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13. CORRECTION

Summary:

1. The lexicographic approach. 1.1. Old dictionaries. 1.2. The vocabulary Theology. - 2. A bur­densome heritage. 2.1. Independence of students in the Middle Ages. 2.2. The reaction. 2.3.Disciplinary means. 2.4. Extension-Generalisation. 2.5. Controversy over corporal punishment.- 3. La Salle and corrections. 3.1. How to reconcile the irreconcilable. 3.2. A triple reflection:professional, educational, pastoral. - 4. Conclusion.

1. THE LEXICOGRAPHIC APPROACH

The word CORRECTION, in French, in thefeminine singular meaning correctness is English,is used to describe an acceptable behaviour and at­titude in the way in which one behaves and startsa relationship with others. Thus understood, itmay refer to one's manner of speaking, dressingand managing one's business. It then evokes at thesame time, decorum, civility and honesty. How­ever, it is not in that sense that we will deal with ithere and on the other hand, this first meaning ofthe word is not dealt with in 17th and 18th centurydictionaries. We shall use "correction" in itsEnglish sense.

1.1. In the old Dictionaries

Pierre Richelet practically equates correctionwith punishment Simultaneously with its painfulaspect, he recalls that its purpose is first of all towarn the person concerned, to help him get rid ofa defect, to encourage him to make some progressin virtue, and therefore to mend his ways and toimprove.

Antoine Furetiere compares the word correc­tion to reform, these being applied equally to per­sons and things. Correction comes in several de­grees: it may be a simple admonition or warningmade out of charity or friendship. That leads himto specify that brotherly correction is recommend­ed by the Gospel, and that it must be carried out

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with prudence and humily, for if meted out un­wisely and excessively, it can do more harm thanthe vice incriminated.

A complementary element is provided by theGrand Vocabulaire Fran~ais in which is men­tioned "the power and the authority to scold andpunish" giving as examples the head of the familyand the mother superior of a convent. It is harderto understand when it includes "the fast and thewhip" among the ligbt punishments which may bemeted out by superiors!

Finally, the Diclionnaire de Trevoux recallstbat brotherly correction as ordered by the Gospelmust avoid excesses, if it intends to lead to amend­ment and conversion, which legitimize and help itto fulfil its aims.

1.2. Vocabulary of Biblical Theology

All the aforesaid elements have an importantrole to play in the exposition which follows. How­ever, for a better grasp of the way 17th centuryChristian educators understood correction, it isnecessary to reach furtber back in time than thedictionaries of this period. in fact, most of theseeducators often referred in an explicit way to thebiblical and theological reasons for correction tobe meted out to adults and particularly to chidren.To avoid giving too many quotations I will onlymention the outline of the article on the word"chatiment" which is to be found in the Vocabu­lary of Biblical Theology published under the di-

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rection of Xavier LEON-DuFOUR. Recapitulatingbrieny the history of the Old Testament, theauthor underlines the three realities underlyingpunishment: sin, anger, judgement. He thenexpresses clearly his views on three points:

I. punishment, a sign of sinfulness.2. punishment, the fruit of sin.3. punishment, revelation of God.

J deem it indispensable to refer to this biblicalteaching, transposing it to the 16th and 17th cen­lury scholastic environment to understand whythe painful sanctions of that time were given, and,as far as we are concerned, what the Founderthought of it.

2. A BURDENSOME HERITAGE

Another way to understand the correctivesystem used in schools in the 17th century is sup­plied to us in the brief history of the French scho­lastic world - European in fact - from theMiddle-Ages to the Century of Enlightenment.Here are a few steps in the evolution of this deve­lopment:

2. I. Independence of students in the Middle-Ages

In our modem educational systems, so restrict­ed by a whole set of rules and regulations, we canhardly imagine what the medieval school worldwas like. It is useful to recall in outline that:

- Teachers had no means of control or com­pulsion on the studems who came to follow theircourses: no programmes, no timetable, no disci­pline.

- Each student was free to choose his pro­gramme of studies, his timetable and decide onhow often he would attend, for how long and theorder in which the lessons were to take place.

- Many of these students, through a naturaland constant movement, had grouped themselvesinto confraternities, associations, nationalities... orsimply into groups and bands.

- In university towns, quite often with theconnivance of adults, this had resulted in the for­mation of a population made up of students who

led a life of complete freedom from family, socialand instilUlional restraints.

- These free groupings and this absence ofconstraints had fostered quite rapidly collective.violent, antisocial and, at time. threatening atti­tudes, hence reprehensible, which were condemnedby the population and caused it to react.

- Period documents and history booksabound in testimonies and facts which corrobo­rate these statements. Most of the books quoted inBibliography refer to them, stressing the climax ofthese student excesses at the end of the 15th andthe start of 16th centuries.

2.2. The reaction

After they had aroused suspicion and criticism,the aggressivity and violence of the student gangsrostered fear in a large number of peaceful towns­people. The latter therefore resolved to call in theconstituted bodies (administration, Church, jus­tice, school) to try to put an end to these excessesand preserve their own peaceful way of living.

The students were not brought to order in onego and without energetic resistance, however it didhelp those responsible to pool their efforts:

- Theoretically, moralists and theologiansdrew up the reasons which justified the repression.

- In practice, the police and the courts weremore and more often called in to give their sup­port.

- Educational institutions (Universities,Boarding Schools, Colleges) furnished themselveswith ever stricter regulations and staff whoseduties were to apply them: wardens, invigiialOrs.

- As Colleges were founded. giving both sec­ondary school and first year university courses,numerous boarding hostels were set up and grewin size.

The purpose of all these e/Tons was certainlyto introduce a genuine discipline in the 16th cen­tury and the tirst half of the 17th.

2.3. Menns lIsed to enforce this discipline

In order to move from intentions or principlesto their application, it goes without saying that

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concrete means became a necessity. These weremade to fit the social mores of the period, theexisting general legislation, the latent violence ofsociety of the time, as well as the rowdiness of thestudent world and the gravity of the demandsmade on them. It is difficult to understand indepth the disciplinary policy called for if one losessight of the cultural and theological background,according to which:

- Human nature is spontaneously inclined toevil.

- Children are especially vulnerable on thispoint, for it is innate in them. They are weak,easily influenced and lack reason.

- [n their reprehensible behaviour, they arevictims of the omnipresent devil who is particular­ly active in their regard.

- Actions worthy of blame are assimilated tosins.

- Correction must basically extirpate evil.It possesses an expiatory role and should bringabout conversion.

These varied elements are to be found innumerous texts and in particular those of mora­lists or Christian educators. One may comeacross them in the writings of the most famousnames of the period: Francis de Sales, Vincentde Paul, Bossuet, the Jansenists of Port-Royal,the Jesuits and Sulpicians. [nspite of the san­guine views of the humanists, they reflect theframe of mind of the time.

As for the means employed in scholastic insti­tutinns, they are grouped together around threeessential words explained by those who studiedthe History of education: constant invigilation,reciprocal accusations, recourse to corporal pu­nishment. Most of the authors quoted in thebibliographical section agree on the three as­pects, though some put more in evidence one orthe other, in particular physical punishment orcorrection.

During the Middle-Ages students themselveshad foressen sanctions against those breaking thestatutes and rules which they had set up withintheir associations, hut these were of another kind.According to be the nature of the infringement,one could anticipate:

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- Either paying a round of drinks to theother members of the association, for much winewas drunk in these groups.

- Or fines corresponding to fixed rates, ac­cording to the gravity of the misdemeanour.

Obviously, these sanctions were less severe.That changes in 16th century colleges. Corporalpunishment makes its appearance. Its variety iswell Known:

- The dungeon: rather rare and generallylasting a few hours only.

- The birch: used so frequently that it be­come in some way the symbol of the school­teacher, of his authority and of the subjection ofthe students. To convince oneself one has only toconsult the inconography of the time.

The whip: more and more frequent, brutal incharacter and humiliating. With reference to it, itis worth noting that in the Middle-Ages it wasused to punish serfs and persons of modest condi­tion. In Colleges, it seems to have been used onlyto punish the youngest and poorest boys, beforeits use was extended to all social classes and ages,up to 20 years of age. Famous characters such asRabelais, Erasmus or Montaigne, as well as LouisXIII in his childhood and the Great Dauphin...tasted the harshness of the whip. During his stud­ies in Paris, Ignatius of Loyola, inspite of his age,was one day exempted from it at the last minute.Philippe Aries (see bibliography) sums up as fol­lows the role played by physical punishment:"Corporal punishment was "the school penalty"par excellence: it is known euphemistically. It is nolonger the prerogative of the youngest children, ofpeople guilty of assault. It has now been extendedto all crimes, to all ages, even to the oldest people.That is the most important change in this evolu­tion".

2.4. Extension-Generalisation

During the 16th century, one notices the in­troduction of this discipline in Colleges, moresystematically than in lhe Universities, and it re­aches its climax during the first half of the 17thcentury, just as the Colleges attain the peak oftheir development, thanks to the foundation of se-

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veraI Congregations: Jesuits, Oratorians, Doctri­naires. As a result of this, the reputation of Colle­ges became known as institutions where disciplinewas harsh. One must however consider this picturein relation to the fact that it applied mostly 10 theJesuit Colleges, the most numerous, since theyrepresented 60% of all the Colleges of the time.

In fact, numerous writings connected with theinternal management of these Congregations ad­vise teachers and invigilators to use moderation.Wise educators, the Jesuits did not take long torealise the limited effects physical punishment hadin the correction of students, and their pedagogywas based on the more positive principles of emu­lation and participation.

But to come to what concerns us directly, onemust add that the Schools, that is the primaryones, where rudiments were taught, whatever theirname, make use of the same sanctions. Althoughvery few in number in the 16th century, these"Small Schools" whether paying or charitable, forboys or for girls, are going to enjoy an extraordi­nary development throughout the 17th century. [fwe go by what the text of "L'Ecole Paroissiale" of1654 reports, we note that effectively the sametype of discipline is gradually in use in this kind ofschool. It is as if this contamination had spreadfrom the University to the College and the School.

2.5, Physical punishment questioned

However, the repressive urge subsides grad­ually throughout the 17th century. Encouragedon by a natural competitive urge one may say, forthe Colleges held by the Oratorians, for example,were known to have adopted a more liberal disci­pline than those of the Jesuits. However, morethan anything else, in all the Schools, through aslow but genuine emergence of the notion of child­hood in the mentality of educators, of thinkers, ofparents, historians of the childhood concept gene­rally situate in the second half of the 17th centurythe real appearance of the idea of childhood as aproper reality, quite apart from that of the adult.Among other consequences, this change has as aresult called into question the physical punish­ments meted out to students.

This genuine revolution concerning the opin­ion one had of the child will become even more

explicit during the [8th century, and as is wellknown, Jean-Jacques Rouseau will become itssymbol. However, as early as the years 1670­[680, and in a more profound way, the changetakes place in people's mentality: the child is lo­ved, cherished, better protected, educated moreliberally. This new type of relationship betweenparents and their children is called "mignotage"(loving care).

3. LA SALLE AND CORRECTIONS

The educational apostolate and the writings ofSt. John Baptist de La Salle take place precisely inthis pivotal era when new ideas are born on thechild and how to educate him. He inherits the sit­uation described above and is still with filled thementality which prevailed before his time. It isalso in this light that one must read what he wroteon the means to ensure good order in the schoolsand the role that corrections are to play therein.

3.1. Reconciling the irreconcilable

First, an observation: in the "Conduite desEcoles", the longest chapter or the second part isprecisely that dedicated to Corrections: it is about40 pages long whilst the chapter on "Recom­penses" has only two! By itself, this length provesthe importance granted the subject and the me­ticulous study it required. Furthermore it is thisidea that opens the chapter: "Correction of thepupils is one of the most important things whichtake place in schools and to it one must pay greatattention in order for it do be timely and fruitful"(CE 140).

It is of no use repeating here what can be readin the book, itself, but to underline that, of the 40pages of the chapter, only 4 and a half are conse­crated to descrihe which punishments should hemeted, out and in it, one does not come acrossanything in particular in relation to the contentsof the preceding paragraphs. The other 35 pagesconstitute a reflection on the corrections them­selves, and that is what deserves our attention, ifwe are not to misunderstand the meaning La Sallegave them.

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Mosl historians or education have probablymissed the role or corrections in Lasallianschools, as if they had read only the first articleof the chapter consecrated to the "various typesor punishments", However some point oul inpassing thaI La Salle takes his place amongthose who wished to rna ke the harsh practicesused at the end of lhe 171h century less severe.There is no doubt thaI the first were excusablebecause they did not link lhe content of the COI/­

dllite des Ecoles with the spiritual writings of theFounder. It is wrong indeed to separate lhewhole content of the COl/dllct of Scltools connec­ted with corrections from Chapter 8 of the Ril­les, from the lexts of the Meditatiol/s for Sill/­days or for Feasl Days, which dwell on the consi­deration which Brothers and teachers have tohave as well as from Meditalions II and 12 forthe time or retreal.

When dealing with corrections in Ihe COl/dliclor Scltools. La Salle Iries quite openly to conciliatea repressive school tradilion with the idea he hasof children at school and the image of the schoolhe is creating. One must therefore reconcile thatwith the numerous texts in which he speaks of theaffection and tenderness which the master musthave towards his pupils, of a school which must beallractive and welcoming for the child, if it is tohold on to its students and ensure their support, ofthe undisputed efficiency of simultaneous teach­ing, to discipline enforced through shortage ofslaff, space and unsatisfactory working condi­tions. The reading of the chapter on Correctionsand the following one on Absences in the COI/­

dlicl of Scltools is quite enlightening. That re­nders possible the reconciliation of two signific­ant phrases which apparently quite differentfrom each other: "As the Wise man says, Godchastises his children whom he loves tenderly"(MF 177.2) and "Discipline and good order willreign in a school ir corrections are meted out ra­rely" (CE p. 149).

3.2. A triple renection by SI. La Salle

That is why, il way be said without exaggera­tion, that the problem of corrections leads LaSalle to make a triple reflection: proressional, edu­calive and pastoral.

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3.2.1. A professional Renection on the teacher

It is that which is explained in the preface andin articles 2,3,4 and 6 of the chapler or the COI/­

dllct 0/ Scltools on Corrections in numerous pas­sages of the Medita/iults for Sliltdays altd FeaslDays, as well as in Chapler 8 of the primitiveRule: "Of the manner in which the Brothers mustbehave when they have to correct their pupils".The teacher must abide by a certain number ofconditions for the correction to bear fruit andnever lose his self-control in this domain. Onemust not try to correct in order to endeavour torestore one's compromised personal authority,but rather to ask oneself whicb circumstancesmade the correction necessary. It is evident thatthe teacher is to blame when he corrects fre­quently, this in turn justifies the limitations im­posed on the right to correct: age, frequency, se­verity the need first to ask for the required per­mission.

3.2.2. Educative Renection on the student

It is abundantly illustrated in Article 5 of thischapter of the ColtdUCI of Scltools: "Which child­ren need correction and which do not". This es­sayan character Iypology leads the master toquestion himself on the fairness and efficacy ofthe correction. This shows clearly that the aim isnot instant repression of some abuse but interiorchange in the person of the pupil and of his be­haviour.

3.2.3. Pastoral Renection on the young christian

Bro. Miguel Campos's much longer reflectionson Meditations II and 12 for the Time of Retreatshould be read with interest and profit in Collierslasalliel/s No. 46 pages 263-289. One must in factread the chapter on correction in the light of HolyScripture, as has been mentioned above. For aChristian Educator, the aim and justification ofany correction, lies in the conversion of the stu­dent. Its main effect must be spiritual, eventhough its publicly annonced aims are dissuasionand selting an example, two permanent elementsin lhe corrective system of the period. One shouldadd as well that this pastoral aim is not exclusive10 La Salle. who in this connection was following

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tion of the society which surrounds it.The Brothers undertook this reDection them­

selves after the death of their Founder as early asthe 18th century and in the peculiar climate ofevolution of educational perspectives, as has beenmentioned above. This reDection together withtheir rich concrete pedagogical experience led theGeneral Chapter of 1787 to take the following de­cision; Since the edition of the Conduct of Schoolsis now ont of print, we order that before it is re­printed, the pages regarding punitive correctionswhich have been forbidden by the Chapter, consid­ering the drawbacks of this type of correction, beremoved from the text. The Brothers Directorswill see to it that the schools are managed, for thesake of good order and instruction , in accordancewith the said conduct of Schools. (General Chap­ters of the Institute of the Brothers of the Christ­ian Schools: Historique et Decisions Paris 1902).

in the steps of his predecessors. However, thatdoes not take anything away from the nobility ofhis aims.

4. CONCLUSION

The theme CORRECTION can only be pre­sented here in a very schematic form. It certainlydeserves more detailed study. Starting with thepreceding pages, one way decide to read a numberof texts wrillen by St. John Baptist de La Salleand make a pedagogical reDection on our times.In fact, correction is an element which reveals veryclearly the style of education of an institution andthe climate that reigns therein. It is also a reDec­tion theme, which cannot be isolated from its so­cial and cultural context - just as La Salle did ­for in this precise domain, the school is a reDec-

Complementary Themes:

Love/charity; Guardian Angels; Kindness/Tenderness; Heart/touch hearts; Conversion;Education/Upbringing; Teacher's example; Students' parents; teacher/student relationship;Vigilance; Virtues of the Teacher; Zeal.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DICTIONARIES.

Antoine FURETIERE: Dicliowwire III/i\'ersel - 170 I.

Pierre RICI-IELET: NOllveau DictioJlllaire Frallfois - 1709.

TREVOUX: Dicf;OImaire Illlil'erselfra/lfois er larin ~ 1721.

Grand Vocabulaire Fran.yais.

Xavier LEON-DUFOUR: Vocabulaire de Theologie Bibliqlie - Paris, Cerf 1988.

INSTITUTE TEXTS.

Voc.:abulaire Lasal/ien. tome 2.

Cahiers Lasalliells: 12.13.19.24.25.46.48.

Let/res de saill! Je(lI/-Baprisre de La Salle. Paris, Ligel 1952.

Lasalliana: N° 9.

BII/leli/l de I'lllslillil des FEC: N' 119 (1949).

Revue Beige de Pedngogie: 12e annee: HA propos de la ferule».

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Ri"ista Lasallialla: 1934 - 1937 - 1950 - 1951 - 1981 - 1984.

Clwpitres Generallx de 1'1"51illil des Freres des Ecoles Clzret;CIlI1CS: Historique el decisions - Paris, RueOudino! 1902.

ALCALDE Gomez Carlos, FSC: £1 Alaesrro ell 10 pedagogia de sail Jllan Bo/(/;s({/ de La Salle. Madrid 1961.

ALPHONSE, FSC: A I'ecole de saint Jeall-BapfisIC! de La Salle. Paris, Ligel 1952.

ANSELME, FSC: Condllite des Ecoles chreliemlcs. Paris, Ligel 1951.

CLEMENT-MARCEL, FSC: Par Ie mOlll'eme1l1 de I'Espril. Paris, LeLhielleux 1952.

EVERETI Dominic, FSC: Jahll Baplisl de La Salle's: The COlldllct oj Schools. Thesis 1984.

WORTH Othmar, FSC: La Pedagogie de JB de La Salle. Lasalliaoum 15, 1972.

GENERAL WORKS.

ARIES Philippe: L 'ell/am ella vie familiale SOliS I'Allcicfl Regime. Paris, Seuil 1973.

CHARTIER-Julia-CoMPERE: L'edllea/ioll ell France dll /6t all lse siee/e. Paris, SEDES 1976.

DELFORGE Frederic: Les petites ecoles de Port-Royal (1637-1660): Paris, Cerf 1985.

FOSSEYEUX M.: Les ecoles de charite a Paris SOliS I'Am.:ielJ Regime et all 19c sii!cle. Paris 1912.

FOUCAULT Michel: Histoire de 10 Jalie a rage c1assiqlle. Paris, Gallimard 1972.

FOUCAULT Michel: Surveiller et pUllir: lIaissallce de 10 prisoll. Paris, Gallimard 1975.

GIOLITTO Pierre: Abecedaire et/erllle: tv/aitres et ecoliers de Charlemagne iI Jules Ferry. Paris, IMAGO 1986.

GROSI'ERRIN Bernard: Les Petites Ecoles sous I'AlIdell Regime. Ouest-France Universite, Refines 1984.

JOLIDERT Bernard: L'en/ance au /7C siecle. Paris, Jean Vrin 1981.

Lf:AUD Alexis et GLAY Emile: L'ecole primaire ell France, 2 volumes. Paris 1934.

LEIF et RUSTIN: Pedagogie generale par I'ewde des doctrines pedagogiques. Paris, Librairie Delagrave 1966.

PARIAS Louis-Henri. (sous Ia direction de ...): Hisloire gellerale de l'e1lseigllemelll et de I'educatioll ell France.Tome 1/: De Gutenberg aux Lumieres. Paris 198!.

POSTMAN Neil: JIll:,. a pillS d'eIlJallce. (The disappearance of childhood). New-York 1982 and Paris, INSEP-Editions 1983.

SONNET Martine: L'educatioll desfilles all lemps des Lumieres. Paris, Cerf 1987.

SNYDERS Georges: La pedagogie en France aux 17~-/~ siecles. Paris, PUF 1965.

TARSOT L.: Les ecoles elles ecoliers a trai'ers les ages. Paris 1893.

VIAL Jean: Les fnstitlllellrs: douze siecles d·histoire. Paris 1980.

VIGUERIE Jean de: L'il1stilulioll des ell/ams: I'educalion en France ( /6~_/8c siecles). Paris, Calmann-Levy 1978.

VINCENT Guy: L 'ecole primoire jrol1(:aise. Presses Universitaires de Lyon 1980.

Bro. Leon LAURAIRETralls/aled from Fret/cll by Bro. James CALLEJA