whatareknownasthe‘gatewaysofknowledge’?4. Whatisconsideredasa‘vehicleofthought’?5. How is deductive reasoning different from inductive

reasoning?6. Nametheprocessescrucialtoknowledgeconstruction.7. Whatarethevariousmodesofknowledgecreation?8. Nameafewfactorswhichaffectknowledgetransfer.9. Whatisconstructivism?10. Nameafewinstructionalapproacheswhichmaybeused

inaconstructivistclassroom.

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referenCeS/ furtHer reAdingSBerger, P.L., and T. Luckmann. 1975.The Social Construction

of Reality – A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge,PenguinBooks,London.

diLLBeck, m.c. et al. 1987. Consciouness as a field: Thetranscendental meditation and TM-Sidhi program andchanges in social indicators. The Journal of Mind and Behaviour, 8,67-104.

dummeTT, m. 1993.The Seas of Language.OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.

FosnoT, c.T. 2005.Constructivism: Theory, Perspectives and Practice.ColumbiaUniversityPress.

krough, g., k. ichijo and i. nonaka. 2000.EnablingKnowledgeCreation.OxfordUniversityPress,NewYork

NCERT. 2005. National Curriculum Framework–2005, NewDelhi.

scaiFe, jon. 2012. Constructivism in Action: Teaching for Learning. Routledge.

ToBin, kenneTh. 1993.The Practice of Constructivism in Science Education. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale,NJ.

VygoTsky, L.1978.Mind in Society. HarvardUniversityPress,London.

Chapter 6

Organisation of Knowledge in Schools

STRUCTURE• Introduction• Objectives• MeaningofKnowledgeOrganisation• FormsofKnowledgeIncludedinSchoolEducation• SelectionofKnowledgeCategoriesinSchoolEducation• AgenciesforSelectionandOrganisationofCategories

ofKnowledgeinSchools• Process for Developing Curricula, Syllabi, and

Textbooks– PrinciplesofFormulatingSyllabus– CharacteristicsofaGoodSyllabus– The Process of Curriculum Development in

IndiaLet Us Sum upReview QuestionsReferences and Web Links

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InTRodUCTIonAsastudent,youmusthavewonderedhowtheknowledgethatyoureceived intheschools isselectedandorganised.Who does this?Do the teachers have autonomy to decidewhatwillbetaughtinaparticularclass?Whysometopicsare introducedinaparticularclassandnot insomeotherclass?Whatarethevarioussubjectsthataretaughtinschoolandwhatisthebasisofintroducingaparticularcourseinaparticularclass?Whicharetheagenciesthatdecideaboutthecourses?Howthemechanismforevaluationofwhatandtowhatextentstudentshavelearntisdecidedandwhicharetheagencies responsible for implementing it?Whether thecourses and evaluationmechanisms are same throughoutthe country? These are some of the questions that thischapterattemptstoaddress.

objECTIvESAfterreadingthischapter,youwillbeableto:

• describemeaningofknowledgeorganisation;• appreciatethedifferentformsinwhichknowledgeis

organisedintheschool;• explainthemethodologyoforganisingknowledge;• enumerate the agencies responsible for developing

syllabiinIndia;and• explaintheprocessofdevelopingcurriculum,syllabi,

andtextbooksinthecountry.

MEanIng of KnowlEdgE oRganISaTIonTheorganisationofknowledgeinschoolsreferstothevariousactivitieswhich encompass the entire varieties of learningexperiences(curricularandco-curricular).Itcoversthesyllabi,coursesofstudies,theteachingmethods,thecharacteristicsof teachers and students, the interactions taking placebetween the teacher and the taught, between taught andtheenvironment, the textbooks, teachingaids, library, thesystem of evaluation, different co-curricular programmessuch asmorning assembly, prize giving ceremony, sports,competitions, dramas, observation of different religiousornational festivals, etc. It specifies course outlinesalongwith objectives, learning experiences, and evaluation tools

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andfollowupmeasures.Itcoversawideandvariedrangeofoccupations,activitiesandexperiencesprovidedtothechildfor his/her integral development – physical, vital, mental,psychicandspiritual.Asanillustration,theroleofmorningassemblyintheintegraldevelopmentofthechildispresentedintheboxgivenbelow.

Morning Assembly (Taken from National Curriculum Framework–2005, p. 97)The day begins with teachers and children getting the school and classrooms ready for the day ahead. Cleaning the rooms, including the toilets, putting up display boards in the classrooms, organising materials and getting equipment, all these activities convey a sense of ownership among students and teachers and foster a sense of responsibility towards the material and space they use. This also gives them time to talk to each other and catch up the events of the previous day. This reduces the need for such talk during class time. During the general assembly, everybody sits together, and according to their classes or in lines, but the younger ones in front and the older ones behind. One day a week they listen an inspiring story. On another day they listen to music, a guest talk, or share a moving experience, read out and discuss an interesting report from the newspaper. Then everyone goes to class.

The knowledge imparted in schools should take intoaccount theneedsand interestsof the learners,natureofthe living environment of the learners, and principles andthe concepts proposed to be deliberatedupon. The schoolcurriculumhas tovaryaccording to the individual learner(their socio-economic background, religious and culturaltraditions, disability, etc.) and the teacher. A syllabusmightbeprescribedbytheState,atextbookmightalsobeprescribedbytheState,butthecurriculumcannotbemadeuniformasno two teachersare identical in themethodofteaching, no two children are identical in their methodsof learningandno twoschoolshave identical resourcesoflearning environment. Ideally, organisation of knowledgeshould be flexible, so as to suit the requirements of the

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individuallearnerstoenablethemtogrowfreely,graduallybringingtheirinnatepotentialitiestothesurface.

Activity 11. Visitacoupleofschools.Preparealistofactivities

(curricular and co-curricular) conducted in theschool.

2. Observetheeffortsmadebytheschooltoorganisethese activities according to the needs of theindividuallearner.

Theorganisationofknowledgehasdifferentpurposes.ToRousseau,itneedstogivefreedomtothechildtopursuehis/herownpaceofprogress.MahatmaGandhibelievedthattheorganisationofknowledgeinschoolsneedstobeinfluencedbythesocialaimsofeducationandthetotalityofexperiencescarriedoutthroughaparticularcraft.Tagorewasoftheviewthatthetotalityofexperienceneedstobecharacterisedbyuniversalbrotherhood,intunewiththemottoofhisViswaBharati Yatra Visra bhabati ekanidam. To Sri Aurobindo,totalityofexperiencecoversphysical,vital,mental,psychicandspiritualpersonalitiesof the child. In caseofFroebel,thisexperienceistheroundedwholeoftheknowledgeandexperienceofthehumanrace,achievedthroughplay. The organisation of knowledge in schools is a cyclicprocess, whosemain components are: objectives, content,method,evaluationandfeedback.Ideally,learnersneedtobeconsultedindecidingthecontentandprocessoforganisationofknowledge.However,theamountofconsultationmaybecomparativelylessinlowerclasses.Organisationofknowledgeinschoolsisanongoingprocess.Astheknowledgeexpands,manyareasoftheknowledgeprovidedintheschoolsbecomefamiliar to the commonman. A child learnsmany thingsinformallyfromhis/herenvironment,whichhis/herparentshadtolearnformally,throughaschooldeliveredprogramme.The development of technology continuously pours moreand more facts, concepts, information to the door of thecommonman.Hence, the agencies periodically review theknowledgebeingdeliveredintheschoolsandutilisethenewdevelopmentstoimprovethesame.

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Related to this is the question as to how much timechildrenshoulddevote in the school.Theboxgivenbelowillustratesthisfact.

Time on Task (Taken from National Curriculum Framework– 2005, p. 96)

The concept of time on task is an essential reckoner for taking stock of the total time that children spend actively on learning. This would include time spent on listening, reading, writing, doing activities, discussing, etc. It would not include waiting for one’s turn, copying from the board or revising. Particularly in multigrade classes, planning and designing of learning activities for children need to ensure that children’s time on task is maximised.

Total study time that is expected from students in both face-to-face and self-study or homework needs to be accounted for while planning the syllabus or course of study for students, especially as they go into higher grades.

Total homework time

Primary: No homework up to Class II and two hours a week from Class III.

Middle School: One hour a day (about five to six hours a week).

Secondary and Higher Secondary: Two hours a day (about 10 to 12 hours a week). Teachers need to work together to plan and rationalise the amount of homework that they give to children.

Learning Check 11. What are the school activities covered under

knowledgeorganisation?2. Whatis,inyouropinion,thepurposeoflearning

organisation?3. Give examples to show that organisation of

knowledgeinschoolsisacyclicaswellasongoingprocess.

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foRMS of KnowlEdgE InClUdEd In SChool EdUCaTIonThe process of organisation of knowledge begins with thedevelopment of curriculum framework. The curriculumdocumentisexpectedtobecreative.However,youwillobserveinmostofthecasesthatitisprescriptiveinitsapproach.Itspecifiesthetopicsandgivesguidelinesfortheprogrammesof study including assessment materials, class time andteachingmethods.Itprovidesdirectionsfordevelopmentoftextbooksforvariousclasses.Inmostofthecases,theschoolsare given opportunity to create, approve and implementtheirowncurricula,keepinginviewthenationalcurriculumframework. In India, the National Council of EducationalResearchandTraining(NCERT)hasbeendevelopingschoolcurriculumat intervals. TheNCERThas brought out fourcurriculum frameworks in 1975, 1988, 2000, and 2005.TheStateshavebeenattemptingtodevelopStateversionofthenationalcurriculumdevelopedin2005.Theschools inIndiaseldomdeveloptheircurricula,although,nearlyhalfacenturyago,theReport of the Education Commission 1964-66suggestedautonomyfortheschoolstodeveloptheirowncurricula. Traditionally, the curriculum is subject- basedandshowsflexibilityinscopetoaccommodateindividualandinstitutionaldifferencesaswellasvarietiesoflearningandteachingstyles,andfacilitatesdevelopmentofhigherorderthinkingskillsinlearners.Also,somecurriculagivefreedomto schools to decide time to devote to various compulsorysubjects.The formsofknowledge included in thenationalschoolcurriculuminIndiaaredescribedbelow.• Language: It isadvocatedthatthehomelanguage(s)of

children should be themedium of learning in schools.ConsideringthemultilingualnatureoftheIndiansociety,the implementation of three-language formula (mothertongue,theregionallanguageandoneforeignlanguage)needstobepursuedinitsspirit,promotingmultilingualcommunicativeabilitiesofchildren.StudyofSanskritasamodern Indian languageand studyof other classicalandforeignlanguagesmayalsobeconsidered.

• Mathematics: The teaching of mathematics needsto develop among the learners the ability to think and

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reasonmathematically,topursueassumptionstologicalconclusions and to handle abstraction. It includes awayofdoingthings,andtheabilityandtheattitudetoformulate and solve problems. Its twin concerns are:whatcanmathematicseducationdotoengagethemindofeverystudent,andhowcanitstrengthenthestudent’sresources?

• Science: Improvement of organisation of knowledge inscience education has been a priority for the nation.Hence, a number of projects came into being, with orwithoutsupportofagencieslikeUNICEFandUNESCO.TheNCF–2005(pp.46-50)statedthattheprimaryschoolsciencecurriculumshould includestudyofthenaturalenvironment, artifacts and people through exploratoryandhandsonactivitiestoacquirethebasiccognitiveandpsychomotor skills through observation, classification,inference, etc.At theprimary stage, scienceand socialscienceshouldbeintegratedas‘EnvironmentalStudies’and should also include health education. The sciencecontent at the upper primary stage should includeworkingwithhandstodesignsimpletechnologicalunitsandmodules(e.g.designingandmakingaworkingmodelofawindmilltoliftweights)andcontinuingtolearnmoreon environment andhealth including reproductive andsexualhealththroughactivitiesandsurveys.Secondaryschoolcurriculumtoincludesystematicexperimentationas a tool to discover/verify theoretical principles, andworking on locally significant project involving scienceandtechnologyandshouldalsocoverissuessurroundingenvironment and health including reproductive andsexualhealth.

• Social Sciences: It isadvocatedthatthesocialsciencecurriculumattheprimarystageshouldcoverthenaturalandthesocialenvironment.Itshouldcoverstudyoftheenvironment through illustrations from the physical,biological,social,andculturalspheres.Itisfeltthattheenvironmentstudyapproachwillleadtobetterawarenessof environmental issues and also social issues. Socialstudies at the upper primary stage may be taught ashistory,geographyandpoliticalscience.Atthesecondarystage, sociology and economics topics may be added.

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Thesocialstudiescurriculumshouldattempttodevelopthevaluesofequality,liberty,justice,fraternity,dignity,plurality,andfreedomfromexploitationinthelearners.

• Art Education: The NCF–2005 (p-55) was of the viewthat “Arts, visual and performing, need to become animportantcomponentoflearninginthecurriculum.”Thecurriculumneedstointroducestudentstotherichandvariedartistic traditions in thecountry.Arts educationmustbecomebothatoolandasubjecttaught ineveryschoolasacompulsorysubject(uptoClassX)andshouldcoverallfourmainstreamscoveredbythetermarts(i.e.,music,dance,visualartsandtheatre).

• Health and Physical Education: A part of healtheducationiscoveredundersciencecurriculum.TheNCF–2005 (pp.56-58)adoptedaholisticdefinitionofhealthwithinwhichphysicaleducationandyogacontributetothephysical,social,emotionalandmentaldevelopmentofachild.Thedocumentsuggestedmedicalcheckupsbemadeapartofthecurriculumandeducationabouthealthbeprovidedwhichaddress theage-specificconcernsatdifferentstagesofdevelopment.Itpointedoutthenecessityofeducationonyoga. Italsopointedout importanceofage-appropriate context-specific interventions focusedonadolescent reproductiveandsexualhealth concernsincludingHIV/AIDSanddrug/substanceabuse.

• Work and Education: Mahatma Gandhi argued forcraft-centred education. The Secondary EducationCommission 1952-53 (Mudaliar 1953) recommendedcraft subject for every student so that ifnecessaryonecouldearnhislivingbypursuingit.Besides,thestudentwould learn the dignity of labour and experience thejoy of doing constructive work. Work Experience wassuggestedbytheEducationCommission(1964-66).TheCommittee for Review of the Curriculum for the TenYear School (Patel 1978) suggested for Socially UsefulProductiveWork (SUPW). TheNCF–2005 (p.130) statedthat“Institutionalisationofwork-centrededucationasanintegrated part of the school curriculum from the pre-primarytothe+2stageisexpectedtolaythenecessaryfoundation for reconceptualising and restructuringvocational education... to meet the challenges of a

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globalisedeconomy.”Accordingtothisdocument,asetofwork-relatedgenericcompetencies(basic,inter-personalandsystemic)may includecritical thinking, transfer oflearning, creativity, communication skills, aesthetics,workmotivation,workethicofcollaborativefunctioningandentrepreneurship-cum-socialaccountability.

Activity 21. Visit your institution library and pick up the

National Curriculum Framework–2005. Preparea list of the subjects included in it with theirpurpose.

2. Organise a group discussion to chalk out thevariousissuesconcernedwiththeimplementationofthree-languageformula.

Learning Check 21. Whatarethecharacteristicsofagoodcurriculum?2. Whatisthree-languageformula?3. Whatisthepurposeofteachingmathematicsto

thestudents?4. Why thepurposeof teaching scienceandsocial

sciencesatdifferentstagesvary?5. Whatisthepurposeofincludinghealtheducation

inschoolcurriculum?6. Doworkandeducationgotogether?Givereasons.

SElECTIon of KnowlEdgE CaTEgoRIES In SChool EdUCaTIonYoumayaskaquestionthathowaparticularknowledgeisselectedand included intheschoolcurricula.AsyoureadinChapter2,theselectionofknowledgedependsupontheeducational goals which is characterised by universalityand culture specificity. While selecting knowledge, onehas to analyse the needs of the learning community andalso evaluate the existing curriculum. This may help indesigningacurriculumthatcanbridgethegapbetweenthepracticeandthedemandof thenewsituation.Anefficientand scientific curriculum provides totality of experiences,

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variety and elasticity in approaches. It is centered aroundthe community–its life, its activities and its experiences.It also looks formeaningful utilisation of leisure time. Itsprogrammesarecorrelatedandwellintegrated.Ittakescareofthedemocraticattitudesandvaluesoflife.Italsokeepsabalancebetweeninformal,formalandnon-formalwaysoflearning.Thus,acurriculumhastobeneed-based,flexibleandadaptabletolocalconditions,simple,functional,utility-basedandshouldnotbeheavilyloadedwithcontent,activity,experienceandworkoriented.The followingprinciplesarefollowedindevelopingacurriculum. 1. Totality: Thebasisofselectionofknowledgecategories

keepsinviewthetotalityoftheexperiencesthatachildshould receive for thedevelopmentofhis/her integralpersonality.However, onemaynotice that curriculumin prevailing school systems is dominantly scholasticanddoesnotnecessarilyaddresshumanpsychologicalfunctioningintegrally.

2. Variety and Elasticity: The knowledge categoriesneed to develop varied talents among the individualsin different areas of life and work. For example, thenotionofmultipleintelligencesconsidersintelligenceasamultidimensional concept.Thereare eight identifiedintelligences—Logical-mathematical,Linguistic,Spatial,Bodily-kinaesthetic, Musical/rhythmic, Interpersonal,Intrapersonal,andNaturalisticintelligences(fordetails,Srivastava,A.K.,2013).Thus, there isaneedtoallowprovisionsforindividualdifferencesamonglearnersandutilisevariedinstructionaltechniquessuchastheuseofmultimediatomakeclassroomsituationsinterestingforthelearneraswellasfortheteacher.

3. Community Centredness: An effective schoolcurriculum is community-centred. It is vitally andorganically related to needs and aspirations of thecommunity.Forexample,inthecontextofIndia,inclusiveeducation(providingeducationtoallirrespectivecaste,gender,physicaldisability,etc) is required.Knowledgecategoriesarealsoselectedsothattheycandevelopthecommunity.Theselectiondependsontheresources,ofthecommunity.Surveysofcommunityresources,bothphysical and human, pin-point the needs and ensure

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optimumutilisationoftheresourcesofthecommunityandtheirenrichment.

4. Leisure: Aneffectiveschoolcurriculumtrainsstudentsforproperutilisationofleisure.Report of the Secondary Education Commission 1952-53 (p.79) stated that thecurriculumshouldbedesignedtotrainthestudentsnotonlyforworkbutalsoforleisure.Knowledgecategoriesareselectednotonlytoproviderigidmentalwork,butalsotohavesomeareasofphysical,vitaloraesthetic,andspiritualeducation.Aschoollifecanbemadeverypleasantbyintroducingschoolclubs,hobbycentres,etc.,whichgivescopeforthecultivationofvariedinterestsofthelearners.Theutilisationofleisuretimeinpursuitslikesinging,dancing,painting, reading,yoga, etc.willhelpindevelopingasoundpersonalityofthechild.

5. Correlation: An effective school curriculum ensureseffectivecorrelationamongdifferentsubjectsof study.The Report of the Secondary Education Commission 1952-53 (p.79)stated that “Subjectsshouldbe inter-relatedand,withineachsubjectthecontentsshouldsofaraspossiblebeenvisagedas‘broadfields’unitswhichcanbecorrelatedbetterwithliferatherthannarrowitemsofinformation.”Inanidealcurriculum,asubjectisnottaught as a water-tight compartment. In fact, a trueteacher correlates his/her subject with correspondingareasofanothersubject.Effectiveteachingforvarioussubjectsneedstoensurethattheknowledgegainedinthespecificsubjects is correlatedwith relevantknowledgeinothersubjectsandthehobbyofthechildanditslifeexpectations.

6. Activity: Learning is at its best, when done throughactivity. Learning by doing is the slogan for teachingsubjectsthroughactivity.Activitymakeslearningreal.Knowledgecategories,therefore,shouldhaveprovisionforprojectwork,teamwork,playandmanualwork,etc.tocatertotheinstinctivedesiresofthechildtothinkandmakethings,etc.Thisisespeciallyimportantforlowerclasses. Activity centredness makes schools becomeplaceofwork,experimentationanddiscovery.

7. Flexibility: Effective knowledge categories take careof local conditions (e.g., weather, etc.) to cater to the

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needsofindividuallearnersandtheircommunities.Thecurriculumshouldalsosuittothechangingsituationsoftheworld.Theseshouldgivescopeforroleofteacherin selecting appropriate learning categories in thebeginning of the academic session, getting modifiedduring an academic session, if necessary. In idealsituations, teachersmakeknowledgecategoriesadjusttothemotivation,andinterestofthelearner.Inasense,itemphasisesforhavingscopeforincorporatingevolvingknowledgeintheday-to-dayclassroomtransaction.

8. Utility: Effectiveknowledgecategoriesarebasedontheprincipleofutility.Theseshouldbeofutilitytoalearner,sothatafterfinishinglearning,alearnerisabletoutilisethe material learnt to improve his/her conditions ofliving.Includedinsuchtypeofknowledgearelife-skillsknowledge,vocationaleducation,healthandhygiene,etc.

9. Creativity: Effective knowledge categories are basedonstrategiesthatmakechildrencreative.Thecreativitydeals with the highermental areas. Each person hassome areas in which she/he is creative. The task ofeducationistofindouttheseareasandhelpthelearnerto enrich them. The schools, therefore, should try tohave provision for development of creative talent inchildren. This principle is more applicable in case ofschoolsexclusivelymeantforgiftedchildren.

10. Play: Playwaymethodisaneffectivestrategy,especiallyusedforearlychildhoodcareandeducation.Workandplay ineducationwassuggestedbyMariaMontessori.Froebelmade‘play’thebasisofeducation.Accordingtohim,theworkistobedoneinspiritofplay.Playhelpsanindividualtounfoldhim/herself.Itgivesrisetoqualitieslike feeling, cooperation, tolerance, self-dependence,freedominthinkingandaction,etc.Playisyettofindits due place in the curricula. Most of the so calledkindergarten,montessoriandnurseryschools,etc.existforbusiness,notforintegratingplayandeducation.

11. Conservation: Every society makes attempts topreserveitscultureandtransmitthesametothefuturegeneration.Aneducationsystemisexpectedtoperformthisroleefficiently.Culturereferstothesharedattitudes,values,beliefs,traditions,etc.ofasociety.

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12. Democratic values: John Dewey, a prominenteducationist, gave much importance to democracy ineducation. Democratic approaches in education are‘sine qua non’ of the modern educational system. Anidealcurriculumshouldbebasedondemocratic ideasineducation.Suchacurriculumshouldalsotrytomakeachildunderstandtheroleofdemocracyforeducationandviceversa.

13. Equality: Equalityinvolvesprovidingequalopportunitytoallnotonlyinaccess,butalsointheconditionsforsuccess.NPE-1986suggestedacorecurriculumforallschoolcurriculumdevelopmentagencies.

Activity 31. Analyseacurriculumtoseetheextenttowhichit

caterstotheneedsofthesociety.Discussitwithteachers.

2. Thinkofa fewconcreteactivitiesthatwillmakeschoolcurriculummoreinterestingtothelearners.Discuss the samewith teachers for introducingthesameintheschool.

3. Think of theways inwhich culture of a societycanbepreservedbyeducation.

Learning Check 31. Whatarethecharacteristicsofagoodcurriculum?2. What isthepurposeofrelatingvarioussubjects

witheachother?3. Whatdoestheprincipleofutilityrefersto?4. Whatismeantbydemocracyineducation?5. Whatisthemeaningofequalityineducationand

howcanitbeachievedinourcontext?

agEnCIES foR SElECTIon and oRganISaTIon of CaTEgoRIES of KnowlEdgE In SChoolS At the national level, each country has a department ofeducation. In case of larger countries, such as India, inaddition to theMinistry of HumanResourceDevelopment(which consists of Department of School Education and

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LiteracyandDepartmentofHigherEducation),eachstateoftheUnionhasadepartmentofeducation.Further,inIndia,educationisplacedintheConcurrentListoftheConstitution(thispointhasbeendiscussedlaterinthischapter). Attheinternationallevel,theInternationalBaccalaureateOrganisation(IBO)has3318schools(ason12January2012)spreadover140countries.InIndia,IBOhas86schools,outof which 33 offer IB Primary Years Programme, 8 MiddleYearsProgrammeand77IBDiplomaProgramme. In India, MHRD is the main body responsible fororganisation of knowledge in schools. It formulates policyfor the purpose. The National Council of EducationalResearchandTraining(NCERT),NewDelhi,anautonomousorganisation under the Department of School EducationandLiteracyofMHRD,isthenationallevelagencyinvolvedinselection,andorganisationofknowledgeinschools.TheNCERT brings out at intervals a new national curriculumframework.Atthestatelevel,theStateCouncilofEducationalResearch and Training (SCERT) either develops state levelcurriculum guidelines or adapts national curriculumframework.TheNationalInstituteofPublicCooperationandChildDevelopmentprescribeguidelines fororganisationofknowledge in Anganwadis, which provide early childhoodcareandeducationaspartofIntegratedChildDevelopmentServices(ICDS)scheme. There are three national level bodies that formulatecourses of studies for various examinations conducted bythem. These are Central Board of Secondary Education(CBSE),CouncilfortheIndianSchoolCertificateExamination(CISCE)andNationalInstituteofOpenSchooling(NIOS).Atthestatelevel,thereareStateBoardsofSchoolExaminationtoconductstatelevelexaminationsattheendofClassXandClassXII.Alistofvariousexaminingbodieswhichconductpublicexaminationsforschoollevelaregivenbelow.

NATiONAL LEVEL BOArDS/ COUNCiLS1. CentralBoardofSecondaryEducationPreetVihar,Delhi

–1100922. Council for the Indian School Certificate Examination

NehruPlace,NewDelhi–1100193. National Institute of Open Schooling, A-24-25,

InstitutionalArea,NH-24,Sector-62,NOIDA-201309

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STATE LEVEL BOArDS/COUNCiLS

AndhraPradesh 1. BoardofIntermediateEducation,Hyderabad.2. BoardofSecondaryEducation,Hyderabad.

Assam 1.AssamHigherSecondaryEducationCouncil,Guwahati.

2.BoardofSecondaryEducationAssam,Guwahati.

3.AssamSanskritBoard,Guwahati.Bihar 1.BiharSchoolExaminationBoard,Patna.

2.BiharStateMadrasaEducationBoard,Patna.Chhattisgarh 1.ChhatisgarhBoardofSecondaryEducation,

Raipur.2.ChhatisgarhMadrasaBoard,Raipur.3.ChhatisgarhSanskritBoard,Raipur.4.ChhatisgarhStateOpenSchool,Raipur.

Goa GoaBoardofSecondaryandHigherSecondaryEducation,AltoBetim.

Gujarat GujaratSecondaryandHigherSecondaryEducationBoard,Gandhinagar.

Haryana HaryanaBoardofSchoolEducation,Bhiwani.HimachalPradesh HimachalPradeshBoardofSchoolEducation,

Dharamsala.Jammu&Kashmir

Jammu&KashmirStateBoardofSchoolEducation,Jammu(NovembertoApril)Srinagar(MaytoOctober)

Jharkhand JharkandAcademicCouncil,Ranchi.Karnataka 1.GovernmentofKarnataka,Dept.ofPre-

UniversityEducation,Bangalore.2.KarnatakaSecondaryEducationExamination

Board,Bangalore.Kerala 1.KeralaBoardofPublicExamination,

Thiruvananthapuram.2.KeralaBoardofHigherSecondaryEducation,

Thiruvananthapuram.MadhyaPradesh 1. BoardofSecondaryEducation,Madhya

Pradesh,Bhopal.2.M.P.StateOpenSchool,BoardofSecondary

EducationCampus,Bhopal.3.MaharishiPatanjaliSanskritSansthan,Bhopal.

Maharashtra MaharashtraStateBoardofSecondaryandHigherSecondaryEducation,Pune.

Manipur 1.BoardofEducation,Manipur,Imphal.2.CouncilofHigherSecondaryEducation,Imphal.

Meghalaya MeghalayaBoardofSchoolEducation,Tura.

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Mizoram MizoramBoardofSchoolEducation,Aizawl.

Nagaland NagalandBoardofSchoolEducation,Kohima

Odisha 1.CouncilofHigherSecondaryEducation,Bhubaneswar

2.BoardofSecondaryEducation,Cuttack.Punjab PunjabSchoolEducationBoard,Mohali.Rajasthan 1.BoardofSecondaryEducation,Ajmer.

2.RajasthanStateOpenSchool,Jaipur.

TamilNadu TamilnaduStateBoardofSchoolExaminationsandBoardofHigherSecondaryExaminations,Chennai

Tripura TripuraBoardofSecondaryEducation,Agartala.

UttarPradesh 1. U.P.BoardofHighSchoolandIntermediateEducation,Allahabad.

2.U.P.Sec.SanskritEducationCouncil,Lucknow.

Uttarakhand BoardofSchoolEducation,Nainital.WestBengal 1.WestBengalBoardofSecondaryEducation,

Kolkata.2.WestBengalCouncilofHigherSecondary

Education,Kolkata.3.WestBengalBoardofPrimaryEducation,

Kolkata.4.WestBengalBoardofMadrasaEducation,

Kolkata.5.RavindraMuktaVidyalaya,(WestBengalState

OpenSchool),Kolkata.

Note: Statesnothavingindependentboardshavenotbeenincludedinthelist.

PRoCESS foR dEvEloPIng CURRICUla, SyllabI and TExTbooKSAs you know, the curriculum covers the whole spectrumof teaching-learning activities in the school. On the otherhand,thesyllabusrestrictsitselftoexaminableportionsofthecurriculum.Theindependent/autonomousschools,notaffiliatedtoanyschoolboard,havetheirstaffcouncilswhichgivefinalsealtotheproposalsoftheindividualteachersinhavinga curriculum including textmaterials for teaching-learningof the students – eitherpreparedby the teachersthemselves or procured from the openmarket. Thesemay

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also use textbooks prepared by the NCERT or SCERTs,StateSchoolBoards/CouncilsandStateTextbookBureaus.PrintedCurriculumGuidelines are alsomade available byvariousagencies.Duringthecoursework,studentsacquirethe theoretical knowledge and practical skills that enablethemtodevelopcapacitytolearn.

PriNCiPLES OF FOrMULATiNg SyLLABUSThe syllabus is one of themost important aspects of thecurriculum.Itisawrittendocumentconsistingofthecontentsthatthestudentshavetostudyforaparticularcourseandthetypesofexaminations.Ahighqualityimprovedsyllabusprescribesthenumberofperiodsexpectedtobenecessaryforteachingaparticularunit,theaidsandothermaterialsnecessaryforteachingaunit,andthemajorandtheminorideas of teaching a unit. In ideal situations, each teacherframes syllabus for his or her teaching work. At higherclasses,heorsheconsultsstudents forthepreparationofthe syllabus. At lower classes, the needs and interests ofthe studentsaregenerally taken for granted. In India, thesyllabiarepreparedcentrallyandareapplicabletoanumberof schools, irrespective of their environmental variations.As mentioned earlier, in each state, there is a Board ofSecondaryEducationthatlooksaftertheframingofsyllabusfor students appearing at the school leaving examination.They also prepare syllabi for primary andmiddle classes.In some states, there are Boards/Councils of schools ofhighersecondaryeducation,whichpreparesyllabifortheirschools. Sometimes, one Board frames syllabi for one ormoreexaminationsystems.Atthecentrallevel,thereistheCentralBoardofSecondaryEducationthatpreparessyllabusforKendriyaVidyalayas,NavodayaSchoolsandothertypesofschoolsaffiliatedtoit.ThereisalsoNationalInstituteofOpenSchoolingandtheCouncilforIndianSchoolCertificateExamination.TherearealsoStateOpenSchools.Thus,therearevarietiesofsyllabiinthecountry.

Learning Check 4Differentiatebetweenacurriculumandasyllabus.

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CHArACTEriSTiCS OF A gOOD SyLLABUS A good syllabus (a) is flexible; (b) is community centred;(c) is life centred; (d) is activity centred; (e) is experiencecentred;(f)isintegratedwithothersubjects;(g)encouragescreative thinking; (h) is characterised by experimentalactivities;(i)providesopportunitiestoeachlearnertolearnat his/her ownpace of learning; (j) provides opportunitiestoeach learner to learnaccording tohis/herownareasofinterestandinterestpriorities; (k)hasscopeforutilisationofvarietiesofresourcesavailableintheenvironmentofthelearner;(l)hasscopeforteacherstousevarietiesofmethodsandapproachesinteaching;(m)hasabundantfacilitiesforastudenttobuildandapplyscientificconceptsandprinciples;(n)isorganisedsoastopromotefunctionalunderstanding,growth in instrumental skills, growth in the process ofproblem solving and development of attitudes, interestsandappreciations; (o) provides scope for self evaluationofstudents;(p)allowsparticipationofstudentsinitsdesign;(q)hasabuilt-inevaluationsystem;(r)isbrokendownlogicallyinto units and sub-units in accordance with the interest,significance and usefulness to the students; (s) integratestheneedsoftheindividuallearneranditsactivitiesandalsointegrates social needswith individual needs, (t) indicatestheapproximatenumberof teachingperiodsnecessary forteaching a unit and variousmethods and resources to beusedforteachingdifferentlessons;(u)enablesthelearnertoget theeternalknowledgewhichhasbeenconservedsinceages,thusbridgingthepastwiththepresent;and(v)enablesthelearnertobecomefuturologistandlookforabetterworld,utilisingbetterserviceofknowledgegained.

THE PrOCESS OF CUrriCULUM DEVELOPMENT iN iNDiACurriculumdevelopmentisacontinuousprocessthattakesinto consideration the national goals, societal aspirationsand disciplinary advances at any given point of time. InIndia, since the country attained independence nearly sixdecades ago, a number of attemptsweremade to developcurricula for school education. These were based uponthe national concerns related to education articulated bythe Secondary Education Commission (1952-53), and the

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EducationCommission(1964-66).TherecommendationsofthesecommissionsformedthebasisfortheNationalPolicyon Education (NPE, 1968). The NPE recommended theimplementationofacommonschoolstructure(10+2systemofschooling)andacommonpatternofstudiesthroughoutthecountry.Italsovisualisededucationtobemorecloselyrelated to the lives of the people, to raise the quality ofeducationandprovideexpandededucationalopportunities,to emphasise the development of science and technology,andtoinculcatemoralandsocialvalues. These recommendations were incorporated in the firstcurriculum– The Curriculum for the Ten-Year School – A Framework,developedbytheNationalCouncilofEducationalResearch and Training (NCERT) in 1978. The supportingsyllabiandtextbookstobeusedasmodelsbytheStatesandtheUnionTerritorieswerealsodeveloped. A major impetus to education was provided in 1976through a constitutional amendment, whereby education,untilthenaStatesubject,wasplacedundertheConcurrentList. Concurrency signifies a meaningful and challengingpartnershipbetweentheUnionGovernmentandtheStates.Accordingtothisamendment,therolesandresponsibilitiesoftheStatescontinuedtoremainintact.However,theUnionGovernmenthasnowalargerresponsibilitytostrengthenthenationalandintegrativecharacterofeducation,tomaintainqualityandstandards,andtopromoteexcellenceatalllevelsofeducationalpyramidthroughoutthecountry. Inthechangedcircumstances,forthefirsttimein1986,thecountryasawholehadaNational Policy on Education (NPE,1986).TheNPE–1986envisagedanationalsystemofeducation based on national curricular framework whichwouldcontainacommoncorealongwithothercomponentsthatareflexible.Italsoenvisagedremovingdisparitiesandequalising educational opportunities by addressing to theneeds of disadvantaged sections of the society. To achievethese goals, the NPE–1986 called for reorganisation ofeducationatdifferentstages. Itwasagainst thisbackdropthat the second National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education – A Framework (1988)wasbroughtout. This framework suggested a shift from summativeevaluation to formativeevaluation.Attemptsweremade to

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define minimum levels of learning at all stages of schooleducation. The1990sweremarkedwithtwoimportanteducationalconcerns.Thefirstwasrelatedtothecurriculumloadonthechildren–bothintermsofthephysicalloadthatachildhastocarrydailyonhis/hershoulders,andtheburdenofnon-comprehension of the contents. The report of the YashpalCommittee,namelyLearning without Burden(1993),focusedon this issue in a systematic manner and recommendedthat very little, fully comprehended content is far betterthan a great deal, poorly comprehended content. Thesecondstepwasrelatedtothedecentralisationofeducationand recognising the role of Panchayati Raj institutions inthe management of school education. The involvement ofPanchayati Rajinstitutionsoffersanopportunitytomakethesystemlessbureaucraticandtheschoolmoreautonomous.It also entails the responsibility to localise knowledge andcurriculumpractices. The third National Curriculum Framework for School Education(2000)addressedtheconcernsasequalityofaccessto quality education and opportunity, strengthening thenationalidentityandpreservingculturalheritage,respondingtotheimpactofglobalisationandthechallengeofinformationandcommunication technology, linkingeducationwith lifeskills,reducingthecurriculumload,andvaluedevelopment.Italsoviewededucationasa lifelongprocess.Ashift fromfactualknowledgetotheprocessofunderstanding,thinkingandinternalisingwasenvisaged.Italsostressedthemasterylearning approach by using diagnosis and remediationfor weaker students and enrichment programmes for thebrighterones. TheNational Curriculum Framework–2005(NCF–2005)isalandmarkinthedevelopmentofCurriculumFramework.Itisbaseduponthefollowingguidingprinciples(p.5): (a) Connectingknowledgetolifeoutsidetheschool, (b) Ensuringthatlearningisshiftedawayfromrotemethods, (c) Enriching the curriculum to provide for overall

developmentofchildrenratherthanremaintextbookcentric,

(d) Making examinations more flexible and integratedintoclassroomlifeand,

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(e) Nurturinganover-ridingidentityinformedbycaringconcernswithinthedemocraticpolityofthecountry.

Asalreadydescribed,NCF–2005assumesthat learningis a process of the construction of knowledge. Learnersactively construct their ownknowledgeby connectingnewideas to existing ideas on the basis ofmaterials/activitiespresented to them (experience). It envisages that teachingofthecurricularareasshouldbebaseduponthefollowingprinciples(NCF–2005,pp.127-128):

Language• Language skills- speech and listening, reading and

writing–cutacrossschoolsubjectsanddisciplines.Theirfoundationalroleinchildren’sconstructionofknowledgerightfromelementaryclassesthroughseniorsecondaryclassesneedstoberecognised.

• A renewed effort should be made to implement thethree-language formula, emphasising the recognitionofchildren’shomelanguage(s)ormothertongue(s)asthebestmediumofinstruction.Theseincludetriballanguages.

• Englishneeds tofind itsplacealongwithother Indianlanguages.

• Themultilingual character of Indian society should beseenasaresourcefortheenrichmentofschoollife.

Mathematics• Mathematisation (ability to think logically, formulate

and handle abstractions) rather than ‘knowledge’ ofmathematics(formalandmechanicalprocedures)isthemaingoalofteachingmathematics.

• Theteachingofmathematicsshouldenhancechildren’sability to think and reason, to visualise and handleabstractions,toformulateandsolveproblems.Accesstoqualitymathematicseducationistherightofeverychlild.

Science• Content,processandlanguageofscienceteachingmust

be commensurate with the learner’s age-range andcognitivereach.

• Scienceteachingshouldengagethelearnersinacquiringmethodsandprocessesthatwillnurturetheircuriosityandcreativity,particularlyinrelationtotheenvironment.

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• Scienceteachingshouldbeplacedinthewidercontextofchildren’senvironmenttoequipthemwiththerequisiteknowledgeandskillstoentertheworldofwork.

• Awarenessofenvironmentalconcernsmustpermeatetheentireschoolcurriculum.

Social Sciences• Social science content needs to focus on conceptual

understanding, rather than lining up facts to bememorised for examination, and should equip childrenwiththeabilitytothinkindependentlyandreflectcriticallyonsocialissues.

• It should have interdisciplinary approaches, promotingkey national concerns such as gender, justice, humanrights, and sensitivity to marginalised groups andminorities.

• Civics should be recast as political science, and thesignificance of history as a shaping influence on thechildren’sconceptionofthepastandcivicidentityshouldberecognised.

Work• Schoolcurriculafromthepre-primarystagetothesenior

secondarystageneedtobereconstructedtorealisethepedagogic potential of work as a pedagogicmedium inknowledge acquisition, developing values andmultiple-skillformation.

Art• Arts(folkandclassicalformsofmusicanddance,visual

arts, puppetry, clay work, theatre, etc.) and heritagecraftsshouldberecognisedasintegralcomponentsoftheschoolcurriculum.

• Awarenessoftheirrelevancetopersonal,social,economicand aesthetic needs should be built among parents,schoolauthoritiesandadministrators.

• The arts should comprise a subject at every stage ofschooleducation.

Peace• Peace-orientedvaluesshouldbepromotedinallsubjects

throughout the school years with the help of relevantactivities.

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• Peace education should form a component of teachereducation.

Health and Physical Education• Health and physical education are necessary for the

overall development of learners. Through health andphysicaleducationprogrammes(includingyoga),itmaybepossibletohandlesuccessfullytheissuesofenrolment,retentionandcompletionofschool.

Habitat and Learning• Environmental education may be best pursued by

infusingtheissuesandconcernsoftheenvironmentintothe teaching of different disciplines at all levels whileensuringthatadequatetimeisearmarkedforpertinentactivities.

Learning Check 51. Whataretheimplicationsofplacingeducationin

theconcurrentlist?2. What are the major recommendations of Learning

without Burden?3. Describe the role of Panchayati Raj institution in

education.4. What are the major recommendations of NCF–2005

regardingteachingofdifferentsubjectsintheschool?

LET US SUM UP

Reorganising knowledge in schools at suitable intervalsis an accepted practice in educational science. Such anexerciseisinevitabletotakecareofagooddealofknowledgeexplosiontakingplacethatmakesinacertainspanofyears,asignificantportionof formalknowledge informal. Incaseofascientificexercise,theevaluationoftheexistingmannerofknowledgeorganisationbecomesthebasis forreframingof knowledge organisation strategies–technique as well ascontent. Theknowledgeinschoolisorganisedintermsofcurricularareas. While organising such knowledge, a number ofthingsarekeptinmind.InIndia,thereareseveralagencies

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responsibleforselectionandorganisationofknowledge,suchNCERT,CBSE,SCERTsandStateBoardsofEducation.Atthe national level, so far four times curriculum has beendeveloped.ThelatestbeingtheNCF–2005,whichfocusesonconstructivistprincipleoflearning.

rEViEW QUESTiONS1. Describethemeaningoforganisationofknowledge.2. What are the areas under which school knowledge is

organised?3. Explainthebasisofknowledgeorganisation.4. List the central level agencies involved in knowledge

organisation.5. Whatrolesdostatelevelagenciesplayinthisendeavour?6. Mention some of the characteristic features of NCF–

2005.

rEFErENCES/ FUrTHEr rEADiNgSAdiseshiAh, M.s. 1978.ReportoftheNationalReviewCommittee

onHigherSecondaryEducationwithSpecialReferencetoVocationalisation.Govt.ofIndia,NewDelhi.

GovernMent of indiA. 1968. National Policy on Education –1968,NewDelhi.

——. 1986. National Policy on Education – 1986, NewDelhi.

——. 1986. National Policy on Education – 1986, (Withmodificationsundertakenin1992).NewDelhi.

——. 1953. Report of the Secondary Education Commission (1952-53),NewDelhi.

——. 1966. Report of the Education Commission (1964-66),NewDelhi.

——. 1985. The Challenge of Education – 1985, NewDelhi.

internAtionAl BAccAlAureAte orGAnisAtion (IBO): http://www.ibo.org/country/IN/index.cfm.

Mhrd. 1993. Learning without Burden,MHRD,GovernmentofIndia,NewDelhi.

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ncert. 1988. National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education: A Framework. NewDelhi.

——. 2000. National Curriculum Framework for School Education – 2000, NewDelhi.

——. 2005. National Curriculum Framework – 2005, NewDelhi.

——. 1978. The Curriculum for the Ten Year School – A Framework – 1978,NewDelhi.

——. 1976. The Higher Secondary Education and Its Vocationalisation – 1976,NewDelhi.

srivAstAvA, A. K. 2013. Intelligence—General, emotional,multiple.InThe Encyclopedia of Cross-cultural Psychology (pp.733-741).JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,NewYork.

Chapter 7

Teacher Autonomy and Accountability

STRUCTURE• Introduction

• Objectives• MeaningofAutonomy

– Freedomvs.Autonomy• TeacherAutonomy

– CharacteristicsofTeacherAutonomy– DomainsofTeacherAutonomy– ArgumentsforTeacherAutonomy– FactorsAffectingTeacherAutonomy– WaystoDevelopTeacherAutonomy– HowDoesTeacherAutonomyHelpinEnriching

LearningSituations• Accountability

– MeaningofAccountability– TypesandFunctionsofAccountability

• DoAutonomyandAccountabilityGoTogether?Let Us Sum upReview QuestionsReferences and Web Links

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InTRodUCTIon

By now, you are familiar that the National Curriculum Framework (NCF, 2005), and the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act(RTE,2009),havebroughtabouta paradigm shift in school education. These developmentsfocus on our commitment to achieving universalisation ofelementary and secondary education with inclusion of allchildren in regular schools by adopting the constructivistpedagogy.Toachieve thesegoals, teachersare required tobeskilled,smartandadaptabletotherequirementofeverystudent. Imaginea classroom full of 20-30 students, eachstudentwithadistinctlearningstyleanddifferentlearningneeds.Acommon teachingstrategy forall studentswouldobviouslynotworkinsuchasituation.Itrequiresadoptingadistinctteachingtechnique,evenadistinctcurriculatosuittheneedsandcapabilitiesofeachstudent.Suchsituationdemands teachers to be autonomous tomake pedagogicalchoices. NCF-2005 advocated that teachers’ autonomy isessential for ensuring learning and to address children’sdiverse needs. It further emphasised that asmuch as thelearner requires space, freedom, flexibility, and respect,theteacheralsorequires thesame.Relatedto theconceptof autonomy is the accountability of the teacher. Thepresentunitaddresses these issues. In thisunit,weshallbe discussing the concept of teacher autonomy, why it isrequired,andhowitisrelatedtoaccountability.

objECTIvES

Aftergoingthroughthisunit,youwillbeableto;• describetheconceptandimportanceofteacherautonomy;• analyse critically the factors that influence teacher

autonomy;• understandthestrategiesthatmaybeadoptedtodevelop

autonomyamongteachers;• explaintheroleofaccountabilityinrealisingtheobjectives

ofeducationalsystem;and• criticallyevaluatethecontemporaryscenariowithrespect

toteacherautonomyandaccountability.

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MEanIng of aUTonoMyThenotionofautonomyhasbeenoneofthecentralconcernsofphilosopherssinceancienttimes.TheconceptfirstcameintoprominenceinancientGreeceandwasderivedfromtheGreekwords‘auto’ (self)and‘nomos’ (ruleorlaw),meaningonewhogivesoneself theirown laws.AccordingtoCollins Cobuild English Dictionary (1995), autonomy refers to‘the ability tomake your own decisions aboutwhat to doratherthanbeinginfluencedbysomeoneelseortoldwhatto do’. The terms such as independence, self-sufficiency,self-government, self-rule, sovereignty, etc., are used assynonymous to autonomy. Initially the term was used tocharacterise states that were self governing. But later onit came tobewidelyunderstoodasaproperty ofpersons.Today,theconceptofautonomyisusedinboththesenses,although philosophers deal with autonomy primarily as avirtueoftheperson. The concept of autonomy for the first time came intophilosophical prominence with the work of ImmanuelKantwhowasstrongly influencedbythewritingsofJean-JacquesRousseau.AlthoughRousseaudidnotusetheterm‘autonomy’, his conception of moral freedom–defined as“obediencetothelawonehasprescribedtooneself”–hasaclearrelationtoKant’sunderstandingofautonomy.Kant’smoraltheory isbasedonthepositionthatrationalhumanwills are autonomous. Kant enforced that autonomy doesnotconsistinbeingboundbynolaw,butbylawsthatareinsomesenseofone’sownmaking.His ideaofautonomygoesbeyondthe‘negative’senseofbeingfree frominfluencesonourconductoriginatingoutsideofourselvesandcontainsforemosttheideaoflawsmadeandlaiddownbyoneself,and,invirtueofthis,lawsthathavedecisiveauthorityoveroneself. As per Kant’s philosophy, an autonomous person’ssourcesofauthority,orprinciplesthatbindhim,areinhisownwill.Also,toachieveautonomy,onehastomakehimself/herselffreefromtheinfluenceofexternalcircumstancesandto give himself/herself laws that are expressive of his/herownpower.Itmeanstheautonomouspersonisconsciousofhis/herownpowerandfreedom,andisnotmerelygovernedbythevaluejudgementsofothers.Rather,she/heiscapableofdeterminingvaluesforhimself/herself.

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Freedom VS. AuTonomyAs per Kantian concept, an autonomous person is free.Thequestionariseswhatisthedifferencebetweenfreedomandautonomy?Isautonomyasynonymtofreedom?Inthepresentsection,weshalldiscussthisissue. Freedom and autonomy are entirely two differentpractices. Freedom is a practice that always occurs withreferencetoasubjugatingpower.Thatis,itisconcernedwithgainingcontrol overothers.On theotherhand,autonomyis a practice of self-constituting power that exists in-itselfand for-itself. An autonomous person is ‘master-in-him/herself’.He/sheinitiatesataskanddoesitinhis/herownway.Whileautonomyisassociatedwiththepresumablyself-sovereign individual, freedom dialectically interweaves theindividualwiththesociety.In‘freedom,’individualselfhooddoesnotstandopposedtoorapartfromthecollective,butissignificantlyformedandrealisedbyhisorherownsocialexistence. Thus, individual freedom refers to one’s abilityto actwithoutany external or internal restrainsandhavesufficient power and resources to realise one’s desires.Autonomy, in contrast, refers to the independence andauthority of the desires that motivate a person to action.Thus,autonomyisapositiveconcept(sometimesevencalledpositive freedom),whereanindividual is freetomakehis/herownrules,actaccordingtohis/herownwillaslongashe/she is responsible for his/her conduct. In freedom, anindividual is free to leadhis/her lifeandtochooseamongalternatives,amongcoursesofaction,solongasitcausesnoinjurytoothers.

Learning Check 11. Whatisautonomy?2. Giveexamplesoffreedomfromdailylife.3. Howisautonomydifferentfromfreedom?

TEaChER aUTonoMyNowthequestionariseswhatisteacher’sautonomyandwhyisitrequired?Tounderstandthis,letustakeanexample.Supposeyouwanttogetanalmirahbuilt.Whatwouldyoudo?Youwilldefinitelyhireacarpenterand tellhimabout

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yourexpectationsandendresults,butyouwillnevertellhimhowtodoit.Youwillrespecthimasanexpertandholdhimaccountableforresults.So,yougivehimcompleteautonomyin determining how to do it. If he doesn’t live up to theexpectations,youcannegotiatechangesbuthisautonomyandexpertnessinnowaywillbequestioned.Butthesameisnottrueforteachers.Theyareheldaccountableforresults,whiletheirautonomyislimited.

How Teachers Lose Their Identity in Hallowed Portals

For those in the teaching profession, much of the job satisfaction comes from exercising their judgement and employing their own means to meet the diverse needs of the students. But today, teacher autonomy has fallen victim to the burden of tradition. The older the school, the higher the expectations from a teacher to confirm to a specific mould.

Established institutions give young teachers entering the profession little room to experiment or be innovative on the job, as teachers are stereotyped and expected to fit the conventional idea of a teacher that the government, school management and parents are used to. Starting from the way the teacher is expected to dress, the way she talks to students, to the methods used to discipline the students, the teacher is ‘monitored’ and her ways ‘corrected’, many a time by teachers who have put in more years in the organisation and know the ways of the school.

J. Pushpa, who retired after putting in 35 years in the same convent school some years ago, mentions an incident where a young teacher who spoke up for a student that the school management wanted expelled was forced to resign. “She was a substitute teacher working in place of another woman who was on maternity leave, while waiting for another colleague to resign so she could take her place. She lost her job because the school management thought that such outspokenness did not fit their description of how a teacher was expected to behave. During my years there, I have often heard the nuns say, ‘This is the way we do it in our school’ and offer no other explanation

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for why things ought to be done a certain way,” Pushpa said.

Today, many school managements, parents and students consider academics to be the sole purpose of a school. This forces them to curtail the creativity of a teacher when they try to attempt anything out of the ordinary, calling it a waste of time.

Educational consultant K. R. Maalathi, who handles teacher recruitment and training for schools across the country, said, “All said and done, schools only want teachers who can help students score high marks. Maybe 10% of schools in the country want or allow teachers to be different. But, it is not enough for teachers to identify the face of the child whose name is on the attendance register. It is important to know the background of each child, so the teacher can also serve as a counsellor that the child turns to, when in need.”

Others believe that such a loss of individuality is largely self-created, and that rarely do teachers make use of the freedom to innovate. X. Jenovic Reni, a software professional, recalls a Class VI geography teacher who walked into class the first day and spoke about quizzes, stories, field visits and games as ways to look at the subject. “We were all excited. But that initial enthusiasm soon fizzled out and soon we went back to reading from the textbook.”

Sometimes, educational policies framed by government agencies are also to be blamed for the loss of individual professional autonomy. Laudable attempts such as the state government’s Activity Based Learning Methodology or the CBSE’s Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE), which are aimed at instilling freshness into the majority population, stifle the few teachers who attempt to open children’s minds to learning in their own way. The result is that teachers, overwhelmed by the need to maintain records of marks of so many different components or assess students on so many factors in the case of CCE, give in to the temptation of taking the beaten path.

M Ramya, TNN,The Times of India: Chennai, 14 November 2010

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Points for Reflection 1• Narrateyourexperiences,whicheithersupportor

contradicttheabovestatements.

Fordecades,educationalpoliciesallovertheworldhaveeffectively placed new responsibilities on teachers. TheNCF-2005bringsaparadigmshiftintheteaching-learningprocess,byplacinganemphasisonconstructivistapproach,whichgiveslotsofautonomytothelearnersindecidingtheirownlearningprocess.However,itmustberealisedthatthedevelopment of learners’ autonomy is not separate fromthedevelopmentofteachers’autonomy.Rather,thetwogohand-in-hand,asonegivesmeaningtotheother.Howcanweexpectteacherstopreparestudentswhocanthinkandtaketheirdecisionindependently,whenteachersthemselvesarenotallowedtodoso?Educationcertainlyneedsanewparadigm shift that emphasises freedom in thought andactionforteachers. Itmay be noted that teacher’s autonomy is not a newconcept.Thisconceptwasvoicedinmanypoliciesoverthedecades. The National Policy on Education (1986), in itsChapter IXon ‘TheTeacher’stated that “Thestatusof theteacherreflectsthesocio-culturalethosofasociety;itissaidthatnopeoplecanriseabovethelevelof itsteachers.Thegovernmentandthecommunityshouldendeavourtocreateconditions, which will help motivate and inspire teacherson constructive and creative lines. Teachers should havethe freedom to innovate, to devise appropriatemethods ofcommunication and activities relevant to the needs andcapabilitiesofandtheconcernsofthecommunity.”ThisisfurtherreinforcedbyNCF-2005,whichstatesthat“Teacherautonomyisessential forensuringa learningenvironmentthat addresses children’s diverse needs. As much as thelearnerrequiresspace,freedom,flexibility,andrespect,theteacheralsorequiresthesame.” Anumberofattemptshavebeenmadetodefineteacherautonomy.Onewayteacherautonomycanbedefinedisbyrelatingitwithstudents’autonomy.Itisconsideredastheabilityofteachertohelpstudentstoadaptthemselvestotheirnewrolesandtakeresponsibility fortheirownlearningby

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developingasenseofautonomyandindependence(Cotterall&Crabbe,1999). Another way autonomy can be defined is ‘freedomfrom control by others over professional action’. This viewemphasisesthatteachersdonotconsiderthemselvesmereagentsofothersrathertheyliketotakesoleresponsibilityfor the goals to which they are committed by consideringthemselvesasautonomousprofessionals, free fromcontrolexertedbyanyoneelseandabletodecideandtakeactionontheirown(Little,1995). Finally,thereistheconceptof‘autonomousteacherasanautonomouslearner,withtheirabilitytogrowprofessionally’.Thisconcept focusesonteachers’capacity forself-directedprofessional development by continuously updating theirknowledge(Tort-Moloney,1997).Thisconceptofautonomyfocusesontheteachers’responsibilitytobealwaysreadytodotheirjobandgrowprofessionallyastheythemselvesareawareofwhy,when,whereandhowpedagogicalskillscanbeacquired.

ChArACTeriSTiCS oF TeACher AuTonomyEfforts have been made to outline some characteristicfeaturesofteachers’autonomy.Ramos(2006)hasoutlinedfew of the characteristics of teacher autonomy based ononlinecollaborativediscussionofthetermteacherautonomybyagroupofteachers.Thesearediscussedbelow.1. Teacherautonomyinvolvesteachers’negotiationskills,

their ability to reflect on their own teaching process,readiness to engage in lifelong learning, and theircommitment to promote learner autonomy. Teacherautonomy is very closely related to the notion of areflective teacher anda researcher. Itmeans teachersreflect on their own teaching and engage in actionresearchinordertoprovidebetterlearningexperiencestotheirstudents.

2. Autonomous teachers have good knowledge of theinstitution in order to confront institutional barriersin socially appropriate ways and to turn constraintsintoopportunitiesforchange.However,theyshouldbeawarethatneitherteacher,norstudentautonomymeanfreedomfromallconstraints.

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3. Teacher autonomy is developed through observation,reflection, thoughtful consideration, understanding,experienceandevaluationofalternatives.Mereabsenceofauthoritydoesnotleadtoautonomy.

What is not Teacher AutonomyWilches (2007) reviewed theavailable literature inthefieldofteacherautonomyandconcludedthat:1. Teacher autonomy is not independence

or isolation rather it involves teachers’interdependence,responsibility,mutualsupport,professionaldiscretion,andcommitmenttotheeducationalcommunity.

2. Teacherautonomyisnotmerelyawaytoholdthemmoreaccountablefortheirjobandhencereducing responsibility of the governmenttowards school. Teacher autonomy refers toteachers’ right to take initiative and carry outnecessary professional action according toschoolandthestakeholders’needs.

3. Teacher autonomy is not a static entity thatsome people possess while others do not. Itis a condition that varies in accordance withsituation,personal,andexternalconstraints.

4. Teacherautonomydoesnotrefertoanabsolutestate of freedom from constraints; rather itinvolves responsibly exercising discretion inaccordancetotheinterestandneedsofschoolstakeholders.

domAinS oF TeACher AuTonomyAnautonomous teacher can intervene in various domainsincludingteachingandassessment,curriculumdevelopment,school functioning, and professional development. A briefdescriptionofthesedomains,asexplainedbyWilches(2007),ispresentedinthissection.

Teaching and AssessmentIt includes the extent towhich teachers exert control overtheirteachinggoals,content,skills,methods,andmaterials;assessment criteria and methods; time management; andobservation of students’ behaviour and the classroom

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environment.Teachers’autonomyineachofthesedomainsvaries and is widely determined by their professionalcompetenceandbythepresenceofcentralisedcurriculumpolicies that may inform aims, content and methods ofteachingandassessmentineachschool.

Curriculum DevelopmentTeachers’proposal,initiation,implementationandevaluationofcurricula,andtheintroductionofextracurricularactivitiesto enrich the curriculum are included in this domain.The empirical evidence in this area shows that teachers’engagement with curricular innovations varies from oneteachertoanotherandisstronglyinfluenced,amongstotherfactors,byculturaltraditions,externalfactors,andteachers’beliefsaboutteachingandlearningthatmayaffectthewaytheylead,accept,orrejectnewinstructionalideas.

School FunctioningThethirddomaininwhichteachersexercisetheirautonomyisschoolfunctioning,describedasteachers’decisionmakingonadministrativetaskssuchasschoolexpenditures,budgetplanning, school finances, class timetable, curriculum forthewholeschool,etc.Studiesshowthatteachers’decisionmakinginthisareaisrelatedtotheteachers’positionintheschool.Theseniorteachersreporthigherlevelsofautonomyinthistypeoftaskascomparedtootherteachers.

Professional DevelopmentIt refers to the extent to which the teachers have theopportunitytoengageinprofessionaleducationandtraininganddecideforthemselvesthecontent,methods,instructors,and location of their training. Research shows that self-directedprofessionaldevelopmenthaspositiveeffectsontheprofessionaldevelopmentofteachersincludingenhancementin professional competence and motivation to generatechangesintheschoolenvironment.

Activity 1Visit a nearby school and discuss with teachersand principal about their autonomy.Discuss aboutvariousdomainsinwhichtheyfeelautonomousandthedomainsinwhichtheydemandmoreautonomy?

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Learning Check 21. Whatisteacherautonomy?2. Does teacher autonomy refer to isolation and

absolutestateoffreedom?3. Whatarethedomainsofteacherautonomy?

ArGumenTS For TeACher AuTonomyAmongthemanyargumentsthatsupportprovidingautonomytotheteachers,afewhavebeendescribedhere.

Autonomy is a basic human need and an imperative in teaching“It is argued that the basic needs of all people are to feelcompetent,experienceautonomy,andrelatewellandpositivelytootherhumanbeings.Peopleneedsomelevelsofautonomyin their life and work in order to improve the chances ofexperiencingpositivementalhealth.”(Naylor,2011).

Teacher and learner autonomy are interconnectedNCF-2005supportsdevelopmentofstudents’autonomyasanimportantgoalofeducation,whichisrelatedtoteachers’autonomy,sinceonegivesmeaningtotheother.Learners’autonomyismorelikelytoflourishinanenvironmentthatsupports teacher autonomy. Developing independence,autonomy,andself-control instudents is impossible if theteachershavenoautonomy in theirwork.Aiming tobuildautonomy in others while having little control over theirteachingcreatesaparadoxthatmoststudentsquicklynotice,and thismakes theencouragementof students’autonomymeaninglessforteachersandstudentsalike.

Schools are emotionally-charged spaces where students find their place, and where teachers must exercise judgementIn schools, students negotiate with their shifting world,and teachers are instrumental in guiding them throughtheir learning and life changes. To guide and to teach insuchplaces, teacher judgement is crucial and, to exercisejudgement,teachersmusthaveenoughdegreeofautonomywithin the requirements of the ethics and law. Moreover,

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the ability of citizens to exercise judgement is crucial tomaintaining democracy. Schools play an important rolein helping students apply their judgement to function asautonomousthinkersinademocraticsociety(Naylor;2011).

Freedom of control over professional action is requiredTeachersarenottechnicianswhoimplementotherpeople’sdecisions.Teachersare ‘professionals’, capable of decidingforthemselves.Butinreality,theyarethe‘victims’ofreceivedideas.Peoplewithrealpoliticalpowertakealltheimportanteducationaldecisions.Teachershavelittleoralmostnosayindecidingaboutcurriculum,objectives,goals,techniques,ormaterials tobeused intheclassroom.Howcansuchasystem, where teachers are not free to think, encouragecreative thinking among students? Education needs aparadigmshiftthatemphasisesfreedomofchoiceinthoughtandactionforteachers.

Need for personal and professional development of teachersAn autonomous teacher seeks out opportunities over thecourseofhisorhercareertodevelopfurther.He/shetendsto be self-motivated, high functioning and display greatercognitive outcomes, well-being, and persistence. When ateacherisdominatedbyauthoritiesorforcedtodoallottedtasks,his/herefficacyisreducedandtheyfrequentlyreactwithresistance,resentment,andalossofenergy.

Teacher autonomy involves interdependence, not working in isolationTeacher autonomy necessarily involves interdependenceandnotcompleteisolationfromeducationalcommunitiesorjustindividualism.Totalindependenceisnotautonomy.Anautonomousteacherisselfdetermined,sociallyresponsibleand critically aware participant with a vision of personalempowerment and social transformation. He/she respectsothers,negotiates,cooperates,anddependsonothers.

Building autonomy requires teachers to move from ‘private’ to ‘public’ spacesPrivate space or place refers to work environments wherea teacher essentially works alone, without peer discourse

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or some explicit sharing of pedagogical approaches, eitherwhileteachingorinreflectionsonteaching.Publicspacesorplacesarethoseinwhichteachersareengagedinsomeformofpeerdiscourse,orwhereteachersmaketheirapproachesmorepublic,perhapsthroughpresentations.Theremaybedegreesofmovingintoamorepublicplaceorspace,suchasdialoguewithacolleague,engagementinaninquirygroup,orpresentingandpublishing.Movingintoamorepublicspacerepresentsonepartof the responsibility thataccompaniesautonomy: the responsibility to engage in discourse aboutpractice in ways that teacher judgement can be sharedand discussed with peers and others in public spaces.Teachers,bygivinganaccountoftheirteaching,arebeingpro-actively accountable and thereby taking more controlofaccountabilityratherthanreactingtotheaccountabilitydemandsofdistrictsorgovernments(Naylor2011).

Learning Check 3• Discusshowautonomycancontributetopersonal

andprofessionallifeofateacher?• Describe the various concrete actions which

reflectthattheteacherisautonomous.

FACTorS AFFeCTinG TeACher AuTonomyAfterunderstandingthemeaningofteacherautonomyandvarious domains where teachers exercise their autonomy,the next thing thatmight come to yourmind is thatwhyteachers’ senseof autonomyvaries indifferent situations?Whatarethefactorsthataffectteachers’autonomy?Manyresearchersover theyearshavediscussedvariousreasonsthatcan influence teacherautonomy.Asummaryof thesefactorsisdescribedinthefollowingparagraphs.(a) Professional competence and support: Teachersreport

higherlevelsofautonomyiftheinstitutions,wheretheywork,providethemsufficientopportunitiesfordecisionmaking and risk taking. They also report a highersense of autonomy when new educational demandshave been complemented with the enhancement oftheir professional competence and awareness aboutinnovativetheoriesandpractices.

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(b) Teachers’ personal beliefs system: “Personalbeliefsofteachersaboutthenatureofknowledge,perceptionsof self and feelings of self-worth (self-concept, self-esteem),confidence(self-efficacy),preconceptionsaboutspecificsubjectsordisciplinescanaffectteachers’senseofautonomytoagreatextent”(Pajares,1992).

(c) Teacher’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivation:Intrinsic factors include job satisfaction, desire toassist students to accomplish goals, desire tomake adifferenceinsocietyandsenseofachievementwhiletheextrinsicfactorscompriseofexternalelementsincludingwage, nonmonetary fringe benefits and recognitionof performance. It is found that intrinsic rewards,especially job satisfaction, are more powerful formotivatingteachersthanareextrinsicrewards.Intrinsicmotivationhelpsindevelopingteacherautonomy,whilestress,pressureorteacherburnoutresultsinnegativeoutcomesforteacherautonomy.

(d) Psychological constraints: Teachers are concernedwith fear of change, fear to release control, and fearof empowerment of students through the exercise ofthe power balance in the classroom are some of thepsychological factorsthatrestrainteacherstoexerciseautonomy(Ramos,2006).

WAyS To deVeLop TeACher AuTonomyYouhavereadthatteacherautonomyisinfluencedbyvariousfactors.Thefactisthatmanyteachersfaceadilemmabetweenwhat theywant todoandwhat theyhave todo.Teachersarerequiredtodevelopautonomywithin these limitations.However,sincethereisnoonebestwaytofosterautonomy,it is crucial for teachers to explore variousways and findapproaches that best fit into their own styles (Iida, 2009).Thissectiondiscusses,frompracticalaspects,howteacherautonomycanbepromotedinagiventeachingcontext.

Developing Ability and Willingness to Implement ChangesTobecomeanautonomousteacher,abilityandwillingnesstoimplementchangesarethemostimportantandessential

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elements.Inthecaseofautonomousteacher,theyrepresentthe capability and the drive to develop autonomously andguide students on the road to autonomy.Some importantelements, identified by Romas (2006), for implementingchangesareasfollows.

• Self awareness developsamongstteachersabetterunderstanding of himself/herself as learners andprofessionals,andalsoabouthis/herstrengthsandweaknesses. It is important that teachers becomeawareofwhathappensaroundthem,totheirstudents,attheworkplace,inthecommunity,inthecountryand in theworld. Throughawareness, a teacher isbetterabletoidentifyhis/herstudents’needs,goals,capabilities,desires,changesanddreams,sothathe/shecanhelpthemdevelopautonomyandawarenessoftheirownlearningprocesses.

• responsibility is another quality without whichautonomy is not possible. It gives us freedomand empowerment; at the same time it demandsdedication, organisation, time management skills,investment,stamina,perseveranceandcommitmenttotasksandprojects.

• Challengestakeateacherastepforwardandshowhim/her scope of his/her capabilities. They leadteacherstoprofessionalgrowth.Challengesmaytaketheformofexplorationintonewareas,ofdecisionstoimprovenotoriouslyanareaof teachers’knowledgeorskillsortoundertakeresearch,etc.

• participation and collaboration are also keyelementstothedevelopmentofautonomy.Growingtogether, constructing collectively and undertakingprojects,innovationsandenterprisesisofparamountimportance.

• Changing roles mean transforming teacher’s rolein the classroom, from controller to advisor, frominstructor to guide, from transmitter to observerandlistener,fromevaluatorandjudgetoresearcher.Transforming teacher’s role in the classroom isconcomitant with the transformation of students’roles.

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Creating a Social Network for Professional Teacher DevelopmentIida(2009)pointsoutthatifteachersseetheirownteachingfrom different aspects, it can allow them (teachers) todiscover some clues tomake their teachingmore effectiveand to develop autonomy. Their professional developmentcan be carried out in both individual and collaborativeways. He suggested action research, self-observation, andpeer observation and several other useful approaches forprofessionalteacherdevelopment.

• Action research: Action research contributes toteachers’autonomouslearningthroughtheprocessofdiscovering,posingproblems,andpossiblysolvingthem. This enables teachers to explicitly exploreanddiscoverpossiblesolutionstospecificstudent’slearning difficulties in class. Likewise, since actionresearchcanbeacommunityeffort,itallowsteachersto work collaboratively through discussion withcolleagueswhoprovidetheirsupportandexperience.Actionresearchincludesthreecomponentsnecessaryfor developing teacher autonomy: critical reflectiveinquiry,empowerment,anddialogue.

• Self-observationisanotherwaytodevelopautonomy.Throughaprocessofvideotaping (oraudio taping),describing,analyzing,andinterpretingtheteaching,teacherscandevelopanawarenessofandlearnmoreabouttheirownteaching.Itmayalsobemoreeffectiveforteacherstoincorporatethenotionof‘collaboration’intotheapproachbygoingbeyondtheconceptof‘self’.Itcancreateopportunitiestomeetwithcolleaguesanddiscusstheirself-observationreports.Dialogueswithpeerteacherscanallowthemtogetnewperspectivesandtoreconstructknowledgeaboutteaching.

• peer observation is another technique. Oneapproach in peer observation is that two teachersorganisea lesson, andone teacheswhile theotherobservestheclass;andafterthelesson,bothteachersdescribewhathappenedintheclassroomanddetailtheirexperienceofthelesson,anddiscusshowthelesson couldbemodifiednext time on thebasis of

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thedescriptions;and for thenext class, the role isreversed.

• reading professional literature or journals enables teachers to gain awareness of what iscurrently happening in the field all over the worldandtoconstructnewknowledgeaboutteachingandconductingclassroomresearch.

• Attending conferences and use of internet arealsoeffectivewaystodevelopasteachers.

hoW doeS TeACher AuTonomy heLp in enriChinG LeArninG SiTuATionSAn autonomous teacher is a facilitator and an advisor. Ina learning situation, his/her responsibility is to createa learning environment that provides students with thematerials, equipment, tools, guidance, and support thattheyneedinordertosuccessfullydevelopandcarryouttheirownplanofstudy.Autonomousteacherstakethestudent’sperspectiveduringinstructionanddeeplyvalue,understand,andappreciatethatperspective.Theyworkhardtoidentify,nurture,andbuild students’ innermotivational resources.Anautonomousteacherhelpsthestudentsinthefollowingways.

• He/sheengagesandsupportsallstudentsinlearning.

Learning Check 41. Isautonomyabasichumanneed?Giveexamples.2. Howdoesateacher’sautonomyrequirehim/her

tomovefromprivatetopublicspaces?3. What are the external constraints that affect

teachers’autonomy?4. Whatarethepsychologicalconstraintsthataffect

teachers’autonomy?5. Whataretheapproachesofprofessionalteacher

development?6. How does peer collaboration increase teachers’

autonomy?7 How can teachers’ involvement be promoted in

decisionmakingprocess?8. Howdoes teachers’ autonomyhelp in enriching

learningsituations?

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• He/sheusesavarietyofinstructionalstrategiesandresourcestorespondtostudents’diverseneeds.

• He/shefacilitateslearningexperiencesthatpromoteautonomy,interaction,andchoice.

• He/sheengagesstudentsinproblemsolving,criticalthinking, and other activities that make subjectmattermeaningful.

• He/she promotes self-directed, reflective learningamongallstudents.

Activity 2Discuss with your friends and teachers whetherincreasing teachers’ autonomy leads to qualityeducationorlackofcontrol?Recordtheirviewpoints

aCCoUnTabIlITyYouhavesofarreadthatautonomyencouragesteacherstoteachintheirownstyle,andusethetechniques,materials,and technology that work best for students. In return forthis autonomy, teachers should be held accountable forstudents’progress.Theteachershouldrealisticallybeheldaccountableforwhathe/sheactuallytriedtoteachtheclassandhowmuchhe/shehelped each student improve.Nowthequestionariseswhatisaccountabilityandwhatareitsfunctions?

meAninG oF ACCounTAbiLiTyTeachers’ accountability is a long debatable issue. It isconcernedwithmakingteachersresponsibleforthequalityoftheirteaching.Overtheyears,attemptshavebeenmadetodefineteachers’accountability.OneworkingdefinitionofaccountabilityisproposedbyHeim(1995).Accordingtohim:“Accountability is the responsibility that goes with theauthority to do something. The responsibility is to useauthorityjustifiablyandcredibly.” Heim considered accountability as a multi-facetedconcept involving responsibility, authority, evaluation andcontrol.Accordingtohim,itinvolvesatleasttwopartiesandamutually acknowledged relationship between them.Oneparty delegates authority, to take action, to another party

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in order to demonstrate credible performance. Control isexercisedthroughthedelegationofauthority,whichmaybecontinuedormaybewithhelddependingondemonstrationofcredibleperformance. Accountabilitymaybedirectedeithertowardstheprocess(i.e.,howsomethingisdone),ortowardstheoutcomes(i.e.,whatresultsareaccomplished).Incaseofteachers,whenit isdirectedtowards theprocess, teacher isdelegatedtheauthority to engage in activity with the responsibility ofconductingtheactivityproperlyinaccordancewithprevailingexpectations.Whenitisextendedtoincludeoutcomes,thenteacherbecomesresponsiblefortheconsequencesorresultsofhis/heractions—whetherpositiveornegative,andwhetherintendedornot.

Activity 3Discuss thedifferent types of authority that canbedelegatedtostaffmembersinschools.

TypeS And FunCTionS oF ACCounTAbiLiTyLevitt,Janta&Wegrich(2008)intheirreportAccountability for Teacher havediscussed various types and functions ofaccountability.Thesearedescribedbelow.

Types of Accountability • Organisational:Organisational accountabilityworks

through superior/subordinate relationships (likeprincipalandteachers)anddefinesactors’authorityandresponsibility.Itsecurescompliancewithsomeexplicit rule or standard and, even when actorshave a considerable amount of autonomy in theirconduct,theystillfeelthepressuresoforganisationalaccountability.

• Political:Politicalaccountabilityisexercisedmainlybyelectedpoliticiansandisaboutachievingdemocraticcontrol. It is implemented in three dimensions: (1)election of representatives or political parties, (2)ministerial, when it is applied indirectly throughministers that areheldaccountable for everyaffairin their ministry, and (3) legislation expressed inconstitutionalorotherequivalentdocuments.

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• Legal: Inlegalaccountability,courtsandotherjudicialinstitutions’accountabilitysystemsplaythecentralrolebyprotectingrightsandredressingwrongs.Itismostlyaboutcheckingtheintegrityoforganisationalandindividualbehaviour.

• Professional: Theprofessionalsliketeachers,lawyers,doctors, etc., are bound by some codes of conductand practices set by the professional associations.Professionalaccountabilityfocusesonconformitytothesestandardsandcodesofconductforprofessionalbehaviourasthesenormsarebindingforallmembersandneedtobe implementedbyallprofessionals intheireverydaypractice.

• Moral or ethical: Ethicalormoralaccountabilityhasacentralplace inaprofessional’sconduct. It reliesontheinternalisedvaluestowhichtheprofessionalsvoluntarilyadhereto.Thedifferencebetweenethicalor moral and professional accountability is thedegree towhich ithasbeen incorporated inofficialstandards. Professional accountability is bindingformembers of professional associations while theethical or moral accountability relies on informalcodeof conductby theprofessionals.For teachers,itisthecommitmenttowardschildren,theirparentsand other stakeholders, to act in the best interestof students to facilitate their effective learning anddevelopment.

Functions of AccountabilityThefunctionsofaccountabilityaregivenbelow.

• Democratic control: Accountabilityplaysanimportantrole in excercising the democratic control by civilsociety on representatives (here teachers) bysubjectingthemtopublicscrutiny,andjudgingthemon their effectiveness and efficiency in serving thepublic.

• Enhancing the integrity of public governance:Accountability arrangements enhance the integrityof public governance by strengthen commitmentto honesty and appropriate conduct, and henceencourageconsistencyofactions.

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• Supporting performance improvement:Accountabilitysupports performance improvement that flowsfrom organisational learning and avoid unintendedoutputsoroutcomes.

• Maintaining and enhancing the legitimacy of public governance: Accountabilityworksasan instrumentthatensuretransparencyandanswerabilitybetweenactors (teachers) and the stakeholders (parents,students, society) by bridging these two spheres.It also ensures that the public voice is heard andenables individual institutions to be answerable tothepublic.

• Mechanism for catharsis: Finally, accountabilityalso serves as amechanism for catharsis in casesof serious misconduct and breach of public trust.Detailed investigation that explores all factors thatled to the unacceptable consequences provides anopportunity to acknowledge what went wrong andwhy.Hence,preventrecurrenceoferrorsandhelptosupportbettercompliancewithrulesandregulations.

Activity 4Visityournearbyschoolanddiscusswiththeprincipalhowshe/heensuresaccountabilitybyteachers.

do aUTonoMy and aCCoUnTabIlITy go TogEThER?It was discussed earlier that teachers are professionals.Theyneedanddeserve significantdegrees of autonomy interms of what and how they teach. In turn, teachers areheldaccountableforstudents’progress.Studiesrevealthatautonomy in decisions relating to curricula, assessmentsand resource allocation tends to be associatedwithbetterstudent performance, particularly when schools operatewithin a culture of accountability. It has been reportedthatthestudentstendtoperformbetterincountrieswhereschoolshavegreaterautonomyoverwhatistaughtandhowstudentsareassessed.Similarly,schoolsthatenjoygreater

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autonomyinresourceallocationtendtoshowbetterstudentperformance than those with less autonomy. However,interestinglyenough,incountrieswheretherearenosuchaccountabilityarrangements,schoolswithgreaterautonomyinresourceallocationtendtoperformworse. Accountability for common standards is importantbecausetoday’spupilswillbetheparents,adultcitizens,andproductiveworkersoftomorrow.Societyhasastronginterestinensuringthattheyarewellpreparedforthoseroles,andthattheyshareanunderstandingofthevirtuesrequiredbyafreesociety.Societyalsohasanobligationtoensurethatnochildoryouthisharmedbyneglectfulorabusiveparentsor schools. Thus, both autonomy and accountability areimportantregimes.Autonomousschoolsmustworkwithinanaccountabilityframeworktobeeffective.Autonomycomeswith accountability, and accountability without autonomymakes no sense. Both autonomy and accountability canexisttogetherandonegivesmeaningtoother.

Learning Check 41. Defineaccountability.2. How does accountability exercise democratic

control?3. Whatistherelationbetweenteachers’autonomy

andaccountability?

LeT uS Sum upInthepresentchapter,wehavediscussedautonomyingeneraland teachers’autonomy inparticular.Wehave learnt thatthereareanumberofviewsregarding teachers’autonomyincludingtheteacher’sabilityandwillingnesstohelplearners;freedom from control by others over professional action;capacity toengage inself-directed teachingorprofessionalaction;andautonomousteacherasanautonomouslearner.Therearevariouscharacteristicsof teacherautonomyanddifferent domains in which teachers exercise their controlincludingteachingandassessment,curriculumdevelopment,schoolfunctioning,andprofessionaldevelopment.Itisfurtheremphasised that teacher autonomy is not an omnipresentattributeofcertainteachers;itmanifestsitselfdifferentlyin

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everyteacher,andatthesametime,everyteacherperceivesandexerciseshis/herprofessionalautonomyacrossdifferentdomainsindifferentways.Teacherautonomyisinfluencedby various factors including professional competence andsupport,teachers’personalbeliefssystem,teachers’intrinsicand extrinsic motivation, and psychological constraints.Teachersare required todevelop teacherautonomywithinthese limitations.However, since there isnoonebestwayto foster autonomy, it is crucial for teachers to explorevariouswaysforteacherdevelopmentandfindapproachesto best fit into their own styles. A number of approachestodevelop teachers’autonomyhavebeendiscussed in thepresentchapterincludingdevelopingabilityandwillingnessto implement changes, creating a social network forprofessional teacher development, developing learners’autonomy, increasing opportunities for peer collaboration,and promoting teacher involvement in decision makingprocesses. An autonomous teacher is a facilitator and anadvisor. In learning situations, his/her responsibility is tocreatea learning environment thatprovides studentswiththe materials, equipment, tools, guidance, and support,they will need in order to successfully develop and carryout their own plan of study. In return for this autonomy,teachers shouldbeheldaccountable for studentprogress.The teacher should realistically be held accountable forwhatshe/heactuallytriedtoteachtheclassandhowmuchshe/hehelpedeachstudent improve.Accountability is theresponsibilitythatgoeswiththeauthoritytodosomething.Theresponsibilityistouseauthorityjustifiablyandcredibly.Bothautonomyandaccountabilityareimportantregimeandcanexisttogetherasonegivesmeaningtotheother.

reVieW QueSTionS1. Explain your understanding of teacher autonomy. In

whichdomainsdoyou,asateacher,requireautonomyandwhy?

2. “Teacher is a wild animal in captivity.” Discuss thestatement.

3. Explain how teacher autonomy influences learnerautonomy?

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4. Explain how teacher autonomy can help in realisingobjectivesofeducation?

5. What are the factors that hinder teacher autonomy?Explainhowyouasateacherwillminimisetheireffect.

6. Discussthewaysthroughwhichteacherscanbemademoreaccountable?

7. Does increase in accountability mean decrease inautonomy?

reFerenCeS And Web LinKSCollins Cobuild English diCtionary. (3rd ed). 1995. Collins

Publishers,NewYork.CottErall, s. and d. CrabbE (Eds.). 1999.Learner Autonomy

in Language Learning: Defining the Field and Effective Change.PeterLang,Frankfurt.

hEim, m. 1995. Quoted in Heim, M. Accountability in Education:A Primer for School Leaders. Hawai‘i SchoolLeadership Academy (Monograph, Product # MO9601),Honolulu.

iida, a. 2009.TeacherAutonomyandProfessionalTeacherDevelopment: Exploring the Necessities for DevelopingTeacherAutonomyinEFLJapaneseContexts.Asian EFL Journal, vol.35,article3.

lEvitt, r., Janta, b. and WEgriCh, K. 2008.Accountability of Teachers- Literature Review. Rand.Europe. (TechnicalReport,GeneralTeachingCouncilEngland).

littlE, d. 1995. Learning asDialogue: TheDependence ofLearnerAutonomyonTeacherAutonomy.System, 23(2),175-182.

nCErt. 2005. National Curriculum Framework–2005.NCERT,NewDelhi.

naylor, C.2011.The Rights and Responsibilities of Teacher Professional Autonomy. BC Teachers’ Federation.(BCTF Research Report, Section XII, 2011-EI-03),Vancouver.

national PoliCy on EduCation. 1986. Ministry of HumanResource Development, Department of Education,GovernmentofIndia,NewDelhi.

PaJarEs, F. 1992.Teachers’BeliefsandEducationalResearch:Cleaningup aMessyConstruct.Review of Educational Research,62,307-332.

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ramos, r.C. 2006. Considerations on the Role of Teacher Autonomy – Theoretical Discussion Papers. Available online- http://caljjournal.files.wordpress.com/2010/12/2006-p-183-202.pdf.

The Right of Children to Free and Compulsary Education-2009.GovernmentofIndia,NewDelhi.

tort-molonEy, d. 1997. Teacher Autonomy: A Vygotskian theoretical framework. CLCS Occasional paper No. 48,TrinityCollege,Dublin,CLCS.

WilChEs,J.U.2007.Teacher Autonomy: A Critical Review of the Research and Concept Beyond Applied Linguistics.Available on line: http://quimbaya.udea.edu.co/ikala/images/PDFs/Vol%2012%20rticulo%2010pdf

Chapter 8

Learner Autonomy

STRUCTURE• Introduction• Objectives• MeaningofLearnerAutonomy• DevelopmentofLearnerAutonomy

– FamilyPressure– SchoolPractices– TeacherFactor

• Curriculum,Textbooks,InstructionsandDisciplineinLearnerAutonomy

• SchoolandDevelopingLearnerAutonomy• IndividualAutonomyandCollectiveResponsibilityLet Us Sum upReview QuestionsReferences and Web Links

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InTRodUCTIonAsyouknow,agrowingchildhas thecapacity toobserve,assimilate,explore,investigate,andorganisetheinformationpresented to him/her. It is the ingenuity of the peoplepresentaroundhim/hertonurturethesehiddencapacitiesof the children. As academics and scholars gained betterunderstanding of ‘how children learn’, they diverted theirattentionfromtheroleofteacherastransmitterofknowledge.Teachers are now viewed as the ones who are partners,facilitators, observers, co-workers, co-investigators, co-learners,etc.,intheteaching-learningprocess.Itisrealisedthatchildrencometotheschoolwithhuge,oftenamazing,amount of information and teachers’ job is to help thisinformation getting converted into meaningful knowledge.This view is in contrast to the long prevailing beliefs andpractices where the teacher was assumed to be the onlyrepository of all knowledge and information, and only theteacher could determine what and how much was to betransferredtothelearner.Itwasonlytheteacherwhodecidedwhat information was suitable for the particular age andstageofthelearner.Subsequently,itbecametheprerogativesof government and school boards to prescribe age-specificcurriculathattheteachershouldtransactandthelearnersmust learn.Rote-memory and reproduction of informationbecame the concern of schools, teachers, learners andparents.Thelearnerswerereducedtoobedienceinitsworstform.Therewasnochanceortimeforthelearnerstopursue,explore,examineandanalysewhattheywouldgenuinelybeinterestedinontheirown.Itwasthiseffectiveprescriptionwhichnumbedthecreativityandpossibilitiesof innovativeactionamongthelearners.Thischapterfocusesonwaysandmeanstomakelearnerautonomousfordecidingwhatistobelearned,thepaceoftheirlearning,andtheteachers’roleindevelopingsuchcompetenciesamongthelearners.

Activity 1Consultliteraturetofindoutthesalientcharacteristicsof teaching-learning processes prevalent duringancientperiod.Preparepoint-wisecomparisonofthetraditionalpracticeswiththecontemporaryonesanddiscussitwithclassmates.

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objECTIvESAfterreadingthischapter,youwillbeableto:• differentiate between thenature of learner and teacher

autonomy;• explainthefactorsaffectinglearnerautonomy;• describe how learner autonomy can be fostered in the

schoolcontext;and• understandthewayautonomyhelpsinfulfillingsocietal

responsibility.

MEanIng of LEaRnER aUTonoMyIn the last fewdecades, researchhasshown that learnershavesomuchtocontributetotheprocessoflearningwhich,if acknowledged, accepted and supported by the system,wouldbedeeplyconducivetocreatealearningsociety.Therenewedfocusonthephenomenonoflife-longlearningalsoadvocates nurturing autonomy among the learners in theinitialstageitself.Itisbelievedthatthiswouldhelptocreateself-assuredlifelonglearners;menandwomen,imbuedwithactiveandcreativefaculties,whoarewillingtoinnovateandexplore. As the Activity 1 will show you, the traditional Indiansystemofteachingandlearningwasbasedonthefollowingfoursteps:1. Learningfromtheteacher,2. Self-learning; which included pondering over and

reflecting upon various aspects of what was receivedfromtheteacher,

3. Discussionwithpeers,and4. Utilisationoftheknowledgeorwhatwaslearnt. Acarefulanalysisofthesestepswillrevealthatthelastthree steps are entirely at the ‘command’ and ‘discretion’of the learner. There are instances available in the Indiantraditional literature which indicate that the educationsystemofthattimeencouragedlearnertoself-evaluatethelevels of his/her ‘learning attainments’, and, if satisfied,requesthis/herteacherforpermissiontoenterintoworldlylife.Today,mostofthisseemstohavebeenlostundertheconstraintsimposedbytheeducationsystemwhichfocusesprimarilyonfinalyear-endexaminationmarks,atthecostof

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severalotheraspectsthatareessentialtoleadafulfillingandcontributinglife. The learner autonomy can be conceptualised as thecapacity of the individual to engage in ‘critical reflection,decisionmaking,andwillingnesstoactandexperimentonone’sown.’Itmaybedefinedastheabilitytotakepersonalorselfregulatedresponsibilityforlearning.AccordingtoLittle(1991),learnerautonomyisessentiallyamatteroflearners’psychologicalrelationtotheprocessandcontentoflearning–acapacityfordetachment,criticalreflection,decision-makingandindependentaction.Whenalearneractivelyparticipatesinthelearningprocessandgetsholdofeveryopportunitytolearnandlearnmore;he/sheisassumedtoshowthesignsofanautonomouslearner.Itistheresponsibilityofpeoplearoundthelearnertoremovethebarriersandimpedimentsthatmaydiscourage the learner.Sometimes, evenpassivesupportenhancesself-confidenceandputsthelearneronanindependentpath. Formally, learner autonomy could imply the learnertaking charge of his/her own learning in certain aspectsfromdiversesources.Thetermlearnerautonomyhascometobeusedinseveralways.AccordingtoBensonandVoller(1997),learnerautonomyisusedfor:1. situationsinwhichlearnersstudyentirelyontheirown;2. set of skills which can be learnt and applied in self-

directedlearning;3. aninborncapacitywhichissuppressedbyinstitutional

education;3. the exercise of learners’ responsibility for their own

learning;and4. the right of the learners to determine the direction of

theirownlearning. Thus, it is clear that promotion of autonomy amonglearners involves encouraging them to take responsibilityfortheirownwork.Thiscanbeachievedbygivinglearnerssome control over what they want to learn (content), howtheywill learn (methodology)andwhentheywant to learn(time).Researchshowsthatstudents insuchapermissiveenvironment setrealisticgoals,planwork,developcopingstrategies with new and unforeseen situations, evaluateand assess their own work, and, generally, learn how to

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learnfromtheirownsuccessesandfailuresinwayswhichhelps them tobecomemoreefficient learners in future. Incase the learningenvironmentdoesnotdevelopautonomyandforcedtoscorehighmarks/gradesintheschoolboardexamination, he/shemay lose all interest andmotivation.Thewayeducation isbeing imparted, inschoolsandevenin colleges, encourages dependence on others and leaveslittle scope for fostering autonomy among the learners. Ina teacher-controlled classroom, there is little scope foracceptanceofstudents’ ideasandpracticallynopossibilityof these being discussed and tried out. Research findingshave shown that autonomous learners show initiative, arewilling to partner with peers and teachers, are self-awareandcommitted,consistentlyreflectupontheattainmentsofthe self and also of the processbeing followed. In variousexaminationsconducted inschoolsanduniversities, thosewhotopthelistofsuccessfulcandidates,donotnecessarilyexcel,incomparisontoothers,intheirchosenlifegoals.

Learning Check 11. Are learnersmoreefficientandsystematicwhen

givenautonomy?2. Listthecharacteristicsofanautonomouslearner.3. Whatare theconditions thatnurtureautonomy

amongthelearners?4. Do high scorers in board examination excel in

otheraspectsoflifeaswell?Comment.

Activity 2For a particular class, find out the set of skillsthat learners canachieveon their own.Writea fewsentences about the methodology of achieving thesame.

dEvELopMEnT of LEaRnER aUTonoMyThere are several factorswhich influence thedevelopmentof autonomyamong the learners. Letus take the exerciseofexaminingtherangeofrestrictiveandrigidpracticesthat

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placeatightnoosearoundnotonlythelearnersbutalsotheteachers.Includedamongthesefactorsarefamilypressure,schoolpractices,teacherfactor,etc.

FAmiLy PressureAs you know, it is wrong to assume that children beginlearningintheschool;rather,learningbeginsatthetimeofbirthitselfandparents,otherfamilymembers,peergroup,neighboursplayimportantrolesininfluencingthelearningprocessofchildren.Thedisciplinarypracticesoftheparents;be it authoritative, authoritarian,permissive or restrictive;affect the development of autonomy among learners. Youmusthaveobservedthatparentalwishes,desiresandtheirunachievedgoalsinlifeoftendecidethecourseanddirectionofstudiesfortheirchildren.MysonmustbecomeanengineerordoMBAandmydaughtermustbecomeamedicaldoctorcouldbetheparentalprescriptionevenbeforehis/herchildcelebrates his/her first birthday. In a society that valuesobedienceasoneoftheessentialdutiesinlife,child’sowninterestandtalentgetswastedinumpteencases.Parentalpressure,particularlyfromtheeducatedones,oftenretardstheprocessofexpressionofinterestbythechildinhis/herdesireddirection. It has another dimension too. Comparison of learnerattainments, mostly marks/grades obtained by them,with their classmates is often done by the parents,whichfrequently results inadmonition toscorebetter than ‘him’or ‘her’. It createsunavoidablepressureandstresson thelearner.Itisagreatdepreciationinthecognitivecapitalofthecountrywhenachildinterestedinliteratureisconfinedtostudysubjectsofparentalchoiceandmadetosit inanentranceexaminationforanengineeringcourseand,finally,endsupasanelectricalengineer.Tuitionsatindividualleveland coaching in identified institutions restrict the naturaland emerging talents. These practices leave little scopefor the learner to thinkbeyondwhathasbeen transferredbytheteacher.There isneitherthescopenorthetimeforreflection,experimentationandobservationforchildren.Allthesefactorsnegativelyaffectthedevelopmentofautonomyamongthelearners.

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sChooL PrACtiCesPresently,a largemajorityofschools in thecountry followprescribedcurriculaandsyllabi.Oncethesesyllabireachinthehandsof theteacher,he/sheredefinesthetaskbeforehim/her: completion of the assigned task given in termsof syllabus and the textbooks in the prescribed time. Theparents,learnersandteachersallseemunitedononecount:only those components matter which are to be examinedfor theawardofmarks in thefinal year end examination;everything else is secondary. If the schools give dueimportance to activities, such aswork experience, sociallyusefulproductivework,workingwithcommunity,etc., theprocess of nurturance of talent would definitely get a bigboostbyprovidingopportunitiestothelearnertodelineatetheirareaofinterestandmoveaheadinthatdirection. Anotheropportunitytoboostlearnerautonomycouldbeseeninassigning‘projectwork’tothemontopics/themesoftheirchoiceandpermitfullplaytothemtousetheirskillsand talents. Currently, conducting a projectwork has, byandlarge,beenreducedtoafarce.Thechildrencanpurchase‘projectwork’inthemarketandsubmititintheschool.Theteachermaybeoverworkedandnot inaposition toguidestudentsabouthowtodotheprojectwork.Projectwork,whendoneingroupwithpeers,innovativeideasdoemergeandtakepracticalshape.Occasionallyonedoesreceivesomesporadicreports of an amazing innovation by someone working intoughconditionswithoutmuchsupportormotivation.Theseareinstancesoflearnerautonomyleadingtoinnovations. In India we still have a long way to go to provide acafeteria approach to the learners in selectionof subjects.The similar is the casewith year-end examinationswhichcontinuetoremainasourceofgreatstressandstrainbothfor the parents and the students. Imagine a situation inwhich a child could select subjects of choice and arrangetheseinorderofpreferenceandofferhim/herforevaluationwhen ready for it! A transparent, flexible, non-restrictivecurriculumthatpermitsmanychoicesand interestscouldeffectivelyenhancethescopeforlearnerstogainexperienceinthemselves,theircapacitytoreinterpret,incisivelyanalyseandcomeoutwithnewexplanationsandpossibilities.

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teACher FACtorMostof theaspectsmentionedabovecouldbetakenawayfromthelistofrestrictivepracticesinthecontextoflearnerautonomy if the teacher is professionally competent,committed,performing,proudofhis/hertaskandwillingtoguidehis/herstudentsonthebasisofindividualdifferences.The teacher could generate awareness amongst parentsabout the level to which they should impose their wishesontheirchildreninmattersofnurturingtalentsandgivingthem the liberty of making choices and taking decisions.A teacher, who keeps himself/herself abreast of the newdevelopments in the field, can indicate possibilities andencouragestudentstorealisetheblissof learningontheirown.Forthis,theteachershouldbewillingtoworkwiththestudentsasapartnerandco-worker.Ateacherwho‘grows’withyearsoftenpresentsanexampleofthe‘positiveoutcomesof learner autonomy’. Young personswould innovate evenwhenenmeshedinrestrictionsandrestraints,oncetheyfindsomeonereadytostandwiththemwithaffectionandalwaysreadytoprovideencouragement.

major shifts in educationTheNational Curriculum Framework – 2005(p.110)describesthemajorshiftsineducationsasfollows.

From• Teacher centric, stable designs• Teacher direction and decisions• Teacher guidance and monitoring

• Passive reception in learning• Learning within the four walls of

the classroom• Knowledge as “given” and fixed

• Disciplinary focus

• Linear exposure• Appraised, short, few

to• Learner centric, flexible process• Learner autonomy• Facilitates, supports and

encourages learning• Active participation in learning• Learning in the wider social

context• Knowledge as it evolves and is

created• Multidisciplinary, educational

focus• Multiple and divergent exposure• Multifarious, continuous

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Learning Check 21. Caneverylearnerbecomeanautonomouslearner?

Givereasonsinsupportofyouranswer.2. Whatchangescanbemadeintheschoolpractices

todeveloplearnerautonomy?3. What is the meaning of a non-restrictive

curriculum?

Activity 2Consult the library and find out the differencebetweenauthoritative,authoritarian,permissiveandrestrictivechild-rearingpractices.Discusswithotherstudentsandparents.

CURRICULUM, TExTbookS, InSTRUCTIonS and dISCIpLInE In LEaRnER aUTonoMyYoumaynowaskthequestionthatwhatroledocurriculum,syllabiandtextbooksplayindevelopinglearnerautonomy?Alternatively,onemightalsoaskwhyitshouldbenecessarytogivefreedomtothelearnerstolearnontheirownirrespectiveofcurriculum,syllabiandtextbooks.Indeedthelearnersdonotrequirefreedomfromcurriculum,syllabiandtextbooksif their developmental characteristics are matched withthese prescriptions. For example, it stands pedagogicallyconfirmedandacademicallyacceptedthatnochildshouldbemadetolearnalphabetsornumeralsorreadingandwritingin pre-schools. However, one could visit any prestigiousschoolwithhighcredibilityandwouldfindtheschoolandalso the teachers taking pride in the ‘levels of proficiencythechildreninpre-schoolhavealreadyattainedinlanguageandmathematics!’Itisthenurturanceofthedevelopmentalcompetenciesofthechild intheinitialyearsthatprepareshim/herforbetterformallearninginsubsequentyears.Pre-schoolisalsothetimetoletchildrenthemselvesrealiseandexpresstheirareasofinterest.Thetaskoftheteacheristoallowandencouragethisprocess.

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Itshouldberememberedthattheroleoftheteacherinpromotingautonomyoflearnerisofparamountsignificance.Theteacherpresentsa‘method’beforethelearnerand,atthesametime,alsoemphasisesthatthisisnottheonlymethod.Therecouldalwaysbeotheralternativemethods;letusexplorethem.Itmustbeinculcatedinthemindsofthelearnerthattherolesofthetextbooks,syllabusandtheteachersareonlytofacilitateandhelphim/herontheirmarchtoexplorationinthesearchofknowledgeandacquisitionofskills.Thistypeofconfidencebuildingresultsinenhancedmotivationandself-confidenceamongthelearners.Itgetshinderediftheschoolimposestextbooks,syllabusanddemandsweeklyprogressreports, expecting comparability of learner attainments.Therearecertainbasicessentialsintheprocessofgrowingup.Certaininputslikeprovidingnecessarynutritiontoaninfant and a growing child does require someone else totakechargeofit.Similaristherequirementwhenthechildproceedsonthepathofeducation.Textbooks,curriculum,instructionsanddisciplinearetobeconsidered‘supportivebutnotrestrictive’intheprocessofgrowingupandacquiringtheskillandcapabilityof‘learningtolearn’andeventuallybecominganautonomouslifelonglearner. Duringthefirstcoupleofyearstheschoolsneednotgobeyondtheactivitybooksthatmayenhancetheinterestofthechild.Toelaboratethispoint,theboxgivenbelowcontainsdescriptionsrelatedtowhatautonomydoesnotmean.

What is not Learner Autonomy?• Autonomy does not necessarily refer to self-

instruction/learning without a teacher.

• It does not mean that intervention or initiative on the part of a teacher is banned.

• It is not something teachers do to the students.

• It is not a single easily identifiable behaviour.

• It is not a ready state achieved by all learners once and for all.

In the present day, in addition to the teacher, schoollibrary, etc., with the advent of ICT, access to knowledgeandinformationiseasilyavailablethroughvarioussources.

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Learningautonomycanbedevelopedbyencouragingchildrentoacquireinformationby‘searching’varioussourcesandusetheinformationinbuildingtheirknowledge.Theprinciplesofguidedlearningcouldbeusedinamannerthatitleadstogreatermotivationandapplicationsofskillssoacquiredinnewandchallengingsituations. Autonomy isalsoexpressedas theability to learnhowsomethingcanbelearnt–learningtolearn–andmaynotbethesamewhenthisacquisitionisputtoapplicationsinsubsequent situations. This could happen only when thelearnerrealisesthatthetextbookisnottheonlysourceandthere is aworld beyond the teacher andhis/hermethodsand content. Nurturing autonomy requires the teacher toencouragesuchthoughtsamongthelearners. Oneof themostsupportive ideas thathelpnurturanceofautonomy is the capacityof the learner to visualise theinter-linkages between various aspects of knowledge thatare formallypresentedassubjectsofstudy inschoolsandcolleges.Oncethelearnersmoveoutoftheconfinesofthetextbookandthe teacher, theworldopensupbeforehim/her.Thisnurturesautonomythemost.

Activity 31. Make a list of few sources of knowledge and

learning.2. List various activities that teachers must do to

developautonomyamongthelearners.

SChooL and dEvELopIng LEaRnER aUTonoMyYouknowthatlearninghasneverbeenconfinedtoschoolsor to a formal system, where it was imparted at a fixedplace by more learned and knowledgeable teachers andscholars.ThosewhoneverattendedaGurukula, Madrasa,orSeminarydidlearntoleadtheirlifeandnotalloftheseliveswerewasted.Onecouldciteexamplesofthosewhoexcellednotonlyintheirownlife,butalsoinfluencedotherstoleadanenlightenedlife.ThelifeofMahatmaGandhiwasdeeplyinfluenced by his mother. The following words of Gandhiwould illustrate the level to which traditional and familylearningcouldelevateanindividual.

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“I learnt from my illiterate but wise mother that all rights to be deserved and preserved come from duty well done. Thus the very right to live accrues to us when we do the duty of citizenship of the world. From this one fundamental statement, perhaps it is easy enough to define duties of man and woman and correlate every right to some corresponding duty to be first performed…”

Ineverysociety, the transferofknowledgeandwisdomfromonegenerationtothenextisoftenrecalledwithgreatsense of reverence as its contribution to the growth ofhumancivilisation is tremendous.However, thingschangewith timesand impacteveryaspectofhumanactivityandendeavour.Thegrowthofformalsystemofeducationisalsolinkedwithhumanaspirations,expectationsandknowledgecreation that have successfully explored every aspect ofthe secrets of nature. Definitely all this can no longer betransmittedorally.Ithastobeformalised.InIndia,Nalandaand Taxila prepared scholars of repute who explored theoceansofknowledgeforthebenefitofmankind,irrespectiveofgeographicalboundariesanddiversitiesofeveryconceivablevariety.Modernschoolsanduniversitiesareaconsequenceofthesegradualdevelopments. However,thequestionthatarisesisthatdoeslearningtakeplaceifthelearnerisfreefromtheconstraintsofschooling?SuchaquestionpromptedIvanIllich(1973)topublishhisglobal-attention-catchingworkentitledDeschooling Society.Thiscriticaldiscoursedelineatedthelimitationsthatformalsystems impose on the learners. Illich also suggestedalternatives.Accordingtohim:

“A good educational system should have three purposes: it should provide all who want to learn with access to available resources at any time in their lives; empower all who want to share what they know to find those who want to learn it from them; and, finally, furnish all who want to present an issue to the public with the opportunity to make their challenge known.”

In the world of 21st century when themarch towardsa learning society is considered inevitable, an alternativesystem of learning shall always be under inquisition andunder experimentation. The outcomes of such efforts will

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always add value to the existing system. There would benodoubtatanystage in themindsofhumanbeings thatlearning cannever be confined or constrained by externalsystemsorimpositions.ItmaybepertinenttomentionherethatthequestionofcomprehensivelearningwasexaminedintheDelorsCommissionReport,mentionedinChapter2.It states that ‘educationmust, as it were, simultaneouslyprovidemaps of a complexworld in constant turmoil andthecompassthatwillenablepeopletofindtheirwayout.’Itfurtherpointsoutthatitisnolongerpossibleforanindividualtodrawuponthestoreofknowledgeacquiredintheinitialyears and use them throughout one’s life. One has to bealwaysreadytoseizeeveryavailableopportunityoflearningand including updating and renewing the skills. Not onlythis;onehastobereadytobroadenone’sattitudesaswellalongwithknowledgeandskills.ThisCommissionidentifiesfourpillarsofknowledge,discussedinChapter2.Itpointsoutthatformaleducation/schoolinghasmainlyfocusedonlearningtoknowandtoalesserextentonlearningtodo.Thesetwoaloneareno longer sufficient. TheCommission statesthat“equalattentionshouldbepaidinalloftheorganisedlearning to eachof these fourpillars, so that education isregardedasatotalexperiencethroughoutlife.”Thiswouldimmediatelyrequiresignificantchangesintheverygoalsofeducation, structure of educational programmes and alsothepedagogyofimpartingit.TheCommissionstates:

“A broad, encompassing view of learning should aim to enable each individual to discover, unearth and enrich his or her creative potential, to reveal the treasure within each of us. This means going beyond an instrumental view of education, as a process one submits to in order to achieve specific aims in terms of skills, capacities or economic potential, to one that emphasises the development of the complete person, in short, learning to be.”

Insum, itcanbesaidthat learningalwaystakesplacebeyondtheschools,withouttheschoolanddefinitelyalongwith the school. Times ahead shall demand far greaterinitiative on the part of the person to equip him/her forlifelonglearningwithoutanyinhibitionsorhesitations.

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Learning Check 31. Accordingtoyouwhataretherestraintsschools

imposeonthelearner?2. Howdoyousee the recommendationsofDelors

Commission in terms of developing learnerautonomy?Givereasons.

Activity 4Try to recall the good things you learnt from yourmother,fatherandotheradultsinthefamily.Howdidithelpyouinyourfuturedevelopment?

IndIvIdUaL aUTonoMy and CoLLECTIvE RESponSIbILITy Autonomous learners, whether individuals or groups,remainactivetowardsthelearningtaskidentified,delineateand analyze alternatives, do not worry about taking risksand encountering failures, possess ample self-confidence,and, in group situations, command peer confidence. Theyalsounderstandandappreciate that autonomycould leadtoproductive,creativeand innovativeoutcomesonlywhenit iscoupledwithastrongsenseofresponsibility. It istherole identification,onthepartofboththe teacherandthelearnerthatcouldresultintoamutuallyperfectsetting:theteacher to support the learner onhis/her path to analyzedeeperintothetaskundertaken;andthelearnerinreceivingsuchinputsandincentivesthatwouldaddvaluetohis/herefforts. Now,thequestionarisesisthattowhatextenttheteacher’ssupportiverolestrengthensthelearner’sautonomy?Itistoberealisedthatonlyaprofessionallyequippedteacher,whois also a keen observer of student’s traits and behaviour,canhelpthelearnerinreducinghis/herdependenceontheteacher. The existing teaching-learning system is, withoutdoubt,heavilydependentontheteacher.Thetransitionfromteacher-dependence to student-autonomy is not an easytaskas itrequiresmakingadditionaleffortsonthepartofbothofthem.Acoupleofaspectscouldbeapplicableinmost

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ofthesituationssuchasfocusedattention,correctionsandstrategyvariationsatappropriatepointsresultingoutofself-monitoringandevaluation.Ateachstage,bothmustknowhowtosavourthesuccess.Further,asthe learnerattainshigherlevelsofautonomy,greateristhesenseofachievementoftheteacher. The developments in information and communicationtechnology(ICT)haveconsiderablychangedthefaceoftheclassroomandhavecreatednewsourcesofinformationandknowledge. Ithasalso transformed the roleof the teachersignificantly.Itwouldbeinterestingtonotetheteachers’rolesand corresponding students’ roles as identified byWeaver(1970).Table1contains teachers’ rolesandcorrespondingstudents’rolesandoutcomes.

Table1teachers’ roles and Corresponding students’ roles and

outcomes (Weaver,1970)

Teachers’ Roles Teaching/Learning Process Students’ Roles

Likely Student Quality as Outcomes

1. Appreciator Asdeterminedbystudents

1. Searcher Self-Determination

2. Partner Participation 2. Partner Responsibility3. Patron Making 3. Designer Creativeness4. Guide Searching 4. Explorer Adventurousness5. Questioner Experimentation 5. Searcher InvestigationSkill

6. Tutor Reflection 6. Thinker Understanding7. Counsellor Expressionof

feeling7. Client Insight

8. Moulder Conditioning 8. Subject Habits

9. Instructor Transferofinformation

9. Memoriser PossessionofInformation

10. Exemplar Imitation 10. Trainee Skills

It would always be open to re-examine the above roleidentification. It would, however, be obvious that none ofthesecouldbediscarded.Theproblemariseswheneithertheteacherorthelearnersignoreanyoftheaspectsdelineated.

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Activity 5Select a theme of study in your course. Delineatetherolesofteacherandstudentsintransactingthatthemewith a view to develop autonomy among thelearners.

Let us sum uPYou have read in this chapter that autonomous learningrequiresgreater,intelligentandsustainedeffortonthepartof the teacher. It is not a teacher-less learning. Learnersbecomeautonomousonlygraduallyandacquirebetterandhighertraitsastheymovealongandmoveahead.Somemaytakelongertimeandrequiregreaterpersuasionthanothers.Committed,competentand‘performingteachers’interactingwithwillingandcuriouslearnerscreateconditionsconducivetoautonomouslearning.Thissubsequentlyleadstocreationof new ideas and knowledge, and thereby enhancing theglobalknowledgecapitalthatcouldbeutilisedforthegoodofthepeoplemakingtheirlivesbetterandmeaningful.

reVieW QuestioNs1. Explain the concept of learner autonomy. How is it

relatedwithteacherautonomy?2. Explainthefactorsaffectingteacherautonomy.3. What role do curriculum and textbooks play in

development of learner autonomy? How can theirinfluencebenegated?

4. Doeslearnerautonomydevelopoutsidetheformalsystemofeducation?Elaborateyouranswerwithexamples.

5. How does individual autonomy influence collectiveresponsibility?

reFereNCes/Further reADiNGsBenson, P., and Voller, P. (eds.). 1997. Autonomy and

Independence in Language Learning. Longman,London.

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esch, e. 1996.Promotinglearnerautonomy:Criteriafortheselectionofappropriatemethods.InR.Pemberton,S.L.Edward,&H.D.Pierson(Eds.),Taking Control: Autonomy in Language Learning (pp.34-38).HongKongUniversityPress,HongKong.

IllIch, I. 1973.Deschooling Society. Penguin,NewYork.lIttle, d.1991.Learner Autonomy 1: Definitions, Issues and

Problems. Authentik,Dublin.McGarry, d.1995.Learner Autonomy 4: The Role of Authentic

Texts. Authentik,Dublin.Unesco. 1996. Learning the Treasure Within. Report to

UNESCOoftheInternationalCommissiononEducationfortheTwenty-firstCentury,Paris.

WeaVer, t.r. 1970. Unity and Diversity in Education.DepartmentofEducationandScience,London.

What is Learner Autonomy and How It Can Be Fostered?DimitriosThanasoulas);[email protected]):

Chapter 9

Values: Concept and Context

STRUCTURE• Introduction• Objectives• Values:MeaningandConcept• TypesofValues• WhatValuesShouldBeFollowedinLife?• ValueConflicts• PerspectivesonValues

– PsychologicalPerspective– SociologicalPerspective

– Philosophical Perspective• TheoriesofValues

– PragmaticTheory– EmpiricistTheory– RealistTheory– IdealistTheory

• Values:AbsoluteorRelative• CreationofValues

– CanHumansbefreeofValues?Let Us Sum upReview QuestionsReferences

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InTRodUCTIonYoumusthaveoftencomeacrossthethoughtsofthewell-knownthinkers,philosophersandeducationistsemphasisingthesignificanceofvalues,notonlyasawayoflife,butalsosomethingwhich justifies our existence ashumanbeings.For example, the Jain Tirthankar, Lord Mahavira, said“Anger annihilates affection, pride the politeness, deceitthe friendshipbutgreeddestroysall–affection,politenessand friendship (Mahashramana, 2001). Mahatma Gandhiexpressedthat“humilityistheprimarythingtobeacquired.Onewhoisnothumblecannotputone’slearningtoproperuse.”JawaharlalNehrusaid“Aconsiderationofculturalandmoralvaluesandstandardsisessentialifwehavetosolvetheproblemsthatafflicttheworldtoday.”(Jayaswal,1955).TheNobelPrizewinnerscientistAlbertEinsteinhassaid“Trynottobecomeamanofsuccessbutrathertrytobecomeamanofvalue.” Inourdailylife,however,weconstantlyfacesituationsorcomeacrossnewsitemswhichcompelyoutowonderwhethervalues exist at all in the modern societies. For example,you must have come across news items such as teacherraped student, teacher beat student such that studentbecamedeaf, studentmurdered teacher for being strict, aboymadeanobjectionableMMSofafellowgirlstudentandcirculatedonwebandamongfriends,sonmurderedmotherforproperty,childrenthrewmotheroutofhouseandsheislivingonstreet,newborngirlchildthrownindustbin,etc.Thesenews items leadone toponderwhethervaluesexistinoursociety.Ifso,whatactuallyarevalues?Howdoesoneacquirevaluesinlife?Whethereveryindividualshouldhavethe same value system or is it justified if you and I havedifferentvalues?Whatshouldhappenwhentwopersonshavevalueswhichareinconflictwitheachother?Whodetermineswhatisright?Cantherebeahumanbeingwithnovaluesatall?Itisoftensaidthatthemoneyistheonlyvalueleftincontemporarysociety.Ismoneyreallyavalue?Whocreatesvaluesorwhodetermineswhatavalueis?Whilereadingthischapter youmay get answers to some of these questions,orelseyouwoulddevelopenoughinsightstoanalysesuchsituations and come out with a logical explanation. Thischaptertakesyoutoasystematicjourneyintowhatisthe

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meaningandconceptofvaluefromvariousperspectives;thenatureofvalues– relativevs.absolute;creationofvalues;significanceofvaluesinhumanlifeandthevaluesprevalentinthecontemporarysociety.

Activity 1Before proceeding further, reflect on and discussyourthoughtswithfellowcolleaguesonthequestionsraisedaboveandprepareabrief.

objECTIvESAfterreadingthischapter,youwouldbeableto:• describethemeaningofvalues;• conceptualise values from different perspectives and

relatethesetoeverydaylife;• discussastowhatextentvaluesareabsolute;• reflectonthenecessityofvaluesinhumanlifeandthe

processofdevelopmentofvalues;and• analyzevaluesinpresentdaycontext.

valUES: MEanIng and ConCEpT

Keep your thoughts positive, because your thoughts become your words.Keep your words positive, because your words become your behaviour.Keep your behaviour positive, because your behaviour becomes your habits.Keep your habits positive, because your habits become your values.Keep your values positive, because your values become your destiny.

— Mahatma Gandhi

Activity 2ReflectonthethoughtsofGandhiji(givenabove)andgiveyouropiniononthesame.

Theword‘value’comesfromtheLatinwordvalereandanoldFrenchwordvaloirmeaning‘beworth’.Thepsychological

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and social sciences define values as preferences or asdesirable goals, emotions and interests. The humanisticdisciplines define values as functioning imperatives or‘oughts’(Mukerjee,1964).Ifyoutrytolookatthedefinitionsofvalues,youfindanumberofexpressions,yetitisdifficulttogetauniversallyaccepteddefinition,whichisthecasewithmanyabstractconcepts.Somesuchexpressionsattemptingtodefinevaluesarepresentedintheboxgivenbelow.

Values can be defined as broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of actions or outcomes (Wikipedia). Values are rules by which we make decisions about right or wrong, should or shouldn’t, good or bad.Values are principles or standards of behaviour.Values can be defined as a set of norms of behaviour which guides the people to do things in such a way that there will be joy, satisfaction, peace of mind and harmony among individuals and in society (Njayarkulam, 2003). A value is an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end state of existence. A value system is an enduring organisation of beliefs concerning preferable modes of conduct or end states of existence along a continuum of relative importance (Rokeach, 1973).

Ananalysisofthedefinitionsgivenintheboxaboveshowsthat values are conceptualised as preferences, enduringbeliefs,norms/rules/standardsofbehaviourasguidingtheconduct, andattitudeofhumans towardswhat is rightorgoodoracceptable.However,everyvaluehasanunderlyingethicalframeworkanditmaybedifficulttohaveauniversalagreementonsuchaframework.Hence,itisalsoimportantto see the context before being judgemental. Further, thetermvaluecanbeusedintwodifferentconnotations–thevaluesattachedtosomeobjects,events,person,etc.,andthevaluesthatonebelievesinandwhicharecharacteristicsofthe individual’scharacterorpersonalityorcollectivelyofagroup,society,cultureornation.Thetwohavetobeclearlyunderstoodwhiledealingwiththeconceptofvalue.

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Learning Check 1 Derive a viable, comprehensive definition of valuesandexplainyourconceptwithsuitableexamples.

Social scientists have defined values in many ways.Kluckhohn(1951)gaveperhapsthemostinfluentialdefinitionofvaluebysayingthat“Avalueisaconception,explicitorimplicit, distinctive of an individual or characteristic of agroup,ofthedesirable,whichinfluencestheselectionfromavailablemodes,means,andendsofaction” (p.395).Thisdefinitionnotonlyencompassesbothindividualsandgroupsbut at the same time focuses on potential for both actionandreward.AnotherimportantdefinitionofvaluewasgivenbyRokeach(1973),accordingtowhichvaluesare“enduringbeliefsthataspecificmodeofconductispersonallyorsociallypreferabletoanoppositeorconversemodeofconductorend-stateofexistence”(p.5).Thesetwodefinitionsrepresenttwocontrastingviews.Kluckhohnemphasisesonafunctionalistanddeterministicviewaccordingtowhichvaluesnecessarilyleadtoactions.Rokeach,ontheotherhand,sawvaluesasgivingmeaningtoactions. Whatevermaybetheexpressions;itisevidentthatvaluesare something important to an individual or collectivelyto a group or a body, be it a society, a community, anorganisation,nation,orhumankindasawhole.Valuesformabasistodecidewhatisrightorwronganddirectouractions,reactionsandattitudetowardssomeoneorsomething.Ifnotguidedbyvalues,actionsorreactionsarebasedoninstinct.Usually, animals are said to act on the basis of instincts,whichiscitedasanaturaldifferencebetweenhumansandanimals. However, to what extent the behaviour or actionisguidedbyvaluesdependsontheconvictiontowardsthevalues.

An Incidence in a SchoolLet us take a situation from a school setting. Mr Data Ram, a local property dealer of the area and father of Savitri, visibly disturbed other parents and their wards during Parent Teacher Meeting by bringing his fleet of personal security guards in the classroom. He

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entered the classroom out of turn disregarding other parents waiting for their turn. The class teacher politely requested other parents to wait and happily met Data Ram. Discussions went on for about 20 minutes. In the meantime, there was heated exchange of words outside the classroom between his security guards and waiting parents. Data Ram left the scene smilingly with the school Principal. Mohit, a student of Class VI was observing this incident. When he tried to complain to the Principal, he got stern reply “ki phark penda hai” (How does it matter?). While some parents kept quiet, the others were agitated, some also tried to argue with the class teacher who tried to pacify them.

We come across so many situations as mentioned intheboxabovewhereweneedtoapplysomestandardsandprinciples for judging the people’s actions and reactions,ideas,situations,etc.Theparticular incidenceraisessomequestions:Whyparentswerewaitingoutsideinqueue?WhyData Ram was supposed to wait for his turn? What wasthe necessity to bring personal security guards inside theclassroom?Why some parents got disturbed while othersdidn’t?StudentsstandingoutsidewereindilemmathatwhyteacherandPrincipalarecooperatingwithDataRam,whileparentsarenot?Whatisright,whatiswrong?

Activity 3 Reflect on the incident described in the Box givenabove.Whatvaluesorlackofvaluescanbededucedfrom this incident? As a Principal, class teacher orparent,howwouldyouhavereactedandwhy?Givejustifications.

Whatcomestothemindnextisastowhatvaluesystemsshouldbe followed.Howthevaluesarecreated?Are theseabsoluteor relative?Canhumanbeingsbe freeofvalues?This chapter will discuss some of these questions andwill also include some text on the values prevalent in thecontemporarysociety.

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TypES of valUESValues have been classified in different ways. One simpleclassification is personal, social, and core or universalvalues. Values important to a person are referred to aspersonalvalues,thosetothesocietyarecalledsocialvaluesandvaluesprizedbyallcanbetermedascorevalues. EduardSprangeridentifiedsixvaluetypes(referRao&Rao,1996).Thesearedescribedbelow.1. Theoretical Value: Thechiefmotiveunder this class is

thediscovery of truth.Apersonwhobelieves in suchvaluesaimstosystematiseandorderknowledgewithanoverwhelminginteresttoreachthetruth.

2. Economic Value:Thisreferstopracticalvaluesbasedonwhatisuseful.Inthissensethiscanwellberelatedwiththepragmatictheoryofvalues.

3. Aesthetic Value:Valuesrelatedwithharmonyandbeautyarecalledaestheticvalues.Hereweneedtounderstandthatbeautyhasawider anddeeper connotation thangenerallyunderstood(andprojectedbythecommercialworld).Itisnotonlytheexternalbeautybutthebeautywithin. An aesthetic person sees and seeks beautyeverywhere.He/shemaynotbeanartistbuthasartisticpursuitinallspheresoflife.

4. Social Value:Thesearethevaluesconsideredimportantbythesocietyguidingthedesiredsocialconduct,servingas criteria for the members of the society to decidetheir preferences and course of action from variousalternatives.Thesedecidethesocialstandardsandareveryessentialformaintainingaharmonioussociety.

5. Political Value: Achieving power, success, etc., are thevaluesthatcanbeputunderthiscategory.Individualsbelievinginthesevaluesarenotafraidofstruggleandcompetition.Theynurtureadesiretobeonthetopandhavepoweroverothers,beitpeopleornature.

6. Religious Value:Religiousvaluesare ethicalprinciplesfounded in religious traditions, texts and beliefs.Religious values are often based on scriptures and areligion’sestablishednorms(Wikipedia).Tobeonewiththe nature and with the supreme power, the God, isconsideredtobethehighestreligiousvalue.

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While the above classification is considered close tocompletebysomeauthors,theothersdon’tbelieveso.

Activity 4 Doyouthinkthattheaboveclassificationiscomplete?Doyouagreethatforeachvalue,thereisaculturalbiasoritisasocialconstruct?Reflectandputyourarguments.

Letus lookat someother classificationsalso.Rokeach(1973)placesallthevaluesintwobroadcategories.Basedontheconceptthatsomeofthevaluesareanendinthemselves,theseareputundercategory‘terminalvalues’,whileothersareameanstoachievetheends,whicharecalled‘instrumentalvalues’. Table 1 contains the details of Instrumental andterminalvalues.Theterminalorinstrumentalvaluesarealsoreferredtoasintrinsicandextrinsicvalues,respectively.

Table1Instrumental and Terminal Values (after Rokeach, 1973)

Instrumental Values Terminal Values

CheerfulnessAmbitionLoveCleanlinessSelf-controlCapabilityCouragePolitenessHonestyImaginationIndependenceIntellectBroad-mindednessLogicObedienceHelpfulnessResponsibilityForgiveness

TrueFriendshipMatureLoveSelf-respectHappinessInnerHarmonyEqualityFreedomPleasureSocialRecognitionWisdomSalvationFamilySecurityNationalSecurityASenseofAccomplishmentAWorldofBeautyAWorldatPeaceAComfortableLifeAnExcitingLife

There could be another classification based on theantecedents of values, such as, personal, social, cultural,religious, spiritual, human, and ethical. Thus, there isno single classification of values. There can be various

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classificationsbasedon source of values, consequences ofvalues,natureofvalues,etc.

Activity 5Thinkwhatcouldbedifferentbasesforclassificationofvalues.Divideyourselves ingroupsandworkoutvarious possible classifications. Then also reflectwhether there can be one unified classification forvalues.

Inoneofthemostsystematicandcomprehensiveworksonvalues,ShalomSchwartz(1994)viewsvaluesas‘conceptsorbeliefsthatpertaintodesirableendstatesorbehaviour,transcendspecificsituations,guideselectionorevaluationofbehaviourandevents,andareorderedbyrelativeimportance’(p.4). She has developed a schematic representation of‘almost’ universal human values. She found a great dealof empirical and cross-cultural support for her scheme(Schwartz, 1994). Schwartzwas supported and recognisedinalmost70countriesaroundtheworld.Thesevalueshavebeendefinedintermsofmotivationalgoalsthattheycarry(referTable2).

Table2Values and Motivational Goals Associated with Them

(after Schwartz, 1994)

Value Motivational Goal

Hedonism Selfcentredsensualgratification

Power Statusandprestige

Achievement Competitivepersonalsuccess

Stimulation Encouragerisktakingandadventure

Selfdirection Autonomousthoughtandaction

Universalism Concernforwelfareofothers

Benevolence Preserveandenhancewelfareofthosewithwhomoneisinpersonalcontact

Conformity Self-restraint

Tradition Traditionalandreligiousactivities

Security Stability,safetyandharmonyofsociety,relationshipsandself

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Schwartz’s values have been organised under twohigherorderdimensionsof values:openness to change vs. conservation, and self enhancement vs. self transcendence.Stimulation and self direction, for instance, in Schwartz’ssystemofvalues, fallunder ‘opennesstochange’;whereasconformity,traditionandsecurityfallunder ‘conservation’.Similarlyachievementandpowerrepresent‘selfenhancement’and universalism and benevolence represents ‘selftranscendence’.Thus,accordingtoSchwartz(1994),valuesarenotmerelyabstractconceptionsofwhatisconsideredasdesirable,butaremotivationalinnatureandinfluenceourchoices and actions. These values express certain humanneeds,andtheseneedsthenmotivatesocialbehaviour.

WhaT valUES ShoUld bE folloWEd In lIfE?Varioussetsofvalueshavebeensuggestedfromtimetotimebygreatthinkersandconcernedorganisations.However,somevaluesareconsideredtobecorevalues.Thesearethevalueswhicharebasic tohumanity, irrespectiveof race, religion,cultureandtime,andareexpectedtobefollowedbyeveryhumanbeingundernormalcircumstances.Thesecanalsoberegardedaseternalanduniversalvalues.Forexample,allreligionsstressonvaluesliketruth,love,compassion,moralintegrity,etc.AncientIndianscriptureshavesuggestedvaluesforhumanbehaviour,fromwhichourphilosophers,thinkersand educators have drawn inspiration. For example ^^lR;e~ czq;kr] fiz;e~ czq;kr] lR;e~ vfiz;e u czq;kr** establishestruthasvalue,atthesametimealsoindicatesapathforhumanbehaviourthatanunpleasanttruthmayrathernotbespoken. TheParliamentaryStandingCommitteeinits81stReportemphasisesthatTruth(Satya),RighteousConduct(Dharma),Peace (Shanti), Love (Prem) andNon-Violence (Ahimsa) arecoreuniversalvaluesthatcanbecomefoundationsforvalues-basedprogrammes.Theserepresentfivedomainsofhumanpersonality,i.e.,intellectual,physical,emotional,psychologicalandspiritual,andarecorrelatedwithfivemajorobjectivesofeducation,i.e.,knowledge,skill,balance,visionandidentity.J.P.Naik,thegreatIndianeducator,said“Eveninregardtopersonalvirtues,itisessentialtoemphasisevaluessuchasself-restrain,self-reliance,competence,senseofresponsibilityandduty,andwillingnesstowork…”(Naik,1975).

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TheNational Institute ofEducationalResearch, Japan,afteraseriesofmeetingswithUNESCO,hascomeoutwithtwelve values: Caring for others, Concern for the Welfareof the Society, Concern for National and InternationalCommunity, Concern for the Environment, Concern forCultural Heritage, Self-esteem and Self-reliance, SocialResponsibility, Spirituality, Peaceful Conflict Resolution,Equality,Justice,TruthandFreedom. The NCERT and Gandhi Peace Foundation jointlysponsoredstudiesonGandhianValuesatschoolstage.Thevalues Gandhiji practised himself, and suggested for thesocietyare:1. Truth(Honesty)2. Non-violence (Love for mankind, service of humanity,

compassion,universallove)3. Freedom(Fearlessness)4. Democracy(NationalIntegration,PositiveAttitude)5. Sarva Dharma Sambhava (CompositeCulture,Reverence

forother’sbeliefs,Communalunity)6. Equity7. Self-realisation8. Purity of ends and means (Integrity between thought

andaction)9. Self-discipline10. Cleanliness(non-consumerism/simplicity,etc.) Allthesesetofvalueshavebeensuggestedkeepinginmindthesustainabilityofsociety,maintainingpeaceandharmonyinthesociety,andself-realisationandself-upliftmentoftheindividuals.Itisbelievedthatsocietyguidedbysuchvaluesystems would be able to face challenges of violence andfanaticism(Agrawal,2003).

valUE ConflICTSTherearedifferentlevelsofvalues–spiritual,ethical,moral,material,etc.Aruthlesspursuitofmaterialismhasretardeddevelopment and achievement of higher level values, e.g.moral values. Thus, the crisiswe face today is essentiallymoralandspiritual.Materialvaluesareofteninconflictwithethicalandspiritualvalues.Wewanttolivelongandhealthylivesbutdonotcaretopreserveourenvironment.Wewantplentyanddon’tcareforsharing.Inthecomplicatedworld

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oftoday,wefaceoppositesituationswherethereisconflictbetween values, and one has to make a choice betweentheconflictingsetofvalues,suchasserviceandambition,powerandlove,pragmatismandidealism,etc.Hence,it isnotenoughtoteachandpreachaboutpositivevaluessuchas love, service to humanity, idealism, equality, care andshare.Rather,itshouldalsobetaughtwhatoneshoulddoinsuchconflictingsituations,whichvaluesshouldprevail.Thequestionslikewhyandhowwouldalsohavetobeanswered(Agrawal,2003). Our value system is oftendifferent for self and others,whichcreatesabsurdparadoxes.Ifweareaftermoney,wejustify it by ‘need’, but if someone else is aftermoneywebranditas‘greed’.Wemaypreachthevalueofbeingtruthfulbutmaynotfollowitourselves.Wemayvalue‘convenience’themost.Thecontradictionstotraditionalvaluesareoftenmadetoappearapartofmodernvaluesystemandhence,desirable.Forinstance,whenwearenotspeakingthetruth,wearejustbeingpractical.Suchpseudovaluesystemshaveledustosituationswhicharealarming.

Activity 6Recall a situation of value conflict you faced orwitnessed.Criticallyanalysetheactionstakeninthatsituation.

pERSpECTIvES on valUES

PSyChoLoGICAL PeRSPeCTIVeModern theories of values are based on the researchconducted in the discipline of psychology. Kluckhohn andStrodbeck(1961)proposedthatculturalvaluesystemsarevariationsofasetofbasicvalueorientationsthatflowfromanswerstobasicquestionsaboutbeing:(a)whatishumannature–evil,neutral,mixed,orgood?(b)Howdowerelatetonatureorsupernatural–subjugation,harmony,ormastery?(c)Whatisthenatureoftime–past,present,future?(d)Whatisthenatureofhumanactivity–being,being-in-becoming,doing?(e)Whatisthenatureofourrelationshiptoothers?Theyorganisedasystem for comparingvalues in termsof

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their level of generalisation and function in discourse andconduct, and proposed that values fit into a pyramid ofascending generalisation. For each society, a few centralor focal values were proposed to constitute a mutuallyinterdependentsetofwhatmakes for the ‘good life’.Theseincludetheunquestioned,selfjustifiedpremisesofthevaluesystemanddefinitionsofbasicandgeneralvalueterms,forexample,happiness,virtue,beauty,andmorality.

SoCIoLoGICAL PeRSPeCTIVeFrom sociological perspective, values are internalised associalconstructs,underneathwhichthereisamoral/ethicalframework.Preferences,judgmentsandactionsarecommonlyexplainedintermsofvaluesthatthesocietybelievesinandpassesonfromonegenerationtoanother.Individualstakeonvaluesaspartofsocialisationprocessintothefamilyorgrouporsociety.Societiesdifferintheirvaluepreferences.For example, in Indian society, truthfulness, honesty,compassion, and non-violence used to be the preferredvalues,whileAmericansaresettovaluelife,liberty,andthepursuitofhappiness.Atthegrouplevelvaluesarescriptsorculturalidealsheldincommonbymembersofagroup. It should be remembered that values are codes orgeneral principles guiding action, they arenot the actionsthemselves.Twosocieties canboth valueachievementbutdiffertremendouslyintheirnormsastowhattoachieveandhow toachieve.A value systempresentswhat is expectedandhoped for,what is required andwhat is forbidden. Itisnotareportofactualbehaviourbutasystemorcriteriabywhichbehaviourisjudgedandsanctionsapplied.Valuesdifferfromgoalsinthatvaluesprovideageneralrationaleformorespecificgoalsandmotivateattainmentofgoalsthroughparticularmethods(Oyserman,2001). Now thequestionarises is thathowdo youknow thatvaluesexist?Anumberofoptionsareavailable:(a)Individualtestimony, (b) Behavioural choices – yet behaviours areinfluencedbymanyvariablesotherthanvalues,(c)Culturaland social structures, (d) Social interchange – observationof behaviour in situation of conflict, and more generallyobservation of what is rewarded or punished, praised or

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vilified,providesdataforidentifyingwhatissociallyvalued(Oyserman,2001).

Activity 7Recallorimaginecertainrealsituationsinaclassroomandidentifyexistenceofvaluesamongteachersandstudents.Also,attempttoidentifytheconflictingforcesthatindividualsfacedinthatsituation.Dotheseariseduetodifferencesinsocialisationprocesses?

From sociological viewpoints, everything social actorsappreciate,appraise,wishtoobtain,recommend,setuporproposeasanidealcanbeconsideredasavalue.Butwhatisattractiveforsomemaynotbesotoothers.Thus,toeachvaluethereisacorrespondingopposingvalue,whichisunderrated,disapproved, or rejected. For example, nationalism andinternationalism,privateandpublicproperty, freedomandequality,etc.,maybeaccordingtodiverseactors,valuesorcountervalues(Rezsohazy,2001). According to Rezsohazy (2001), (a) each value has anobject, i.e.what is valued; (b)Thisobject isqualifiedbyajudgment as valuable or contemptible, as good or bad, asuseful or useless, as desirable or undesirable, etc. Valuesbecome norms when they command and/or regulateconducts,prescribeacourseofaction.Ifhonestyisvalued,youarenotexpectedtomisappropriatefunds.Valuesprovidethegroundsforacceptingorrejectingparticularnorms,andnormsarestandardsforactualconduct;and(c)Valueholdersareeitherindividualorcollectiveactorsorsocialgroups.

PhILoSoPhICAL PeRSPeCTIVeThestudyofvaluesfromthephilosophicalpointofviewisthestudyofethicsandaesthetics.Thebranchofphilosophydealingwithitiscalledaxiology.Thisreferstoaphilosophicalenquiryintowhatis‘good’andtheconceptof‘goodness’.Itmakesadistinctionbetweenintrinsicandextrinsicvalues.Intrinsicvalueisanendinitselfand,thus,isvaluableforitsownsake,whileextrinsicvalueisvaluableasameanstoachievesomethingelse,andthusisinstrumentalvalue.Forexample,moneyisinstrumentalinachievingagoal,which

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maybringhappiness.Thus,happinessmayberegardedashaving extrinsic value. From the philosophical perspectiveemergestheidealisttheory. Thus, the term ‘value’ has several connotations. Thephilosophers,thesociologists,thepsychologists,theeconomists,theeducationists,allhaveviewedandconceptualisedvaluesfromdifferentperspectives.There isaneed tounderstandthemeaningofvaluesintermsoftheexplanationgivenbytheexpertsofdifferentfields.Weseethatdifferenttheoriesemergefromvariousoutlooks.

Learning Check 2List out the differences in diverse perspectives onvalues.

ThEoRIES of valUESValueshavebeenconceptualisedindifferentways,formingvarious theories, such as, Pragmatic, Realist, Empiricistand Idealist. The basis of classification of these theoriesis epistemological. Let us briefly analyse the viewpointassociatedwitheachofthesetheories.

PRAGMATIC TheoRyPragmatic means practical. Thus, this theory assumesthat values aredeterminedby their practical applicability,significance, or outcome. For example, John Dewey, anAmericanPragmatist,arguesthatabird’snestandapalacearesameintheiraestheticvalueasbothsupportlife.Thus,nothing is valuable in itself but depends on its practicalutility. A pragmatist goes with the Darwinian theory ofevolution,believes in the survival of thefittest and valuesareseeninthecontextofsurvival.Intheaboveexampleasabird’snestandapalacebothsupportlife,thereisnobasicartisticdifference in them.Bothareequallybeautifuland,hence,haveequalaestheticvalue.Thepragmatisttheoryofvalueisthatlifeisallaboutsurvivalandallvaluesareforlife;anythingthatishelpfulinfurtheranceoflifeisvaluable.

eMPIRICIST TheoRyInpragmatictheoryanindividualisinthecentreofcreationofvalues,i.e.an‘active’agent.Abirdmakesanest,anest

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ofvalue,andthusthebirdisthecreatorofvalue.Apersonmakesatoyfromwood.Thewoodgetsvalueintheformofthetoy,whichisanindividualcreatedvalue.Incaseofempiricisttheory,theindividualisnotan ‘active’agentincreationofvaluesbutisa‘passive’agent.Thetheorysaysthatvaluesareself-existent.Theyareformedandmaintainedbyakindof mental and emotional condition which determines theattitude of the individual. Theyare imaginative constructsmade around ideals which can’t be empirically verified.Theyareformedandmaintainedduetorepetitionofsimilarsituationsaccordingtolawsofassociations.Valuesareidealsnecessaryforlife.

ReALIST TheoRy“According to realism, the objects of our experience areindependent of the experience and since values are alsoobjects of experience, they do exist independent of us”(Ruhela,2000).Inotherwords,valuesexistindependentlyofhumanresponsestothem. Ifyoulookintothecriticismofthetheoriesofpragmatistandempiricist,youwillfindthatthesearguefortheobjectivenatureofvalues.Throughthiscriticism,thetranscendentalsourceofvaluesisalsopractised.Thus,whileforapragmatist,individualisthecreatorofvalues,forarealistanindividualisdirectedbyvalueswhichareself-existent. Apragmatistdoesnotbelieveinuniversalvalues.Whatwassuitable inancienttimesmaynotbepertinentforthemodernliving.Thevaluesshouldsuittotheneedofthetimeandsituation.Thus,inthepragmatistapproach,thereisnospace for a transcendental source of values but these arecreatedbyexperiences.Thepragmatisttheoryofvaluesareindividualisticinnature.Ruhela(2000)explainsthatinordertounderstandthepragmatictheoryofvaluesmorecriticallywe must examine its basic assumptions. It is essentiallypersonalistic. While defying universality and objectivity tovaluesitreducestheirmeaningandsignificancetothelevelof the individualperson.Thus, itaccepts relativism in thesphereofallvalues.Theremightbesimilaritybetweenthenotionsofvaluesofdifferentpersonsbut,sincetheexperienceand background of each person is different, the notion ofvaluesofeachindividualwillalsobedifferent.However,the

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questionisshouldn’t‘individual’bereplacedby‘human’andthisalsoformsthebasisofcriticismofpragmatisttheory.

IdeALIST TheoRyTheidealisttheorydescribesthestatethatit ‘oughttobe’.Somearguethatwhatitconsideredas‘oughts’mayormaynotexistinrealitywhileothersareoftheviewthattheyareinexistence.Anidealistbelievesinthe‘absolute’,thusthereisanelementofuniversalityattachedtovalues.Transcendentalsourceofvaluesisalsoacceptedintheidealisttheory.Thecritiqueofthistheoryisthatitistooabstract.

Activity 8Thereisandcanbemoreargumentsforandagainsteachtheory.Criticallyanalyseandputyouraugments.

valUES: abSolUTE oR RElaTIvEAsyoucanalsosee from the theoriesof valuesandotherreflections, there is a considerable debate on the natureof values. For an idealist, values are self-existent, thus,absolute. The pragmatists put the humans in the centreof creation of values. Thus,with changes in person, time,circumstances,therewouldbechangesinvalues.Yetothersbelievethatvaluesareabsoluteastheyeitherexistordon’t.There isnomidway.For example, regarding the truthasvaluemeansthateitherapersonistruthfulornottruthful.AsRokeachexplains“wearenottaughtthatitisdesirable,forexample,tobealittlebithonestoralittlebitlogical.Norarewetaughtthatitisallrighttobesometimeshonest!”Heargues that values are ‘enduring’. The enduring quality ofvaluesarisesmainlyfromthefactthattheyareinitiallytaughtandlearnedinisolationfromothervaluesastheabsolute.Ifvalueswerecompletelystable,individualandsocialchangewillbeimpossible.Iftheywereunstable,continuityofhumanpersonalityandsocietywillbeimpossible.Anyconceptionofhumanvalues,ifitistobefruitful,mustbeabletoaccountforthelastingaswellasthevaryingcharacterofvalues.Itmaybesuggestedthattheenduringqualityofvaluesarisesmainlyfromthefactthatinitiallytheyaretaughtandlearnedinisolationfromothervaluesinall-or–nonemanner.Suchandsuchamodeofbehaviourorendstate,wearetaught,

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isalwaysdesirable.Paradoxically,however, there isalsoarelativequalityofvalues (Rokeach,1973).Thebehaviouraloutcomeinaparticularsituationwilldecideastowhatextentavalueheldbythepersonisabsoluteorrelative.However,it needs to be understood that believing in or followingvalues is amatter of conviction, andnot the convenience.Gandhijipractisedvaluesinlifesuchasnon-violence,self-restraint,truthfulness,etc.withtheutmostconviction,andhedidn’tdeviate fromhisvalueseveninthemostdifficultcircumstances.Thus,forhimthevalueshebelievedinwereabsolutenotrelative.

Activity 91. Dividetheclassintwogroups.Letonegrouptake

situations from real life experiences, preferablyfrom school/classroom situations which posevalue conflicts and let the other group answerwhatactionstheywouldprefertotakeandwhy.Keepreversingtheroles.

2. Collectexamples fromnewspapersof theeventswhich justify valuesasabsolute or relative. Putyourselfinsituationofsomecharacterandplaceyour arguments in favour or against the actiontakenbythatcharacterinthegivencircumstance.

CREaTIon of valUESValuesaresaidtobederivedfromlife,fromtheenvironment,fromtheself,society,culture,andbeyondall,fromtheidealtranscendentdimensionofhumanexistenceandexperience.The awareness, utilisation and transmission of values areuniquely human and linked with the mental and socialevolutionofhumanbeings(Mukerjee,1964).Kantianethicsandaestheticsholdthathumancapacitiessuchaswillandimaginationcreatevalues.SriAurobindosaid,“Thefirstruleofmoraltrainingistosuggestandinvite,notcommandorimpose,thebestmethodofsuggestionisbypersonalexample,daily converse and the books read from day-to-day.” (SriAurobindoAshram,1997).Scientifically, it isreportedthatanareainhumanbrain,thelimbicarea,motivatestothinkofGodandabsolutevalues.

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CAn huMAnS be fRee of VALueS?Itisoftensaidthatanewlybornchildisacleanslate.Thus,ababyhasnovalues.Thesearelearntduringtheprocessofgrowingup.Valuesreflectaperson’ssenseofrightorwrong,however, can a baby judge what is right in a particularsituation?Doesababyhaveanyfeelingofwrongdoingifhe/shepicksupsomethingwithinreachandthrowstoanotherpersoncausing injury? Ifyouobservebehaviourofbabies,this becomes obvious that babies cannot distinguish goodfrombadorrightfromwrong. Oneviewisthatvaluescanbetaught.However,anotherviewisthatvaluesareself-existent.Onemoreviewisthatknowledgeofvaluesdoesnotautomaticallymakeapersonfollow them. However, here we have to understand thatknowledgeconfinedtomere intellect isawarenessandnotknowledgeinitstruesense,unlessitisunderstood,absorbed,internalisedandbelievedin.Thenonlyitwillbereflectedinbehaviourandputtopractice.Itconsistsofwisdomwhichconsistsofapracticalsenseofvalues.

Activity 10Reflecton‘ababyisbornfreeofvalues’andputyourargumentswithexamples.

Ifweagreethatvaluescanbeinculcatedasonegrows,thenthequestionsariseastohowvaluesaredevelopedandatwhatstageorageanindividualdevelopsvalues?MorrisMassey, a sociologist, has categorised value formation inthreestages,agewise.Fromthesestages,onecanalsogetanideaofthesourcesofvalueformation.Theseareasfollows:

Age Stage

Birthto7yrs ImprintPeriod

8to13yrs ModellingPeriod

13to21yrs SocialisationPeriod

StageIistheimprintperiod.Intheearlyyearsoflife,achildisprimarilyincontactwiththefamily–theparents,thegrandparentsandothersiblings.At thisstage, the familybecomesthesourceofvalues.Thechildobservesthevalues

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of the family, believes in them and tries to follow. This istheperiodofformationofbeliefs,thechildbelievesinwhatispractisedbeforehim/her.Thechildalsobelievesinwhatparentssay.Iftheparentstellthechildtospeakthetruth,behonest,helpothers,respecttheelderly,sharethings,putthingsback fromwheretheyarepickedup, thechildmaydevelopvaluessuchashonesty, truthfulness,sharingandcaring, self-reliance, etc. However, if there is a differencebetween what is told to the child and what the parentspractise, the childmay become confused. Thismay affecthis/her conviction towards values. AsMassey puts it “Uptoageof seven,weare like sponges, absorbing everythingaroundusandacceptingmuchofitastrue,especiallywhenitcomesfromourparents.” Stage2,themodellingperiod,fromage8-13,istheperiodwhena child is in school, comes in contactwith teachersandpeers,whoinfluencethevaluedevelopment.InMassey’sview“Betweentheagesof8and13,wecopypeople,oftenourparents,butalsoothers.Ratherthanblindacceptanceoftheirvalues,wetrythem…Atthisage,wemaybemuchimpressedwithreligionofourteachers.”Thereinforcementofavalueformulatedduringthefirststagemaytakeplacein this phase in which teachers have a significant role toplay. For example, if a child is punished for speaking thetruth,insteadofreinforcement,theparticularvaluemaybeerased. Ifachildnotices that the teacher tellsstudents tobepunctual but sheherself comes late in the classmanyatimes,thechildmayinterpretthattherecanbedifferentvaluesforselfandothers.Thiseventuallymayleadtodoublestandards.Itmayalsoleadtotheinterpretationthatbeliefandbehaviourcanbedifferent.Ifachildcomesfromasociety,whereteachersarehighlyrespected,suchasours,thechildbelievesineverythingateachersaysordoes.Thus,teachersplayadecidingroleinvalueformationofanindividual. Duringthethirdstage,thesocialisationperiodfromage13-21years, thesocietyalsoexerts influenceonthevaluesystem in the form of value development, reinforcement,refinementorquestioning.Atthisagewealso followpeersandourrolemodelsinwhichthemediaexertsinfluence. Thismodelmay ormay not hold ground in a numberof cases. But what is relevant is that there are different

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stagesinvaluedevelopmentandatdifferentstagesdifferentsourcesmaybecomedominantandultimately,whatsetofvaluesanindividualbelievesinandwithwhathierarchyorconviction,isafunctionofmanyfactors,e.g.whatapersonistaughtinearlyyearsoflife,whatoneseesinpractice,his/herinteractionwithpersonswhoare‘thepersonsofvalues’andsuchothers.Thecircumstancesoneissubjectedtoalsoplaytheirrole,however,oneshouldnotforgettheindividualdifferences.Manyatimesweseesiblingslivinginthesameenvironment,exposedtosimilarcircumstancesbuthavingaverydifferentvaluesystem.

Activity 11Reflectontheprocessofvaluedevelopmentdescribedby Massey. Try to devise your own model of valuedevelopmentandjustifyit.

LeT uS SuM uPThe text here has established that values can be taught,inculcatedand learnedand that early yearsof lifeare themost important invalue inculcationasyoungchildrenarekeenly observing, absorbing and imitating what they hearand see. There is a growing concern on erosion of values,especially thoseof thehigherordersuchasmoral, ethicalandspiritualvaluesincontemporarysociety.Theprocessofvaluedevelopmentalsoemphasisestheinfluenceofteachersonyoungminds.Alltheseputtogethermakeasolidgroundforvalueeducationinschools.Thechapterthatyoureadnextwilldealwithissuessuchastowhatextentcaneducationtransformvaluesinthesocietyandwhatkindofvaluescaneducation,especiallyschooleducation,perpetuateandsuchothers.

ReVIeW QueSTIonS1. Describeinyourownwordsthemeaningofvalues.2. Giveexamplesofdifferenttypesofvalues.3. Whatvalues/valuesetdoyoufollowinlife?Putforward

acriticalargumentinfavourofyourvalueset.

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4. Describedifferenttheoriesofvalues.5. Whethervaluesareabsoluteorrelative?Givearguments.

RefeRenCeS/fuRTheR ReAdInGSAgrAwAl, P.2003.Valueeducationascatalysttobuildpeace

andharmonytobeimbibedinconsumerismdominatedenvironment filled with paradoxes. In. K.P. Joseph(Ed.), Peace and Value Education. A Creative Response to Consumerism and Communalism. Dharma Bharti. P.53-61.

rAo, M.g., And rAo, P.S. 1996. Attitudes, Values and Perception. Kanishka Publishers and Distributors, NewDelhi.

KlucKhohn, c. 1951. Values and value-orientations in thetheoryofaction.InParsons&Shils(eds)Toward a General Theory of Action(pp.388–433).Harper,NewYork.

KlucKhohn, F.r., & StrodbecK, F.l. 1961.VariationsinValueOrientations.InD.Oyserman(2001),Values:PsychologicalPerspectives.International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (pp.16150-16153).

MAhAShrAMAnA YuvAchArYA. 2001. Thus Spoke Mahavira.London:JainVishwaBharati.InJ.S.Rajput,Symphony of Human Values in Education.NCERT,NewDelhi.

MASSeY, MorriS. en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris-Massey(downloadedon12.2.2014)

MuKerjee, r. 1964. the Dimensions of Values: A Unified Theory. GeorgeAllenandUnwinLtd.,London.

nAiK, j. P. 1975.Equality, Quality and Quantity: The Elusive Triangle in Indian Education. Allied Publishers, NewDelhi.

njAYArKulAM, K. 2003.Need for peace and value educationto promote inter-religious cooperation. In. K.P.Joseph (Ed.), Peace and Value Education: A Creative Response to Consumerism and Communalism. DharmaBharathi.

oYSerMAn, d. 2001. Values: Psychological Perspectives. In International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences(pp.16150-16153).

rezSohAzY, r. 2001. Values, Sociology of. International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (pp.16153-16158).

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roKeAch, M. (1973).The Nature of Human Values.TheFreePress,London.

ruhelA, S.P. 2000.(Ed).Values in Modern Indian Educational Thought.IndianPublishersDistributors,Delhi.

SchwArtz, S. h. 1994. Are there universal aspects in thestructureandcontentofhumanvalues?Journal of Social Issues,50,19–45.

SriAurobindoAshram.1997.SriAurobindoandtheMotheronEducation.InJ.S.Rajput(2001).Symphony of Human Values in Education., NCERT,NewDelhi.

Chapter 10

Education and Values

STRUCTURE• Introduction• Objectives• ChallengestoEducationforValues

– ComplexNatureofModernSociety– OpportunitiesforDevelopment– ValuePrioritiesofDifferentCultures– ChangingFamilyStructure– ParentalAspirationforChildren’sCareer– Media– SystemicFactors

• IntegratedApproachtoEducationforValues• DevelopingValuesConsensus• RoleofCurriculumDevelopers• RoleofTeachers

– Teachers’SelfandIdentity– PedagogicalApproach– Leadership– CommunicationSkills– TeachingofSubjects– Evaluation

Let Us Sum upReview QuestionsReferences

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InTRodUCTIonYoumusthaveheardpeoplelamentingabouttheerosionofvaluesinpresent-daysociety.Theblameis,byandlarge,putontheeducationsystemfornotdoingenoughinthisregard.Whatisyouropinion?Doyouknowthateversinceformalschooling started, educators like Sri Aurobindo,MahatmaGandhi, Rabindranath Tagore, Dayanand Saraswati,Vivekananda,GijubhaiBadheka, ZakirHusain and othershadcontinuallyargued forevolvinganeducationalsystemthatwould lead to personal development of individuals inline with the cherished ‘ideals and values’ of the society.It may bementioned that education does not simply aimatmental development of the person; rather it focuses onhis/heroveralldevelopment includingpersonal,socialandmoralenhancement.Towardsthisend,theschoolcurriculaareorganisednotonlyforlearninglanguages,mathematics,science, etc., but also for learning to live effectively andpeacefully with others in the family, the neighbourhoodand society. Itmay be pertinent tomention here that theNational Curriculum Framework–2005 identified certainbroad aims of education that include “independence ofthought and action, sensitivity to others’ wellbeing andfeelings, learningtorespondtonewsituationsinaflexibleandcreativemanner,predispositionstowardparticipationindemocraticprocesses,andtheability toworktowardsandcontributetoeconomicprocessesandsocialchange”(p.vii).Thusacquisitionofvaluesisintegraltotheeducationsystemandpersonal,socialandmoraldevelopmentsareintertwinedinextricablywiththeaimsofeducation.Thedevelopmentofthese characteristics is, however, influenced by the familyand social contexts. This chapter introduces you first tothe various challenges to education in India that retard

Activity 1Organiseagroupdiscussionwithyourfellowstudentsand teachers to deliberate the role of school andteaching practices for nurturing personal, socialandmoralvaluesamongstudents?Preparea listofactivitiesthatschoolshouldinitiatetowardsthisend.

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potentialsoftheschooltopromotevalues.Itfurtherfocusesonadoptinganintegratedapproachtoeducationforvalues,developingvalueconsensus,roleofcurriculumdevelopers,organisingschoolsactivities,andsoon.

objECTIvESAfterreadingthischapter,youshouldableto:1. identifythechallengesthatretardthevaluenurturing

potentialsofschools;2. explaintheintegratedandholisticapproachtoeducation

forvalues;3. explore opportunities inherent in the curriculum for

developingvalues;and4. appreciate your own role in organising activities/

curriculainschoolsforvalueeducation.

ChallEngES To EdUCaTIon foR valUESYoumusthavewonderedwhypeople, even thosewhoarehighlyeducated,failtobehaveinaccordancewiththesocialandmoralvalues.Inthissectionwediscusssomesourcesfor these variations. Of course, these sources seem to beinterconnected.

ComplEx NAturE of modErN SoCiEty Modernsocietyisconsideredtobeacomplexone.Youmusthaveobservedvariationsinthelifestylesofpeoplebelongingtodifferentsectionsofsociety,particularlyinrespectoftheirdress, food, eatinghabits,work,migration fromoneplacetoanother,andsoon.Thesechangeshavetakenplaceduetounevenspreadofopportunities,increaseinearningsandavailabilityofleisuretimethathasbeenpossiblebygreaternumber of blue-collar jobs and technological development(Singh,2000).AccordingtoSingh(2000),thesechangeshavebrought about cultural confusion. The prosperity amongmiddleclassandcitydwellershasattracted ruralworkersto the cities and the marginalised sections of society areseekingashareintheprosperity.Thesechangesinsocietyhave been changing social structure and composition ofcommunitiesbybringingruralandmarginalisedgroupstolivewiththeurbanpopulation.Thecontinuousfluxintothe

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cities, of new caste and regional groups coupled with theinfluenceofwesterncultureandlivingstyle,hasgivenrisetomeltingofphysicalboundariesbetweengroupsthus farlivingseparately,followingtherulesoftheirowntraditionalcultures.Nowcommunitiesaremuchlesshomogenouswithregardtocaste,income,socialstatus,education,etc. Thefastchangingsocialcompositionofcommunitieshaschangedtheearliersocialstructure,orderandrelationshipsamong social groups. At the same time an increasedpopulation has affected the pattern of consumption ofnaturalresourcesandindustrialproduce.Therearepocketsofdiscontentedpopulationswithoutbenefitsofdevelopment,as well as populations which are living in affluence. Theoverall ethos of society is saturatedwith inequality whichgenerates prejudice to economic, employment, resources,genderandcasterelatedissues.Thebiasesandhostilities,though latent, do often trigger conflicts and violence. Theworstsufferersarechildren,womenandthepoor.

Activity 2 Foramomentlookatyourneighbourhoodandnotedownthedifferentkindsofpeoplelivingtogether.Findoutsimilaritiesanddifferencesamongthem.

opportuNitiES for dEVElopmENt Youwillagreethatwiththeexpansionofschoolingfacilitiesandintroductionofschemeslikefreeeducation,freesupplyof books, mid-day meals, stipend for girl child, etc., theopportunitiesforgrowthanddevelopmenthavebeenthrownopentoagroupofpeoplewho,foralongperiod,weredeniedsuchopportunities.Today,everyoneinthesocietyislookingforupwardmovement,bothsociallyandeconomically,andeducation is considered to be the tool for this movement(Gintis,1996).Asaresult,theschoolgoingpopulationhasincreasedtremendously.Thereisvastdifferenceinthesocio-economicstandardsofchildrencomingtoschool.Thishascreatedtensionintheeducationsystem.Thefirstgenerationlearners,andlearnersfromeducationallyandotherbackwardclasses, are challenged by the cultural gap in the spokenlanguage,dress,interpersonalstylesofinteraction,food,etc.

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Theyexperienceallkindsofproblemsat thepersonalandtheinstitutionallevelslikesocialisolation,lowachievement,indiscipline, absenteeism, etc. Their participation in theinstitutionallifeishalf-heartedwhichvitiatestheoutcomesof education, which in turn adversely affects its valuedevelopment potential as well. You need to find out waysto the challenges posed by different kinds of populationsstudyingtogetherinschool?

Activity 3• Thinkofyourownexperiencesintheschoolwhere

thesocio-economicgapandmotivationforupwardmobilityamongdifferentgroupsmayhaveledtochallengesineducationinvalues.

VAluE prioritiES of diffErENt CulturESYoumusthaveobserveddifferences in the valueprioritiesand practices of different social groups in the school. Themajoritygroup,theirlanguage,dress,culturalpractices,etc.get visibility while others remain invisible which alienatesthem to social issues and priorities agenda of the school.Thesegroupsaregrippedbyinsecurityandfeelhurtduetoinsensitivityofthemajoritygrouptowardsthemwhoremainsindifferent(Dastidar,2002).Thefrustrationoftheminorityisoftenexpressedintheformoftheirnon-cooperation.Haveyoueverexperiencedbeinginminority,forinstance,beinginaplace,grouporclasswhereothersaredifferentfromyouandparticularlyiftheyarenotsofriendlywithyou?Thevaluesofcooperation,collaboration,brotherhood,secularism,etc.loosetheirmeaninginsuchexperientialencounters.Thesevaluesappearimpractical.

ChANgiNg fAmily StruCturEThemigrationofpopulationtowardscitiesandmetroshasbrought aboutmany changes in the family and the socialstructure.Unitary families are slowly replacing the earlierjoint families. As a result, the time spent by parents andadultswithchildrenhasreduced.Earlier,thegrandparentsandotherolderadultslivingtogetherwithchildrenusedwarmpersuasivewaystodisciplinethemwhichismissinginthe

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modernbusylifestylewhereboththeparentsareworking.Thequalityofadult-childinteractionhasimplicationsfortheethicalandmoraldevelopmentofchildren.Hurriedparents,havingverylittletimetospendwithchildren,havelesschancetoinfluenceandnurtureattitudesofresponsibility,compassion,caring,andsensitivity toothersamongtheirchildren.Thepressureandanxietygeneratedamongchildren,duetolackofparentalsupervisionandwarmth,furtherworksagainsttheir learning of appropriate beliefs and attitudes towardsthemselves, their responsibilities and work. The vacuumcreatedbytheabsenceofolderparentsinthefamilyhastobefilledandtheschoolbeingthenextimportantinstitutioninthelifeofchildrenhastotakeupthisresponsibility.

pArENtAl ASpirAtioN for ChildrEN’S CArEErYet another challenge to the value nurturing potential ofschool education is posed by the parental anxiety andaspirations forchildren’scareer.Thepressureandanxietythat childrenexperiencedue toparental expectationsmaygeneratefrustrationandangeramongthem.Thisoccasionallyeruptsintoconflictandviolence,notonlyintheclassrooms,but also in the family and towards peers. It should berememberedthattheemphasisonexaminationandmarksmay not necessarily result in quality learning. Those whoarenotabletokeepupwiththeexpectedachievementlevelsmayadapttoallkindsofunethicalpracticesdeprivingtheindividualofallvalues. Irrespectiveofall theemphasisonvalues and effort to nurture the same, the stress and theanxietyduetoexaminationssometimes leadstohighdropoutofsubstantialschoolpopulation.

mEdiA Themass-media, be it electronic, print or video, and eventhehoardingsanddisplaysontheroadside,poseproblemsto the nurturance of values. Media is such an importantinfluenceinourlivesbutwearenotevenawareofit.Doyouknowwhymediainfluencesussomuch?Itisbecausemediaexposure takesplaceevenwhenwearenotveryalertandcriticaltoitsmessages.WhenyouarewatchingTVorseeingposters, do you realise that there are values embedded inthoseprogrammes,andalotofmessagesgetintooursub-

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consciousnessandinfluenceourbehaviourtoagreatextent(Anderson&Taylor,2008).The imagesofpleasantpeople,places, faces, dresses, etc., depicting their value systems,suchasextravaganceandostentatiousness,attractyoungerand older generations alike. The influence particularly onyoung generation is so strong that the messages capturetheirfantasyandtheyarereadytoindulgeinnegativeactstoenjoythepleasuresofsuchmaterialthings.Mobile,internetandotherkindsofmediaonlyaddmorefueltothefire.

SyStEmiC fACtorS The challenges emerging from socio-economic, cultural,environmental,andtechnologicalchangescouldbefurtherintensifiedbythefactorsimplicitintheorganisationoftheschools, theirpolicies,practicesandactivities,attitudesofthe various personnel, teachers and the local community.For instance, theschooluniformpolicy that thegirlswearskirtsmay come in conflictwith the cultural ethos of thecommunity. Similarly, the expectation that all studentsmustperformataveryhighlevelinallsubjectsputsstressonthose forwhomacademicassistance isnotavailableathome.Anotherinstancecouldbethatsomeofthestudentsin the school are not from affluent background and can’tafford expensive clothes and gadgets available with otherchildrenwhichmay lower their self-esteem. If attention isnotpaid,thesesituationscouldfurtherundothepotentialof theschool tonurturevalues.The factors thatchallengethe valuenurturing capacity of the schoolsmay lie in thesocietybut their identification,andschool-basedaction inthisregardistheneedofthehour.

Activity 4Recallhowdidyourschoolinfluenceyourlife.Couldithavebeendifferent?Whatwouldyouliketodotomakeitbetterforfuturestudents?

Thetaskbeforetheschoolisnoteasyconsideringthesechallengesbuttheentiresocietyiscurrentlypinningitshopeson schools. The schools and education systems globally,realising their responsibility, are engaged in deliberationsandinnovationstofaceuptothistask.Asateacherwhatyou

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do?Howyourinteractionsandrelationshipsintheschool,within the classroom, outside the classroom in morningassemblies, on the sport field, in the laboratories or eveninthecorridors,haveinherentpotentialtonurturepositiveattitudes of responsibility, discipline, self-development ornegligence,injusticeandfrustrationamongstudents?

learning Check 11. Whatarethemajoraimsofeducation?2. Doyouagree thatmodernsociety isacomplexone?

Givearguments.3. Howdomediaretardthevaluedevelopmentpotential

ofschools?4. Describetheroleofschoolfactorsinvaluedevelopment.

InTEgRaTEd appRoaCh To EdUCaTIon foR valUESEducationists have adopted a variety of approaches andpractices fornurturing valuesamongchildren.Theseareknownbydifferentnames,suchascharacterdevelopment,citizenshipeducation,humanrightseducation,non-violenceeducation, etc. The National Curriculum Framework–2005suggestedadoptingaholistic and integratedapproach toeducationforvalues.Thetermholistichastwoconnotations.Thefirstoneisrelatedtotheindividual.Accordingtothis,individual development is multidimensional in nature,i.e. thephysical, intellectual,emotional,socialandmoraldevelopments, which are interrelated. An individualprogressesonmostof theseaspectssimultaneously. It isnot feasibletoprogressexclusively inonedomainwithoutatleastsomeprogressonothers.Hence,theoverallholisticdevelopmenthastobethetargetofeffortsineducationforvalues.Thesecondconnotationrelatestotheenvironmentalcontext. The individual is situated in a socialmilieuandherinteractionwiththefamily,teachers,schools,peersandneighbours influenceshis/herpersonaldevelopment. It isimportanttotakecognizanceofhis/herentirefamilialandcommunitycontextintheprocessofeducationforvalues. The integrated approach focuses onmaking consciousefforts to embed values in the experiences occurring

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everywhereintheschool.Theeffortsforvalueeducationmustalso include family and the community. The organisationof the entire school system promotes values. The schoolculture, its policies, the logo, the symbols, the physicalspaces,teachers’ownbehaviourandpedagogicalstrategies,classroompractices,evaluationsystem,etc.,allhavetobescrutinisedwith regard to thevaluespropagatedby them.Everysubjecthasvaluesandattitudesimplicitinitscontentandhasimplicationfordevelopingvalues.Thepedagogicalpractices,teachers’ownattitudesandvalues,andherskillsofhandlingstudents’queries,concerns,conflicts,etc.,havetobetransformedforqualityoutcomesinrespectoflearningof content and values. The physical spaces – library, staffroom, principal’s room, etc., in the school; its discipline,policies, classroom practices, etc. all are important forlearningofvalues. The whole school approach to nurturing values ispreferred, in place of separate subject or activity basedapproach. The underlying premise is that all events,exchangesandinteractionstakingplaceintheschool,insideor outside the classroom, should draw attention towardsvalue-based behaviour. For instance, if teachers adopt acaringandflexibleattitudetowardsstudents,theywillalsoimbibesuchattitudetowardseachother.Thewholeschoolapproachenvisagesparticipationofallpersonnelconnectedwith the school including parents, local community andstudentcommunitiesandenlistingtheircooperationinschoolgovernance, decision making, particularly with regard tophysicalfacilitiesonthecampus,curriculumimplementation,etc. Even though school policies are determined by theStateandadministrativemachinery,yetthereisscopeandopportunity,withintheconstraintsofthesepolicies,togivespace to students to develop participatory school culture.Thekeyplayerinthisregardistheteacherwhoinfluencesstudentsandtheschoolethosininnumerableways. Thetaskoforganisingschoolactivitiesfordevelopmentofvaluesisacreativeandreflectiveexercise.Itinvolvesrevisitingtheschoolcurriculum,physicalresources,theprocessesandidentifyingopportunitieswhichcouldtremendouslyinfluencestudents’valueorientation.Teachersshouldmakeeffortstoinfuseandreinforcevaluesthatarecommensuratewiththe

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textualmaterialtaughtintheschoolandthedevelopmentalstagesofchildren.

The following text from National Curriculum Framework– 2005(p.63)showsthatvaluesshouldnotbetaughtintheschool. Instead,entireschoolactivities should be organised in ways that leadto value development. “Teaching values has often meant exhortations about desirable behaviour. It has also meant the suppression and denial of ‘improper’ and ‘unacceptable’ feelings and desires. This often leads children to hide their own real feelings, desires, thoughts and convictions and simply pay lip service to moral values and ideals, without making any commitment.”

learning Check 2 1. Whatisthemeaningofanintegratedapproach?2. Physical spaces of the school, like library,

playground,corridors,etc.influencelearningandimbibevalues.Doyouagreewiththisstatement?List suggestions for using these spaces forpromotingEducationforValuesinyourschool.

3. Opportunitiesforinculcatingvaluesarehiddenintheschoolroutineanddiscipline.Explain.

dEvElopIng valUES ConSEnSUSAsyouhavereadinChapter9,thereareahostofpersonal,socialandmoralvalues.People(students,teachers,others)might comeup to the schoolwithdifferent sets of values.Theymayalsodifferentlymentionthepriorityamongthesevalues.Now, the challenge before the school is to developa consensus about the values to be developed among thestudents.TheNational Curriculum Framework–2005,takingguidelinesfromtheConstitution,givesprioritytothevaluesofdemocracy,equality,secularism,justice,multiculturalism,human rights, etc.Despite this, the issueofwhichvaluesareworthpursuinghasneverbeentakenassettledbytheeducationsystemandeducators. The values, attitudes and skills needed to behave inaccordancewith thegood,socialandmoralconductcould

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createanendless list. Itwouldbeanarduous task toputthese together and classify them. There would always besomething left out. For instance, Constitutional values ofequality, justice, secularism, freedom, respect for humanrights and responsibilities, environment, etc., may seemcomplete.Butadvocatesofcivicresponsibilitieswould liketo add values such as honesty, cooperation, compassion,courtesy, integrity, responsibility, self-discipline, respect,tolerance, obeying law and order, etc. The proponentsof religion emphasise respect for tradition and culturalpractices. The diverse sources of values like the Constitution,citizenshipinacivilisedsociety,democracy,religion,moralandethicalconductareemphasisedbythedifferentgroupsofpeople.Attheinstitutionallevelclarityneedstobecreatedabouthowthesevaluesarenotdiscretebutlinkedwitheachotherthroughasetofattitudesandbeliefs.Forinstance,anindividualwithasenseofresponsibilitywillberesponsibletowardsothers,his/herwork,environment,lawandorder,family members, etc. Hence the value of responsibilityoverlaps with attitudes of responsibility as a citizen andresponsibilitytowardswork.Butinstitutionscandrawtheirownpriorityofvaluesdependingontheirexperiences.SinceourConstitutionemphasisesonsecularismasanacceptedprincipal, the education policy accordingly stresses onsecularvalues. Associatedwiththepluralityofvaluesisalsothequestionofhow to translate implications of these values for schoolexperiences.Thecurriculumarticulates theexperiences tobeorganisedforstudentsthroughthesubjectcontentsandmaterials. But other factors like school policies, teachers’orientation, disciplinary practices, classroom practices,etc.,areimportantandmaycreateawidegapbetweentheeducational goals andactual outcomes.Hence, the role ofcurriculumdevelopersbroadens.Theyhavetoreflectuponthe influence of these factors on students and provideguidelines for the orientation of policies with regard topractices which promote positive discipline, participationofallchildrenirrespectiveoftheirabilities,classandcastediversities,creativedecisionmakingtoutiliseresourcesandmotivatestaff,teachers,studentsandparents.

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Activity 5Observeafewschoolsandpreparealistofvaluesthattheschoolsattempttoinculcateamongthestudents.Notedowntheactivitiesandsourcesofsuchvalues.

RolE of CURRICUlUm dEvElopERSThecurriculumneedstoprovideguidelinesforschoolsanddifferentstakeholdersforstructuringcurricularexperiencesinwaysthatfocusonvalues.Theseguidelinesmustberelatedtothesubjectcontent,organisationofschools,pedagogicalapproaches, and role of teachers, identity and leadership.The guidelines must include suggestions for teachers tomakeexplicit theobjectivesof learningdifferentcurricularsubjects,andtheneedtohighlighttheattitudesandvaluesinherentinthesubjects’content.Theguidelinesmustalsocautionagainstmakingeducationforvaluestooprescriptiveanddidactic.Guidelinesshouldalsosuggestwaysandmeans(gamesandactivities)bywhichstudentscanarriveatthesevalueconclusionsthemselvesinsteadofbeingprescribedatthebeginningofthechapter.However,despitehighlightingthesegoals,theactualpracticeofteaching-learningmaystillfall short of desired goals. The values related objectives ofcontentneedtobehighlighted.Theguidelinesmaybedirectedatallthefunctionariesatalllevels.Itistobeunderstoodthattheroleofteacher,thekeyplayeratschoollevel,isdelimitedbythewaypoliciesareunderstoodandimplementedbythemiddleleveladministrators.

Activity 6Prepare a draft guideline, in consultation withclassmates,fororganisationofvalue-relatedactivitiesintheschools.

RolE of TEaChERSTheteachersplayanimportantroleinnurturingvaluesintheschools.Apartfromthepedagogicalapproach,teachers’leadership qualities and their relationshipswith students,other teachers, principal, staff members, parents, andcommunityallconstituteareasofinfluenceondevelopment

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of values among students. Teachers’ relations with othersare influenced bymany factors, such as his/her self andidentity, attitudes, leadership style, and communicationskills.Thesefactorsarediscussedinthefollowingsections.

tEAChErS’ SElf ANd idENtity Theselfandidentityofteachershasprobablythestrongestinfluenceontheirinteractionsandrelationshipswithothers.The self refers to the sum of all the perceptions that oneholdsaboutoneself,suchasIamateacher,IamaMuslim,Iamefficient, I like to teachornot to teach, Iamhonest,andsoon.Dependinguponthestrengthandqualityoftheseperceptions(positiveornegative),theselfdevelopsnegativelyorpositively.Thenegativeselfisexpressedinbehaviourslikelackoftrustinone’sownabilityandthatofothers,absenceofcaringandhelpfulattitudes,inabilitytotakeresponsibility,lackofperseveranceontasks,andsoon.Thepositiveselfistheoppositeofalltheabove.Asoundandhealthysenseofselfisenabling.Itbestowsopenness,flexibility,motivation,caring, respectful and creative attitudes in the individual.Apositivepersonislikelytobelessaggressive,prejudiced,obstinateandfrustrated.Itmayberememberedthatselfandidentityarecrucial,fornotonlypromotionofvaluesamongstudents,butmoreimportantly,fortheeffectivenessofone’sownbehaviourandrelationshipsathome,atwork,andinothercontexts.

Activity 7Whatareyourimmediatethoughtsandfeelingswhenyouareangry, frustratedorunkind toothers?Noteyourimmediatethoughts.Reflectuponthem.

Tobeginwith, itwouldbeworthwhile to examineyourperceptions, attitudes and beliefs about yourself – yourabilities and socio-emotional qualities. Are these positive?What is your identity? It helps to reflect, for instance, on“Whatattitudesweholdtowardsourstrengths,weaknesses,beliefs about our own family, work, colleagues, etc.,? Arethese negative or positive?” Whatever be the direction oftheseattitudes,itisimportanttoanalysewhytheseareso?We have to critically examine if these beliefs hamper our

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relationshipswithothers,andourabilitytoresolveconflicts.Why it is sometimes easy to resolve conflicts with somepeople,butnotwithothers.Wecaneasilyconnectwiththosesimilartous.Ontheotherhand,peoplewhoaredifferentintermsofcaste,language,region,colour,gender,etc.,appeardistant. In order to establish healthy social relationshipswithcolleagues,principal,students,parentsandstaff,onehastolearntoacceptothers–eventhosedifferentfromus.Healthy‘self’developmentandsocialrelationshipscontributetohappinessandwell-being. Animportantstrategythathelpsindevelopmentof‘self’isregular,dailyreflectiononone’sexperiences–positiveornegative.Reflectionismosteffectivewhenaccompaniedbywritingdown the experiences, feelings, and conclusions ofdailylife.Regularityofreflectionhelpsindevelopinginsightsinto the beliefs we hold toward others and the way theseaffect our behaviour. The insights enable us to overcomeattitudinal barriers anddevelop self-esteemandpositivity,whichinturnwouldenableustobecomeeffectiveinourworkandstrengthenrelationshipswithothers– fellowteachers,students,principalandparents.

pEdAgogiCAl ApproAChThe approach to teaching is influenced by the teacher’sattitudestowardchildrenandtowardteaching.Theimplicitassumptionsabout‘howchildrenlearn?’,‘whoisachild’and‘what are their psycho-social characteristics?’, inform ourteaching-learningpractices.Forexample,ifonebelievesthatchildrenareinnocentanditisthelackofparentalguidancethat causes lapses in their development, onewould try toinfluenceparents.Thebeliefthatchildrenarebasicallywildandtheyneedtobepunishedtocontrolwouldinfluencetheteachers’behaviouraccordingly. The traditional approach to teaching assumed thatchildren learnt by listening to knowledgeable adults. As aresult, the traditional approach of teaching focused oncontentorgivingalotofinformation.Insuchcase,itistheteacherwhodoesmostofthetalkingintheclass.Itisonewaycommunication,occasionallyinterruptedwithaquestionor two, posed by the students. Though the students areactiveobservers,theirobservationsandexperiencesarenot

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capitalisedupon in traditional teaching,neither theerrorsin theirworkand thoughtgetcorrected.Students insuchasituationcarryonwiththeirerroneousobservationsandbeliefs.Incontrast,thecontemporaryapproachtolearningconsiders students as partners in the teaching-learningprocess. They learn by constructing knowledge based onassimilation of the concepts, correct or incorrect, in theirexperiences.Ifopportunitiesarenotprovidedtothemtosharetheir learning and receive feedback, the expected learningmay not occur and this has implications for learning ofattitudesandvalues.Therefore,itisimportantthatteachersallowstudentstoraisequestionsanddoubtsintheclassnotonlyaboutthesubjectmatterbutalsoaboutother issues.The issues raisedby themreveal their attitudes.Teachershavetobevigilanttothewaystudents’attitudesdevelop. Letustakeanexample.Theartteachergavehomeworktothestudentsandaskedthemtoprepareamodel.Thestudentwhogotmaximummarkshadnotmadethemodelhimself.OnestudentRamandaredtoconfronttheteacher.Hesaid,“Sir, Imadethemodelallalone,whereasSohan’sbrother,who ismucholder,made themodel.” The teacher said, “Ican’tdoanythingaboutthis.Hismodelisbettersohegetsbettermarks.”Thedilemmabeforetheteacherandstudentintheaboveexampleisnotsimpleenoughtobesummarilyrejected. What would be the effect of teacher’s commenton Raman?How the dilemma is resolved is an importantaspectofteacher’spedagogicstrategytorewardtheprocessoflearning,perseverance,andthehardwork.Mostlyitistheoutcomethatgetsrewardedwhichforcessomestudentstoadoptunethicalwaystogetsuccess.Theteacherhastostayinvolved with students, their backgrounds, strengths andlimitations.Thisispossiblethroughconstructivistapproachtoteaching.Thewayteachershandlethequeriesofstudentscouldalsoinfluencetheirbeliefs.

Activity 8Observeaclassandnotedownwhathappensintheclass.Findoutthemethodofteachingadoptedbytheteacher.Reflectonitsimplicationfordevelopmentofattitudesandvaluesamongthestudents.

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lEAdErShipAteacherhastoprovideeffectiveleadershiptothestudentswithinandoutsidetheschool.Theycouldguidestudentstomanagetheirworkandconductinwaystoavoidpunishmentand criticism from teachers and parents, and workeffectivelytowardstheireducationalgoals.Theycouldinviteparticipationofstudentsinformulatingclassroompolicies,disciplineandworkschedulewhichwouldenable them torelatewarmlywithstudents.Studentswouldbemotivatedtocooperateandfollowestablishedrules.Studentscouldalsobeinvolvedinreflectiononaberrationsinpolicyorclassroomdiscipline or poor achievement or any other concerns anddevicewaystodealwiththoseproblemswithapositiveframeofmind.

CommuNiCAtioN SkillSCommunicationskillsinfluenceinteractionsandrelationshipsa teachercoulddevelopwith theprincipal,students,staff,andoccasionallywiththecommunity.Thequalityof theseinteractions affects the teacher’s efficiency as well. Theserelationshipsimpactnotonlystudents,butalsotheteacher’sownmentalhealth.Thetwomostimportantcommunicationskillsthatshe/heneedstopossessarelisteningskillsandrespondingskills.Listeninginvolvespayingattentiontowhattheotherpersonissaying,theverbalaswellasnonverbalcontentofthecommunication.Afterlistening,theteacherneedstorespondtothequeriesofstudentsinanappropriateway.

tEAChiNg of SubjECtSValuesareinherentinthesubjectcontent.Duringteachingthesubjects,teacherscouldmakeexplicitthevaluesinherentinthecontent.Allthesubjectslikescience,socialsciences,languages, etc., are connectedwith real life and each onehasimmensepotentialtoconveyvalues.Therealpurposeofteachingthesesubjectsistounderstandtheirimplicationsinreallifesituations,includingvalueinculcation.Integratedapproachtoteachingvaluesismorelikelytoenablestudentsto imbibe them. For instance, while learning History, thestudents may critically examine the way perceptions ofdifferentpeopleaboutthesamehistoricalfactsvary,andthepersonalbiasesandprejudicesthatcreatedifferentversions.

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Thereareinnumerableopportunitiesfortheteacherstohighlight valuesduring teaching. For example, learning towritelettersinlanguageclassesneednotbeaboutimaginaryissues; rather, these should be about real issues facingstudents in school, such as writing letter to the teacherstoalterclassroomrulesthatareunjust.Languagelearningmustfacilitatetheexpressionoftheirgrousesinpoliteandinoffensive language using ‘I’ messages rather than ‘You’.Wecouldalsohelpthemunderstandhowourmessages,fullof negative vocabulary, generate anger and annoyance inothers.Studentsshouldbehelpedtoenlargetheirvocabularyof positive, polite and happy words and expressions. Inaddition,asalanguageteacherwecouldelaboraterelevantportions of textual materials to highlight how languagegeneratesdifferentfeelings.Byalteringourusageoflanguage(i.e.appropriatevocabulary,toneandtenor),wecouldcreatepositivefeelings. Theothersetofopportunitiesariseinthequestionsandqueriesofstudentsregardingthesubjectcontent.Whentheteacherdealswiththequeriesofstudents,itholdspromiseofbringingreflectiononthevaluesimplicitinthesubjectcontent.For example, the students may ask questions like, “Howwill learning about chemical equations at secondary stagebenefitmeataseniorsecondarystageifIchoosecommerceorhumanity courses?” or “Howwill theknowledge of ‘Set’inmathematicshelpmeunderstandreallifequestionsandproblemsofmathematics?”Thequestionsstudentsraiseareendlesslike,“Geographyteachesusaboutclimate,weather

Activity 91. Next time when you are in conversation with

others, observe yourself. Are you listening andpayingattentiontothespeakerorarelostinownthoughts?

2. Do you want to improve your listening skills?Whenyouaretalkingwithothers–yourfriends,acquaintances, strangers, etc. notice your ownthoughts.Writethemdowninyourdiaryandreflectuponthem.Payattentiontoyourownandothers’non-verbalexpressionsduringconversation.

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andsoil,etc.ofdifferentplaces,Iamnotlikelytogototheseplaces,thenhowamIaffectedbythisknowledge?”or“WhatdoesitmatterwhetherJehangirlivedbeforeHumayun?”,andsoon.Duetolackoftimeorfailuretorealisetheimportanceofengagingstudents,teacherssometimesbrushasidethesecommentspolitelyorangrily.Implicitinthesequestionsareopportunitiesforteacherstoconnectwithstudents,motivatethem,andunderstandtheirdifficultiesinthesubjectoreventheir personal problems. The task of teaching could shiftto learningwhenstudentsunderstandtherealobjectiveofstudying these subjects and also to understand the valueunderpinnings. For instance, understanding of geographydevelops awareness of the individual about multiculturalethos of our land and its people – their different dresses,food habits, rituals, customs, festivals, living spaces, etc.,aswellasinternationalism.Chemistryhelpsusunderstandourrelationshipwiththeinorganicandorganicworld–thesubstances in the environment – like food, air,water, etc.andinsightintoleadingahealthydiseasefreelife. The efforts of the teacher and the time spent in thediscussionorobservationsessionsmentionedabovearenotwastedrathertheyfacilitatestudents’understanding,interestandmotivation.But,first,onehas tobelieve inone’sownpedagogical style, develop skills in organising discussions,andmotivatestudents’participation.Inordertoelicitdoubtsand help participation of all the students, teachers’ ownqualities like confidence, self-esteemandpatience assumeimportance. Entertaining students’ doubts and queriesis possible only when a teacher has a high sense of self-esteem,orelseateachermayfeelthreatened.Inadditiontoentertainingthequeriesofthestudents,thereisalsoneedtohavepatiencetoobservethegradualbutsubtlechangestaking place in students’ behaviour as a result of thesediscussions,whicharemanifestedintheirincreasinginterestandengagementwiththesubject. Initially,participationofallthestudentsmaynotbeequallyenhancedbutgraduallychangewouldbecomevisible,ifsustainedeffortsaremade.Inordertoassessthesechangesandfeelsatisfactionwithoureffortsitisimportanttounderstandandcarryoutevaluationofthesechanges.

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EVAluAtioNEvaluationofvaluesisdifferentfromevaluationofanyotherability or learning. It poses problems as impact of valuesonbehaviourtakestimetobecomevisibleandmaynotbeexpressed at a time convenient for observation by others,particularly teachers.Thestudentsmay report inculcationofvaluesbutrealbehaviourmayormaynotreflectthesame.Forexample,achildmaybelieve incleanlinessbutduetocertainimpedimentsathomehispersonalappearancemaynotreflectit.Itisaninternalassimilationofvaluesthatweareinterestedinhere. Anotherproblemthatvalueassessmentposes is thatachildcouldbecaughtinadishonestactbychance;he/sheislabelleddishonest.Allotherswhowerewithhimorherdonotgetcaught,suchachildwillgetstigmaandhumiliationwhichiscounterproductivetolearningofvalues.Therearestillotherissuesthatargueagainstevaluationofthevaluesof students. For instance, a child who is not exposed tovaluesof courtesy,politeness,disciplineathomewill takelongertolearn.So,itisnotfairtocomparehimwithothers,andaward lessmarksduring assessment of valueswhichwillbede-motivating. Inviewoftheabove,itisnotdesirabletoevaluateorrankstudents.However,itisimportanttoevaluateschoolethos,school policies, discipline, and classroom practices. Theevaluationhastofocuson“whateffortsarebeingmade?,aretheseeffortssufficient?,dotheyfacilitatethedevelopmentofvaluesamongstudents?”,etc.Theunderlyingassumptionisthatanenvironmentimbuedwithvaluesislikelytonurturevalues,subtlybutsurely. Theevaluationwouldrequiresystematicdatacollectionon efforts made for nurturing identified values such ascleanliness, health and physical fitness, self development,work ethics and cooperation, non-violence in verbal andnon-verbalbehaviour, respect for life andnature, etc. Theschool policies and practices, for instance, special noticeson schoolbulletinboard onmaintenance of cleanliness inthe school and classrooms, and also personal cleanlinessor provision of resources for cleanliness, recognition formaintaining cleanliness, creation of clubs on art, music,

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yoga,forrecreation,mentoringresponsibilitiesbyteachers,etc.maybedocumentedforassessment.Anotheractioncouldbe replacement of punishment by a system of recognitionforgoodconduct.Reminders,policystatements,monitoringmechanisms and recognition systems, developed and putinto action, all may be taken stock of for documentation.Teachers’orientationwithrespecttotheeffortsfornurturingvalues and their role in the process, etc. are examples ofactionstakenbyschoolwhichcouldalsobedocumentedforassessment of values. Any changes reported by teachers,parents,principalandstudentsmayalsoberecorded. Theseactionswouldnotbringresultsinaday,weekormonthbut ifpursuedwithregularityandconsistencyoveraperiodof time,achievementwouldbecomevisible.Thereshould not be humiliation, violence, ridicule or corporalpunishment for not following values but constructive,productive and socially useful positive reinforcement maybeconsidered.Inthenameofvalueeducationtheculturalpractices of any one culture may not be thrust on othercommunities. Itisimportantthattheeffortsinitiatedforvaluenurturanceare assessed and documented from time to time by thePrincipalandaseparatecommitteeofteachers,parentsandstudentsisconstitutedforthepurpose.Thecommitteehastoincludeparentsandstudents,andtheirparticipationandinvolvementintheprocessisverynecessaryforthesuccessofsuchaprogramme.

lEt uS Sum upInthischapteryouwereintroducedtothefactthatconsciouseffortsforpromotionofvaluesthroughschooleducationhavebeenmade for a long time. The reason valuesnurturancefallsshortof expectation lies in thechallengesposedbyanumberoffactorsinsocietalstructures,andcomplexityduetosocio-economic,culturalandtechnologicaldevelopments,aspirations of people, and the media. The integrated andholistic approach to education for values, advocated byNCERT,waselaborated.Attheschoolleveltheprocessstartswith developing value consensus, and identification anddevelopmentoftheopportunitiesforvalueeducationinthe

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givencurriculum.Theteachers’ownself/identityandtheirroleintheprocessofvalueeducationisofgreatsignificance.Finally, you have read that the evaluation of values is anintricateprocessandneedstobedonewithcare.

rEViEW QuEStioNS1. Mentionthreeimportantaimsofeducation?2. List out factors that challenge education for value

development?3. Describetheintegratedapproachtovalueeducation?4. Whatarethevarioussourcesofvalues?5. Mentionthreeimportantrolesofcurriculumdevelopers

inthecontextofvalueeducation?6. Howcanschooldisciplinebeorganisedforpromotionof

values?7. How can ‘Self’ or ‘Identity’ be a source of conflict or

peace?8. Mention diverse pedagogical approaches for nurturing

values.9. Whyvalueassessmentshouldnotbedoneforstudents?10. How best assessment of value education programmes

couldbecarriedout?

rEfErENCES/furthEr rEAdiNgSAnderson, M.L., And TAyLor, H.F. 2008.Sociology.Wadsworth

PublishingCompany,Belmont.dAsTidAr, M.2002.MinorityIdentityandIntergroupDifferences

inPluralSocieties:A Study of Political Response Towards Majoritarian Discourses in India.www.open.ac.UK/Arts/gips/delhi02/destigor.

GinTis, H.1996.SchoolChoice:TheIssuesandtheOptions.Prospects, XXVI, 631-642.

NCERT.2005.Education for Peace. Position Paper of National Focus Group,NewDelhi.

——. 2005.National Curriculum Framework–2005. NCERT,NewDelhi.

——.2012. Education for Values in Schools- A Framework,NCERT,NewDelhi.

sinGH, y.2000.Cultural Change in India.RawatPublications,Jaipur.

Chapter 11

Values in the Emerging Social Context

STRUCTURE• Introduction• Objectives• PerspectivesonValues

– TheEmergingSocialContextinIndia– SomeImportantValues

• ValueConflictsinSchools• EducationandValues• TransformingValuesthroughEducation

– TheCurriculum– TheSchoolandClassroomEnvironment– TheTeaching-LearningProcess– Evaluation/Assessment

• PeaceforAllLet Us Sum upSuggestions for Further Reading

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InTRodUCTIon

Box 1Student: Ma’am I do not want to work in this

group. Can I please request you to put me in some other group?

Teacher: Why child? I believe you are in one of the best groups. Why do you want to change your group?

Student: Ma’am because I do not feel comfortable working with ‘X’

Teacher: Is there any issue between the two of you?

Student: No Ma’am. We hardly talk. I feel uncomfortable because of his religion.

The conversation reported inBox 1 illustrates a student’shonestyofpurposeand intent. Itsuggests thepresenceof‘truthfulness’inthestudent,whichisoftenconsideredasacoreoruniversalvalue.Atthesametime,theconversationhighlights the student’s discomfort and apprehensionin working with another student belonging to a differentreligion.Thissuggests‘lackofappreciation’ofanimportantsocialvaluecalled‘secularism’.Howwouldyouasateacherrespondtotheabovesituation?Wouldyouappreciateandbehappyaboutthepresenceoftruthfulnessinthestudentatthecostofthestudent’sinabilitytoacceptapersonofasocialgroupdifferentthanhis/herown?Suchtypesofconflictingsituationsoftentakeplace inthe lifeofa teacherandhe/shehas tomakea choice thatwould influence the futurecourseofaction.Indeed,valuesaresignificantlyinvolvedinvariouskindsofsocialinteractionsanditisrelevantfortheteachertounderstandthenatureanddynamicsofvaluesinthecontemporarysocialcontext. Todaytheconceptofvalueisnolongerlimitedtoreligious,spiritual,moral or ethical domain. It is all pervading anddefinesthegoalsandpreferencesapersonliveswiththroughhis/herlife.Sincehumanlifeisorganisedatphysical,social,andspirituallevels,ourparticipationinthesocietydemandsdiverseactivities indifferentcontexts.Valuesasabindingforceconnectourcommitments, investments,andactions.In essence, they codify the ideals and aspirations that

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peopleendorse.Theyareembeddedinandsustainedbythemeanings,practices,andartefactspresentinpeople’sculture.This can be easily observed if we visit places of differenthistoricalperiodsandexaminewritings,sculpturesandotherartefacts.Theyamplydocumenttheimprintsofthevaluesprevailingduringvarioushistoricalperiods.Therefore, it isreasonabletoassumethatthekindofvaluesapersonholdsistoagreatextentinfluencedbytheparticularcultureandsocialcontexthe/shelivesin.Thevarioussocialinstitutionsandculturalpracticesnurturecertainvaluesandprioritisethem. It is, however, to be noted that the relationshipbetweencultureandvaluesisbi-directional.Whileculture,on theonehand,shapesvaluedevelopment, thevaluesofpeoplealsoinfluencethedevelopmentofculturalartefacts,ontheother.Thischapterdiscussesthetwo-wayinteractionbetweenvaluesandsocietyandtheirrelationshipwiththeprocessesofeducation.

objECTIvESAfterreadingthischapter,youwillbeableto:• describediverseperspectivesonvalues;• explaintheeffectofvalueconflictsontheschoolsystem;• elucidate the role of education in transforming values;

and• explicatetheroleofschoolsysteminnurturingthevalue

ofpeace.

PERSPECTIvES on valUESYou have read in Chapter 9 that values are those broadideasandnotionsthatapersonoragroupcarriesregardingwhat is ‘good’, ‘correct’ and ‘desirable’. They are sociallyacceptedasidealsanddirectpersonalandsocialconductofthepeople.Valuesareoftensharedbymostofthemembersof a society. So, there are group perceptions about thedesirabilityofthingswhichgetconvertedintovalues.Thus,groupperceptionsofdesirabilityresultintoformulationsofvalues.Thesenotionsandideasofdesirableandundesirableis largely amatter of belief. Youmay also observe valuesacting as guiding principles for persons and society. Thatis, values, to a great extent, direct and shape a person’s

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behaviourandasociety’sattitudetowardvariousissuesandobjects.Thischaracteristicofvaluesmakesthemnormativein nature. Values act as norms for individuals living in asocietywhousuallyabidebythemforseekingsocialapprovaland participating as important members of the group orcommunity.Thenormsinherentinvaluesguideouractionsanddirectthechoicesthatwemake.Values,thus,canalsobeseenasbasesforvariousdecisionsandchoicesmadebyanindividual. The notion of values has been of great concern to theIndianpeople.Theancientconceptofpurushartharepresentsa scheme of four comprehensive categories of values i.e.Dharma(moral-ethicalvalue),Artha(economicvalue),Kama(hedonisticvalue),andMoksha(spiritualvalue).Inallthesevaluesdharma is central. It involves the lifeprinciple thatmaintainslifeandconnectsallaspectsoflife.ElaborationsofdharmabyIndianthinkerssuggestthatitinvolvesobservingmoralvaluesencompassingnonviolence,truth,non-stealing,cleanliness, self-control,non-anger, etc. It situateshumanbeingsinthenaturalhabitatinasustainablerelationship.

Learning Check 11. Explainbriefly‘normative’natureofvalues.2. DiscusstheIndiannotionofvalues.

In everyday life a variety ofmeanings are associated with thetermvalue.Eachmeaningisequallyimportantandjustifiesitselfthroughthephilosophicalpositionitbelongs.There are several intrinsic andinstrumental values put forward byprominentthinkers.Thevaluesrangefromeconomicopportunism,makingprofits, democratic citizenship,critical reflection, and independentmoral thinking. In RabindranathTagore’svisionofeducationthe‘moralman’isplacedabovethe‘commercialman’,buteducationthatpromoteseconomicsuccessandbenefitsisnotdevalued.

Rabindranath Tagore

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Mahatma Gandhi laid greatemphasis on moral and spiritualvalues and stressed the importanceofcharacterbuildingasamoralideal.He gave importance to ‘truth’ and‘nonviolence’.Healsoacknowledgeddemocratic values andbelieved thatwelfare of the individual and thenation are complementary to eachother. As aptly put by Gandhiji “Anation cannot advance withoutthe units of which it is composedis advancing, and conversely, no individual can advancewithoutthenationofwhichitisapartisalsoadvancing.” The idea that values arenothing but the religious andspiritualprinciplesoflife,assumesthatthereisapathlaidforthelifejourneyofeachindividualandeachindividual’sresponsibilityistofollowthatpathandachievetheultimateaimofGod-realisation.Salvationor freedomfrombondageisconsideredanimportantvirtueintheschemeofreligiousandspiritualvalues.Contrarily,thepositionthatscienceandtechnologydefinetoday’sworld,theveryimportancegiventovaluescomesintoquestion.Scienceandtechnologybothareheldasvalueneutral.Thereisanothergroupthatbelievesinmodernisationbutsubscribestosomevaluesassociatedwith amodern and developing State, such as democracy,secularism,equality,andsoon.

THE EMERGING SOCIAL CONTEXT IN INDIAThe importance of values and need for the inculcation ofvalues can be understood in the light of value crisis as aglobal phenomenon of recent times. As Bhardwaj (2005)rightlyobserved,therapidscientificgrowthandtechnologicaladvancements, resulting in industrialisation, materialism,andconsumerism,havethreatenedthetraditionalagrarianmoralstandards.Thisatmosphereofvaluelessnessisleadingto disintegration, at the same time significant progress isregistered in certainfields.BhardwajmentionsaquotebyNietzsche where he remarked, “When a tree grows up toheaven,itsrootsreachdowntohell.”Ifattentionisnotpaidtovalues,deteriorationmightleadtodisastrousresultsand

Mahatma Gandhi

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might lead to disintegration of the social order. It is hightime,therefore,torisetoactionandmakeconsciouseffortstopromotevaluesinpersonalandsociallives. Likeallothersocietiesofworld,thequestionsofvaluesandtheirinculcationandpromotionhavebeenofasignificantconcernforIndiatoo.Theresurgenceofconcernforvalues,ascurrentlywitnessed,issomethingthatissharedbyeverybodyacrossallsegmentsofsociety includingthecommonman,policy makers, teachers, writers, and industrialists. It ishappeningagainstthebackdropofanethoscharacterisedbyviolence,alienation, corruption,dishonesty, social tension,discrimination,andatrocitiesonvariousgroups(e.g.,women,children,poorminorities,weakersections)(Misra,2006). It is important to realise that the loss of sensitivity tovaluesseriouslyhamperstheprocessofnationaldevelopmentandalsoinsomesensedemolishesthefaithofmassesandshatterstheidealsofthosegreatnationalleaderswhofoughtthefreedomstruggleandnurturedthespiritofdemocracy.YoureadintheearlierchapterthattheConstitutionofIndialaysthefirmfoundationofasovereign,socialist,secularanddemocratic republic. It promises to secure for all citizens:social, economic and political justice; liberty of thought,expression, faith, belief and worship; equality of statusandof opportunity; fraternity, assuming thedignityof theindividual;andtheunityandintegrityofthenation.Alltheseprovisionsalongwiththesupremacyofthejudiciaryarethecornerstonesofpeaceandharmonyinsociallife.Indiahaswitnessed a number changes owing to various legislativemeasures(e.g.reductioninageforvoting,Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009, Panchayati Raj, Right toInformation, introduction of economic reforms, building ofinfrastructureandrevolutionofICT,andsoon).However,thebenefitsofthesedevelopmentshavenotreachedequallytothedifferentsegmentsofthehierarchicallyorganisedIndiansociety.Thegapsinsocio-economicdevelopmentpersistanda large section, particularly from themarginalised groupsand communities, is still living life below thepoverty line.Thesystemichassles,obsoletelaws,andrisingaspirationshave arrested the pace of progress. The result is rise indissatisfaction, conflict, corruption, and opportunism.Also,therearelarge-scalechangesduetoglobalisationand

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privatisation. Indeed, the social life in India isundergoingsignificantchanges. Inthepresentdayhighlycomplexanddynamicscenario,India’s portrait of unity in diversity requires concretemeasures topromote social life on thebasis of egalitarianand democratic principles. H.S. Srivastava (2004) hasdrawn attention to the Fundamental Duties enshrined inthe IndianConstitution in the light of twokey values, i.e.peace and harmony. These Fundamental Duties amongotherthingsmakeitthedutyofeveryIndiancitizen:(a)touphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity ofIndia; (b)topromoteharmonyandaspiritofbrotherhood;(c)torenouncepracticesderogatorytothedignityofwomen;(d) to protect and improve the natural environment; (e) tohavecompassion forall livingcreatures;and (f) todevelopa scientific temper and a spirit of enquiry and reform.By implication these provisions negate discrimination,sectarianism,obscurantism,superstition,andviolence.

Activity 1Organiseagroupdiscussion tofindouthowvaluesinherent in the Indian Constitution promote peaceandharmony?Indicatespecificprovisionsmade.

SOME IMPORTANT VALUESAppreciating that the values are inherent in indigenousIndianthoughtandrealisingtheirsignificanceforeducationagainst the backdrop of current realisation of value crisismakes it imperative to identify core values that shouldbetransmitted to children. The National Policy on Education(1986)andNational Curriculum Framework(2005),therefore,spelt out certain guidelines, about values that shall bepromoted in children. According to these guidelines thevaluesworthinculcationare:appreciationforIndia’sculturalheritage; equality of sexes; protection of the environment;egalitarianism, democracy and secularism; Constitutionalobligations;nurturanceofnationalidentity;observanceofthesmallfamilynorms;removalofsocialbarriers;appreciationfor India’s freedom movement; inculcation of scientifictemper;humanrightsincludingrightsofthechild,especiallyof girl child;and inculcationofpersonalandsocial values

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such as cleanliness, compassion, truthfulness, integrity,responsibility,justice,respectforlawandorder,courageandthevaluescherishedforthefunctioningofdemocracy.Abriefdescriptionofsomeofthekeyvaluesseemstobeinorder.

DemocracyAsdescribedintheearlierchapter,democracyreferstothepowerofthepeople.AccordingtoAristotle,democracyisa“government by many.” The Greek word corresponding todemocracysuggestedasysteminwhich‘thepeople’performed‘the ruling’. Democracy has a very close relationship witheducation.Theprinciplesofdemocracylikeliberty,equality,fraternity, dignity of the individual, cooperation, sharingresponsibility, etc., are critical processes which deeplyinfluence the processes of education. On the other hand,education at various stages and dimensions intrinsicallymotivates a democratic way of life. Democratic values orprinciples are applied to the whole range of activities inimpartingeducationtomake itmoreeffective,meaningful,relevant, and useful. Similarly, without education of themassesdemocracycannotbeasuccess.Asindividualsofacivilisedsociety,peopleoughttoknowtheirrightsanddutiesascitizens.This isamustforfunctioningonademocraticpattern.Democracyinordertobearealityandawayoflifehas tobe introduced fromtheverybeginningofeducationanditsvaluespractisedinschoolsandcolleges.Thespiritof democracy, if practised, can immensely encourage anaccountableandparticipativestyleoffunctioning.

Activity 2Thinkofthevariouswaysthroughwhichschoolscanpromote and inculcate the values of democracy inchildren.

EgalitarianismUnderstanding democracy requires an understanding ofthebasicpremisesof the IndianConstitutionaswell.ThePreambletotheConstitutiondistinctlyembodiesegalitarianvalues. It should be noted that the relationship betweeneducationandegalitarianvalues isbi-directional.Equality

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forallcanbeensuredbyprovidingequalopportunitiestoallin theprocessof imparting education.Universal access toeducationdoesnotguaranteesatisfactiononlyonaccountofequalopportunity.Rather,italsoentailsequalconditionsforsuccess.Similarly,education,throughthecontentsandmethods followed, canplay an important role in reflectingtheneedandimportanceofConstitutionalvaluesofequality,equity,andsocial justice.Ateachershallalwaystrytosetexamplesofpractisingegalitarianvalues.

SecularismSecularismisamodernvaluethatimpliesequalityandequityand discards any kind of social or religious stratificationor differentiation. The concept thus entails tolerance forall religions, castes and all kinds of social diversity. Atthe same time, it upholds communal harmony as one ofthe core concerns. This leads to a two-fold understandingof secularism. Secularism implies not only disjunction ofreligionandpoliticsbutalsorecognisesreligionasaprivateand individual affair of a person. The Indian society is apluralsocietywithmanyreligions,castes,tribes,languages,and cultures. For India to survive, our society has to bebasedontheprinciplesofsecularism.DonaldEugeneSmith(1963) explains the notion of secularism as follows: “TheSecularstateguaranteesindividualandcorporatefreedomofreligion,dealswiththeindividualasacitizenirrespectiveofhisreligion.Itisnotconstitutionallyconnectedtoaparticularreligionnordoesitseektoeitherpromoteorinterferewithanyreligion”(p.iv). Two of the great Indian leaders,MahatmaGandhi andPandit Jawaharlal Nehru, were principal advocates ofsecularism. Their ideology of secularism was based oncommitmenttotheprinciplesofbrotherhoodandtruth,andrespectforallindividuals.Theypractisedthesevaluesandsetexamplesbeforethepeople.PanditNehruwasaleadingsupporterof theconceptof thesecularstate.HisproposalandeffortsformakingIndiaasecularstateisacknowledgedasoneofhisgreatestachievements.Hedislikedanykindofrelationbetweenreligionandpolitics.HewantedtotransformIndia intoaNationState thatwouldembracepeopleofallcastesandreligionswithoutanydiscrimination.

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Education,therefore,shallendeavourforthepromotionandinculcationofsecularismasoneofitsaims.JohnDeweysees school as aminiature society. Thus, foundation of asecularsocietycanbelaiddownintheschool. It, thus,becomesa crucial concern for schools to vieweducationasaprocessof ‘becoming’.Educationshall takeinto account all round development of children includingengagedcitizenship.Itshallnotbeviewedasanendinitself,ratherasameans toanend.Teacherscanplayagroundbreakingroleinpromotingvaluesofsecularismbycreatingrelevantopportunitiesandencouragingchildrenofdifferentcastes,communitiesandreligions tocelebrate,appreciate,and respect each others’ festivals, cultural practices andwaysoflife.Suchactivities,ifdonegenuinely,canestablishand nurture cordial feelings among people belonging todifferent cultural backgrounds. It is also critical for thesmoothfunctioningoftheschoolbecausedifferences,ifnotunderstoodadequately,maylayseedsofethnocentrismandprejudice. All this may ultimately render differences intodeficitsandleadtosocialconflicts.

Learning Check 21. WhatdotheNational Policy on Education andthe

National Curriculum Frameworksayaboutvalues?2. Whatdoyouunderstandby‘Secularism’?Explain

withthehelpofanexample.3. How are education and egalitarianism related?

Discussinthelightofspecificexamples.

valUE ConflICTS In SChoolSConflict is defined by Fisher (1990) as incompatibility ofgoalsorvaluesbetweentwoormorepartiesinarelationship,combined with attempts to control each other andantagonisticfeelings.Conflictscanoccurinalmostallkindsofinterpersonalorsocialcircumstances.DanielKatz(1965)createdatypologythatdistinguishesthreemainsourcesofconflicts: economic, value, and power. Economic conflictswouldinvolvecompetingmotivestoattainscarceresources;valueconflictwould involve incompatibility inwaysof life,ideologies,preferences,principlesandpracticesthatpeople

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believein;andpowerconflictwouldoccurwheneachpartywouldliketomaintainormaximisetheamountofinfluencethatitcanexertonothersinasocialsetting.Intoday’sworld,consumerismandcompetitionarebecomingkeydrivers inlife and promote individualist spirit in which everyone istryingtomaximisehisorhergainirrespectiveofitscostintermsoftheconsequencesforthewell-beingofothers.

Activity 3Think of examples of economic, value, and powerconflicts.Discussitwithfellowstudents.

Theabovesituationposesachallengeintheprocessofthedevelopmentofvalueswhichtakesplaceinthecontextoffamily,school,electronicandprintmedia(e.g.TV,cinema,video games, internet, newspapers, magazines), customs,andtraditionsofasociety.Valuesareoftencommunicatedanddemonstratedbytheeldersandthepeopleinpositionsofinfluenceandpower.Observationandmodellingbecomethemost important sources of value inculcation.Childrenoften learn through enculturation or living in a particularsettingandbeingconstantlyexposedtocertainpatternsofbehaviours. Today consumerism and violence, aggression,andmoneyareoccupyingaprominentplace inthemedia.Also, people are becoming present- oriented and evaluatethingsintermsofimmediatemonitorygain. Withthemultiplevaluesystemsarisingoutofdivergentpreferences and desirability, it is expected that school, aminiatureofsociety,wouldserveasapotentialgroundforemergenceandescalationofvalueconflicts.Itisfoundthatthesocialspacesintheschoolsoftenbecomesitesforvalueconflicts.Thesevalueconflictscanarisefromdifferencesinthepracticesandpreferencesofteachersandstudentsandthediversefamilybackgroundsfromwhichthechildrencome.Thusdifferencesmayoccurbetweenteachersandstudentsandbetween one group of students and another group. Itbecomeshighlycritical,thus,tounderstandtheimplicationsandconsequencesofthevariedpatternsofvalueconflictsinschoolsettings.

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The diversity in classroom in terms of various socialmarkers such as caste, class, gender, age, community,religion, socio-economic status (SES), if not dealt withproperly,canleadtoseriousvalueconflictsinschools.Thewaywethinkandfeelaboutthesedifferencesanddiversitiesexhibits the values endorsed by us. The news items innational dailies illustrate how continuous reinforcementofmaterialism, economic prosperity, and individualism goagainst thenorms forhumandignityand lead to conflictsthatresultinprejudice,discrimination,hostility,inequalities,crimeandviolence. Thewordprejudiceiscloselyrelatedtothewordprejudge.It can be understood as a prejudgement or irrationalgeneralisationaboutan individualoranentirecategoryofpeople.Itoftentakestheformofnegativeevaluationofthe‘other’.Humanbeingshavea tendencytodividetheworldaround them into ‘us’ and ‘them’. These divisions can bebasedongender,caste,class,religion,language,skincolour,andsocialclassandsoon.Butitisimportanttounderstandthatprejudiceismorethanformingcategoriesofin-groupsandout-groups;itisalsoabouttheculturalvaluesthatweacquire fromourparents, teachers,peersand institutionslikeschools.

Education for Peace(From National Curriculum Framework–2005, pp.61-62).Education for peace seeks to nurture ethical-development, including the values, attitudes and skills required for living in harmony with oneself and with others, including nature. It embodies the joy of living and personality development with the qualities of love, hope and courage. It encompasses respect for human right, justice, tolerance, cooperation, social responsibility, and respect for cultural diversity, in addition to a firm commitment to democracy and non-violent conflict resolution. The concern for equality and social justice….is the hallmark of education for peace.

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Traditional cultural values and Constitutional valuessuchasbrotherhood,unityindiversity,collectivity,harmonyandpeace,secularism,equalityanddemocracyneedtobeemphasisedinthepracticesobservedinschoolsparticularlyin matters related to cultural diversity. Multiculturaleducation that promotes equity for all the students is theneedofthehour.Atthesametimeitisimportanttofosterrespectinstudentstowardseachother’scultureandsocialbackground.

Learning Check 3Whatfactorsescalatevalueconflictsinschoolsettings?

EdUCaTIon and valUESEducation isnotonlyabout trainingofmindsbutalso forthe purity of heart and self-growth. Values constitute anintegral part of the process of education. An emphasis onvalues,while talkingabouteducation,doesnot imply thatsomething extra and additional is being stressed on. Theprocess of education inherently involves transmission ofvalues.AsheldbySeshadri(2005),“educationisaprocessofbringingaboutdesirablechangesinthewayonethinks,feels, and acts in accordance with one’s concept of goodlife.” (p.10). However, as Seshadri rightly maintains, thetransmission of values does not imply passive conformity,submission, and blind obedience to the values passed onbyadults.Educationshallnotbeaprocessofauthoritariantraining of dogmas. Education needs to encourage criticalandreflectivethinking,rationalselectionandconscientiousbehaviour.Emphasisonvalues ineducationmakespupilsgood professionals as well as whole human beings too. Itmakesthemnotonlycapableofearninganna(food)butalsogivesthemananda(happiness).Itissaidthatknowledgeiswhathelpsustoattainliberation:Sa Vidya Ya Vimuktaye. Education needs to respond constructively to thetwin concerns of individual and societal well-being. Weare simultaneously individuals as well as social beings.Interdependenceandcomplementarityarethevaluablekeyfeaturesoftoday’sworld(Misra,2006).Aholisticvisionthat

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allows for a positive expression of universal human spiritcharacterisedby the ideal of the ‘wholeworld as a family’(vasudhaiva kutumbakam)istheneedofthehour.ThisageoldIndianidealrecognisesthepossibilityofconceivingtheentire world as a cohesive structure of a family in whichmutuality,interdependenceandcollaborationarepractised.Today when globalisation is becoming a major force,interdependence is becoming increasingly more and moreimportant. The indigenous system of education in India laysunambiguousemphasisonuniversalvalueslikecompassion,non-violence, righteous conduct, forgiveness, tolerance,sacrifice,andbenevolence.Thesevaluesweremadepartofthe practices of teaching-learning in such a manner thata person coming out of the system naturally imbibed thevalues as part of his/her life style. As mentioned earlier,thediscourseonvalueshasrevolvedaroundthenotionoffourbroadlifegoalsorpurusharthas.Theinstructionsgivenbytheteachertostudents,aftercompletionofthestudies,includedobservingtruth,followingdharma,donoharmtotruth,respectmother,respectteacher,respectguests,followonlygooddeedsofothersandnototheractivities(Satyam vad, Dharmam char, Satyanna pramaditavyam, Matri devo bhava, Acharya devo bhava, Atithi devo bhava, Yanyanvadyani karmani tani sevitavayani netarani). Thesevaluesprimarilyemphasise the standards of conduct and relate to thesignificant others. The goal is to create a productive andharmoniouslifefortheindividualandsociety.Thestudentsareexpectedtopractiseandorganisetheirconductaroundthese values. Human existencewas conceived in terms ofan entity constituted by others. This notion derives fromthebeliefthatahumanbeingisbornwithfivedebtsdealingwithobligationsforalllivingbeings,parents,seers,teachersandgods.

Learning Check 41. “Educationshallnotbeaprocessofauthoritarian

trainingofdogmas.”Comment.2. Whichvalueswerepractisedinindigenoussystem

ofeducationandhow?

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TRanSfoRmIng valUES ThRoUgh EdUCaTIonViewedinhistoricalcontext,schoolingorformaleducationintoday’sIndiapresentsastarkcontrasttothedominantidealsnotedinitsindigenoustradition.Inthecontemporaryperiodschooling has a clear emphasis on skills and informationgeared toward financial benefits. It does not address theneedsandaspirationsofthepeople,society,andnationingeneral.Insomewayitaggravatestheproblemsbyalienatingpeople fromtheirculturalethosandheritage.Thetrainingofthemindinisolationisprovingdangerousfortheholisticdevelopment of children. The head, heart and hand, allthreeneedtobecoordinatedforthefullestdevelopmentofhumanpotential.Theholisticdevelopmentrequiresattentionto physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual aspects ofdevelopment.Developmentneedstobeorchestratedwithintheframeworkofvalues.InthecontextofourcommitmenttotheConstitutionalvalues,educationistobeviewedasamediumtoinculcateandpromotethesameinstudents.Tothisend,itisimportanttorealisethatvaluesarecaughtandnottaught.Thusitisthewayacurriculumistransactedintermsofconcreteprocessesandactivitiesthatthestudentsimbibethevalues.Theabstractknowledgeofvaluesdoesnotgoveryfar. Thevalueshavetobewovenintothecurriculum,schoolenvironment, and teaching-learning process in away thatthesefacilitatetransmissionofvaluesinchildren.Learningneedstobeillustrativeofvaluesinaction.Thelessoninanysubject,beitmathematics,civics,Hindi,scienceorEnglishmaybedesigned,deliberatedupon,andimpartedinsuchawaythattheynecessarilyinvitevaluerelatedreflectionandactioninanaturalfashion.Similarly,thedeliveryofsubjectcontentmayhavein-builtelementsofsharing,participation,and care. By value informed design of the modes ofinteraction between students and students, students andteachers,andteachersandteacherswithintheschoolset-up,possibilitiesfordevelopingandreinforcingvaluesmaybecreated.Thisrequirescommitmentanddeterminationonthepartofteachersandinvestmentofthesystemtostandbythevaluestheyadmire.Beingalerttotheoccasionsinclassroominteractions, possibilities can be created to learn, practiseandenactvalues.

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Integration of values and education, thus, may beviewedat three levels – curriculum, school and classroomenvironment,and teaching-learningprocess.Letusattendtotheseelements.

1. THE CURRICULUMIntheIndiancontexttherelevanceofvaluestotheframingof curriculum has an interesting history. The SergeantCommitteefeltin1944thatacurriculumdevoidofanethicalbasewouldprovebarrenintheend.Theroleofreligiousandmoral education in thegrowthof characterwasexpressedbytheMudaliarCommissionin1953.In1964,theKothariCommissionReport also concluded that therewas a needforpreparingtheyouthtofaceboth‘work’,whichcouldbecomparedtolivingand‘life’whichishigherandmoresublimethan‘living’. Curriculum does not only include academic activitiesbut co-curricular activities also. Thus, every activity mayconvey implicitly or explicitly a chosen value. To organiseany curriculum in such a way as to inculcate values, weneedfirstbeawareoftheobjectivesofthecurriculum.Thereshouldbeafocusonanallrounddevelopmentofchildrenby covering cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.Thereshallnotbeoveremphasisexclusivelyonthetrainingofthemind.Emphasisonanallrounddevelopmentassumesthatpersonalandsocialqualities, interestsandvaluestooformanintegralpartofeducation.• At the Nursery level some rhymes/songs can be used

whichhighlight the fact thatGod lovesallhis childrenwithoutanyconsiderationofhighandlowbirths,religion,creedandstatus.Games,bothindoorandoutdoor,whichinstilasenseofequalityamongthechildren(forexamplekhokho,hideandseek)maybeplayed.Teacherstoteachall children (whether someone is the ward of a villagepradhan,MLA,MPoranordinarycitizen)onthefootingofequality,especiallyonmattersofarrivalatschoolanddeparturefromit.

• At the Primary level some tests and stories shouldbe recommended which inculcate a feeling of onenessamongallsectionsofsociety,irrespectiveofcaste,creed,status,etc.

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• At theMiddle level, religious tolerance,mutual respectfor people of different sections and statuses can becommunicated to students using different texts; groupactivitiesmaybeplannedwhichinstilmutualcooperationandharmonyamongdifferentpupils.

• AttheSecondarylevel,textshighlightingequalityamongnation States, irrespective of their size and populationcan be used; group activities (like drama or play)maybe planned which will inculcate a feeling of unity indiversity.Cautionmaybetakentodividethegroupsinaharmoniouswaysothatstrongandweakstudentsareevenlybalancedonbothsides.

• At the Post Secondary level, special courses may beprovidedonegalitarianvaluesandtheirimperativeneedfor a balanced society; projects and outdoor activitiesshould be planned to involve students (through NCC/NSS) in community-service activities/adult literacyprogrammesandadventure.

Learning Check 5Comment on the objectives of a curriculum thatimplicitlyconveysvalues.

Children’s LiteratureAsyouknow,children’sliteratureplaysaverysignificantroleinimpartingvalues.Choudhuri(2005)opinesthatchildren’sliteraturereflectsvaluesinamoregentleandpropositionalmanner rather than being prescriptive and narrative. Hefurther goes on to say that Panchtantra tales invariablyconveyamoral.Theyteachvalues.Indiahasdevelopeditsuniquechildren’sliteraturethatpromotesnationalprideandculture.Choudhurisaysthatmostofchildren’sliteratureinIndianlanguagesisbasedonthetraditionalIndianliteraturelikefolktales,mythologicalstories,retellingoftheRamayanaand the Mahabharata stories, Jataka stories, and otherpopulartalesofBirbal, Tenali Raman, Gonu Jha andothers. YouwillbebenefitedbyreflectingontheimportanceandneedofusingtherichresourceofIndianclassicaltraditionaltales and folklores in the contemporary context. Due tonuclear family system and absence of time with parents

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for storytelling, such resources can be used. Choudhurimentions folklore as very important in inculcating values.In a Bengali local folk story,Manik Pir, a local faqir withthestatusofafolkgod,evokesgoddessLakshmi,imploringhertohelpapoorMuslimhutbuilder,MuradKangal.Innotime,LakshmiproceedstoprepareanelaboratemealtohelpMuradKangal feed the twohungry faqirs,ManikandGaj.Choudhuryfeelsthatthissimplenarrativeevokesasharedmemory,wherereligiousandcanonicalboundariesholdlittlemeaningandofferapluralisticdiscourse.

Learning Check 6Why is children’s literature considered as playing asignificantroleinimpartingvalues?

2. THE SCHOOL AND CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT Thecultureandthephilosophyoftheschoolisapowerfulsourceofinculcatingvalues.Dependingontheatmosphereoftheschool,childrenacquiresensitivitytodifferentsetsofvaluesandideals.Similarly,thephysicalenvironmentoftheclassroomandambienceoftheschoolcommunicatescertainvaluesthatmayfacilitateorhinderdevelopmentofvalues.The arrangement of desks or chairs encouragesparticularmodesofinteractionforcertaintopicsinthelesson.Givenanamplespaceandasmallclasssize,thecircularorovalarrangementofchairsencouragesactivestudentengagement(Vosniadou,2004).

3. THE TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESSTheinculcationandtransmissionofdesiredvaluesinherentinthecurriculumisrealisedthroughtheteaching-learningprocess. The teaching-learning process does not merelyincludedeliveringthespecificcontentwithaviewtoperform(orexcel!)inexaminations.Theteacher-studentinteractionholdsaverysignificantplaceintheteaching-learningprocess.Mahatma Gandhi believed that students learn not fromtheirbooksbutfromtheirteachersaswell,whicharetheirrolemodel. The various elements of the teaching-learningprocess thusplaykey roles inconveyingdesiredvalues tochildren.To foster values like secularism,democracy, and

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egalitarianism,theteacherhastofirstinculcatethesevaluesinherandbeamodeltoherstudents. It is desirable that there should not be any scope fordiscrimination, stereotyping or hierarchy based on thecategories of gender, caste, class, religion, etc. With theconceptofinclusiveschoolsinplace,wealsoneedtomakeourclassroomsinclusiveinatruesense.Equalopportunitiesforparticipationandsuccessneedstobeensuredbytheteacher.Since values are learned better when they are not taughtdirectly,theteaching-learningprocessshouldbeorganisedtoprovidescopeforexperientialexercises.Throughinvolvingstudents actively in discussion, dialogue and practicalactivities,theteachermaymakethemthinkandreflectonhumanactionsandevents(Seshadri,2005).Forthis,differentperspectivesfromotherculturesandcontemporaryrealitiesinvariouspartsof theworldcanbeconsultedandvaluesofnationalandinternational integrationcanbearrivedat.Media resources canalsobeutilised for the same.Askingstudentstothinkcriticallyaboutthemediacontentintermsof values,biasandprejudicebeingconveyedcan facilitatestudentstohaveindividualviewsaboutexistingcontextofour society. Cooperative learning is another way to fosterthevaluesofequalityandtolerance.Givingopportunitiestostudentstoworkingroupswillgivethemscopetonegotiatecompromiseandworktogethertowardsasolution.

Learning Check 7Indicate specific ways through which the teaching-learningprocesscanplayaroleintransformationofvalues.

4. EVALUATION/ASSESSMENTContinuousandcomprehensivesystemofevaluationcoversscholastic as well as non-scholastic aspects of students’development.Evaluationofattitudesandvaluesisoneaspectof the scheme. But a dilemma and ambiguity regardingevaluating values can be observed. Srivastava (2004) listsdifferentissuesrelatedtothesame,suchaswhethervaluesshould be evaluated at all or not; which technique or acombination of techniques ismore suitable for evaluatingvalues;whetherallthestudentsshouldbeassessedonallof

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thevaluesorsomeshouldbecompulsoryandothersoptional.He further says that observation shall remain the maintechnique of evaluation of values. Such evaluation cannotbecarriedoutatfixedtimes,ratherithastobecontinuous. Enabling students to think critically is another aspectthatformsanessentialpartoftheteaching-learningprocesswhile facilitating value inculcation. Media resources canbebestutilised for thispurpose.Askingstudents to thinkcritically about opinions, arguments and evidences, anddetect bias and prejudice can facilitate students to haveindependentviewsaboutexistingcontextofoursociety.Butit is equally important for the teacher to facilitate criticalreflectionstowardsadirection.

Learning Check 8Indicateevaluationstrategiesthatshallbeusedbyateacherinlightofinculcationofdesiredvalues.

PEaCE foR allEducation and schools are viewed as the medium totransformvaluesinsocietyandnurtureacultureofpeace.National Curriculum Framework – 2005 emphasises thateducationshouldfosterpeaceandtoleranceamongstudents,especially inamulticulturalsociety likeours.Schoolscanpromoteacultureofpeacebystressingonthegoalsofsocialjustice, secularism, egalitarianism, democracy, toleranceandappreciationofdiversity.WellsandEvans (2003)saidthatpeacedoesnotmeanrunningfromconflicts,butratherbringingconsciousnesstothemomentwhenconflicttakesplaceandparticipatinginaprocessofconflicttransformationwhich has been taught and reinforced through theeducational system. It encompasses relevant curriculumdesigned to cultivate an environment where questioning,criticalthinkingandcompassionareencouragedinandoutoftheschoolsetting. Nurturing a culture of peace depends on the processof education as well as the specific content of classroominstruction.Attemptsshallbemadetohavediscussionsonthegreatpeacemakersofourworld, likeMahatmaGandhiandMother Teresa, their principles of life. The discussionshould lead to possible ways that can be employed to

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inculcatethepeacepromotinghabitsinallofus.Schoolandclassroomenvironmentshallbesuchthatithasnohierarchybut shared or distributed power between teacher andstudents,anenvironmentfreeofanykindofdiscriminationorprejudice,hatredordislike.Schoolscannurtureacultureofpeacebyfosteringthevaluesofsecularism,egalitarianismandtolerance. Secularism can be nurtured by different activities likecelebratingfestivalsofdifferentreligions,havingdiscussionsonthesignificanceofallthereligionsandemphasisingonenessofthedivine.Avarietyofprojectworkscanbeassignedtostudentsthatfocusoncommunalharmony.Withtheolderstudents leading, discussions involving critical reflectioncanbeorganisedandthe importanceofsecularvalues fornational and internationalharmony canbediscussedandappreciatedinthelightofthepresentscenario. Differentaudio-visualaids thathighlight thecompositeculture of India can be used. Stories or movies, whichhave an implicit message of communal harmony, can beshowntostudentsandcanbefollowedupbyadiscussion.Egalitarianismshouldberolemodelledbytheteachersandshouldreflectintheschool’senvironmentassuch.Aschool–wide approach is desired which by recognising studentsas responsible human beings and respecting their views,promoting critical thinking and self-reflective abilities inthemmaynurtureandpromoteacultureofpeace.Peaceispossibleonlywhenmembersofgroupsupporteachotherinfacilitatingtheirgoals.

Suggestions for Peace Activities(from National Curriculum Framework–2005, p.62).• Set up special clubs and reading rooms in schools

that concentrate on peace news and events that violate the norms of social justice and equality.

• Compile a list of films—documentaries and feature films—that promote the values of justice and peace. Screen them from time to time in schools.

• Co-opt the media as a stakeholder in education for peace. Invite influential journalists and editors to address children. Ask for space in newspapers and journals for children’s views to be published at least once a month.

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• Celebrate the cultural and religious diversity of India in schools.

• Organise programmes to promote an attitude of respect and responsibility towards women.

Resolution of conflicts without resorting to violenceis another condition for establishing peace. Peace is anattitude toward lifewhichstrengthenssocialcohesionandmakes life worth living. Education can develop a cultureofamityandpeacewithloveforothers,mutualrespectforeach other and better understanding for others’ feelings.Creation and not destruction should dominate humanactions. Education prepares the mind with universal loveand tolerance irrespective of differences in religion, caste,ethnicity, languageandculture.Acultureofpeaceshouldbeintroducedthrougheducationatall levelsstartingfrompreliminarylevel.Ithastobeimpressedinthemindsfromearlychildhoodthatitispeaceandnotviolencethathelpshumancivilisationtosurviveandflourish.Peaceeducation,however,yethastogetanappropriateplaceintheprocessofeducation.Thelivesandidealsofgreatmenwhopreachedforloveandpeaceshouldgetdueimportanceinourstudymaterials.

Activity 4Selectatopicfromyourdisciplineandplanitwithaviewtopromotepeaceandtransformdesiredvalues.

Activity 5Followingaresometechniquesthatcanbeusedintheprocess of transforming values through education.Usethesetechniquesandplananytopic(s)thatyoufindinterestingandrelevant.

(i) Learningbyliving/doing (ii) Roleplay/enactment (iii) Audio-visualandmultisensoryexperiences (iv) Reading-listening-speaking/discussion/debate

activities (v) Resolvingvaluedilemmasandconflicts

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LET US SUM UPYouhavereadinthischapterthatvaluesprovideanormativedimensiontoindividualslivinginasocietyandguidetheiractionsandchoices.Valuesleadtoactionsandatthesametimegivemeaningtoactions.Valuesarenotonlyabstractconceptionsofdesirabilitybutalsocarrymotivationalgoalswiththem.TheIndianConstitutionlaysafirmfoundationofasovereign,socialist,secularanddemocraticrepublic.Socio-economic diversity and differences in personal values andpreferencesmay lead to seriousvalueconflicts in schools.Secularism recognises religion as a private affair, disjointfrom politics. The National Curriculum Framework–2005proposesthatthesevaluesshouldbepromotedinschools.Values and education can be integrated at the level ofcurriculum development, teaching–learning process,schoolandclassroomenvironmentandevaluationprocess.Education can foster a culture of peace and tolerance instudentsbypromotingvaluesofnationalconcern.

REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGSBhardwaj, I. 2005. Value-oriented Education. Journal of

Value Education, 5,9-24.ChoudhurI, Indranath. 2005. Promoting Value Education

throughChildren’sLiterature.Journal of Value Education,5,29-36.

FIsher,R.1990.Teaching children to think.NelsonThornes,Cheltenham.

hItlIn, s., & PIlIavIn, j.a. 2004.Values:RevivingaDormantConcept.Annual Review of Sociology,30,359-393

Katz. D. 1965. Nationalism and strategies of internationalconflict resolution. In H.C. Kelman (Ed.), International behavior: A social-psychological anlysis (pp356-390).Holt,Rinehart&Winston,NewYork.

MIsra, G. 2006. Psychology and Societal Development: Paradigmatic and Social Concerns. Concept PublishingCompany,NewDelhi.

roKeaCh. M. 1973.The Nature of Human Values.FreePress,NewYork.

roKeaCh. M. (ed.) 1979. Understanding Human Values: Individual and Societal. FreePress,NewYork.

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sChwartz, s. h. 1996.ValuePrioritiesandBehaviour:ApplyingofTheoryofIntegratedValueSystems.InC.Seligman,J.M.Olson,&M.P.Zanna(Eds.),The Psychology of Values: The Ontario Symposium, Vol. 8 (pp. 1–24). Erlbaum,Hillsdale,NJ.

seshadrI, C. 2005. An Approach to Value Orientation ofTeachers’ Education. Journal of Value Education, 5,9-17.

sMIth,D.E.1963.India as a secular state.PrincetonUniversityPress,NewJersey.

srIvastava, h.s. 2004. Indian Core Values of Peace andHarmony.InZhouNan-Zhao&Teasdale(eds.)Teaching Asia-Pacific Core Values of Peace and Harmony: A Sourcebook for Teachers (229-243). UNESCO Asia andPacificRegionalBureauforEducation,Thailand.

vosnIadou, S. 2004. Extending the conceptual changeapproachtomathematicslearningandteaching.Special Issue on Concept Change. Learning and Instruction. 14, 445-451.

wells,N.M.andevans,G.W.2003.Nearbynature:Abufferof life stress among rural children. Environment and Behavior, 35,311-330

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