126232-1212763091-Final Thesis Jeffrey Klughlibweb.calu.edu/thesis/umi-cup-1064.pdf · AN ANALYSIS...

AN ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS

IN A SOCIAL STUDIES CLASSROOM

BY

JEFFREY R. KLUGH

A THESIS

Submitted to the Faculty of the School of Graduate Studies

of California University of Pennsylvania in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts Teaching

California, Pennsylvania

2008

ii

CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA

California, Pennsylvania

THESIS APPROVAL

Secondary Education

We hereby approve the Thesis of

Jeffrey R. Klugh

Candidate for the degree of Master of Arts Teaching

April 25, 2008

Dr. Joseph Zisk Advisor

iii

Abstract

In recent years, schools have felt increased pressure to comply with standards imposed in

the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) laws. In Pennsylvania, one aspect that is measured on

state assessment tests is reading comprehension. In addition, current research and

literature state that schools could do more to help their students comprehend what they

read in class. In an attempt to find ways to improve reading comprehension, this study

focuses on using “story web” graphic organizers in a ninth grade social studies classroom

in rural Pennsylvania. This study examines how well students use the graphic organizers

on in-class assignments and analyzes student assessment data to determine if graphic

organizers improve student achievement.

iv

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank a number of people for their patience and assistance

throughout my work on this paper and graduate studies. First, thanks belong to my wife,

Allison, for her continued and unending support over the last two years. I would also like

to thank my parents, Richard and Diane, for their help and open telephone line when I

needed someone to talk to throughout this process. My sister, Alissa, has also been a big

help, especially because of her proofreading abilities. In addition, I would like to thank

Dr. Joseph Zisk for his countless meetings with me concerning this paper as well as the

entire Secondary Education Department at California University of Pennsylvania for their

instruction. Lastly, I want to express gratitude towards the students, administrators, and

colleagues at my high school for allowing this study to take place.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................... iv

I. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................1

A. Purpose Statement..............................................................................................3

B. Importance of the Study.....................................................................................4

C. Definition of Terms............................................................................................4

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ..................................................................................7

A. Graphic Organizers in Social Studies ................................................................8

B. Graphic Organizers and Students with Learning Disabilities..........................11

C. Story Map Graphic Organizers .......................................................................14

D. Graphic Organizers and Implementation .........................................................17

E. Graphic Organizers and Their Effectiveness ..................................................19

F. Summary of the Literature ...............................................................................24

III. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................25

A. Participants.......................................................................................................25

B. Materials ..........................................................................................................26

C. Research Design...............................................................................................27

D. Data Collection and Analysis...........................................................................28

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IV. RESULTS ..............................................................................................................31

A. Student Reading/Interest Survey......................................................................31

B. Informal Observations......................................................................................35

C. Test Scores and Analysis .................................................................................37

D. Summary ..........................................................................................................41

V. DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................................43

A. Overview of Study ...........................................................................................43

B. Summary of Findings.......................................................................................44

C. Conclusions......................................................................................................48

D Limitations of the Study...................................................................................50

E. Recommendations............................................................................................50

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................53

APPENDIX A....................................................................................................................59

APPENDIX B. ...................................................................................................................61

APPENDIX C. ...................................................................................................................62

APPENDIX D....................................................................................................................63

APPENDIX E. ...................................................................................................................70

IRB APPROVAL (APPENDIX F) ....................................................................................74

An Analysis of the Effectiveness 1

Chapter 1

Introduction

As the 21st century progresses, schools are under more pressure to comply with

the standards set in the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). NCLB is a nationwide

system that, among other things, promises higher accountability for school districts. One

provision of NCLB is that schools must strive to achieve annual yearly progress (AYP).

“AYP is an individual state's measure of progress toward the goal of 100 percent of

students achieving to state academic standards in at least reading/language arts and math”

(U.S. Department of Education, 2007). Since language arts and reading have become

linchpins for a school’s success, districts have looked for new and improved ways to

improve their scores in these areas. Graphic organizers can become a key component in

addressing the standards set forth in NCLB. According to Bellanca (2007), ‘‘Teachers

who integrate graphic organizers into daily lessons can exceed this mandate [using

research-based strategies] in ways that raise expectations for student comprehension to

the highest degree’’ (p. 229). Social studies testing is not included in NCLB testing in

Pennsylvania, however, it can be used to integrate reading into the curriculum and

promote student reading comprehension. Hinde (2005) states “It is clear from the

research that student achievement hinges on the teacher’s ability to integrate content

across disciplines effectively in meaningful ways’’ (p. 107). In this case, ‘‘across

disciplines’’ would mean the integration of reading techniques and graphic organizers

into the social studies classroom.


Some research has shown that students cannot comprehend what they read

because they do not know how to read effectively. “Readers need to understand the

context and the structure of the text to understand the content, yet many students lack the

necessary skills for text structure identification and comprehension of complex

relationships among concepts, facts, and generalizations often found in social studies

texts” (Ciardiello, as cited in Massey & Heafer, 2004, p. 32).

Despite these problems, some research has found that graphic organizers can help

to increase reading comprehension. Katims & Harmon (2000) have implemented graphic

organizers with success, particularly at the middle school level. They believe,

“Implementation [of graphic organizers]…indicated an academically significant increase

in reading comprehension for all students, improved metacognitive ability, attention to

information contained in texts, and confidence in ability to grapple with ideas in authentic

texts” (p. 280). Using these organizers in social studies has also been found to be

beneficial. “Using a graphic organizer aids comprehension of the social studies text by

making the patterns clear. Designed as a means of organizing text material into

relationship patterns, the graphic organizer centers attention on the key information

contained in the text” (Farris, 2001, p.148). Massey & Heafer (2004) have found that

outlines and graphic organizers assist social studies students because they are a visual

representation of the text (p.33).

In fact, multiple authors have cited the 2000 Report of the National Reading Panel

as evidence that graphic organizers can help students become better readers and students.

Bellanca (2007) reminds teachers that the Report states that graphic organizers are one of

the seven most effective ways to improve reading comprehension (p. 234). Tate (2003)


says, “Using systematic visual or semantic graphs regarding the content of social studies

or science passages facilitates memory and content area achievement” (p. 28). Graphic

organizers can be a tool to increase their reading comprehension and achievement in high

school.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this study is to determine if graphic organizers improve a

student’s ability to comprehend social studies readings and perform better on

assessments. Since reading is the basis of instruction in a social studies classroom,

students must be able to comprehend the main ideas and themes of what they have read.

Unfortunately, many students are unable to differentiate between what is important and

what is not when they read primary or secondary source materials in class or for

homework. Much of the literature states that graphic organizers are often seen as useful

tools to promote student reading ability. This study will implement organizers for the

students to use during their reading. These organizers will come from the enumeration

category, listed as one of the six major categories of organizers: enumeration,

description, sequence, comparison, cause and effect, and problems and solutions

(Dangel, 2006, p. 38).

The specific research questions are:

1. Do graphic organizers contribute to the students completing in-class reading-

based tasks with more regularity?

2. Are graphic organizers effective tools to increase student achievement on

assessments?


Importance of Study

Students need to learn how to analyze and interpret the material that they read.

“Many authors suggest that there is a coming crisis in U.S. middle and secondary schools

(Moje, Young, Readence, & Moore, 2000). This crisis comes in the form of reading

difficulties” (Massey & Heafner, 2004, p. 26). Reading critically is a skill that students

need to learn – regardless of what their future holds. In this era of high-stakes testing, it

is crucial that students learn to read well at an early age. Many ninth graders at the school

being used in the study are susceptible to these same problems – they have difficulty

understanding what they read. Because of this, many of these students have low grades

and fail their freshman level courses.

One of the reasons that students may become frustrated is because they have

difficulty comprehending the material they read. Myers and Savage (2005) concur,

“Students who are able to decode are not necessarily able to make inferences and arrive

at common understandings of the content” (p. 18). Graphic organizers could be used as a

tool to help promote student reading, whether they read inside or outside of the content

areas. In turn, student achievement should increase.

Definition of Terms

Graphic Organizer: ‘‘Graphic organizers are visual models (Ausubel, 1960, n.p.,

as cited in Gallavan & Kottler, 2007) that provide teachers and students with tools,

concepts, and language to organize, understand, and apply information to achieve a

variety of purposes and outcomes’’ (p. 117).


Assessment: Techniques used to analyze student accomplishment against specific

goals and criteria. A test is one type of assessment. Others include clinical interviews (as

in Piaget’s work), observations, self-assessments, and surveys. The implication is that in

an assessment the teacher makes thoughtful observations and disinteresting judgments,

and offers clear and helpful feedback. (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005, pg. 337)

Hierarchical Organizers: organizer that presents main ideas and supporting details

(Marchand-Martella, Miller, & MacQueen, 1998, p. 46)

Individual Education Plan: Developed for a specific student; “must include a

statement of the student’s level of functioning, both short-term and annual goals,

projected dates for initiation and duration of special services and evaluation, descriptions

of special services to be provided, and the extent to which the student will participate in

regular education programs” (Gillet & Temple, 1994, p. 382)

Main-Idea-and-Detail-Charts: ‘‘Once the main idea has been established, students

then provide supporting details which highlight the main idea’s importance’’ (Baxendell,

2003, p. 51)

Mean: ‘‘the arithmetic average of a set of scores or numbers’’ (Johnson, 2008, p.

217)

Performance Task: Also called ‘‘performance.’’ A task that uses one’s knowledge

to effectively act or bring to fruition a complex product that reveals one’s knowledge and

expertise. (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005, p. 346)

Quiz: Any selected-response or short-answer test (be it oral or written) whose sole

purpose is to assess for discrete knowledge and skill. (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005, p. 348)

Standard Deviation: ‘‘The square root of the variance. It is the most frequently

used index to describe variability or the dispersion of scores. Whereas variance tells you


how tightly the scores are clustered, standard deviation tells you how tightly the scores

are clustered around the mean in a set of data’’ (Johnson, 2008, p. 219).

Story Map: ‘‘Typically, in story maps a web-like design is created in which the

main idea or topic is located in the center and supporting details are placed as branches

extending from that central point’’ (Arthaud & Goracke, 2006, p. 582).

Structured Overview: ‘‘With this visual outline, the teacher presents, in

hierarchical fashion, important information from a chapter or other segment of text’’

(Fordham, Wellman, & Sandmann, 2002, p. 149).

T-test: “statistical procedure used to determine whether the difference between

two means is statistically significant” (Johnson, 2008, p. 220).

Understanding: An insight into ideas, people, situations, and processes

manifesting in various appropriate performances. To understand is to make sense of what

one knows, to be able to know why it’s so, and to have the ability to use it in various

situations and contexts. (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005, pg. 353)


Chapter 2

Review of Literature

A preliminary review of the literature focused mainly on journal articles and

books. Journals common to the literature review were Social Studies and Reading

Teacher. Articles were taken from these and a number of other academic journals. A

variety of books concerning graphic organizers were also used as part of the research.

Most of the reviewed research describes ways for students to overcome problems

with reading comprehension. A number of methods have been studied --- from partner

reading to reading logs to graphic organizers. Nearly every study on the topic of reading

comprehension in the content areas concluded that giving students an outside device to

aid in their reading helped them to better grasp what they were reading and learning. In

fact, Myers & Savage (2005) stated that students need to be able to read in the content

areas for a number of reasons, ‘‘content literacy recognizes that reading is not simply a

technical skill; students who are able to decode are not necessarily able to make

inferences and arrive at common understandings of the content” (p. 18). Graphic

organizers are a means for students to arrive at this end.

The preliminary research has found that the majority of researchers agree that

helping students organize what they read is a crucial step in a child’s development – but

they each have their own views, opinions, and methods to achieve this goal. The

following section details some of these researchers and their findings.

This chapter will provide a review of the literature concerning the use of graphic

organizers in the classroom. The researched literature can be divided into five categories:

(A) the use of graphic organizers in a social studies classroom, (B) how graphic

organizers can help students with learning disabilities, (C) story map graphic organizers,


(D) methods of implementing graphic organizers, and (E) the effectiveness of graphic

organizers.

Graphic Organizers in Social Studies

Social Studies Ideas and Concepts

According to the literature, there is value in using graphic organizers in a social

studies classroom. Some of the research has suggested that students better learn social

studies concepts as a result of using graphic organizers. Gallavan & Kottler (2007)

suggest that teachers use organizers to help social studies students become ‘‘more

motivated, demonstrate faster short-term recall, and show greater long-term

achievement’’ (p. 117). In addition, they argue that ‘‘graphic organizers allow teachers

and students to isolate, summarize, and manipulate social studies information in ways

that are student centered, developmentally appropriate, active, challenging, and

productive (National Council for the Social Studies 1994). They can make learning

social studies terminology, structures, and functions manageable and memorable” (p.

118).

This study has found that graphic organizers can work in a variety of classroom

situations. No matter what the setting, organizers helped the students “readily connect

with the content and processes” (p. 117). Fordham, Wellman, & Sandmann (2002)

believe that graphic organizers are better than other, more traditional classroom routines

like ‘‘in-class round robin reading or assigning chapters from the social studies book for

homework….’’ They have found that these methods are ‘‘insufficiently motivating and

instructive’’ (p. 149). Instead of using these methods, graphic organizers can be used to

help make learning more “manageable and fun’’ (Gallavan & Kottler, 2007, p. 119). In


fact, a study by Guzzetti (1992) found that activities that focused on ‘‘concept

acquisition’’ like graphic organizers helped teachers ‘‘effectively use literature to teach

social studies’’ (p. 121). These authors assert through their research that social studies

concepts and ideas can be strengthened by the use of graphic organizers.

Reading in Social Studies

Reading materials are a core component of a social studies class, and teachers of

social studies need to be ready to teach their students core reading concepts. “Writing-to-

learn strategies invite students to think about and interact with texts, encouraging more

thoughtful reading while creating more conscientious learners. The development of

reading and writing skills cannot be left [only] to the language arts teacher” (Knipper &

Duggan, 2006, p. 469).

Myers & Savage (2005) promote the idea of helping students comprehend what

they read (content literacy) by using a variety of methods. In particular, they want

readers to realize that reading in the content areas is “not simply a technical skill” (p. 18)

– it is something in which students need extra assistance. In fact, Guzzetti (1992)

believes that social studies texts can be “dull, disjointed, and so well sanitized that they

lack message or meaning” (114). Students need to be given the necessary tools to make

sense of social studies books. Graphic organizers can be one of these tools.

A number of authors suggested that graphic organizers can be used to help the

reader develop a relationship with the text. “Interacting with the text is of critical

importance if students are to learn social studies content’’ (Myers & Savage, 2005, p. 18).

Many of the strategies that they outline deals with helping the students arrange their

thoughts and ideas about the text through concept maps and graphic organizers. Farris

(2001) agrees, ‘‘By setting the focus for learning the graphic organizer gives the student


control over the text and assistance in comprehension” (p. 150). “Readers need to

understand the context and the structure of the text to understand the content, yet many

students lack the necessary skills for text structure identification and comprehension of

complex relationships among concepts, facts, and generalizations often found in social

studies texts (Ciardiello)” (Massey & Heafner, 2004, p. 32).

Some college professors see social studies teachers failing to use reading

comprehension methods in their classes. “As university professors, we repeatedly see

teachers at both the professional and preservice levels dutifully trudging through social

studies textbooks with their classes. Although the chapters are “covered,” students’ lack

of interest is palpable, and their comprehension of important concepts is, at best,

questionable” (Fordham, Wellman, & Sandmann, 2002, p. 149). Some of the reviewed

authors believe that there are changes that can be made in primary and secondary

classrooms that can improve student achievement in social studies. “Graphic organizers,

as visual representations of these [social studies] patterns, help the learner focus on the

important information within the text and clarify the purpose of the reading” (Farris,

2001, p.150). In their 2004 study, Massey & Heafner found that using outlines and

graphic organizers in a social studies classroom helped the students learn about the text’s

internal features because it was a means for the students to have a visual representation of

what was included in the text (p.33).

All of these arguments can be supported by the belief that reading critically is one

of the most important skills that students can learn. Social studies readings can be used

to promote this skill. In fact, Myers & Savage (2005) believe that reading and

understanding history will help to make students lifelong learners because they have the

ability to internalize information (p. 18).


Graphic Organizers and Students with Learning Disabilities

One of the areas that many of the authors agree is that graphic organizers can

assist students of all ability levels. McCoy & Ketterlin-Geller (2004) believe that graphic

organizers can help teachers ‘‘as they deliver complex content material in a diverse

classroom’’ (p. 89). But one segment of students that some of the researchers believe is

most impacted by the usage of graphic organizers are those students with learning

disabilities. “Therefore, these students can benefit from learning strategies that facilitate

the comprehension of this type of text. One strategy that has often been recommended to

assist students with LD in learning from expository text is the use of graphic organizers

(Bos & Vaughn, 2002; Rivera & Smith, 1997; Taylor, Harris, & Pearson, 1988)” (Ae-

Hwa, Vaughn, Wanzek, & Shangjin, 2004, p. 105). Organization and reading

comprehension are two areas that many of the authors believe are critical to the success

of struggling readers.

Assisting Organization

Students with disabilities often need additional help in the classroom. One way

that graphic organizers can provide this assistance is because it ‘‘may help students with

LD circumvent their difficulties with organizing and recalling verbal information, thereby

increasing their reading comprehension’’ (Ae-Hwa, Vaughn, Wanzek, & Shangjin, 2004,

p. 106).

In a survey taken by Barry (2002), over 120 teachers responded to questions about

positive reading strategies that they have used in their classrooms. Seventy-seven percent

of the responders to this survey said that they believed graphic organizers were a good

tool to use in the classroom. In fact many of the teachers surveyed said, ‘‘Graphic


organizers were praised as ‘great organizational tools’ and a good way to allow students

to organize chapters and review for tests’’ (p. 139). Throughout the literature, many of

the authors and researchers praised graphic organizers as useful tools for students to

organize their thoughts, ideas, and information --- particularly for students with reading

difficulties and/or learning disabilities.

‘‘Graphic organizers are a specific instructional organizational tool available to

teachers; these tools have proven to be successful for all students in inclusive classrooms.

Visually displaying content ideas can benefit learners who have difficulty organizing

information’’ (Fischer & Schumaker, as cited in Baxendell, 2003, p. 46). The organizers

should be used to help students make sense of what they have read. The primary purpose

of organizers is to ‘‘make abstract concepts and relationships clear’’ (p. 48).

Other authors agree with the above viewpoint. Arthaud & Goracke (2006) tried a

few different graphic organizers in their research and came up with similar conclusions.

‘‘The techniques of story webbing and outlining assisted these students [struggling

readers] in the development of organizational skills required to meet this [state

implemented] standard’’ (p. 585). This fell in line with the intended goal for their

research, which was to ‘‘improve students’ organizational skills and to enhance retention

of story details and events’’ (p. 582). These beliefs were backed up by the 2003 findings

of the Institute for Advancement of Research in Education, which stated that graphic

organizers helped to improve achievement among learning disabled students (Bellanca,

2007, p. 234).

Reading Comprehension

Ae-Hwa, Vaughn, Wanzek, & Shangjin (2004) believe that all students’ reading

comprehension should be a priority for educators, but they feel that the focus should be


placed on students with learning disabilities (p. 105). This statement holds true with a

few of the authors and researchers. They feel that reading comprehension is a critical

skill for students to acquire --- and students who have learning disabilities need the most

attention.

Arthaud & Goracke (2006) tried graphic organizers with a number of their

struggling readers. They tried story-webbing, which is an organizer “designed to assist

the reader with organizing and remembering important details from the text” (p. 582).

They found, “The result of the strategy use has been improved response to

comprehension questions, increased amount of detail recall, and more enthusiasm for the

reading process” (p. 586). These results were positive, showing a number of benefits

from the use of a graphic organizer with struggling readers. Not only did the students

better comprehend what they read, but they were enjoying reading much more than

before the study.

McCoy & Ketterlin-Geller (2004) provide further evidence that graphic

organizers can help students with reading problems. “Overt identification of concepts

and their characteristics and the deliberate use of graphic organizers reduce the reading

comprehension demands placed on students with low abilities” (p. 88). They find that

struggling readers have difficulty with the structure of textbooks and need extra

assistance to make out the meanings of the text. They have found that graphic organizers

are one essential part of their plan to make these students better readers (p. 90). But

perhaps the most promising finding in their research is that “students across the spectrum

of reading skills show consistent improvement toward mastery of higher-order thinking

tasks when taught using the concept-based approach” (p. 92).


Other authors agree that reading improves with the use of graphic organizers.

Gillet & Temple (1994) believe that graphic organizers can help students see how pieces

of information from reading comes together (p. 227). “This process is considered

important because many students, particularly poor readers, acquire information from text

only as isolated facts, failing to organize them into any coherent units of meaning.

Practice in organizing information into main ideas or topics and supporting details

improves overall comprehension” (p. 227). Findings from a study done by Ae-Hwa,

Vaughn, Wanzek, & Shangjin (2004) shows that when students with learning disabilities

‘‘were taught to use graphic organizers, large effect sizes were demonstrated on

researcher developed reading comprehension posttests’’ (p. 114).

Story Map Graphic Organizers

This study will focus on using graphic organizers to improve student reading

comprehension and achievement on assessments. The students will be using organizers

to help them comprehend what they read in social studies class. Specifically, the students

will use organizers called story maps. ‘‘Typically, in story maps a web-like design is

created in which the main idea or topic is located in the center and supporting details are

placed as branches extending from that central point’’ (Arthaud & Goracke, 2006, p. 582)

This type of organizer can also be called a main-idea-and-detail chart, structured

overview, or hierarchical organizer. This study will focus on the use of story maps in a

social studies classroom to improve reading comprehension and performance on

assessments.

Story map organizers have been found to have positive effects on students in the

classroom. Baxendell (2003) found that the ‘‘Use of this tool, along with explicit use of


terms, helps students visualize and internalize the difference between the main idea and

the details’’ (p. 51). Arthaud & Goracke (2006) support this assertion. They believe that

story maps helped students because ‘‘the emphasis was on organizing basic details to

assist students in retention and recall of story information’’ (p. 582).

Fordham, Wellman & Sandmann (2005) give some suggestions to help teachers

create their own story map/structured overview. They want to ensure that teachers are

sure to align the organizers in a hierarchical fashion. In order for the students to follow

along, they recommend that the categories on the organizer somehow become connected

--- preferably by using lines --- to show relationships. While reading, the teacher should be

sure that the students are consistently using and referencing the organizer so that they can

see how the organizer represents ideas from the text.

Other researchers made similar suggestions for setting up a story map. Arthaud &

Goracke (2006) said, ‘‘Typically, in story maps a web-like design is created in which the

main idea or topic is located in the center and supporting details are placed as branches

extending from that central point’’ (p. 582). Again, the key point is to show how the

ideas and concepts on the organizer relate to each other. This is done by using deliberate

markings, like lines or arrows to show which ideas and themes (or main ideas and

supporting details) are interconnected. Baxendell (2003) agrees with the other

researchers that the relationships between the details need to be emphasized on the

graphic organizer. ‘‘Once the main idea has been established, students then provide

supporting details which highlight the main idea’s importance’’ (p. 51).

These researchers also found that there are some added cognitive and long-term

benefits to using story map graphic organizers. Baxendell’s (2003) study found that story

maps assisted students in finding the main ideas and their supporting details while


reading. ‘‘Determining the main idea and details of an instructional topic is a difficult

skill for many learners with special needs. Learners struggle to flesh out important ideas

and tend to focus on minor details. A main-idea-and-detail graphic organizer is a

beneficial tool to use in all subject areas to help students with this vital academic skill’’

(p. 51). Other researchers found that story maps can help students complete other tasks

in their academic careers. Fordham, Wellman, & Sandmann (2005) found that ‘‘The

organizational structure offered by the [structured] overview serves as a scaffold for

writing, enabling students to compose a summary or an essay about the topic under study

more easily’’ (p. 151).

Three separate research studies found that story maps were effective tools for

students to use in the classroom. They are beneficial because they help students make

important connections between the main ideas and supporting details within the text they

are reading. Story maps can make relationships between details more clear for the

students. In addition, these organizers can help students with a number of other school-

related tasks like writing, summarizing and studying.

Graphic Organizers and Implementation

Merkley & Jefferies (2000) believe that teachers should follow a set of guidelines

in order to make the implementation of graphic organizers more successful. They report

that occasionally the ‘‘GO [graphic organizer] suffers from a lack of systematic operation

procedures’’ (p. 351). This section will review some of the suggested operating

procedures for implementing and using graphic organizers in the classroom.

There are a few different ideas about the implementation and usage of graphic

organizers. McCoy & Ketterlin-Geller (2004) believe that teachers should think about


the main ideas and supporting details first. They should also consider how the supporting

details fit with the main idea --- this should be the basis of the teacher’s visual display of

the information in the graphic organizer. They also believe that the graphic organizers

should include space for both examples and non-examples of the central ideas (McCoy &

Ketterlin-Geller, 2004, p.90). McCoy and Ketterlin-Geller (2004) then made the

following determination:

This design enables students to discern important facts from statements that may be interesting but that are not integral to the concept. Thus, all students are presented with a model for drawing meaning from the text, identifying concrete examples, and distinguishing between seductive details and critical facts. (p. 90)

These suggestions, like others on this topic, want teachers to focus on getting the students

to make important connections between the text and the central ideas and themes of the

lesson.

Merkley and Jefferies (2000) describe five essential steps that teachers should

follow while implementing graphic organizers. The first step is to verbalize relationships

among concepts expressed by the visual, which is a means of ‘‘reminding students that

the GO is an overview of material they will encounter during reading’’. Secondly, the

teacher needs to provide an opportunity for student input, which will provide the students

with an opportunity to get involved in the class discussion. The teacher should then make

a connection between the current and past instruction/knowledge, followed by

referencing the upcoming readings. The final step is to help the students decode the text

and make sense of what they have read. Although the means of this study vary from that

of the previous one, their goals are similar - getting the students to think critically about

the material. ‘‘The GO strategy offers considerable potential to enhance students’

comprehension of expository text’’ (Merkley & Jefferies, 2000, pp. 352, 354-356).


Another strategy is suggested by Strong, Silver, Perini, & Tuculescu (2002). This

strategy begins in a similar fashion to the previous two studies, but these researchers

made far different conclusions. First, they believe that the teacher’s initial priority should

be to explain and model each part of the organizer for the students. After passing out the

organizer to the students, the teacher should allow for ample time to answer any

questions that they may have about the format. The teacher should then observe the

students as they complete the organizer and assist where needed. After the students

complete the assignment, the entire class should review the main ideas of the organizer to

ensure that the students understood the central concepts. Their suggestion differs from

other researchers after this point. Following the review session, Strong, Silver, Perini, &

Tuculescu (2002) recommend that the organizer be used as a basis for another activity ---

like an essay, timeline, model, or metaphor. In addition, they believe that the goal of

using graphic organizers is to teach students to use these strategies independently ---

without the aid of the teacher (pp. 4-5).

Graphic Organizers and Their Effectiveness

Reading Comprehension: Understanding Text Structures

As students read from their materials in a social studies classroom, they should be

aware of important vocabulary, concepts, and main ideas within the text. Unfortunately,

these necessary skills are not obvious to many students. “In an effort to make an

overwhelming amount of information manageable and the content more accessible,

textbook editors and nonfiction writers use various text structures. Yet for many

students, these structures are invisible” (Strong, Silver, Perini, & Tuculescu, 2002, p.7).

In the same study, Strong et al. urge teachers to find ways to extract critical information


from the text in an effort to increase student comprehension of the material (p.7). They

believe that one possible solution to this is to make the information more visible to the

students through the use of graphic organizers, which should help the students achieve

‘‘deep comprehension and easier memorization [of basic information]’’ (p. 8). ‘‘When

students can ‘see’ a concept and how its subtopics and details interrelate, higher-order

thinking (e.g., writing about that concept, applying it, or connecting it to other learning

and ideas) is greatly facilitated’’ (p. 42). These researchers show a need for students to

be able to make sense of the text structures and patterns within the text. They believe that

graphic organizers are one way to make this happen for students.

Other researchers concur that graphic organizers are a positive way to get students

to make sense of the text that they are reading. Strong, et al. (2002) observed

Without understanding the underlying pattern, students have trouble understanding how information is connected, and the text can become a meaningless stew. This strategy teaches students how to identify text structure and use visual organizers to expose the critical relationships within a reading. (pp. 4-5).

In social studies, there can be a variety of problems with student comprehension because

much of the information is driven by text. ‘‘Lack of sufficient background knowledge,

‘inconsiderate texts’ (Armbruster, 1984), weak vocabulary knowledge, lack of relevant

experiences, and many other factors contribute to the level of difficulty readers encounter

when making inferences’’ (McMackin & Witherell, 2005, p. 246). In order for the

students to fully make sense of the course material, their reading skills need to be

improved. Farris (2000) believes that students can take control of what they read by

using a graphic organizer. This idea is backed up by Robinson, Katayama, Odom, Hsieh,

& Vanderveen (2006). ‘‘Thus, the GO task may help teach students not only course

content but also important metacognitive skills, such as identifying text structure’’ (p.


110). These researchers have found that using graphic organizers can improve student

reading comprehension by improving their ability to make sense of text structures and

vocabulary, a skill that should serve them well while reading through social studies

materials.

Reasons for Effectiveness

Bellanca (2007) references a study done by the Institute for Advancement of

Research in Education (IARE) concerning graphic organizers. This study found that

graphic organizers have a number of positive benefits for student learning and

achievement. Among the findings reported by Bellanca (2007) were increased reading

comprehension, improved student achievement over grade levels and content areas, and a

more extended period of information retention. In addition, students showed an increased

ability to organize information, identify relationships, and categorize essential textbook

materials. Even students with learning disabilities exhibited a higher achievement level

in school.

In fact Tileston (2004) reports that “Because more than 87% of the students in any

given classroom are visual learners, using these organizers helps assure that these

learners truly understand the information being provided” (p. 45). These researchers

provide evidence that graphic organizers used alongside other teaching methods should

help students achieve more in their classes.

One area that graphic organizers can be beneficial is by helping students

understand and identify the key concepts within a lesson or unit. “Graphic organizers

help them [teachers] present key concepts in a more organized manner and encourage

students to become more actively engaged during the discussion of key concepts”


(Marchand-Martella, Miller, & MacQueen, 1998, p. 48). McMackin and & Wetherell

(2005) reported similar findings through their work with classroom teachers. Students

can also improve their reading by taking notes to understand concepts within the text.

“GO notes do not just assist students by directing their attention to important information,

but, rather, they help students notice important across-concept relations that are not as

apparent when viewing linear forms of notes” (Robinson, Katayama, Odom, Hsieh, &

Vanderveen, 2006, p. 103).

Graphic organizers have also been found to help students perform better on

everyday classroom tasks like taking notes, reading, writing, and test taking. Tate (2003)

worked with teachers using graphic organizers and reported positive results. She said, ‘‘I

later learned that student grades began to improve almost immediately’’ (p. 27). Other

researchers found similar results. Robinson, Katayama, Odom, Hsieh, & Vanderveen

(2006) discussed in their studies that ‘‘Several researchers have found that when students

are provided with GOs to study along with the text, they perform better on tests that

measure knowledge of concept relations and application….’’ (p. 103).

According to the Tileston (2004), ‘‘Students are not highly organized, so helping

them to organize their notebooks, their notes, and the essential information will be

helpful to them and will give them a guide to use in the future.’’ Note taking using

organizers was found to help some students improve their writing. Fordham, Wellman,

& Sandmann (2002) reported that students can more easily summarize a section of text

through writing or prepare for an essay about a certain topic if they used organizers.

‘‘With that type of support, students at all levels can approach a writing task more

confidently’’ (p.150). Farris (2000) agrees that graphic organizers can help with

everyday classroom tasks like reading, writing, note taking, and group work.


Graphic organizers can help students think critically because they can be used by

the students as an added tool when thinking about important content-based relationships

within their class work or reading from the text. Throughout their findings, the reviewed

authors have found that graphic organizers can help in a variety of areas. When looking

specifically at social studies, Pate (1996) believes that using graphic organizers can help

students understand main ideas about a topic, specifically helping students compare and

contrast the supporting details.

Bellanca (2007) believes that graphic organizers can help students develop

important cognitive functions. This can be done because organizers help students think

about specific operations and outcomes in the material. His research also states that

graphic organizers can help strengthen study habits because they give ‘‘students time to

think about their thinking’’ and ‘‘refine their use of tools for thinking’’ (p. 212). Some

authors found that graphic organizers were useful for improving cognitive skills in a

variety of ways. Gillet & Temple (1994) found that some organizers help students think

critically about plot and text structures like sequential ordering, cause and effect, literal

and implied information, and comparing and contrasting. Strong, Silver, Perini, and

Tuculescu (2002) found similar results in their studies. They found that after using

graphic organizers, students saw information more clearly in six main categories:

sequences, topic descriptions, cycle structures, problem and solution, and cause/effect

relationships.

Overall, the authors of these researched articles had positive descriptions and

findings concerning graphic organizers. In fact, it was nearly impossible to find articles

that spoke against their usage in the classroom. Bellanca (2007) declares that despite


these findings, “Marzano (2001) reports that the graphic organizer is the most underused

of the high effect strategies” (p. 233).

Summary of the Literature

By analyzing the use of graphic organizers in five main areas (graphic organizers

in social studies, graphic organizers and learning disabled students, story map graphic

organizers, graphic organizers and implementation, and graphic organizers and their

effectiveness) the studies suggest that using graphic organizers should help students

improve their willingness to read, reading comprehension, and achievement in the

classroom. Despite the amount of research on graphic organizers, it is reported that they

are one of the most underused tools in classrooms of all grade levels. The researchers’

findings show that graphic organizers could be used on a more frequent basis to help

students learn.


Chapter 3

Methodology

This study will analyze the effectiveness of graphic organizers in a social studies

classroom. The study will take place in a relatively large, rural high school in north-

central Pennsylvania. The school has approximately 1,000 students in grades nine

through twelve. One of the primary goals within this school is to find ways to keep

ninth graders in school for their entire career. Since nearly one-fifth of all freshmen do

not graduate with their peers (or at all), teachers and administrators have been looking

for ways to keep the students in school and increase their achievement at the ninth grade

level. Graphic organizers could be one possible solution to this problem.

Participants

The present study will involve a number of different students. It will be

conducted using students in two separate ninth grade U.S. History classes. Students will

range from 14-15 years of age. Students will be analyzed to determine if using graphic

organizers is more effective than using traditional/typical strategies in the classroom.

Approximately 40-45 students will be included in this study, with a nearly equal number

of males and females. In addition, about 25% (10 students) have been identified with

Individual Education Plans (IEPs). All students have been “tracked” into the academic

level social studies program, which is designed to prepare students for college and/or the


workforce. It is the most common “track” in the district. The teacher will be the

facilitator and recorder for the study.

Materials

Students in the ninth grade history classes will be using similar materials for the

foundation of the study. The textbook the students will be using throughout the study

will be: A History of US: Volumes 4-5 by Joy Hakim - published by Oxford University

Press (2005). They will also be exposed to identical reading assignments, review

activities, and tests during the study.

Two “story map” graphic organizers (adapted from Dangel, 2006) will be

utilized by the students for their reading assignments (see Appendix A). Only one of

the two classes will be exposed to the organizers during class. The other class will use

more traditional methods to assist them in the reading of the text and outside sources.

Attitude and rating scale surveys (Likert surveys) will also be given to students in both

classes. This survey (see Appendix B) asks students to rate their opinions about

specific statements on a scale of one to five – one meaning that the student “strongly

disagrees” with the statement and five meaning that the student “strongly agrees” with

the statement. The information from the Likert survey will give the researcher a

baseline of knowledge about the students’ reading habits and study skills before starting

the research. In addition, the teacher will record public behaviors of the students while

they work on the graphic organizers. This will be used to determine if the graphic

organizers are effective at getting students to work on in-class assignments with more

regularity. These behaviors will be recorded via a checklist (see Appendix C).


Research Design

The study will last for approximately six weeks. Over the course of this period,

the students will have covered approximately two chapters/units in the course. This time

frame should enable the teacher to discover if the new methodologies would improve the

students reading comprehension abilities over the given time. Student grades on

assessments would also be analyzed for improvement (see below – Data Collection and

Analysis). The six week period will also give the students enough time to get familiar

with the new methodologies and use them effectively in the classroom.

During the first week of the study, the students will be provided with some tools

by the teacher that will help them think about their strengths and weaknesses in reading

comprehension. These tools would include a Likert survey that would help the teacher

find patterns and areas of need for the students. In order for students to improve their

reading comprehension, they (and the teacher) must become more aware of what

improvements they can make to their approaches concerning the text and/or documents.

The students in the experimental class will use story map graphic organizers for

their reading assignments. The teacher will explain each method and model an example

for the students to observe and use. The teacher will also follow suggested

implementation procedures mentioned in the literature review. Students will use these

story map organizers on in-class and homework assignments. The maps will also be used

to guide in-class discussions. By the end of the study, the students will have used these

organizers to discover the main ideas and supporting details within social studies reading

assignments.


Data Collection and Analysis

The study included elements of both a qualitative and quantitative study. Certain

aspects will be quantitative in nature because the results of the study will be analyzed

statistically. Part of the study will also be qualitative because the researcher/teacher will

be observing student work, assessments, and behaviors and analyzing those through

triangulation.

The teacher/researcher will be encouraging specific behaviors (listed below)

among the students using the graphic organizers. The researcher encouraged the students

to focus on the main ideas of the lesson and how they relate to the objectives. Students

were also assisted in finding the supporting ideas/details in the readings and applying

those ideas to the organizer. The teacher also urged the students to go beyond the text

and find deeper meanings in the materials.

Data will be collected from the surveys, organizers, and assessments that the

students complete over the course of the study. The Likert survey (see Appendix B) will

be used in a number of ways. The students will complete the seven question survey at the

start of the study. The students will answer on a scale of one to five – five meaning that

they strongly agree with the survey statement and one meaning that they strongly

disagree with the statement. Student responses will be recorded and categorized into

charts.

Student behaviors and reactions will also be noted through informal observations

and a teacher checklist (see Appendix C). The checklist will include observations like:

how many students are actively working on the graphic organizer; how many students are

completing all sections of the organizer; are the students actively engaged in using the


textbook; how long does it take for all of the students to complete the organizer? These

observations will be recorded on the checklist twice per class period (about every fifteen

minutes). These public observations will allow the researcher to make adaptations to the

organizers and their implementation over the period of study as needed.

In addition, assessment data will be collected and compared over the course of the

study to chart student improvement. This assessment data will be collected over six

weeks using two chapters from the A History of US textbook. In order to judge the

effectiveness of graphic organizers two classes’ data will be used in the study. The first

class, or control group, will be without graphic organizers for the duration of the study.

They will continue to use materials and strategies that have been implemented throughout

the rest of the school year. The second class, or experimental group, will use graphic

organizers on all reading assignments during the entire period of study.

During the study, students in both the experimental and control classes will take

the same assessments (see Appendix D). These summative assessments will occur at the

end of each unit/chapter (descriptions of assessments listed below). The assessments will

be analyzed in two ways. First, student averages on these assessments will be compared

between the study period and the six weeks of class prior to the study. Then, the scores

will be compared by looking at the mean average and standard deviations of the data in

both time periods. The data will assist in determining the effectiveness of graphic

organizers on student achievement.

Throughout the year, tests and assessments are divided into four major

components: multiple choice questions, matching, essay writing, and reading

comprehension. The reading comprehension component asks students to read a passage


between two and four paragraphs in length, and answer a series of three to five questions

about the passage. In order to specifically analyze student achievement on the reading

comprehension sections, these four components will be grouped into two major

categories: reading comprehension and objective (multiple choice, matching, and essay)

sections. These categories allow the researcher to isolate how the students performed on

the reading comprehension sections of the assessments. Like the previous analysis, the

means and standard deviations of both the control and experimental groups will be

compared during two time periods: prior to and during the study.

The standard deviations and means will then be used to calculate a t-test. A t-test

is used to find the statistical significance between the means of two sets of data. In this

case, a t-test will be used to determine if the assessments given to the students in both

groups show a statistically significant improvement from the pre-study and post-study

periods in two major areas: reading comprehension and overall scores. The t-test data

will be calculated using GraphPad Software’s t-test calculator (http://www.graphpad.

com/quickcalcs/ttest1.cfm). This data will help determine if graphic organizers helped

students perform better on reading comprehension assessments.

Overall, this study will focus on how the experimental group’s achievement

(grades on assessments) improved in comparison to those of the control group. The

student data (assessment grades) from the six week research period will be compared to

student data from the previous six weeks. Student behaviors will also be informally

recorded by the teacher to determine how much the students are using the organizers for

reading assignments. This data will help to determine how much of an impact the graphic

organizers had on student achievement.


Chapter 4

Findings

The focus of this research project can be determined through two central research

questions: Do graphic organizers contribute to the students completing in-class reading-

based tasks with more regularity? And, are graphic organizers effective tools to increase

student achievement on assessments? In order to answer these questions, a number of

items were used: students in both the experimental and control groups were given a

reading/interest survey. After the survey, only the students in the experimental group had

their public behaviors recorded by the teacher (with an observation sheet), used story map

graphic organizers on all reading assignments, and took summative assessments in the

form of a test at the end of each unit.

Student Reading/Interest Survey

In order to start the study, a Likert survey (a type of student interest survey) was

passed out to the students in both the experimental and control classes (see Appendix B).

The only students who did not participate in the study were the ones who did not receive

parental permission to take part in the study and those who were absent for an extended

(over three days) period of time. Consequently, 40 students responded to the survey on

the first day of the study – 20 from the experimental group and 20 from the control group.

The students were asked to read a series of seven statements (see Figure 4.1) and give

their reaction to each statement.


Figure 4.1

Key: 5 = Strongly Agree

4 = Agree

3 = No opinion

2 = Disagree

1 = Strongly Disagree

1. I feel comfortable with the vocabulary being used in this course.

2. The sequence of events in this course flow together smoothly.

3. I feel confused when I read the materials for this course.

4. I have a method of organizing the materials that I complete in this course.

5. I take notes while I read from the textbook.

6. The reading materials and topics in this course interest me.

7. I enjoy reading.

The data collected from the survey suggests that the students in both classes responded

similarly to nearly all of the questions (see Figures 4.2 and 4.3). There were a few

discrepancies between the control and experimental groups’ data which will be discussed

in more detail below.

Figure 4.2

Student Reading Survey - Control Group

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Statement #

# o

f S

tud

en

t R

es

po

ns

es

Stronly Agree

Agree

No Opinion

Disagree

Strongly Disagree


Figure 4.3

Student Reading Survey - Experimental Group

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Statement #

# o

f S

tud

en

t R

es

po

ns

es

Stronly Agree

Agree

No Opinion

Disagree

Strongly Disagree

Statement #1: I feel comfortable with the vocabulary being used in this course.

In general, students believed that they were comfortable with the vocabulary

being used in the course with 70% of the students reporting that they “strongly agreed” or

“agreed” with the statement.

Statement #2: The sequence of events in this course flow together smoothly.

Again, the majority of students “strongly agreed” or “agreed” with this statement,

with numbers registering at 60% of the students in the control group and 70% of the

students in the experimental group. But unlike the previous question, 14 of the 40

students surveyed either had “no opinion” or lower as their responses. This result (35%)

showed that some methodologies needed to change in order for the students to get a

better handle on the chronology of the course materials.

Statement #3: I feel confused when I read the materials for this course.


The third statement related directly to the research questions provided for the

study since it deals specifically with the students’ ability to comprehend what they read.

The data showed that 30% of the students who responded to this statement either

“agreed” or “strongly agreed” with it. In addition, 20% of the students were in the

middle and responded with “no opinion” to the statement. This means that in their own

estimation, half of the students believe that they need assistance while reading their

coursework.

Statement #4: I have a method of organizing the materials that I complete in this course.

The fourth statement divided students in both groups. The control group tended

to slightly lean more towards the “strongly agree” or “agree” category, while the

experimental group was split nearly down the middle – eight students above the “no

opinion” threshold and seven below it. This data suggests that an equal amount of

students are organizing and not organizing their materials for class. The half of the

students who are not getting organized for the course should benefit from using graphic

organizers to help them keep their reading materials in order.

Statement #5: I take notes while I read from the textbook.

Out of all of the statements, this one drew the most one-sided reaction from the

students in the study. Nearly 58% of the students said that they “strongly disagreed” with

the statement, while another 18% said that they “disagreed” with the statement. In fact,

only one student replied in the “agree” or “strongly agree” category. Since over three-

quarters of the students feel that they need help with their note-taking, this study using

graphic organizers could provide them with a means to that end.

Statement #6: The reading materials and topics in this course interest me.


This question was used to give the researcher data about student attitudes towards

the topics being covered in class. The students responses were split exactly in half – 12

students above the central “no opinion” category and 12 below it. Sixteen students gave

a “no opinion” response.

Statement #7: I enjoy reading.

The control group and experimental groups varied greatly when responding to this

statement. The control group viewed reading in a more favorable manner, with students

responding almost equally in each of the five areas. The experimental group viewed

reading in a negative manner, with 65% of the students surveyed claiming that they

“disagreed” or “strongly disagreed” with the statement. Will the graphic organizers help

to change student perceptions of reading in the experimental group?

Informal Observations

Over the course of the study, the students used graphic organizers on a nearly

daily basis. They were implemented any time the students had an in-class reading

assignment. The students were designated 30 minutes of class time to complete the

organizer.

During the in-class assignments, the researcher recorded some basic, informal

observations about the students’ work on the graphic organizers. These behaviors were

recorded using an observation sheet (see Appendix C). The students completed about 20

reading assignments in class during the course of the study and the researcher made

informal recordings during each of those assignments. Approximately 20-25 students

were observed during each class period.


Question 1: How many students are actively working on the graphic organizer?

Overall, the graphic organizers kept the students on task during their reading

assignments. In fact, there were only two occasions where some of the students were not

using the organizer while they were reading (one occurred on a Friday and the other took

place the day before an extended vacation). For the other eighteen days, the “20+” box

was marked on the checklist. Even though no observations were recorded prior to the

study, the students appeared to be more on task than usual during the study.

Question 2: How many students are completing all sections of the organizer?

Two different story map organizers were used during the study. Neither organizer

appeared to be more appealing to the students than the other. On most occasions the

students completed the organizers in their entirety. In fact, this occurred on 16 of the 20

observable days (80% of the time). On the other days, the majority of the students

completed the entire organizer, while the remaining few nearly completed it – they

missed a few minor entries. There were no occasions where students left the organizer

completely blank.

Question 3: Are the students actively engaged in using the textbook?

Before the study, the students would often scan the book to find answers to

reading questions, and this practice continued during the study. Although there is no

way to officially compare the pre and post study data, it would appear that the students

were now more often forced to read the entire chapter to complete the necessary

components of the graphic organizer, which was one of the goals of the study.

Question 4: How long does it take for all of the students to complete the organizer?


This was the one question that showed quite a bit of variation in student

behaviors. Over the 20 observations, some students fell into each of the five categories.

The category that was marked the most during the observations was “24-29 minutes”.

This nearly fell in line with the 30 minute goal set at the start of the study. There were

five different occasions where at least one student took over the 30 minutes given to

them, but there were never more than two students per class period to take this amount of

time. Conversely, there were six instances where students took less than 20 minutes to

complete the organizer, but there were never more than three students per class period

that met this criterion. Overall, the informal observations showed that on nearly every

occasion, the organizers took the students between 20 and 30 minutes to complete.

Test Scores and Analysis

Two tests were given to the students during the study period. These tests were

administered to students in both the control and experimental groups (see Appendix D).

The tests were identical for both groups of students, but the methods used in each class

varied. The control group continued to use methods that were implemented earlier in the

school year, while the experimental group used graphic organizers on all reading

assignments. After the students completed these tests, the results were compared with the

two tests they completed immediately prior to the period of study.

As stated in Chapter 3, the test result data was broken into two categories: reading

comprehension and total score. The mean and standard deviation was calculated for data

in both categories. This data was analyzed using the results of assessments for students

in both the control and experimental groups. The data was collected from tests that took


place before and during the experimental period. Since each test had a different overall

point value, all data in this section was normalized by converting the raw scores into test

scores based on a 100 point scale.

The first group whose data was analyzed was the control group. For the period

before the study, the students were given two tests. The data was broken into reading

comprehension and overall test scores. For the reading comprehension section, the

students’ mean average was 64.77 (see Figure 4.4). The standard deviation was 29.69,

which shows that students in this class displayed a wide range of scores on this section of

the assessment. The overall score on these two tests showed a mean of 80.26, while the

standard deviation on this section was 13.42 (see Figure 4.5).

Figure 4.4

Control Group: Reading Comprehension Section

Pre-Study Mean 64.77

Study Mean 80.11

Pre-Study Standard Deviation 29.69

Study Standard Deviation 20.03

p-value 0.051 “not quite statistically significant”

Figure 4.5

Control Group: Overall Test Scores


Study Mean 82.75



p-value 0.54 “not statistically significant”

The control group also completed two tests during the study period. This data

was broken down in the same way as the previous example. On the reading

comprehension section, the scores improved with a mean of 80.11 (see Figure 4.4). The


standard deviation for the reading comprehension section was 20.03. The overall scores

had a mean of 82.75 and a standard deviation of 13.48 (see Figure 4.5).

The second group, or experimental group, also took the same four assessments as

the control group. The first two tests were administered prior to the study period and the

second two tests were given during the period of study. Data from the first two tests’

(pre-study) reading comprehension section had a mean of 64.77, the exact same score as

the control group (see Figure 4.6). Although the means were identical, the standard

deviations were not. The standard deviation was 25.47 for the reading comprehension

data (see Figure 4.6). The total scores on this set of tests had a mean of 81.21 with a

standard deviation of 11.00 (see Figure 4.7).

The second set of test data (two tests) showed a mean of 82.95 on the reading

comprehension section with a standard deviation of 16.37 (see Figure 4.6). Based on the

mean, the students improved by approximately 18 points on this section compared to the

tests they took before the study. The total test scores for this second group of data had a

mean of 82.08 and a standard deviation of 11.78 (see Figure 4.7).

Figure 4.6

Experimental Group: Reading Comprehension Section


Study Mean 82.95



p-value 0.07 “very statistically significant”


Figure 4.7

Experimental Group: Overall Test Scores


Study Mean 82.08

Pre-Study Standard Deviation 11


p-value 0.801 “not statistically significant”

Another way that the data was analyzed was by using a t-test. T-tests are used to

determine if the difference between two means are statistically significant. In this study,

t-tests were used to compare data in both the control group and experimental groups. The

first two t-tests were used to compare data for the control group. The data came from the

two sets of tests that the students completed – both before and during the study period.

Means from the reading comprehension section as well as the total score were used to

calculate t-tests. The second two t-tests that were calculated came from the same sets of

data, but from the experimental group instead.

Results from the t-test are measured by a p value. “In educational research, two

different levels of significance or probability are generally used: p = .05 and p = .01. A

level of p = .05 means that we can be reasonably certain that only 5 of the differences

might be due to chance or sampling error. A level of p = .01 means that we can be

reasonably certain that only 1% of the differences might be due to chance or sampling

error” (Johnson, 2008, p. 124). Essentially, the smaller the p value, the less probability

there is of sampling error or random chance.

The control group’s p values were measured by comparing the pre and post-study

test data in reading comprehension and total score. After entering the means (64.77 and

80.11) and standard deviations (29.69 and 20.03), the p value for the reading


comprehension section was calculated to be 0.051 (see Figure 4.4) - which the software

called “not quite statistically significant.” For the total test scores (mean: 80.26 and

82.75; SD: 13.42 and 13.48), p = 0.54 (see Figure 4.5), which was labeled as “not

statistically significant.”

Overall, the experimental group’s t-test data was more statistically significant

than that of the control group (see Figures 4.6 and 4.7). For the reading comprehension

section p = 0.007 (using means: 64.77 and 82.95; SD: 25.47 and 16.37), which the

software distinguished to be “very statistically significant.” This data shows that the

mean between the pre and post-study data was statistically significant for the

experimental group of students in reading comprehension. Despite this, the means for the

total score were considered “not statistically significant.” In this instance p = .801

(means: 81.21 and 82.08; SD: 11.00 and 11.78) and since the means and standard

deviations for the two sections were less than one point different, this result is not

surprising.

Summary

The methodologies listed in this chapter were designed to give the researcher a

clearer idea of how the students in two ninth grade social studies classes performed on in-

class assignments and assessments when they used graphic organizers. The students

were divided into two groups – control and experimental – that had similar

characteristics. The research included a Likert survey, informal public observations of

student behaviors, and results (with statistical analysis) of tests given before and during


the study. Overall, students in both groups progressed during the study, but the

experimental group showed more growth based on the statistical data.


Chapter 5

Discussion and Recommendations

Overview of Research

The purpose of this study was to find ways to improve student achievement in a

social studies classroom. Social studies courses are centered on reading assignments and

documents, so reading comprehension is a critical skill for students in these classes.

After a thorough review of literature on this topic, many researchers found that graphic

organizers were an effective tool that could assist students in a variety of areas. Many of

these researchers found that story map organizers were particularly effective in social

studies classrooms. Story map organizers focus on having the students discover main

ideas and supporting details by connecting them in an organized, systematic format.

Over the six week study period, students were divided into a control group and an

experimental group. The experimental group was expected to use graphic organizers on

their daily reading assignments. They were also informally, publicly observed by the

researcher while working on these assignments, in an attempt to find trends in their work.

Students in both the control group and experimental group participated in (with parental

permission – see Appendix E) a Likert attitude survey in which they answered questions

about their reading habits. All of the aforementioned activities were designed to answer

two research questions:

1. Do graphic organizers contribute to the students completing in-class reading-

based tasks with more regularity?


2. Are graphic organizers effective tools to increase student achievement on

assessments?

Summary of Findings

The effectiveness of this study can only be determined by the responses and

work performed by the students over the six week period. This study is based on the

data collected through attitude surveys, observations, and assessments. Even though

the students were divided into two groups (experimental and control), they were all of

approximately the same age and classified into the “academic” track of the social

studies program, the most common track in the district for students to follow.

Student Reading Survey

The student interest survey was given at the start of the unit. The survey was

presented in Likert format. In this format the students rate their attitudes on a number

of pre-determined questions and/or statements prepared by the researcher. In this case,

the statements pertained to the students’ attitudes toward reading, organization, and the

material presented in class.

Overall, students in both the control and experimental groups responded

similarly to the statements in the interest survey. Although they responded that they

were confident in their own abilities in statement #1, the rest of their responses did not

match this confidence. A majority of the students felt that they needed assistance with

their reading in the course, that they were not prepared and/or organized for class, and

that they do not take notes on the materials in class. These responses showed that the


students needed assistance in these areas. One potential solution to these problems was

using a graphic organizer to improve student reading comprehension, organization, and

achievement in class.

Even though these results painted a picture that the students were in need of

help, the results could have been different in another setting, time period, or context.

High school students can also be fickle in their responses and students may not have

answered the same way two times in a row. In addition, the students were given

specific instructions that the survey was anonymous and voluntary, but they still may

have responded to the statements in the way that they felt the teacher would want them

to answer.

Informal Observations

Over the course of the study, the teacher administered informal, public

observations of student behaviors of the experimental group. These behaviors were

recorded on a checklist each day that the students used the graphic organizers (see

Appendix C). The goal of the checklist was for the researcher to observe how the

students used their class time while working on the graphic organizers, whether they

completed the organizers in their entirety, if this caused the students to use the textbook

more efficiently, and the checklist was also used to determine how long it took the

students to complete the organizers.

Overall, the organizers had the desired effect on in-class work. The majority of

the students were actively working on the organizers on a daily basis. The observations

showed that nearly every student completed the assignments in their entirety. The only


exceptions occurred on a few select Fridays and before an extended vacation – which is

typical with students of this age no matter what assignments they are expected to

complete. Although there were no recorded observations prior to the study, there

appeared to be an increase in the number of students who finished the activities. This

type of result also appeared to be true during other aspects of the observation.

The students generally completed all sections of the organizer, rather than only

doing a part and claiming that they were finished with the assignment (as often occurred

prior to the study). This may be due to the fact that the students knew that there were no

certain right/wrong answers. They might have felt more comfortable completing

assignments where their ideas matter. They also tended to go through the text to find the

answers, rather than skimming through the chapter to locate key words and phrases.

Because of these behaviors, the students spent between 20 and 30 minutes completing the

organizers – these results were in line with the goal of 25-30 minutes set prior to the

study.

Tests/Assessment Results

Assessment data was analyzed for students in both the control and experimental

groups in the study. Each group was given two identical tests prior to and during the

study period. These results were analyzed in a number of ways. These four tests were

divided into two sections: objective and reading comprehension. Data was collected by

looking at the test results from the reading comprehension section as well as the overall

scores. These scores were analyzed by determining the mean average for each section of

the data. In addition, the standard deviations were calculated for the data. In order to


determine if the students in the experimental group and/or control group improved during

the study, a t-test was done to find the statistical significance of the test scores and data.

The control group, who received no classroom modifications, saw their overall

test scores remain relatively flat over the course of pre and post-study periods. The t-test

found the results of the control group to be “not statistically significant.” Ideally, a

control group’s scores would remain fairly steady during a study, and this is no

exception. Unlike the control group, the experimental group received modifications to

their daily activities in class. In this study, they were exposed to graphic organizers on

their daily reading assignments. Even though their overall (mean) scores showed little

improvement, the students in the experimental group showed progress in other areas

since the pre-study period. In particular, the students performed well on the reading

comprehension sections of the tests, which were found to be “statistically significant”

after conducting a t-test. This data falls in line with the research questions, which asked

to see the students improve their test scores during the study.

Reading comprehension scores increased greatly during the study, which was a

positive outcome – but this data suggests that the students performed at a lower level on

the rest of the test during the study period. There could be several factors to explain why

the students performed better on the reading comprehension sections than they did on the

objective portion. First, the students may have been less interested in the material being

used during the study than the materials they analyzed before the study. If this is the

case, it shows that graphic organizers had a positive effect on the students and their

ability and willingness to read and complete assignments. The students might also have

performed better on the reading comprehension sections because they were more


comfortable with the organizers that accompanied the readings – especially after

consistently using the materials over the six week period.

Another factor could be that the students liked the more open-ended nature of the

graphic organizer assignments. They may have been more relaxed because they knew

that the organizers did not require them to have every detail written in exactly the right

style and format. In addition, there are no absolutes on the graphic organizers. Much of

what the students complete is based on their interpretation of the materials that they are

reading. Too often, students become stressed if they have a slightly different idea for an

answer than is worded in the test or assignment. The reading comprehension section’s

open-endedness could have helped to alleviate some of this stress.

Another possible reason for the outcome could be that the students were more

focused on completing the graphic organizers in-class than they were on other materials

and methods. During the tests, the students might have spent more time reading the

documents and devoted less time to the objective portion. In turn, they could have

focused more intently on their answers for this section. Any or all of these reasons could

explain why reading comprehension scores increased, while the objective scores

decreased over the course of the study.

Conclusions

A thorough review of the current literature on graphic organizers showed that

using these tools in a social studies classroom could improve student reading and overall

achievement levels. Much of the literature recommended using a “story map” graphic

organizer in social studies. This type of organizer was used by the experimental group


approximately 20 times throughout the study to measure student participation on in-class

activities and achievement on assessments and tests.

The first research question was tested by using informal, public observations

recorded by the teacher as the students were completing their graphic organizers. These

observations showed that the students were typically on task completing their graphic

organizers as they read through material in the textbook or other documents. In fact,

there were only a few isolated incidents where a student did not complete the organizer in

the allotted time. Overall, the organizers helped the students meet their in-class goals on

nearly every occasion.

The second research question was tested by analyzing data on tests before and

during the study. The graphic organizers helped the students make progress in their

reading comprehension test scores. In fact, the experimental group’s mean score

increased by over 22 points from the beginning to the end of the study. These scores

indicate that over this particular six week period, graphic organizers effectively helped

the students improve on the reading section of the tests. Although the students’ reading

comprehension results are promising, the mean for the entire test only went up about one

point from the beginning to the end of the study. More time would be needed to see the

full impact of graphic organizers on the overall test scores.

The results of this study show that graphic organizers have some positive effects

on student participation, reading comprehension, and test scores. Students also

completed assignments with more regularity during the study. Since most of the results

of the study are positive, it can be concluded that the graphic organizers should have a

place in a social studies classroom – particularly to assist students with reading


assignments. In the future, more diverse sets of graphic organizers could be used to help

further differentiate instruction.

Limitations of the Study

The goal of this study was to discover if graphic organizers improved student

achievement in a social studies classroom. Despite the successful implementation of all

facets of the study, the results were mixed. The students improved in some areas, while

remaining steady in others.

This study was limited to a review of literature on graphic organizers and their

effectiveness, action research on student behaviors and assessments in the classroom, and

the participation of the students in two ninth grade social studies classes. One class

represented the control group, while the other comprised the experimental group. The

study lasted approximately six weeks.

Everyday teachers have to find ways to reach their students, no matter what is

affecting them outside of school. This study was no different, since the results of the

study could have been skewed by outside factors like demanding extracurricular activities

(clubs, sports, etc.) and events and situations that take place in the students’ homes. In

addition, some students may have progressed more quickly than others for a number of

reasons like their ability level, absences, and ability to focus on the lessons.

Recommendations

The graphic organizers in this study were called “story maps.” They require

students to look specifically at the main ideas and important supporting details of a


reading. There are a number of other types of graphic organizers like Venn diagrams, K-

W-L charts, and timelines. In the future, it might be beneficial to expand the scope of the

graphic organizers to include other types. This could lead to other opportunities to offer

differentiated instruction for students of different ability levels, learning profiles, and

interests.

The research on this topic was vast, coming from numerous scholarly journals and

books. The majority of the research promoted the use of graphic organizers in the

classroom. Throughout the literature review, there was little research done on the

potential problems with using graphic organizers. This limited the researcher’s ability to

have a list of behaviors or trends to look for during the study. In addition, much of the

literature focused on using graphic organizers on students in the elementary and middle

grade levels. The students in this study were in ninth grade – at the tail end of that

spectrum. The methodology used in this study might be even more beneficial to teachers

and students at the lower grade levels.

Student adaptation to the use of graphic organizers was fairly smooth throughout

the study. In fact, after several observations of student behavior, it was evident that the

students worked hard and usually strived to complete the organizers in a complete,

correct manner. This behavior was unexpected at the beginning of the study. Because

student behavior was generally positive, organizers were implemented on a nearly daily

basis. Only on a few isolated occasions did the students not complete the organizers in

their entirety. These results show that graphic organizers can be an effective tool to get

students to actively engage in their reading during class.


Despite these positive behaviors, there is no guarantee that the students would not

have behaved this way without the use of graphic organizers. In addition, the results of

the research were not fully supportive of the success of graphic organizers. There were

many positives in the results, but they were not enough to make a definitive conclusion

on their success. There may be other methods that could help the students make progress

even more quickly. In order to fully determine the successfulness of story map graphic

organizers, the study would have to be extended into a period of years, not weeks or

months.

This study has shown that graphic organizers can be beneficial to student learning

– particularly with their reading comprehension. In the study, graphic organizers were

used on an almost daily basis for six weeks. In hindsight, this could have been an

overuse of the organizers. In the future, they should be used more as “advance

organizers” - a compliment to other activities taking place in the classroom. They would

be ideal tools for students to get a better grasp of the materials they would use to prepare

in their reading for role-plays, simulation games, and research projects.

This study showed that students using organizers can improve their reading

comprehension and time on task in the classroom. These results illustrate that graphic

organizers can be a useful classroom tool that leads to increased comprehension in a

variety of areas – not just reading. Improved comprehension should then also lead to

improved assessment scores. Although organizers have some positive results when being

used independently, it would be best to use organizers alongside other methodologies.

This would to provide teachers with a more complete picture of student achievement and

success.


References

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Appendix A

History Frame

Mr. Klugh

Subject: _______________________________________

↓

→

Title of Event: Key people/participants:

Problem or Goal:

Where:

When:

Key Events/Episodes:

Outcome/Resolution:

Theme/Lesson/So What?


Narrative Frame

Mr. Klugh

Theme/Title: In this chapter, the problem begins when…

After that… Then,

�

Next, Next,

�

Then, Next,

�

The problem is solved when… The problem ends with…

�


Appendix B

Student Reading Survey

The following questions will ask you about your reading and organizational skills in this

class. Please think carefully about your responses and be as honest as possible. Thank

you.

Key: 5 = Strongly Agree

4 = Agree

3 = No opinion

2 = Disagree

1 = Strongly Disagree

1. I feel comfortable with the vocabulary being used in this course.

5………4………3………2………1

2. The sequence of events in this course flow together smoothly.

5………4………3………2………1

3. I feel confused when I read the materials for this course.

5………4………3………2………1

4. I have a method of organizing the materials that I complete in this course.

5………4………3………2………1

5. I take notes while I read from the textbook.

5………4………3………2………1

6. The reading materials and topics in this course interest me.

5………4………3………2………1

7. I enjoy reading.

5………4………3………2………1


Appendix C

Graphic Organizer Checklist

Date: ______________

How many students are actively working on the graphic organizer?

___ 20+ ___15-19 ___10-14 ___ 5-9 ___0-4

How many students are completing all sections of the organizer?

___ 20+ ___15-19 ___10-14 ___ 5-9 ___0-4

Are the students actively engaged in using the textbook?

___ All students ___ Most students ___ About ½ of students ___ Less than ½ of

students

How long does it take for all of the students to complete the organizer?

___30+ minutes ___25-29 minutes ___20-24 minutes ___15-19 minutes

___less than 15 minutes


Appendix D

Tests/Assessments

The New Nation: Unit 4 Test U.S. History

America Advances and Expands Mr. Klugh

Part 1: Matching

1. Macadam Roads A. Roads created by placing logs side-by-side

2. National Road B. Road that connected the east coast and Mississippi River

3. Corduroy Roads C. Roads created by placing flat pieces of wood together

4. Plank Roads D. Roads created by laying a rock base with an asphalt top layer

Part 2: Multiple Choice

5. Who was responsible for the construction of the Erie Canal?

a. Thomas Jefferson

b. Andrew Jackson

c. James Monroe

d. DeWitt Clinton

6. According to the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the president had the power to…

a. Destroy the villages of Indian tribes in the west

b. Force the Indians to move northward into Canada

c. Legally move the Indians west of the Mississippi River

d. Cut trade with Indian tribes

7. Which of the following was a nickname for the steam engine?

a. Power Pony

b. Iron Horse

c. Steam Trackers

d. Tom Thumb

8. Who started using interchangeable parts on their products?

a. Francis Cabot Lowell

b. Samuel Slater

c. Eli Whitney

d. John Quincy Adams

9. What did the invention of the cotton gin do to the south?

a. Increased the amount of poverty among slave owners

b. Forced them to compete with European cotton producers

c. Increased slavery all over the region

d. Made the southern people lazy

10. Where did Americans get most of their goods from before the Revolutionary War?

a. Great Britain

b. India

c. Spain


d. South America

11. How did the Supreme Court rule in Worcester v. Georgia?

a. That the Cherokee Indians should move westward immediately

b. That the government should set aside land in Georgia for the tribes

c. That it was unconstitutional and wrong to move the Indians from their land

d. That the Cherokee Indians were now citizens of the U.S.A

12. What deal did Osceola attempt to make with the U.S. government to save his people, the

Seminole Indians?

a. The Seminoles would allow the white Americans to take their land in exchange

for money

b. The Seminoles would move if the U.S. government would provide protection for

them against the Creeks

c. They made no deal with the government and decided to go to war with the U.S.

d. They would move west if the government would recognize their tribe as an

independent nation

13. How did the Erie Canal influence the growth of New York City?

a. The Canal diverted traffic around the city, causing no growth

b. The Canal connected New York and Baltimore, making both cities grow

c. The Canal connected New York with Lake Erie and the west, leading to huge

growth

d. The Canal only lasted a few years, making its effects on the city unclear

14. Which of the following is NOT a way that the Cherokee were adapting to the ways of the

White Americans?

a. Set up trading posts on the coast

b. Converted to Christianity

c. Wrote a Constitution

d. Built a capital city

15. What was the result of the Seminole War?

a. The Seminoles were able to keep their land in Florida

b. The U.S. sent Creek Indians into their land afterward

c. The Seminoles were forced to pay money after they lost

d. Neither side was able to win convincingly

16. Whose introduction of interchangeable parts revolutionized the way that products were

made and used?

a. Samuel Slater

b. Eli Whitney

c. Osceola

d. John Q. Adams

17. What was President Jackson’s reaction to the Worcester v. Georgia case?

a. He supported the result and allowed the Cherokee to remain in Georgia

b. He supported the result and gave the Cherokee special trading benefits

c. He opposed the result and resigned as president

d. He ignored the actions of the Supreme Court and fought for removal


18. Where did the Erie Canal begin and end?

a. New York City and Baltimore

b. Albany and Baltimore

c. Albany and Buffalo

d. Boston and Buffalo

19. How did shipping costs change as a result of the Erie Canal?

a. Greatly decreased

b. Greatly increased

c. Barely increased

d. Barely decreased

20. Who invented the first working steamboat, which sailed on the Hudson River and

improved trade?

a. Robert Fulton

b. George Stephenson

c. Francis Cabot Lowell

d. Samuel Worcester

21. What was the MAIN reason why white Americans continually pushed Indians westward?

a. They believed the Indians would be better off in the west

b. They felt that the Indians could live in harmony together

c. They wanted the valuable farmland where they lived

d. They were afraid to go to war with the tribes

Part 3 – Reading Comprehension: Read the following excerpt and answer the questions that

follow.

Indian Removal In 1830 John Ross, Principal Chief of the Cherokee, made a speech to the Iroquois League

Read the words of John Ross, and then answer the questions below.

"Brothers: The tradition of our Fathers . . . tells us that this great and extensive Continent was

once the sole and exclusive abode of our race. . . . Ever since [the whites came] we have been

made to drink of the bitter cup of humiliation; treated like dogs . . . our country and the graves of

our Fathers torn from us . . . through a period of upwards of 200 years, rolled back, nation upon

nation [until] we find ourselves fugitives, vagrants and strangers in our own country. . . .

"The existence of the Indian Nations as distinct Independent Communities within the limits of the

United States seems to be drawing to a close. . . . You are aware that our Brethren, the Choctaws,

Chickasaws and Creeks of the South have severally disposed of their country to the United States

and that a portion of our own Tribe have also emigrated West of the Mississippi -- but that the

largest portion of our Nation still remain firmly upon our ancient domain. . . . Our position there

may be compared to a solitary tree in an open space, where all the forest trees around have been

prostrated by a furious tornado."

Answer the following questions in one sentence. Be sure to answer in complete sentences.

22. What is John Ross’ main idea in this excerpt?


23. What does Ross say happened to other Indian groups?

24. How is imagery used by Ross to describe the Cherokee nation?

25. Based on the reading and context clues, give a brief definition of “abode”.

Part 4 – Short Answer

26. What were three problems that the tribes encountered on the “Trail of Tears”?

27. What were three characteristics of the Industrial Revolution?

Part 5 – Essay – Answer in 4-5 paragraph format to receive full credit.

• How did the Industrial Revolution change the way Americans lived? Be sure to give a

number of examples and describe their importance.


The New Nation U.S. History

Unit 5 Test: History’s Paradox Mr. Klugh

Part 1: Matching

1. Emancipate A. A group of three people

2. Doctrine B. A contradiction, two things that cannot happen at once

3. Paradox C. To do away with something

4. Triumvirate D. To set free

5. Abolish E. An important policy

Part 2: Multiple Choice

6. Which of the following people ran for president 5 times?

a. John C. Calhoun

b. Andrew Jackson

c. Henry Clay

d. Daniel Webster

7. Which of the following is the best reason why John Calhoun called slavery a “positive

good”?

a. He wants to make sure that southerners stay unified on the slavery issue

b. He wants slavery to sound like a good and noble institution

c. He wants to convince the northerners that slavery is not as bad as it seems

d. He wants to keep the slaves on his plantation brainwashed

8. What part of the Constitution banned slave trade after 1808?

a. Article I, Section 2

b. Article I, Section 9

c. Article II, Section 2

d. Article II, Section 9

9. What event triggered the beginning of the reign of “King Cotton”?

a. The end of the slave trade

b. The Revolutionary War

c. The invention of the steam engine

d. The invention of the cotton gin

10. Other than Missouri, which state entered the Union during the Missouri Compromise?

a. Massachusetts

b. Louisiana

c. Florida

d. Maine

11. Which of the following is the best definition of an “abolitionist”?

a. They wanted an immediate end to slavery

b. They wanted a slow, gradual end to slavery

c. They wanted slavery to slowly expand westward

d. They wanted an alliance between southern and western states

12. Why was William Henry Harrison nicknamed “Old Tippecanoe”?


a. He helped command the Indians at the Battle of Tippecanoe

b. He invaded Prophetstown and won the Battle of Tippecanoe

c. He ran the American forces in the French and Indian War

d. He commanded the Americans in the Seminole War

13. What was the main reason that slavery did not end?

a. Slavery represented money and strong economy in the south

b. Slavery was necessary to make the United States strong

c. Slaves would be too much trouble if they were freed

d. Slaves needed replaced often because many of them died working

14. Who was the only president from Pennsylvania?

a. James K. Polk

b. James Madison

c. James Buchanan

d. Benjamin Franklin

15. What types of people supported Daniel Webster in his bid for the presidency?

a. Rural farmers

b. Plantation owners

c. Business owners and lawyers

d. Western frontiersmen

16. What did Frederick Douglass learn while he was a slave in Baltimore?

a. How to become a businessman

b. How to exchange currencies

c. How to read and write

d. How to avoid slave auctions

17. What was the result of Paul Cuffe’s protests against the government?

a. He was defeated and sent to jail

b. He was deported back to Africa

c. He earned the right to vote

d. His case never made it to court

18. What did both white and black southerners like to do during their leisure time?

a. They wrote books about the South

b. They told each other stories about their lives

c. They took long walks on the farm

d. They vacationed in Europe

19. Who convinced the western states to avoid joining up with the south during a debate in

the Senate?

a. Robert Young Hayne

b. Daniel Webster

c. John C. Calhoun

d. Andrew Jackson

20. What is the most important paradox listed in your textbook from this period?

a. Slavery occurred in a land of freedom

b. The legal end of the slave trade in 1808 actually made slavery grow


c. Fairness is part of the constitution, but it is not outlawed in the document

d. America has been both a dream and a nightmare

21. How many people were lynched by mobs between 1840-1860 in the south?

a. 300

b. 3000

c. 100

d. 1000

Part 3 – Reading Comprehension: Read the excerpts and answer the questions that follow in

complete sentences.

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass Published in 1845

“I never saw my mother more than four or five times in my life. She made her journeys to see me

in the night, travelling the whole distance on foot [12 miles], after the performance of her day’s

work. She was a field hand, and a whipping is the penalty of not being in the field at sunrise. I

do not recollect of ever seeing my mother by the light of day. She was with me in the night. She

would lie down with me, and get me to sleep, but long before I waked she was gone….She died

when I was about seven years old….I was not allowed to be present during her illness, at her

death, or burial.”

22. What was the main idea of this paragraph?

23. Why did Frederick’s mother only see him during the nighttime hours?

THE CHURCH AND PREJUDICE

(Speech delivered at the Plymouth County Anti-Slavery Society, November 4, 1841)

“People in general will say they like colored men as well as any other, but in their proper place.

They assign us that place; they don’t let us do it ourselves nor will they allow us a voice in that

decision. They will not allow that we have a head to think, and a heart to feel and a soul to

aspire….That’s the way we are liked. You degrade us, and then ask why we are degraded – you

shut our mouths and then ask why we don’t speak – you close your colleges and seminaries

against us, and they ask why we don’t know more.”

24. What was the main idea of this paragraph?

25. Based on the reading and context clues, give a brief definition of “degraded”.

Part 4 – Short Answer

26. Name three states that were added to the United States during the presidency of James K.

Polk?

27. What was unique about Martin Van Buren’s birth?

Part 5 – Essay: Answer in 4-5 paragraph format to receive full credit.

• Explain the abolitionist movement and Frederick Douglass’ role in that movement.


Appendix E

Consent and Assent Forms

Dear parent/guardian:

My name is Jeffrey Klugh (your child’s social studies teacher) and I am currently

working on my master’s degree at California University of Pennsylvania. The final

requirement for the master’s degree is the successful completion of a thesis. My

thesis is entitled “Student Reading Comprehension: An Analysis of the Effectiveness

of Graphic Organizers in a Social Studies Classroom.” In order to make this project a

success, I will be analyzing data from both of my U.S. History classes. I will also be

conducting two short surveys in class around March 14, 2008 and April 10, 2008.

These surveys will be used for me to collect data on my classes and they will not be

used in any way that would incur risks on you or your child. To allay any fears you

might have, your child will not be required to provide their name on the survey, nor

will they be asked to provide any information that would make them identifiable. I

will be the only person to make use of the information from the surveys and the

surveys will remain in my personal possession or locked away in a filing cabinet here

at the school. This survey has been approved by the University’s Institutional Review

Board for use during the next 12 months (02/27/2008-02/26/2009). Please remember

that this survey is anonymous and voluntary.

Please understand that by signing this form you are also consenting to your child’s

participation in this study as a member of the control group/class. This means that

your child will continue participating in class as they have throughout the course of

this school year (the experimental class will be exposed to graphic organizers on a

consistent basis over the next two months).

Thank you,

Mr. Jeffrey Klugh

[email protected]

(570) 398-7170 x1133

I, ___________________________ (please sign here) permit my son/daughter,

____________________________________, to participate in the above experiment

and survey in their U.S. History class.

Date signed: _____________________

Dear parent/guardian:


My name is Jeffrey Klugh (your child’s social studies teacher) and I am currently

working on my master’s degree at California University of Pennsylvania. The final

requirement for the master’s degree is the successful completion of a thesis. My

thesis is entitled “Student Reading Comprehension: An Analysis of the Effectiveness

of Graphic Organizers in a Social Studies Classroom.” In order to make this project a

success, I will be analyzing data from both of my U.S. History classes. I will also be

conducting two short surveys in class around March 14, 2008 and April 10, 2008.

These surveys will be used for me to collect data on my classes and they will not be

used in any way that would incur risks on you or your child. To allay any fears you

might have, your child will not be required to provide their name on the survey, nor

will they be asked to provide any information that would make them identifiable. I

will be the only person to make use of the information from the surveys and the

surveys will remain in my personal possession or locked away in a filing cabinet here

at the school. This survey has been approved by the University’s Institutional Review

Board for use during the next 12 months (02/27/2008-02/26/2009). Please remember

that this survey is anonymous and voluntary.

Please understand that by signing this form you are also consenting to your child’s

participation in this study as a member of the experimental group/class. This means

that your child will be asked to use graphic organizers on a consistent basis during the

next two months (the control class will continue to participate in class as they have

during the school year).

Thank you,

Mr. Jeffrey Klugh

[email protected]

(570) 398-7170 x1133

I, ___________________________ (please sign here) permit my son/daughter,

_________________________________, to participate in the above experiment and

survey in their U.S. History class.

Date signed: _____________________


Assent to participate in an anonymous survey/research study

Dear student,

During this semester I will be working on my thesis to complete my master’s degree

program at California University of Pennsylvania. While I am working on this

project, I will be analyzing data from our classes. One of the classes will be part of

the control group – this group continues to participate in class as they have

throughout the school year. The other group, the experimental group, will be working

with graphic organizers during class. In order to start this project, I will be

conducting a brief reading survey with you around March 14, 2008 and April 10,

2008. Even though I am your teacher, I want you to know that your participation is

voluntary and optional. Keep in mind that anything that you include in this survey

will remain anonymous. If you are willing to participate, sign this form on the line

provided. The University’s Institutional Review Board has approved the use of this

survey for use over the next 12 months (02/27/2008-02/26/2009). Remember, this

survey is anonymous and voluntary.

Thank you,

Mr. Klugh

[email protected]

I, ____________________________, will participate in the reading survey and

research study as a member of the control group.


Assent to participate in an anonymous survey/research study

Dear student,

During this semester I will be working on my thesis to complete my master’s degree

program at California University of Pennsylvania. While I am working on this

project, I will be analyzing data from our classes. One of the classes will be part of

the control group – this group continues to participate in class as they have

throughout the school year. The other group, the experimental group, will be working

with graphic organizers during class. In order to start this project, I will be

conducting a brief reading survey with you around March 14, 2008 and April 10,

2008. Even though I am your teacher, I want you to know that your participation is

voluntary and optional. Keep in mind that anything that you include in this survey

will remain anonymous. If you are willing to participate, sign this form on the line

provided. The University’s Institutional Review Board has approved the use of this

survey for use over the next 12 months (02/27/2008-02/26/2009). Remember, this

survey is anonymous and voluntary.

Thank you,

Mr. Klugh

[email protected]

I, ____________________________, will participate in the reading survey and

research study as a member of the experimental group.


Appendix F

IRB Approval

Institutional Review Institutional Review Institutional Review Institutional Review BoardBoardBoardBoard

California University of Pennsylvania Psychology Department LRC, Room 310

250 University Avenue California, PA 15419

[email protected] Robert Skwarecki, Ph.D., CCC-SLP, Chair

Dear Jeffrey Klugh, Please consider this email as official notification that your proposal titled "Student Reading Comprehension: An Analysis of Graphic Organizers in a Social Studies Classroom" ( proposal # 07-041 ) has been approved by the California University of Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board with stipulation: -It is indicated that the surveys will be kept in a locked file cabinet, but does not state exactly where. You need to specify a university office or another appropriate place. You may begin data collection immediately after you edit the consent form. Please send a copy of the form at your earliest convenience for the Board’s records.. The effective date of the approval is 2-27-2008 and the expiration date is 2-26-2009. These dates must appear on the consent form. Please note that Federal Policy requires that you notify the IRB promptly regarding any of the following: -(1) Any additions or changes in procedures you might wish for your study (additions or changes must be approved by the IRB before they are implemented) -(2) Any events that affect the safety or well-being of subjects

-(3) Any modifications of your study or other responses that are necessitated by any events reported in (2) -(4) To continue your research beyond the approval expiration date of 2-26-2009, you must file additional information to be considered for continuing review. Please contact [email protected] Please notify the Board when data collection is complete. You can pick up your paperwork in Morgan Hall room 310 at the hours listed below

Amy Gregg IRB Graduate Assistant

*Note: All requested changes were made for the study

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