1.1ater as a Limited Resource W 2 Chapter 2 Previe Math Assignment 33...

ix

Table of Contents

1.9 Additional Resources 33

Chapter Review 34

Chapter 2Water Storage Facilities 37

2.1 Purpose of Storage Facilities 38

2.2 Types of Storage Facilities 40

2.2.1 Clear Wells 42

2.2.1.1 Elevated Tanks 42

2.2.1.2 Standpipes 42

2.2.1.3 Ground-Level Reservoirs 43

2.2.2 Hydro-Pneumatic or Pressure Tanks 43

2.2.3 Surge Tanks 43

2.2.4 Surge Protection 44

2.3 Selection and Location of Storage Facilities 45

2.4 Storage Tank Operation 46

2.4.1 Storage Levels 48

2.4.2 Storage Level Controls 51

2.4.3 Pumps 52

2.4.4 Sampling 54

2.4.5 Troubleshooting 54

2.5 Maintenance 56

2.5.1 Inspection 56

2.5.2 Cleaning 58

2.5.3 Painting 58

2.5.4 Corrosion Control 61

2.5.5 Disinfection 64

2.5.6 Concrete Storage Facilities 68

2.5.7 Frozen Distribution Reservoirs 68

Chapter 1Introduction to Water Distribution 1

1.1 Water as a Limited Resource 2

1.2 The Water Supply System 3

1.2.1 Sources of Water 4

1.2.1.1 Ocean Water 4

1.2.1.2 Surface Water 6

1.2.1.3 Groundwater 7

1.2.1.4 Reclaimed Water 8

1.2.2 Storage Facilities 9

1.2.3 Treatment Facilities 9

1.2.3.1 Water Treatment 10

1.2.4 Distribution Systems 10

1.3 Water Quality Standards 12

1.4 Water Quality in Distribution Systems 15

1.4.1 Water Quality Complaints 16

1.5 Contaminants and Their Sources 18

1.5.1 Supplied Water Quality 19

1.5.2 Water Quality Degradation 20

1.5.2.1 Water Mains 24

1.5.2.2 Storage Facilities 26

1.5.3 Water Quality Monitoring 27

1.6 Protecting Water Quality Through O&M 28

1.7 Distribution System Operators 29

1.7.1 Operation and Maintenance 30

1.7.2 Supervision and Administration 30

1.7.3 Public Relations 31

1.7.4 Safety 32

1.8 Math Assignment 33

000200010271997883_CH00_FM_pi-xvi.indd 9 05/03/18 9:26 am

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x Table of Contents

3.7.4.10 Safety 130

3.7.5 Pipe Extensions 131

3.7.6 Appurtenances 132

3.7.6.1 Valves 132

3.7.6.2 Fittings 142

3.7.6.3 Hydrants 143

3.8 Meters 146

3.8.1 Displacement Meters 147

3.8.2 Velocity-Type Meters 149

3.8.3 Compound Meters 150

3.8.4 Electronic Meters 151

3.8.5 Proportional Meters 151

3.9 Service Connections 152

3.9.1 Installation 153

3.9.2 Backflow Prevention Devices 155



Chapter Review 164

Chapter 4Operation and Maintenance 167

4.1 Need for System Operation and Maintenance 168

4.2 System Surveillance 169

4.2.1 Treated Water Storage Facilities 169

4.2.2 Mains 171

4.2.3 Valves and Blowoffs 171

4.2.4 Meters and Curb Boxes 171

4.2.5 Preventing Vandalism 172

4.2.6 Telemetering 173

4.2.7 Other Surveillance 173

4.3 Water Quality Monitoring 173

4.3.1 Monitoring Program 174

4.3.2 Sampling Location 178

4.3.3 Bacteriological Sampling 178

4.3.4 Chlorine Residual Testing 179

2.6 Booster Pumps, Regulator Stations, and Gauges 70

2.7 Records 74

2.8 Safety 74



Chapter Review 76

Chapter 3Distribution System Facilities 79

3.1 Delivering Water 80

3.2 Hydraulics 81

3.3 Performance Considerations 86

3.4 Water Transmission Systems 90

3.5 Distribution Storage 90

3.5.1 Location 91

3.5.2 Types of Storage 91

3.5.3 Preventing Contamination 93

3.6 Storage and Booster Pumping 93

3.7 Water Mains and Appurtenances 94

3.7.1 Pipe Types 97

3.7.1.1 Types of Service Pipe 101

3.7.2 Joints 102

3.7.3 Pipe Protection 107

3.7.4 Pipe Installation 108

3.7.4.1 Locating Nearby Utility Lines 109

3.7.4.2 Water and Sewer Line Separation 109

3.7.4.3 Storage and Handling 109

3.7.4.4 Excavation and Shoring 111

3.7.4.5 Pipe Laying and Jointing 120

3.7.4.6 Thrust Blocks 123

3.7.4.7 Backfilling 124

3.7.4.8 Pressure and Leakage Tests 125

3.7.4.9 Main Disinfection 129


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Table of Contents xi

4.8.13.4 Maintenance 247

4.8.13.5 Meter Reading 248

4.8.14 Corrosion Control 249

4.9 Field Disinfection 251

4.9.1 Disinfection of Mains 252

4.9.2 Disinfection of Storage Facilities 256

4.10 Records 259

4.10.1 Maps 260

4.11 SCADA Systems 264

4.12 Equipment and Stores 265

4.13 Emergency Planning 266

4.14 Public Relations 268

4.15 Facility Landscaping and Surface Water Drainage 270

4.16 Distribution System Math 274



Chapter Review 281

Chapter 5Disinfection 285

5.1 Drinking Water Safety 286

5.1.1 Safe Drinking Water Laws 286

5.2 Factors Influencing Disinfection 289

5.2.1 pH 289

5.2.2 Temperature 289

5.2.3 Turbidity 289

5.2.3.1 Organic Matter 290

5.2.3.2 Inorganic Matter 290

5.2.4 Reducing Agents 290

5.2.5 Microorganisms 290

5.2.6 Disinfection Considerations 291

4.3.5 Lead and Copper Monitoring and Sampling Procedures 180

4.4 Cross-Connection Control 181

4.4.1 Program Responsibilities 182

4.4.2 Water Supplier Program 184

4.4.3 Typical Cross-Connection Hazards 186

4.4.3.1 Hazardous Chemicals Used by Consumers 186

4.4.3.2 Industries with Cross-Connection Potential 188

4.4.3.3 Maintenance and Testing Procedures 193

4.5 System Pressures 194

4.6 Distribution Storage 195

4.7 Pumps 195

4.8 Water Main and Appurtenance Maintenance 201

4.8.1 Locating Leaks 201

4.8.2 Locating Pipes 206

4.8.3 Repairing Leaks and Pulled Services 207

4.8.4 Making Pipe and Service Connections 208

4.8.5 Detecting Service Deficiencies 209

4.8.6 Pipe Flushing 212

4.8.7 Pipe Cleaning 216

4.8.8 Cement-Mortar Lining 222

4.8.9 Thawing 223

4.8.9.1 Hot Water Thawing of Frozen Service Lines 224

4.8.9.2 Steam Thawing of Frozen Service Valves, Main Valves, and Hydrants 225

4.8.9.3 Electrical Thawing of Frozen Service Lines 226

4.8.9.4 Flushing the Water Mains to Prevent Freezing 228

4.8.10 Main Breaks 232

4.8.11 Valves 232

4.8.12 Fire Hydrants 239

4.8.13 Meters 242

4.8.13.1 Test Procedures 242

4.8.13.2 Accuracy Testing Requirements 245

4.8.13.3 Meter Registers and Readouts 246


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5.5 Operation of Chlorination Equipment 324

5.5.1 Hypochlorinators 324

5.5.2 Chlorinators 325

5.5.2.1 Chlorinator Flow Path 327

5.5.2.2 Chlorinator Parts and Their Purposes 328

5.5.3 Chlorine Containers 332

5.5.3.1 Plastic 332

5.5.3.2 Steel Cylinders 332

5.5.3.3 Ton Tanks 332

5.5.4 Chlorine Room Ventilation 333

5.5.5 Chlorine Storage and Handling 334

5.5.6 Removing Chlorine from Containers 335

5.5.6.1 Connections 335

5.5.6.2 Valves 336

5.5.6.3 Ton Tanks 336

5.5.7 Performance of Chlorination Units 336

5.5.7.1 Hypochlorinators 337

5.5.7.2 Chlorinators 342

5.5.8 Normal and Abnormal Operation 346

5.5.8.1 Container Storage Area 346

5.5.8.2 Evaporators 347

5.5.8.3 Chlorinators, Including Injectors 350

5.5.8.4 Daily Operations 354

5.5.8.5 Laboratory Tests 356

5.5.9 Gas Chlorinator System Troubleshooting 357

5.5.10 Disinfection Troubleshooting 358

5.5.11 Managing Chlorination System Failure 358

5.6 Maintenance of Chlorination Equipment 358

5.6.1 Chlorine Leaks 358

5.6.2 Chlorine Facilities Installation Considerations 362

5.7 Measuring Chlorine Residual 364

5.7.1 Amperometric Titration for Free Chlorine Residual 364

5.7.2 DPD Colorimetric Method for Free Chlorine Residual 364

5.8 Chlorine Safety Program 365

5.8.1 Chlorine Hazards 366

5.8.2 Why Chlorine Must Be Handled with Care 366

5.3 Disinfection Process 292

5.3.1 Physical Means of Disinfection 292

5.3.2 Chemical Disinfectants (Other Than Chlorine) 293

5.3.3 Chlorine 294

5.3.3.1 Chlorine Disinfection Action 294

5.3.3.2 Reactions with Water 295

5.3.3.3 Reactions with Impurities in Water 295

5.3.4 Hypochlorite 297

5.3.4.1 Reactions with Water 297

5.3.4.2 Chlorine Gas Reactions vs. Hypochlorite Compound Reactions 298

5.3.4.3 Onsite Chlorine Generation 298

5.3.5 Chlorine Dioxide 298

5.3.5.1 Reaction in Water 299

5.3.5.2 Reactions with Impurities in Water 299

5.3.6 Breakpoint Chlorination 299

5.3.7 Chloramination 301

5.3.7.1 Methods for Producing Chloramines 302

5.3.7.2 Chlorine-to-Ammonia-Nitrogen Ratios 302

5.3.7.3 Special Water Users 303

5.3.7.4 Blending Chloraminated Waters 303

5.3.7.5 Chloramine Residuals 303

5.3.8 Nitrification 304

5.3.8.1 Nitrification Prevention and Control 305

5.3.9 Chlorine Residual Testing 306

5.3.9.1 Chlorine Residual Curve 306

5.3.9.2 Critical Factors 307

5.3.10 CT Values 308

5.3.11 Chlorination Process Calculations 309

5.4 Points of Chlorine Application 311

5.4.1 Wells and Pumps 311

5.4.1.1 Procedures 315

5.4.1.2 Continuous Disinfecting of Wells 315

5.4.2 Mains 315

5.4.2.1 Disinfection Alternatives 317

5.4.2.2 Flushing After Disinfection 320

5.4.2.3 Testing After Disinfection 320

5.4.2.4 Emergency or Maintenance Disinfection 320

5.4.2.5 Disinfection Specifications 321

5.4.2.6 Disinfection Problems 321

5.4.3 Tanks 322


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5.8.3 Chlorine Safety for Operators 367

5.8.3.1 First-Aid Measures 368

5.8.4 Hypochlorite Safety 369

5.8.5 Operator Safety Training 369

5.9 Chlorination Math 370

5.9.1 Disinfection of Facilities 371

5.9.1.1 Wells and Pumps 371

5.9.1.2 Mains 372

5.9.1.3 Tanks 373

5.9.2 Disinfection of Water from Wells 374

5.9.2.1 Chlorine Dose 374

5.9.2.2 Chlorinator 374

5.9.2.3 Hypochlorinator 377



Chapter Review 382

Chapter 6Safety 385

6.1 Safety Program 386

6.1.1 Tailgate Safety Sessions 387

6.1.1.1 Tailgate Safety Sample Script 387

6.1.2 Employee Right-To-Know Laws 388

6.2 Vehicle Safety 389

6.2.1 Towing a Trailer 389

6.2.2 How to Charge a Battery 390

6.2.3 Boat Safety 391

6.3 Personal Safety 392

6.3.1 MonitoringEquipment 392

6.3.2 PersonalProtectiveEquipment 397

6.3.3 Avoiding Slips and Falls 398

6.3.4 Handling and Lifting 398

6.3.5 Electrical Safety 399

6.3.6 Handling Corrosive Chemicals 399

6.4 Safety Around Wells 400

6.4.1 Location of Well Site 400

6.4.2 New Wells 401

6.4.3 Sanitary Seal 401

6.4.4 Surface Portion of Well 401

6.4.5 Tank Coatings 402

6.4.6 Well Chemicals 402

6.4.7 Working Around Electrical Units 404

6.4.8 Abandoning and Plugging Wells 405

6.4.9 Safety Inspection 405

6.5 Pump Safety 406

6.5.1 Guards Over Moving Parts 406

6.5.2 Maintenance and Repair 408

6.5.3 Lockout/Tagout Procedure 410

6.5.4 Storage of Lubricants and Fuel 411

6.6 Working in Streets 411

6.6.1 Fundamental Principles 412

6.6.2 Definitions 413

6.6.3 Major Temporary Traffic Control Considerations 417

6.6.4 Individuals Qualified to Control Traffic 418

6.6.5 Permission to Work Within the Right-of-Way 418

6.6.6 General Responsibilities of Utility Agencies 419

6.6.7 Street or Highway Work Regulations 419

6.6.8 Temporary Traffic Control Zones 420

6.6.8.1 Roadway Tapers 425

6.6.9 Pedestrian Safety 428

6.6.10 Worker Safety 431

6.6.10.1 Speed Limits in Work Zones 432

6.6.10.2 Flagger Control 433

6.6.11 Using Temporary Traffic Control Zone Devices 436

6.6.12 Excavations in Streets 451

6.6.12.1 Trenches 451

6.6.12.2 Cave-Ins 452

6.6.12.3 Using Ladders 453

6.6.12.4 Locating Underground Utilities Before You Dig 454

6.7 Safety Around Water Storage Facilities 456

6.7.1 Avoiding Slips and Falls 456

6.7.2 Using Ladders 456

6.7.3 Applying Interior Coatings 458

6.7.4 Working in Confined Spaces 459


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xiv Table of Contents

7.7.6 Telephone Contacts 508

7.7.7 ConsumerInquiries 509

7.7.8 Plant Tours 510

7.8 Planning for Financial Stability 511

7.8.1 Measuring Stability 511

7.8.2 Budgeting 512

7.8.3 EquipmentRepair/ReplacementFund 514

7.8.4 Water Rates 515

7.8.5 Capital Improvement Program 515

7.8.6 Financial Assistance 517

7.9 Operation and Maintenance 518

7.9.1 Using Geographic Information Systems 518

7.9.2 Types of Maintenance 519

7.9.3 Benefits of Managing Maintenance 521

7.9.4 SCADA Systems 521

7.9.5 Cross-Connection Control Program 525

7.9.5.1 Program Responsibilities 526

7.9.5.2 Water Supplier Program 527

7.10 Emergency Response 528

7.10.1 FederalRequirements 528

7.10.2 Security 531

7.10.2.1 Guarding Against Unplanned Physical Intrusion 532

7.10.2.2 Making Security a Priority for Employees 532

7.10.2.3 Coordinating Actions for Effective Emergency Response 533

7.10.2.4 Investing in Security and Infrastructure Improvements 533

7.10.3 Managing Contamination Threats 535

7.10.3.1 Evaluating and Responding to Threats 536

7.10.3.2 Cryptosporidium in water systems 538

7.11 Safety Program 539

7.11.1 Regulatory Agencies 540

7.11.2 Managers 540

7.11.3 Supervisors 541

7.11.4 Operators 543

7.11.5 First Aid 543

7.11.6 Hazard Communication Standard and Worker Right-To-Know Laws 544

6.8 Noise Exposure 463

6.9 Safety Inspections 466


Chapter Review 468

Chapter 7Management 473

7.1 Managing Utilities 474

7.2 Planning 476

7.3 Organizing 476

7.4 Staffing 480

7.4.1 Workforce Analysis 481

7.4.2 Qualifications Profile 481

7.4.3 Applications and the Selection Process 483

7.4.4 New Employee Orientation 487

7.4.5 Employment Policies and Procedures 487

7.4.5.1 Probationary Period 487

7.4.5.2 Compensation 488

7.4.5.3 Training and Certification 488

7.4.5.4 Performance Evaluation 489

7.4.5.5 Dealing with Disciplinary Problems 490

7.4.5.6 Example Policy: Harassment 495

7.4.5.7 Labor Laws Governing Employer/Employee Relations 499

7.4.5.8 Personnel Records 500

7.4.6 Unions 500

7.5 Communication 501

7.5.1 Oral Communication 502

7.5.2 Written Communication 503

7.6 Conducting Meetings 505

7.7 Public Relations 506

7.7.1 Establish Objectives 506

7.7.2 Utility Operations 507

7.7.3 The Mass Media 507

7.7.4 Being Interviewed 508

7.7.5 Public Speaking 508


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Table of Contents xv

Basic Concepts (Sections A.1–A.4) 587

A.1 Numbers and Operations 587

A.1.1 Addition 587

A.1.2 Subtraction 587

A.1.3 Multiplication 588

A.1.4 Division 588

A.2 Order of Operations 588

A.2.1 More on Exponents 592

A.3 Basic Algebra (Solving Equations) 592

A.4 Percentages 595

Intermediate Concepts (Sections A.5–A.6) 598

A.5 Units 598

A.5.1 Distance or Length 598

A.5.2 Area 599

A.5.2.1 Surface Area of a Rectangle 599

A.5.2.2 Surface Area of a Triangle 600

A.5.2.3 Surface Area of a Trapezoid 601

A.5.2.4 Surface Area of a Circle 601

A.5.2.5 Surface Area of a Cylinder 602

A.5.2.6 Surface Area of a Cone 603

A.5.2.7 Surface Area of a Sphere 604

A.5.3 Volume 604

A.5.3.1 Cube 605

A.5.3.2 Rectangular Prism 605

A.5.3.3 Triangular Prism 606

A.5.3.4 Cylinder 606

A.5.3.5 Cone 606

A.5.3.6 Sphere 607

A.5.4 Mass and Weight 607

A.5.5 Density, Specific Weight, and Specific Gravity 608

A.5.6 Concentration 608

A.5.7 Velocity and Flow Rate 610

A.5.8 Force and Pressure 612

A.5.9 Work, Head, and Power 617

A.6 Metric System 620

A.6.1 SI Base Units 620

7.11.7 Confined Space Entry Procedures 556

7.11.8 Reporting 558

7.11.9 Training 561

7.11.10 Measuring Program Effectiveness 563

7.11.11 Human Factors 567

7.12 Recordkeeping 568

7.12.1 Plant Operations Data 569

7.12.2 Maintenance 569

7.12.3 Procurement 569

7.12.4 Inventory 571

7.12.5 Equipment 571

7.12.6 Computer Recordkeeping Systems 571

7.12.7 Retaining Utility Records 572

7.13 Water and Energy Conservation 572

7.13.1 Elements of Conservation Programs 573

7.13.1.1 Residential Water Surveys 574

7.13.1.2 Residential Plumbing Retrofits 574

7.13.1.3 System Water Audits, Leak Detection, and Repair 575

7.13.1.4 Metering with Commodity Rates 575

7.13.1.5 Large Landscape Conservation Programs 575

7.13.1.6 Public Information Programs 576

7.13.1.7 Commercial, Industrial, and Institutional Sector Programs 577

7.13.1.8 Wholesale Agency Assistance Programs 577

7.13.1.9 Conservation Pricing 578

7.13.1.10 Conservation Coordinator 579

7.13.1.11 Water Waste Prohibition 579

7.13.1.12 Residential ULFT Replacement Programs 579

7.13.1.13 Potential Best Management Practices 579


Chapter Review 581

Appendix AIntroduction to Basic Math for Operators 585

Introduction 586


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xvi Table of Contents

A.6.2 Measures of Length 622

A.6.3 Measures of Capacity or Volume 622

A.6.4 Measures of Weight 622

A.6.5 Temperature 623

Advanced Concepts (Sections A.7–A.8) 624

A.7 Pumps 624

A.7.1 Pressure 624

A.7.2 Work 625

A.7.3 Power 626

A.7.4 Horsepower 626

A.7.5 Head 630

A.7.6 Pump Characteristics 632

A.7.7 Evaluation of Pump Performance 634

A.7.7.1 Capacity 634

A.7.7.2 Efficiency 635

A.7.8 Pump Speed–Performance Relationships 638

A.7.9 Friction or Energy Losses 639

A.8 Analysis and Presentation of Data 643

A.8.1 Causes of Variations in Results 643

A.8.1.1 Water or Material Being Examined 644

A.8.1.2 Sampling 644

A.8.1.3 Testing 644

A.8.2 Controlling Variation 644

A.8.2.1 Reading Charts 646

A.8.3 Describing Data or Results 646

A.8.3.1 Graphs and Charts 647

A.8.3.2 Numerical Representation of Data 652

A.8.4 Moving Averages 659

A.8.5 More Applications of Graphs 661

A.8.5.1 Volume of Sludge in a Digester 661

A.8.5.2 Tracking BOD Loading 664

A.8.6 RegressionAnalysis(PredictionEquations,Trends,and Correlations) 666

A.8.6.1 Correlations 671

A.9 Typical Water Distribution System Problems (English System) 672

A.9.1 Flows 672

A.9.2 Chemical Doses 672

A.9.3 Distribution System Facilities 674

A.9.4 Operation and Maintenance 678

A.9.5 Disinfection 684

A.9.6 Laboratory Procedures 686

A.10 Typical Water Distribution System Problems (Metric System) 686

A.10.1 Flows 686

A.10.2 Chemical Doses 687

A.10.3 Distribution System Facilities 688

A.10.4 Operation and Maintenance 691

A.10.5 Disinfection 697

A.10.6 Laboratory Procedures 699

A.11 Calculation of Log Removals 699

Answer Key 701Glossary 705Index 735


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735 735 735 735

AAADT (annual average daily traffic), 413Abandoning wells, 405ABC (Association of Boards of

Certification), 489Abnormal conditions, chlorination, 324,

341, 346, 352Accident reports, 558, 559, 560Accidents, 386, 387, 392, 453Accuracy, meters, 147, 245Acid rain, 2Acids, safety practices, 399, 402ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act of

1990), 499Additional resources

disinfection, 381distribution system facilities, 163introduction to water distribution, 33management, 580operation and maintenance, 280water distribution system operator, 466water storage facilities, 75

Administrationadvertising positions, 483applications, 483backflow prevention program, 526–527certification, 488communication, 501compensation, 483, 488conducting meetings, 505–506consumer inquiries, 509contaminated water supply, 535contingency planning, 528continuing education, 489cross-connection control program,

181–193discipline problems, 490disposing of plant records, 572emergency response, 528–539employee complaints, 490equipment repair/replacement fund,

514evaluation, performance, 489financial assistance, 517first aid, 543–544functions of a manager, 474hazard communication, 544–556interviewing job applicants, 483–487interviews, media, 507meetings, conducting, 505–506

operations and maintenance (O&M), 518–528

operator duties, 30oral communication, 502orientation, new employee, 487performance evaluation, 489personnel records, 500planning, 476plant tours, 510policies and procedures, 487probationary period, 487–488procurement of materials, 569–571public relations, 506public speaking, 508qualifications profile, 481–482rates, water, 515recordkeeping, 568–572records, personnel, 480, 500repair/replacement fund for equipment,

514–515safety program, 539–567SCADA (supervisory control and data

acquisition) systems, 521–525selection process, 483sexual harassment, 495staffing, 480–501supervisor, training, 489telephone contacts, 508–509tours, plant, 510training, 488–489unions, 500water rates, 515written communication, 503

Advertising, job openings, 483Aesthetics, water quality, 12Affirmative action, 483Agents, disinfection, 252Agricultural runoff, 2, 6Air gap, 55, 155–157, 181Air gap, chlorination equipment, 342Air release valves, 136, 138Air shores, 116, 119Algal blooms, 7Allocations, water shortage, 578Alternative disinfection process, 301Altitude control valves, 49, 70, 139Aluminum shoring, 117Ambient temperature, 363Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

(ADA), 499Ammonia, 296, 299, 304, 359

Ammonia, test for leaks, 343, 359Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB), 304Amperometric titration, 364Anaerobic, 24Annual average daily traffic (AADT), 413Annual report, 505, 514Annual running TTHM average, 175–177Anode, 62Applications, job, 483Appurtenance, 80Aquifers, 8Arrow boards, traffic, 446Arsenic, 13Artesian wells, 7Asbestos-cement pipe, 100, 104, 107As-built plans (record drawings), 31, 109,

262Assessment of system vulnerability, 529Association of Boards of Certification

(ABC), 489Atmospheric vacuum breaker, 155Audience, communications, 502, 503, 506Audiovisuals, 502Audits, water, 204, 575Authority, 476Available chlorine, 64Available chlorine residual, 294, 299Average measurements, water quality, 175Average water demand, 38Awareness, safety, 386

BBackfilling, laying pipe, 124Backflow, 20, 67, 81, 181, 182Backflow prevention, 140, 152, 155–162,

181–193, 525–526Back pressure, 20, 156, 181Backsiphonage, 20, 47, 55, 155, 181, 183Bacteria, pathogenic, 18Bacterial cells, 294Bacteriological analyses, 261Bacteriological sampling, 178Ball valves, 132Barium, 13Barricades, traffic control, 448, 450Battery, charging, 390–391Bedding, pipe, 108Bell and spigot coupling, 105, 106Below-ground reservoirs, 26

Index

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736 Index

Benefits, employee, 483, 487Best management practice (BMP),

conservation, 573, 579Billing inserts, 576Biofilm, 21–22Biological, water quality, 15Biological growth, 21–22Bitter tastes in water, 293Block rate structure, 578Blowoff valves, 140, 171Boats, safety, 391Bonds, 516Booster pumps, 70, 93Boxes for valves, 140Branching systems, 95, 96Breakpoint chlorination, 55, 299, 355Breaks, mains, 232Bromine, 293Budgets, 31, 512Buffer capacity of water, 298Butterfly valves, 132, 133Byproducts, disinfection, 14, 292Byproducts Rule, Disinfectants and

Disinfection, 288

CCAD (computer-aided design) system, 519Cadmium, 13Calcium carbonate equilibrium, 62Calcium hypochlorite, 297Calculations

C Factor, 85disinfection, 64, 66, 254–255, 258–259,

309–310, 311–314, 316–317, 370–381flushing, 215leakage, 125–129mains, testing, 125–129meters, 242–249pressure, 81, 82, 85storage facilities, 50, 64, 66testing of mains, 125–129water quality monitoring, 174, 175

California hydrant (wet-barrel hydrants), 145Call Before You Dig program (811), 454Capital improvement program, 515Carbon monoxide, safety, 392Carcinogen, 19, 292Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), 544Cast-iron pipe, 97Cathode, 62Cathodic protection, 61, 63, 95, 348Causes of work injuries, 387Cave-ins, 452–453Cavitation, 234Cement-mortar lining, 222–223Centrifugal pumps

priming, 52, 53startup, 53troubleshooting, 72, 73

Certification, 29, 30, 488

C Factor, 81, 85, 211Channelizing devices, traffic, 446Check valves, 94, 140, 159Chemical

analyses, 261safety, 252, 402water quality, 16

Chemical disinfectants, 293–301Chemical solution tank, 324CHEMTREC, 370, 531Chloramination

blending, 303chloramine production, 302chlorine to ammonia-nitrogen ratios,

302–303contact time, 308critical factors, 307nitrification, 302, 304postammoniation, 302preammoniation, 302prechlorination, 302residuals, 303–304special water users, 303

Chloramines, 22, 297, 299–305Chloride, 14Chlorination

Also see Chlorinators, Disinfection, and Hypochlorinators

abnormal operation, 324, 341, 346, 352ammonia test for leaks, 343, 359amperometric titration, 364breakpoint, 299, 355CHEMTREC, 370, 531chloramination, 301chloramines, 297, 299–305chlorinator, 325–332, 342, 350–358chlorine, 294chlorine dioxide, 298chlorine residual tests, 364chlorophenol, 301contact time, 308containers, 332, 334container storage, 362corrosion, 331, 343, 348, 366critical factors, 307–308CT values, 308cylinders, 332, 334demand, 294, 309, 310dew point, 343diaphragm pump, 326dichloramine, 301distribution system, 354dosage, 294DPD test, 356, 364emergency repair kits, 359, 360equipment

air gap, 342cathodic protection, 348chemical solution tank, 325chlorinator, 350–354connections to chlorine containers, 325eductor, 367

ejector, 325injector, 325installation, 325, 362leaks, 367location, 362maintenance, 341, 358, 367manifold, 331, 363metering, 327, 331operation, 337–354parts, 328pigtail tubing, 335plans and specifications review, 362poppet valves, 338residual analyzer, 350, 351rotameter, 327safety, 342, 365–370self-contained breathing apparatus,

335, 366, 367shutdown, 337solution feeders, 324, 326, 337startup, 337, 342storage, containers, 362system failure, 358ton tanks, 332troubleshooting, 357, 358vacuum-controlled chlorinators,

325–332, 350valves, 335, 336, 338, 341, 342, 349water supply system, 342wrenches, chlorine container valve, 336yoke-type connectors, 335

evaporator, 343, 347first aid, 368formulas, 339, 355free available residual chlorine, 299hazards, 366hypochlorinator, 324, 326, 337hypochlorite, 297injection point, 307injector, 325, 330, 350, 357injector water supply, 342laboratory tests, 356leaks, 335, 342, 352, 357, 358–362, 367maintenance, equipment, 341, 358, 367mixing, 307monitoring, 287monochloramine, 301nitrification, 302, 304operation of equipment, 336–354organic matter, 290, 299pathogen removal, 290performance, 336pH, 289, 296, 307phenol, 301population served, 288postchlorination, 307, 354prechlorination, 297, 302, 307, 354process calculations, 309reducing agents, 290, 296, 307removing chlorine, 335residual chlorine, 179, 291, 292, 294,

299, 301, 302, 306, 307, 350, 364

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residual chlorine test, 364safety, 365–369sampling, 288self-contained breathing apparatus, 335,

365, 367storage, 334storage of containers, 346, 362system failure, 358tanks, 332, 360tastes and odors, 301, 355temperature, 305, 307THMs (trihalomethanes), 290, 291training, safety, 369trichloramine, 301trihalomethanes (THMs), 290, 291troubleshooting equipment, 357, 358turbidity, 289, 307variables, 289ventilation, 363viruses, 19, 290waterborne diseases, 286weighing chlorine containers, 363

Chlorinators, 325–332, 342–346, 350–358

Chlorineammonia, 296, 299, 301, 304, 359ammonia test for leaks, 343, 359available residual, 295, 299CHEMTREC, 370chloramines, 297, 299–305concentrations, effects, 366containers, 334cylinders, 334demand, 294, 309, 310detection, leaks, 352, 357, 358–362, 367detention rate curve, 307disinfection, 252–257, 294dose, 295, 310first aid, 368frozen, 350handling, 334hazards, 366HTH (High Test Hypochlorite), 297, 314hydrogen sulfide, 296hypochlorite, 297hypochlorous acid, 295, 296, 298, 300ice, 350leaks, 335, 342, 352, 357, 358–362, 367maximum removal rate, 335, 362on-site generation, 298pH, 289, 296, 307physiological response, 366prechlorination, 297, 302, 307, 354properties, 366rate of withdrawal, 335, 362reactions, 295residual, 179, 291, 292, 294, 299, 301,

302, 306, 307, 350, 364safety, 366, 403uses, 252–257ventilation, 333withdrawal rate, 335, 362

Chlorine dioxidedisinfection uses, 291iron and manganese, 299microbial control, 22phenolic tastes and odors, 298reaction in water, 299reactions with impurities, 299taste and odor control, 301trihalomethanes, 299

Chlorine facilties, 362Chlorine neutralization, 67, 257Chlorine residual testing, 179, 363Chlorophenol, 301Chlororganic, 299Chromium, 13Cistern, water storage, 6Cleaning

mains, 216–221tanks, 58

Clear wellsdescription, 9storage facilities, 38, 40, 42

Clothing, safety, 397–398CMMS (computer-based maintenance

management system), 519Coagulation removal process, pathogens,

290Coatings, tanks, 58–61, 402, 458Coliform bacteria, 42, 288, 311Color, 14Color, water quality problem, 55Colorimeter, 365Combustible gases, 392Commercial, industrial, and institutional

(CII) conservation programs, 577Commercial divers and wet inspections, 57Commodity rates, 575Communication, 267, 501–505Compensation, 488Competent person

confined spaces, 461defined by OSHA, 431excavation inspection, 451hazard assessment of work site, 431shoring safety, 116, 451

Complaintsconsumer, 259, 269–271customer, 509employee, 490handling, 16, 32procedure, 490

Compound meters, 146, 150Computer-aided design (CAD) system, 519Computer-based maintenance management

system (CMMS), 519Computerized recordkeeping systems, 571Concrete pipe, 99, 103Concrete storage facilities, 68Conducting meetings, 505Confined space, 392, 393, 396, 459,

556–558Confined space entry permit, 459, 460, 557

Connections, chlorine containers, 335Connections, equipment, 335Connections, pipe, 152, 153, 208Connectors, yoke-type, 335, 351Conservation

audits, water, 575best management practice (BMP), 573,

579commercial, industrial, and institutional

(CII), 577commodity rates, 575coordinator, 579elements of programs, 573–580energy, 572large landscape, 575leak detection, 575metering, 575need, 572pricing, 578public information programs, 576public relations, 506residential plumbing retrofits, 574residential water surveys, 574school education programs, 576water audits, 575WaterSense, EPA partnership program,

580water waste prohibition, 579wholesale agency assistance programs,

577Constituents, drinking water, 14Construction, distribution systems, 24, 25,

26, 27Consumer

complaints, 259, 269–271, 509demands for water, 10inquiries, 509

Contact time, chlorine, 308Containers, chlorine, 332, 334, 346, 362Container valve wrenches, chlorine, 336Contaminated water supply

countermeasures, 536cross-connections, 181, 525Cryptosporidium, 538emergency treatment, 537incident commander, 536source of supply, 18sources, 18threats, managing, 535–539

Contingency planning, 528Continuing education, 489Contract negotiations, 500Control devices and zones. See Traffic

controlControl of

corrosion, 61, 95, 100, 108, 249cross-connections, 181water quality, 12

Controls, instruments, 51, 69, 74Coordinator, conservation, 579Copper, 13, 14Corey hydrant, 145

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738 Index

Corporation stop, 125, 152, 153Corrective maintenance, 168, 519Corrosion

chemical treatment, 249control, 61, 95, 100, 108, 249distribution systems, 21inhibitors, 250polyphosphate, 62problems, chlorination, 348, 366storage facilities, 61valves, 238

Corrosive chemicals, 399Corrosivity, 14Costs

operation and maintenance, 10treatment, 3, 10

Couplings, pipe, 102, 104, 106, 107, 143Coupons, 171, 249Coverage ratio, 511Covers on reservoirs, 26CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation),

544Crenothrix, 21Cross-connection control

air gap separation, 155, 181atmospheric vacuum breaker, 155backflow, 181, 525–527back pressure, 181backsiphonage, 181distribution storage, 55, 93distribution systems, 20, 183, 526double check valve, 155hazards, 186–193industrial settings, 188–193maintenance (device) record form,

187ordinance, 184, 527pressure vacuum breaker, 155, 526program responsibilities, 182surveillance, 173survey form, 185water supplier, 184

Cryptosporidiosis, 6Cryptosporidium, 288, 538CT values, 308Curb boxes and meters, 171Curb stop, 152Customer

complaints, 259, 269–271, 509inquiries, 509

Customer servicebackflow prevention devices, 155complaint form, 269, 271corporation stop, 153installation of service line, 152meters, 152meter size, 152shutoff valve, 152survey form, 272

Cylinders, chlorine, 332, 334Cylinder shoring, 120, 121Cysts, 290

DDaily log or diary, 260Dangerous air contamination, 392, 394,

461Dead ends, 24, 89, 95Decibel, noise exposure, 464, 465Decision sight distance, 417Deficiencies in service, 209, 211Degradation, water quality, 23Demand, chlorine, 294, 309, 310Demand, storage, 46Demand, water, 10, 38, 46Demand-initiated regenerating (DIR) water

softeners, 579Detecting service deficiencies, 209–212Detection, chlorine leaks, 352, 357, 358–

362, 367Detention rate curve, chlorine, 307Detention time

chlorine, 306curves, 306nitrification, 305

Deterioration ofdistribution systems, 168water quality, 15–18, 20–27

Dew point, 343Diaphragm pump, 326Diaphragm valves, 136Diatoms, 302Dichloramine, 301Direct runoff, 6Dirty water, 25, 269Disasters, 266Discharge of chlorinated waters, 257Disciplinary problems, 490Discriminatory hiring, 481Diseases, 19, 286Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts

Rule (DBPR), 288Disinfection

Also see Chlorinationaction, 294additional resources, 381agents, 252, 291bacterial cells, 290bitter taste, 293breakpoint chlorination, 55, 299, 355bromine, 293byproducts, 14, 292calculations, 64, 66, 254–255, 258–259,

309–310, 311–314, 316–317, 370–381chemical disinfectants, 293chlorination, 294chlorine, 252–257, 294chlorine dioxide, 291, 298coliforms, 288, 311contact time, 308critical factors, 307Cryptosporidium, 288CT values, 308cysts, 290

discharge of chlorinated water, 257diseases, 286distribution system, 251dosage, 295emergency, 320enzymes, 294formulas, 339, 355Giardia, 13, 19, 308giardiasis, 19heat method, 293hepatitis, 19hypochlorite, 252–259, 295inorganic matter, 290iodine, 293mains, 129, 252, 315–322maintenance, 320–321math assignment, 381membrane filter, 254membrane filter (MF) test, 257methods, 315, 318microbial standards, 287microorganisms, 290monitoring, 287monochloramine, 291multiple-tube fermentation (MTF) test,

257neutralizing chemicals, 257organic matter, 290, 299ozone, 291, 293parasites, 19pathogen removal, 290pH, 289, 296, 307physical means, 292points of application, 311population served, 288postchlorination, 307, 354prechlorination, 297, 302, 307, 354preventive measures, 316problems, 321procedures, 315, 322process calculations, 309processes, 292reducing agents, 257, 289, 290, 296, 307removal processes, pathogens, 290residual chlorine, 179, 291, 292, 294,

299, 301, 302, 306, 307, 350, 364safety, 403sampling, 288selection of disinfectant, 292specifications, 321spore-forming bacteria, 290standards, microbial, 287sterilization, 286storage facilities, 64–68, 256tablets, 252tanks, 322tastes and odors, 291temperature, 289, 307trihalomethanes (THMs), 290, 291troubleshooting equipment, 357, 358turbidity, 289, 307ultrasonic waves, 293

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ultraviolet (UV) systems, 291, 292variables, 289viruses, 18, 290waterborne diseases, 286wells, 311, 374

Disinfection byproducts (DBPs), 14, 292Displacement meters, 147Disposing of plant records, 572Distribution storage

Also see Storage facilities (water)cross-connections, 93health, 93location, 91, 92pumping, 93purpose, 91types, 91water quality, 91

Distribution system facilitiesAlso see Distribution system O&M and

Distribution systemsappurtenances, 80, 94, 132booster pumping, 93check valves, 94corporation stop, 125dead ends, 24, 89, 95fire demand, 89grid system, 89, 95, 96hydrants, 123, 143hydraulics, 81–86layout, 95, 96looped system, 89, 95, 96mains, 87, 95

Also see Mains, watermeters, 146

Also see Metersperformance, 86physical characteristics, 80pressure-reducing valves, 88pressures, 80, 86purpose, 80safety, 130storage, 90surge chambers, 84thrust blocks, 83, 108, 123, 124transmission systems, 90valves, 88, 132, 232

Also see ValvesDistribution system O&M

audits, water, 204breaks, mains, 232cement-mortar lining, 222–223cleaning mains, 216–221connections, 154, 155, 208corrective maintenance, 168corrosion control, 249cross-connection control, 181detecting service deficiencies, 209disinfection, 252emergency procedures, 56, 168, 266equipment and stores, 265fire demand, 87, 89flow tests, 211

flushing, 212–216hydrants, 239inspections, wet, 57landscaping, 270leaks, 125, 201–206locating pipes, 206main breaks, 232maintenance, 168math, 279meters, 242monitoring, 173objective, 168pressures, 46, 81, 86, 194pressure tests, 125–129, 211preventive maintenance, 168public relations, 268pumps, 194, 195records, 259repairs, 25, 168reservoirs, 68safety, 130shoring, 111, 207storage facilities, 169, 195surveillance, 169

Also see Surveillance of distribution systems

system pressures, 194tapping, 209thawing, 223, 226–228valves, 232

Also see Valveswater audits, 204water quality monitoring, 173water quality problems, 212

Distribution systemsAlso see Distribution system facilities

and Distribution system O&Maging facilities, 23backflow, 20back pressure, 20backsiphonage, 20below-ground reservoirs, 26biological growth, 21–23construction, 24, 25, 26, 27contamination sources, 18corrosion, 21covers on reservoirs, 26Crenothrix, 21cross-connections, 20, 183, 525dead ends, 24description, 10deterioration of water quality, 15, 20–27dirty water, 25, 27disinfection, 355flow, 23hazardous facilities, 25mains, 24milky water, 23, 25operation, 23–25pipe material, 24–25pressures, 44, 46red water, 21

repair, 25reservoirs, 26–28safety, 130sampling, 178sources of contaminants, 18storage facilities, 26, 90, 195temperature, 23time in system, 23trihalomethanes (THMs), 18troubleshooting, 28uncovered reservoirs, 26, 27water quality, 15–28water quality degradation, 15, 20–27water supply, 15, 19wet inspections, 57

Divers, tank inspection and cleaning, 57

Documentation, administration, 480Dose, chlorine, 295, 310Double check valves, 155, 156, 157, 158DPD test, 304, 356, 364Drainage, landscape, 270Draining tanks, 59Drain valves, 140Drinking water

laws, 286regulations, 13, 174safety, 286turbidity removal, 14

Driving, safety, 389Drums, traffic control, 449Dry-barrel hydrants, 145Dry tapping, 131Ductile-iron pipe, 97, 98, 102Duties of operators, 29, 30Dysentery, contamination of water

supply, 6

EEductor, 325Efficiency program, water, 580Ejector, 325Electrical, safety, 399, 404Electrical thawing, 223, 226Electrochemical reaction, 21Electrolysis, 100Electromotive force, 62Electronic water meters, 151Elements of conservation programs

audits, water, 575best management practice (BMP), 573,

579commercial, industrial, and institutional

(CII), 577commodity rates, 575coordinator, 579large landscape, 575leak detection, 575metering, 575pricing, 578

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740 Index

Elements of conservation programs (continued )

public information programs, 576residential plumbing retrofits, 574residential water surveys, 574school education programs, 576system water audits, 575water waste prohibition, 579wholesale agency assistance programs,

577Elevated tanks, 39, 56, 58, 92Emergency

chlorine repair kits, 359, 360contaminated water supply,

535–538disinfection, 320maintenance, 56, 519preparation for, 476, 528–539procedures, 168, 267, 536response plan, 476, 528–539traffic control situations, 267treatment, 537

Emergency planningdisasters, 266mutual aid agreements, 267organization, 268preparation, 266procedures, 267public relations, 48responsibilities, 267staffing, 267training, 266vulnerability assessment, 267

Employeebenefits, 488evaluation, 489–491grievances, 493, 501orientation, 487problems, 493, 501Right-To-Know laws, 388

Employee-management relationship, 500Employer policies, 487, 495Encroachment, 169Endrin, 13Energy conservation

see ConservationEntrain, 23Entry permit, confined space, 460Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

monitoring programs, 174WaterSense partnership program, 580

Enzymes, 294Equal Employment Opportunity

Commission (EEOC), 499Equipment

chlorination, 327records, 260, 571repair/replacement fund, 514safety, 392–396, 541safety guards, 406–409

Equipment and stores, 265Evaluation, performance, 489–492

Evaporator, chlorine, 343, 347Evapotranspiration, 575Excavation

hazardous wastes, 111locating underground utilities, 109mains, 112shoring, 112

Excavations in streetscave-ins, 452ladders, 453safety rules, 453shoring, 451spoil, 453trenches, 451underground utilities, 454–456

Exercising valves, 234Explosive conditions, safety, 393Explosive limits, 393, 395Extensions, mains, 372

FFailure, chlorination system, 358Falls, avoiding, 398Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993

(FMLA), 499Filling tanks, 65Filtration, pathogen removal, 291Financial

assistance, 517stability, 511

Fire demands, 47, 87, 89Fire hydrants

See HydrantsFires, thawing pipes, 224First aid

chlorine, 368safety program, 543

First-draw samples, 180Fittings, mains, 142, 143Flagging, traffic control, 433, 437Flag tree warning devices, traffic control, 447Flammable conditions, 393Flanged joint, 102, 106Flexible joint, 102Float on system, 68Flow, distribution systems, 23Flow calculation, 279Flow regulation, valves, 132Flow tests, mains, 211Fluoride, 13, 14Flushing, unidirectional, 213Flushing mains, 212–216FMLA (Family and Medical Leave Act of

1993), 499Foaming agents (MBAS), 14Foot valve, 52Formulas

chlorination, 339, 355disinfection, 339, 355

Free available residual chlorine, 300

Friction losses, 81Frozen chlorine, 350Frozen distribution reservoirs, 68Frozen hydrants, 242Frozen pipes

See Thawing pipesFuel storage, safety considerations, 411Fund, repair/replacement, 514

GGalvanized steel pipe, 99Gases, combustible, 393Gases, safety considerations, 394Gate valves, 132, 133Gauges, 71Geographic information system (GIS), 263,

518–519Giardia, 13, 19, 308Giardiasis, 6, 19GIS (geographic information system), 263,

518–519Globe valves, 134, 135Goals, utility, 476Graywater use, 579Grid systems, 89, 95, 96Grievances, employee, 490, 501Ground-level storage tanks, 40, 41, 43Grounds (yard), maintenance, 56Groundwater

contamination, 2recharge, 9source, 8, 11

Groups, protected by employment laws, 486Guards, safety equipment, 406–408

HHandling and lifting, safety practices,

398–399Handling chlorine, safety considerations,

334–335Handling pipe, 95, 108, 109–111Harassment, 495Hazard communication, 544–556Hazardous

excavation, wastes, 111facilities, 25wastes, 3

Hazardschlorine gas, 334labeling, 551safety, 386

Head loss, pipes, 87Health, water quality, 15, 92Health hazards

disease, 6groundwater recharge, 9

Hearing protection, 464Heat method of disinfection, 293

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Hepatitis, 6, 19Heterotrophic bacteria, 13, 301High-level flag tree warning devices, traffic

control, 446, 447High-risk homes, Lead and Copper Rule,

178High Test Hypochlorite (HTH), 297, 314Hiring procedures, 480–487Homeland Security Advisory System, 533,

534Hot tapping, 209HTH (High Test Hypochlorite), 297, 314Human factors, safety, 567Hydrants

components, 144distribution systems, 87, 123, 239frozen, 239inspection, 239mains, 143, 242maintenance, 239maps, 260, 262operation, 239painting, 242record form, 239, 240–241types, 144, 145vandalism, 242

Hydraulic grade line, 81–83Hydraulic gradient, 211Hydraulics, distribution systems, 81–86Hydraulic shoring, 116, 117Hydrogen sulfide, 394

chlorine reaction with, 296Hydro-pneumatic tanks, 40, 41, 43Hypochlorinators

feed system, 326operation, 324performance, 336

Hypochloritecalcium hypochlorite, 297disinfection, 297forms, 252HTH (High Test Hypochlorite), 297hypochlorous acid, 295, 296, 298, 300ion, 295reactions with water, 297safety, 369sodium hypochlorite, 297

Hypochlorous acid, 295, 296, 298, 300

IIce, chlorine, 350IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or

Health), 333, 363IESWTR (Interim Enhanced Surface Water

Treatment Rule), 288Impermeable surfaces, 6Improving system management, 474Incident commander for emergency

response, 535Inhibitors, corrosion, 250

Injection point, chlorine, 307Injector, chlorine, 325, 330, 350, 357Injuries, prevention, 386Injuries, safety, 386Inorganic chemicals, 13Inorganic matter, 290Inquiries, pre-employment, 483, 484–485Inspection

hydrants, 239ladders, 458reservoirs, 56safety, 405, 466–467safety report form, 466–467storage facilities, 57, 58, 59, 68tanks, 56

Installationchlorination equipment, 325, 362meters, 151, 152pipe, 95, 98, 108, 111, 120, 451service line, 152

Instrumentation, storage facilities, 46–52Intake structures, reservoirs, 7Interface of pipe and water, 24Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment

Rule (IESWTR), 288Internal parasites, 18Interview

job, 483–487media, 507

Inventory, supplies, 571Iodine, disinfection, 293Ion, 62Iron, 14Iron and manganese control

chlorine dioxide, 299secondary maximum contaminant level

(SMCL), 14Irrigation

reclaimed water, 8runoff, 3, 6

JJob

duties, 474interview, 483–487knowledge and skills needed, 29

Jointing, mains, 123Joints, 102–106

LLabeling hazards, 551Laboratory

chlorination tests, 356chlorine residual tests, 363colorimeter, 365

Ladders, safety considerations, 456, 457–458

Lakes, sources of water, 6

Landscaping, surface water drainage, 273Land subsidence, 8Large landscape conservation, 575Laws, drinking water, 286Laying pipe, 120Layout

distribution systems, 80, 89, 95, 96utility lines, 110valves, 141

Lead, 13Lead and Copper Rule, 23, 174, 178, 180Leaks

chlorine, 335, 343, 352, 357, 358–362, 367detecting, 575rate, 126water, 125, 171, 201–208, 260

Legal liability, water system, 259LEL (lower explosive limit), 393, 395Levels of water, tanks, 49, 51Lifeline rates, 578Lifting, safety considerations, 398Lighting devices, traffic control, 450Limits on water, 2Lindane, 13Listening skills, 502Locating pipes, 206Location

chlorination equipment, 362sampling, 178storage facilities, 45, 91, 92

Lockout/tagout procedure, 410Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water

Treatment Rule (LT2ESWTR), 288Looped distribution system, 89, 95, 96Lower explosive limit (LEL), 393, 395LT2ESWTR (Long Term 2 Enhanced

Surface Water Treatment Rule), 288Lubricants, safety considerations, 411

MMacroscopic organisms, 18Magnetic meters, 151Mains, water

appurtenances, 132asbestos-cement pipe, 100, 104, 107backfilling, 124bedding, 108, 120bell and spigot coupling, 105, 106branching systems, 95, 96breaks, 232cast-iron pipe, 97cathodic protection, 95cement-mortar lining, 222–223cleaning, 216–221concrete pipe, 99, 104connections, 152, 153, 208corporation stop, 125, 152, 153corrosion control, 95, 98, 108, 249couplings, 102, 104, 106, 107, 143coupons, 171, 249

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742 Index

Mains, water (continued )dead ends, 89, 95disinfection, 129, 251, 315–322distribution systems, 23

Also see Distribution systemsdry tapping, 131ductile-iron pipe, 97, 98, 101excavation, 111extensions, 131failure report, 233fittings, 142, 143flanged joint, 102, 106flexible joint, 102flow tests, 211flushing, 212–215grid, 89, 95handling, 95, 108, 109, 111hydrants, 143, 239installation, 95, 98, 108, 112, 120joints, 102–106, 120laying, 120layout, 95, 96leaks, 125, 170, 201–208loop systems, 95, 96meters, 146, 152, 242

Also see Meterspigs, 216–221pipe, 94, 95pipe extensions, 131pipe laying and jointing, 120plastic pipe, 100, 104, 111pressure tests, 125–129, 211pulled services, 207recordkeeping, 233, 260repairs, 207–209saddles, 131safety, 130service deficiencies, 209service pipe, 97, 101, 152services, 209sewer location, 109shoring, 111, 207

Also see Shoringsteel pipe, 99, 103, 108stringing, 120surveillance, 170swabs, 216–221tapping, 131, 209testing, 125–129thawing, 223, 226–232thrust blocks, 83, 108, 123, 124tree distribution systems, 95, 96valves, 132, 140, 231

Also see ValvesVictaulic coupling, 102water quality problems, 95, 212welded joints, 105wet tapping, 131

Maintenanceadministration, 519–527chlorination equipment, 342, 358, 367corrective, 519

corrosion control, 61cross-connection control, 182, 525distribution system, 168emergency, 56, 519hydrants, 239meters, 146, 152, 247painting, 58–61predictive, 519preventive, 519pumps, 195record form, 187recordkeeping, 569records, 259safety, 408storage facilities, 56, 58types, 519valves, 236

ManagementSee Administration

Management, safety, 386Managerial functions, 475Manager’s responsibilities, 474, 480, 518

Also see AdministrationManganese, 14Manifold, 331, 363Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices

(MUTCD), 412Maps, 232, 236, 260–264Material safety data sheet (MSDS), 549Math assignment, 33, 75, 162, 279, 381

Also see CalculationsMaximum contaminant level (MCL), 13, 174MBAS (foaming agents), 14MCL (maximum contaminant level), 13, 174Measurement, safety, 563Media, news, 507Meetings, conducting, 505Membrane filter (MF) test, 169, 254, 257Mercury, 13Metering

chlorine, 325, 331conservation, 574

Metersaccuracy, 147, 245calculations, 242–246compound, 147, 150displacement, 147electronic, 151installation, 152, 153magnetic, 151maintenance, 247nutating disc, 147, 247orifice, 149piston, 147Pitotmeter, 205, 206propeller, 149proportional, 151purpose, 146reading, 246, 247readouts, 246, 249registers, 246requirements, 153

revenue loss, 242selection, 146size, 154sonic, 151testing, 242turbine, 149–150types, 146velocity, 149Venturi, 149

Meters and curb boxes, surveillance, 171Methoxychlor, 13Microbial standards, 13, 287Microorganisms, 290Milky water, 23, 25Mixing, chlorine, 307Monitoring

chlorination, 287disinfection, 287

Monitoring, water qualityannual running TTHM average, 175–177average measurements, 175bacteriological sampling, 178calculations, 175, 176chlorine residual, 179, 364Lead and Copper Rule, 180location of sampling, 178maximum contaminant levels, 174program, 27, 173running TTHM average, 175–177sampling, 178, 180sanitary survey, 175, 261

Monitoring equipment, safety, 392, 396Monochloramine, 291, 301Moving parts, safety, 406–408MSDS (material safety data sheet), 549Multiple-tube fermentation (MTF) test, 257MUTCD (Manual on Uniform Traffic

Control Devices), 412

NNameplate, 74National drinking water regulations, 174National Labor Relations Act, 501National Primary Drinking Water

Regulations (NPDWRs), 12, 174National Secondary Drinking Water

Regulations (NSDWRs), 174Negligence, safety, 387Negotiations, contract, 500Neutralization of chlorine, 67, 257New employee orientation, 487News media, 507Nitrate, MCL (maximum contaminant

level), 13Nitrification, 302, 304Nitrite-oxidizing bacteria, 304Noise exposure, safety, 463, 465Non-permit-required confined space, 461Normal conditions, chlorination, 324, 336,

345

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Index 743

North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) code, 577

NPDWRs (National Primary Drinking Water Regulations), 12, 174

NSDWRs (National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations), 174

Nutating-disc meter, 147, 247

OObjective, water treatment, 10Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970

(OSH Act of 1970), 114, 431, 540Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA), 396Odor threshold, 14On-site chlorine generation, 298Operating ratio, 511Operation

chlorination, 336–354disinfection, 336–354

Operation and maintenance (O&M)administration, 518–528distribution systems

See Distribution system O&Mhydrants, 239operator’s duties, 30storage facilities, 48, 68valves, 140

Operatorcertification, 29, 30, 488complaint handling, 32duties, 29, 30operation and maintenance, 30protection

first-aid equipment, 543safety program, 539–567

public relations, 31qualifications, 29recordkeeping, 30requirements, 10safety, 32, 365, 369salary, 29staffing needs, 29supervision and administration, 30training courses, 33

Oral communication, 502Ordinance, cross-connection control, 184, 527Organics

chlorine demand, 290, 299MCL (maximum contaminant level), 13

Organizational plan, 476, 477Organizing, administration, 475, 476Orientation, new employee, 487Orifice plate meter, 149Orthophosphate corrosion inhibitors, 250OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health

Administration), 396OSH Act of 1970 (Occupational Safety and

Health Act of 1970), 114, 431, 540Overflows, tanks, 68, 69

Overturn, lake, 6Oxidizing agent, 299Oxygen deficiency/enrichment, 392, 461Ozone

disinfection, 293mixed oxidants, 291

PPainting

hydrants, 242safety considerations, 60, 61tanks, 58–61

Palatable, water quality, 15Paper screening, 483Parallel, pumps, 94Parasites, 18, 19Pathogenic organisms, 18, 19Pathogen removal, 290Patrolling storage facilities, 169Pay, operator, 29Payback time calculation, 513PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), 60PCMS (portable changeable message sign),

444Peak water demand, 38Pedestrian safety, traffic control, 130, 412,

428, 452Performance evaluation, 489–492Permit-required confined space, 460, 461Permits, confined space entry, 557Personal safety, 130, 392Personnel records, 480, 500pH

chlorination efficiency, 289, 296, 308SMCL (secondary maximum contaminant

level), 14Phenol, 301Phenolic tastes and odors, 298Phosphate corrosion inhibitors, 250Physical

characteristics of water, 18disinfection, 292water quality, 13

Physiological response, chlorine, 366Pigs, 216–221Pigtail tubing, 335Pipe

bedding, 108characteristics, 95cleaning, 216–221couplings, 102, 104, 106, 107, 143extensions, 131fittings, 142, 143flushing, 212–214handling, 95, 107, 109–111installation, 108laying and jointing, 120–123lining, 222–223locating (buried), 206materials, 95, 97–101

plastic, 100, 101, 104, 111prestressed, 99protection, 108pushers, 265repairs, 207–209steel, 97, 105, 108storage, 109–111types, 97

Piston meters, 147, 149Pitotmeter, 205, 206Pitot tube, 205Plan, organizational, 476, 477Plan and profile map, 263Planning

administration, 475, 476emergencies, 476

Plan review, chlorine facilities, 362Plant

operations data, 569records, 568–572tours, 510

Plastic pipecharacteristics, 100joints, 104service lines, 101storage on site, 109

Plugging, wells, 405Plug valves, 132Policies and procedures, administration, 487Policy, safety, 386Policy, thawing pipes, 228Policy statement, safety, 540Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 60Polyphosphates

corrosion control, 62safety, 62storage facilities, 62

Poppet valves, 338Population decline, 492Population served, 288Portable changeable message sign (PCMS),

444Positive coliform results, 54, 55Postammoniation, 302Postchlorination, 307, 354Powered valve operators, 234, 235Preammoniation, 302Prechlorination, 297, 307, 318, 354Predictive maintenance, 519Pre-employment inquiries, 483, 484–485Preparing for emergencies, 528Present worth, capital improvements, 516Pressure

distribution system, 45, 80, 86head, 81reducing valves, 88, 136regulation valves, 137relief valves, 139sustaining valves, 136tanks, 38, 41, 43tests, 125–129, 211vacuum breaker, 155, 526

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744 Index

Prestressed pipe, 99Preventing accidents, 386Preventive maintenance, 168, 519

Also see MaintenancePricing, conservation, 578Primary drinking water regulations,

174Prime, pumps, 52, 53, 196Priorities, emergencies, 267Probationary period, 487Problem employees, 490Process, disinfection, 292Procurement of materials, 569, 570Procurement records, 569Productive meetings, 505Profile, qualifications, 481Program, safety, 32, 386Propeller meters, 149Proportional meters, 151Protected groups, employment laws, 486Protection from chlorine, 334Protective clothing, 397, 398Public health, 6, 9, 10, 536–537Public information programs, conservation,

576Public relations

campaigns, 506–511communication, 268consumer complaints, 269–271distribution system O&M, 268forms, 271, 272operator’s duties, 30

Public safety, 403, 428–431, 452Public speaking, 508Pulled services, 207Pump failure, 194Pumping, distribution storage, 93Pumps, unbalanced current, 199–201Pumps, wells

booster, 71distribution system, 195maintenance, 195parallel, 94safety, 406–411

Purchase order, 512, 570

QQualifications for operator jobs, 29Qualifications profile, 481Quality degradation, 15, 20–28

RRadioactivity, MCL (maximum contaminant

level), 14Radiological water quality, 13Rate of chlorine withdrawal, 335, 362Rates, water, 2, 515Reading meters, 248

Readouts, meters, 249Reclaimed water, 9Recognition, employee, 488, 489Record drawings (as-built plans), 31, 109, 262Recordkeeping

accident reports, 558as-builts (record drawings), 31, 109, 262bacteriological analyses, 261chemical analyses, 261computerized, 571consumer complaints, 259daily log, 260disposing of records, 572distribution system, 260equipment, 260, 571hydrants, 239, 240–241inventory, 571litigation and legal liability, 259mains, water, 233, 261maintenance, 259, 569maps

hydrant, 261, 262leak survey, 262plan and profile, 263symbols, 262valve, 261

nameplate, 74operations data, 569operator’s responsibility, 30personnel, 480, 500planning, 259plant, 568–572procurement, 569purchase order, 570purpose, 568record drawings (as-builts), 32, 109, 262report preparation, 259requisition, 570retention of records, 261, 572safety, 556sanitary survey, 175, 261sectional plat, 260, 261storage facilities, 74types, 260valves, 236, 237work orders, 260

RecordsSee Recordkeeping

Reduced-pressure (RP) devices, 156, 157, 159

Reducing agents, 257, 289, 290, 296, 307Red water, 21, 269Registers, meters, 246Regulations

monitoring programs, 174OSH Act of 1970, 540SDWA (Safe Drinking Water Act), 31, 286street work, 419

Regulator stations, valves, 70Regulatory agencies, safety, 540Remote reading, meters, 246Removal processes

chlorine, 335pathogenic organisms, 292

Repair/replacement fund, 514Repairs

distribution systems, 25, 168mains, 25, 207–209safety, 408valves, 238

Replacement cost, 514Reporting, safety, 558Report preparation, 259Report writing, 503–505Requisition, 513Requisition system, 570Reservoirs

covers, 26distribution system, 26–27, 38, 68, 169stratification, 6

Residentialplumbing retrofits, 574water surveys, 574

Residual analyzer, chlorine, 350, 351Residual chlorine, 179, 291, 292, 294, 299,

301, 302, 306, 307, 350, 364Responsibilities

managers, 474, 480operator

cross-connection control, 526emergencies, 266safety, 32, 386shoring, 116

organizational structure, 478Retention time, records, 261Retrofits, residential plumbing, 574Revenue loss, 242Right-To-Know (RTK) laws, 388,

544–556Rivers, sources of water, 6Rotameter, 327Routing traffic, 411–451RTK (Right-To-Know) laws, 388, 544–556Running TTHM average, 175–177

SSacrificial anode, 62Saddles, mains, 131, 209Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 31, 286Safe drinking water laws, 31, 286Safe procedures

emergency traffic control situations, 420hazard communication, 544–556high-visibility clothing, 432noise exposure, 464portable changeable message sign

(PCMS), 444regulations, street work, 419Right-To-Know laws, 544–556speed limits in work zones, 432street work regulations, 419traffic control, 417, 420, 436–451

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Index 745

Safetyaccident

causes, 387, 539excavations, 453prevention, 386, 387reports, 558, 559, 560types, 392

acids, 400, 403additional resources, 466–467awareness, 386battery charging, 390–391boats, 391Call Before You Dig program (811),

454carbon monoxide, 392causes of work injuries, 387cave-ins, 452chemicals, 252, 402chlorination, 365–370chlorine, 404clothing, 397–398coatings, 402, 459combustible gases, 392competent person, 461confined space, 392, 393, 396, 459,

556–558confined space entry permit, 460corrosive chemicals, 399costs, 564dangerous air contamination, 392,

394–395, 461definition, 386disinfection, 403distribution systems, 130drinking water, 286driving, 389education, 561electrical, 399, 404emergencies, 543equipment, 392–393, 396excavations, 451explosive conditions, 393explosive limits, 393, 395falls, avoiding, 398, 456first aid, 543–544flammable conditions, 393fuel, 411gases, 394guards on equipment, 406–408handling and lifting, 398hazards, 386, 398–399hearing protection, 464human factors, 567hydrogen sulfide, 392hypochlorite, 369injuries, 386injury rate, 564inspection, 405, 466–467inspection by competent person, 116,

451ladders, 453, 456, 457–458laying pipe, 130

lifting, 398lockout/tagout procedure, 410lower explosive limit (LEL), 393, 395lubricants, 411mains, 254maintenance, 408management, 386measuring, 563monitoring equipment, 392, 396moving parts, 406–408negligence, 387noise exposure, 463non-permit-required confined space, 461OSH Act of 1970 (Occupational Safety

and Health Act of 1970), 114objectives, 386operator, 32, 543OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health

Administration), 396oxygen deficiency/enrichment, 392, 461painting, 60, 61pedestrian traffic control, 130, 412,

428, 452permit, confined space, 557permit-required confined space, 460, 461personal, 130, 392policy, 386policy statement, 540polyphosphate, 62preventing accidents, 386prevention of accidents, 386program, 32, 386, 539–567protective clothing, 397, 398public, 428–431, 452pumps, 406–411regulatory agencies, 540repair, 409reporting, 558, 559, 560responsibilities, 32, 386Right-To-Know laws, 388safety data sheet (SDS), 388security, facilities, 531–535shoring, 114, 451, 452sling, 409slips, 398, 456standard operating procedures (SOPs),

544statistics, 563storage facilities, water, 62, 64,

74, 456storage of fuel, 411street work, 411–455supervisors, 539, 541, 559, 561tailgate

safety sessions, 116, 387training, 562

tanks, 402, 459threat levels, security advisory, 533toxic gases, 392traffic control

See Traffic controltrailers, towing, 389

training, 386, 459, 487, 561trenches, 116, 451underground utilities, 109, 454–455unsafe acts, 386, 387, 398, 543upper explosive limit (UEL), 393, 395valves, 139ventilation, 333, 393, 404, 461water storage facilities, 62, 64,

74, 456wells, 400, 402, 403working in streets, 411–455

Also see Traffic controlSafety data sheet (SDS), 388Safety program, small plants, 386Salary, operator, 29Sampling

chlorination, 287disinfection, 287first-draw samples, 180Lead and Copper Rule, 178, 180storage facilities, 54, 60water quality, 178, 180

Sandblasting, 59Sanitary hazards, 169Sanitary landfills, 3Sanitary survey, 175, 261

records, 261, 275water quality, 175

Saturation zone, 7SCADA (supervisory control and data

acquisition) systemscommunications, 522description, 264, 522distribution systems, 521–525treatment plants, 521–525

Screw jack, 116, 118SDS (safety data sheet), 388SDWA (Safe Drinking Water Act), 31, 286Seawater intrusion, 3, 8Secondary drinking water regulations, 12,

14, 174Sectional plat, 261Security, facilities, 531–535Sedimentation (settling), pathogen

removal, 290Selection, employees, 483Selenium, 13Self-contained breathing apparatus, 335,

359, 365, 367Septic tank leaching systems, 3Service cost recovery, 578Service deficiencies, 209Service lines, 97, 101, 152Sewers, location from mains, 109Sexual harassment, 495Shield shoring, 120, 121Shop steward, 500Shoring

air shores, 116, 119aluminum, 117cave-ins, 453cylinder, 120, 121

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746 Index

Shoring (continued )distribution system, 207equipment, 113excavation, 111hydraulic, 116, 117mains, water, 112, 209need, 112OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health

Administration), 114regulations, 114requirements, 114responsibility, 116safety, 114, 451, 543screw jacks, 116, 118shield, 120, 121solid sheeting, 117, 119types, 112, 116

Shortage, water, 2Shutdown, chlorination, 337Shutoff valves, 132, 152Signal transmitters, 521Signs, traffic control, 416, 445, 447

Also see Traffic controlSilt, source, 6Silver, 14Slide valve, 132Sling, safety, 409Slips, safety, 398, 456Slope, pipe, 81Sodium hypochlorite, 297Solid sheeting, 117, 119Solution feeders, 325, 326, 337Sonic meters, 151Sources of contaminants, 19Sources of water

description, 4direct runoff, 6groundwater, 7, 11lakes, 6ocean, 4reclaimed water, 8reservoirs, 6rivers, 6springs, 8streams, 6surface water, 6, 11wells, 8

Specificationsdisinfection, 321review, chlorine facilities, 362

Speed limits in work zones, 432Spoil, 451Spore-forming bacteria, 290Staffing

advertising positions, 483applications, job, 483certification, 488compensation, 483, 488disciplinary problems, 490emergencies, 266employee

grievances, 490, 501

orientation, 487problems, 490, 501

employee-management relationship, 500employer policies, 487, 495evaluation, performance, 489–492groups, protected, 486harassment, 495hiring procedures, 480–487interviewing, 483–487manager’s responsibilities, 474, 479managing employees, 480National Labor Relations Act, 501needs, 29orientation, new employees, 487paper screening, 483performance evaluation, 489–490personnel records, 500policies, employer, 487, 495probationary period, 487problem employees, 490protected groups, 486qualifications profile, 481retaliation, 498selection process, 486sexual harassment, 495training, 488unions, 500

Stage 2 Disinfection Byproducts (Stage 2 D/DBP), 288

Stale water, 47Standard Industrial Classifications (SIC)

code, 577Standard operating procedures (SOPs),

544Standards

microbial, 13, 286water quality, 12

Standby facilities, 47Standpipes, 40, 42, 92Startup

chlorination, 337, 342disinfection, 337, 342

Static head, 86Steam thawing, 225Steel pipe

characteristics, 98corrosion control, 108joints, 105

Sterilization, 286Steward, shop, 500Stopping distance, vehicle, 416Storage, chlorine

containers, 346, 362procedures, 334

Storage facilities (water)advantages, 38altitude control valves, 49, 70booster pumps, 70calculations, 50, 64, 66cathodic protection, 61, 63chlorine, neutralization, 67clear wells, 40, 42

coatings, 58–60color, water quality problem, 55concrete storage facilities, 68controls, instruments, 51, 69, 74corrosion control, 61cross-connections, 93demand, meeting, 38, 46description, 9disinfection, 64–68, 256distribution system pressures, 44, 45distribution systems, 26, 90, 195draining, 59elevated tanks, 39, 40, 42, 92emergency plans, 47filling, 65fire demands, 47frozen distribution reservoirs, 68gauges, 70ground-level storage tanks, 40, 41, 43grounds (yard), 56health, 191hydropneumatic tanks, 40, 41, 43inspection, 56, 58, 59, 68inspections, wet, 57instrumentation, 47–52levels of water, 48, 51location, 45, 91, 92maintenance, 56, 58neutralization of chlorine, 67operation, 46, 48, 68operator responsibility, 74overflows, 43, 69painting, 58–60polyphosphate, 62positive coliform results, 54, 55pressures, 45, 46pressure tanks, 40, 41, 43pumps, 48, 52, 93purpose, 38, 90recordkeeping, 74regulator stations, 71related equipment, 74requirements, 38, 47reservoirs, 68sacrificial anode, 62safety, 62, 64, 74, 456sampling, 54, 59sandblasting, 59stale water, 47standby facilities, 47–48standpipes, 40, 42, 92surge tanks, 40, 43–44system pressures, 45, 47, 194tastes and odors, 47, 55, 60thawing frozen reservoirs, 70troubleshooting, 54, 55, 72, 73turbidity, 55types, 38, 91–92valves, regulator stations, 70vents, 43, 68, 69water quality problems, 54, 55, 93wet inspections, 57

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Index 747

Storing fuel, 411Stratification, reservoirs, 6Street work

Also see Traffic controlregulations, 419safety, 411–455

Stringing pipe, 120Subsidence, land, 8Suction lift, 196Sulfate, SMCL (secondary maximum

contaminant level), 14Supervising inquiries, pre-employment,

484–485Supervision, 30, 489Supervisors, safety, 539, 541,

559, 561Supervisory control and data acquisition

(SCADA) systemscommunications, 522description, 264, 521distribution systems, 521–524treatment plants, 521–524

Surface water, 6Surface water drainage, managing, 270Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR),

286, 308Surge chambers, 84Surges, 43–44, 47Surge tanks, 40, 41, 43–44Surveillance of distribution systems

blowoffs, 171cross-connection control, 173, 181deterioration, 169encroachment, 169leaks, 170mains, 171meters and curb boxes, 171monitoring, 173patrolling facilities, 169sanitary hazards, 169storage facilities, 169, 195telemetering, 173valves, 173vandalism, 169, 172water quality, 169, 173

Survey formcomplaint, 271cross-connection control, 185customer service, 272

Swabs, 218–221SWTR (Surface Water Treatment Rule),

286, 308Symbols, maps, 261, 262System pressures, 45, 47, 194System vulnerability, 529System water audits, 575

TTablets, chlorine, 252Tailgate safety meeting, 116, 387

Tailgate training, 562Tanks

chlorine, 332, 360cleaning, 57disinfection, 322inspection, 56painting, 58–60safety, 402, 459

Tapers, traffic control, 424, 427Tapping, pipe, 131, 209Target audience, communications, 502,

503, 506Taste and odor control

bitter tastes, 293chlorine, 301, 355chlorine dioxide, 301odor, secondary maximum contaminant

level (SMCL), 12Tastes and odors

causes, 47, 55, 60protective coatings, 55, 60stale water, 47troubleshooting, 55

TCE (trichloroethylene), 2TDS (total dissolved solids), 14Telemetering

instrumentation, 522surveillance, 173

Telephone contacts, 508–509Temperature

chlorination, 289, 307disinfection, 289, 307distribution system, 23water quality, 23

Temporary traffic control (TTC) zones, 411–451

Also see Traffic controlTesting, mains, water, 125–129Thawing frozen reservoirs, 70Thawing pipes

dangers, 224electrical thawing, 224, 226fires, 224flushing, 228–231hot water, 224mains, 224, 226–231policy, 228steam, 225

THMs (trihalomethanes), 14, 18, 174, 175, 290, 291, 299

Threat response, contaminated water supply, 536

Threshold odor, 14Thrust blocks, 83, 108, 123–124Time, detention

chlorine, 308curves, 308

Time in distribution system, 23Time-weighted average (TWA), 465Ton tanks, chlorine, 332Topography, 8Total dissolved solids (TDS), 14

Tours, plant, 510Toxic gases, 392, 393Traffic control

barricades, 448, 450devices, 415, 436–451drums, 449flagging, 437high-level flag tree warning devices,

446, 447pedestrian safety, 428, 430, 452signs, 416, 445, 447stopping distances, 417street closure, 420tapers, 424, 427temporary traffic control (TTC) zones,

411–451trenches, safety considerations,

451–452visibility, clothing for worker safety,

432Trailers, towing, 389Training

administration, 487collection system operators, 466course, 33emergencies, 266flaggers, 433safety, 369, 386, 459, 488, 561

Transmission systems, 90Transpiration, 7Treatment, emergency, 537Treatment facilities, purpose, 9Treatment processes

by source water, 11reclaimed water, 9

Tree distribution systems, 159, 160Trenches, safety, 116, 451–452Trichloramine, 301Trichloroethylene (TCE), 2Trihalomethanes (THMs), 14, 18, 174, 175,

290, 291, 299Troubleshooting

chlorination equipment, 357, 358disinfection equipment, 357, 358distribution systems, 27–28storage facilities, 54, 55, 72, 73water quality, 27–28, 54, 55

TTC (temporary traffic control) zones. See Temporary traffic control (TTC)

Tubercle, 22Tuberculation, 97, 171Tubing, pigtail, 335Turbidity

chlorination, 289, 307disinfection, 289, 307storage tanks, 55

Turbidity units, 54Turbine meters, 149–150Turnover, lake, 5TWA (time-weighted average), 465Typhoid, contamination of water supply, 5

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748 Index

UUEL (upper explosive limit), 393, 395Ultra-low-flush [flow] toilet (ULFT), 574,

578, 579Ultrasonic waves, 293Ultraviolet (UV) systems, disinfection, 291,

292Unaccounted-for water (UFW), 204, 474Unbalanced voltage, 197–201Uncovered reservoirs, 26, 27Underground service alert (USA), 109Underground utilities

Call Before You Dig program (811), 454

excavations, 451–455locating, 109

Unidirectional flushing, 212Unions, 500Unity of command, 476Unsafe acts, 386, 387, 398, 543Upper explosive limit (UEL), 393, 395USA (underground service alert), 109Utility lines, locating, 109, 110Utility management, 474

VVacuum-controlled chlorinator, 327–332,

350Valves

air release, 136, 138altitude control, 49, 70, 139backflow prevention, 140, 152,

155–156ball, 132blowoff, 140, 171boxes for valves, 140butterfly, 132, 133cavitation, 234check, 94, 140, 159chlorination, 335, 338, 341, 342, 349corporation stop, 125, 152, 153corrosion, 238couplings, 143curb stop, 152diaphragm, 135distribution systems, 88, 132, 232double-check type, 155drain, 140exercising, 234flow regulation, 132gate, 132, 133globe, 134, 135layout, 141mains, water, 132, 141, 232maintenance, 238map, 234, 236, 260operation, 141plug, 132powered operation, 234, 235

pressure reducing, 88, 136pressure relief, 139pressure sustaining, 136protection, 139record form, 236, 237regulator stations, 70repairs, 238safety, 139shutoff, 132slide, 132surveillance, 171types, 132vacuum relief, 136vaults for valves, 140water hammer, 234

Vandalism, 169, 172, 242Vaults for valves, 140Velocity meters, 146, 149Ventilation

chlorine rooms, 333safety, 333, 393, 402, 459

Vents, storage facilities, 43, 68, 69Venturi meters, 149Vertical traffic control panels, 446

Also see Traffic controlVictaulic coupling, 102Violence in the workplace, 494Viruses, 19, 290Visibility, clothing for worker safety,

432Voltage imbalance, 197–201Volume-related charges, 578Vortex, 27Vulnerability assessment, 267, 530

WWastewater facilities, 7Water

acid rain, 2audits, 204, 575conservation

See Conservationcontamination, 2costs, 2cycle, 4efficiency program, 579evaporation, 4groundwater, 7, 11irrigation runoff, 2seawater intrusion, 3, 8shortages, 2sources, 11surface, 6, 11table, 7treatment, 10, 11water quality problems, 11

Waterborne diseases, 286Water hammer, 44, 47, 83, 207, 234Water mains

See Mains, water

Water qualityaesthetics, 12biological, 18, 54chemical, 18, 54consumer demands, 10contaminants, 18control, 18degradation, 23distribution systems, 15–28health, 15, 93internal parasites, 18monitoring, 27, 173

Also see Monitoring, water qualityparasites, 18pathogenic organisms, 19physical, 14, 18, 54primary regulations, 12problems, 11, 15, 54, 55, 93, 212radiological, 14secondary drinking water

regulations, 12standards, 12surveillance, 169, 173temperature, 23trihalomethanes (THMs), 11troubleshooting, 27–28, 54, 55

Water rates, 2, 515WaterSense, EPA partnership program,

580Water shortage allocations, 578Water supply systems

chlorination equipment, 358description, 3–9distribution systems, 9, 15, 19sources, 4storage facilities, 9threat response, contamination, 536treatment facilities, 9

Water table, 7Water treatment plants

costs, 3, 10objectives, 10purpose, 29water quality problems, 2

Water waste prohibition, 579Weighing, chlorine containers, 363Welded joints, 105Wells

abandoning, 405disinfection, 311, 374plugging, 405safety, 400, 402, 403yield, 8

Wet-barrel hydrants, 145Wet inspection, 57Wet tapping, 131Wholesale agency assistance programs,

577Withdrawal rate, chlorine, 335, 362Worker Right-To-Know (RTK) laws,

544–556Worker visibility, clothing for safety, 431

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Index 749

Working conditions, 485Working in streets, safety, 411–455Work injuries, causes, 387Work orders, 260Wrench, chlorine container valve, 336Written communication, 503–505

YYield, wells, 8Yoke-type connectors, 335

ZZinc, SMCL (secondary maximum

contaminant level), 14Zinc orthophosphate, 251Zone of saturation, 7

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