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    Defining the Research QuestionPrepared bY : Smirkou Ahmed,

    Hammani Mohamed, Idabdallah

    Abdelhadi

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    outline Sources of research questions

    Scope of research

    Feasibility of research Stating research questions and hypotheses

    Collecting research evidence

    Internal and external validity of studies

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    Definition of the concept Research Research has been defined as a systematic approach to

    searching for answers to questions. (9)

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    1) Sources of Research QuestionsA) From the teachers themselves

    o for them, research was something that people did at

    universities or labs. They described research as havinggreat theoretical scope,with numbers and symbolsthat made it difficult to understand. (9)

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    A List of Questions1. Do teachers have questions about teaching?

    2. Do they wonder about the use of teaching materials,

    techniques, etc.?3. Do they share such questions with their students or

    with other teachers?

    4. Why some teachers believe that research should be

    conducted elsewhere?

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    Research Interests Top Down instructions:

    Devorced from true curiosity

    The results are probably predictable It is like being asked to write a composition with an

    open-choice topic:

    Lack of directions

    Much time is spent complaining or worrying about the wayyou can please the person who gave directions

    Supervising Faculty

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    Questions are our own Questions we truly want to investigate

    Questions must be important to us

    Our questions are shaped by our experience Our teachers,colleagues, students, and the reading we

    do guide us towards the important issues in our fields

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    B)Another source of research:Journals of ourfield

    They show which questions are especiallyinteresting at a particular time

    The wide range of possibilities for research

    They offer specific ideas for further research

    Some researchs major areas:

    Learner /teacher

    Characteristics

    ClassroomResearch

    Languageanalysis

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    Picking up particular research

    topics Reasons:

    We research what we like or what appeals to us

    We research what we think we already know How to define what interests you:

    1. Use a research journal

    2. Form a study group: find critical friends/ friendlyenemies

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    Practice1.1 Start a research journal:

    Write your notes and questions in the journal for one week

    Compare the research interests of the study group members

    Report on a range of interests

    Pick up a certain article or a research topic from yourrecent journal:

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    In addition to Personal Interest, researchquetions have other characteristics:

    to generate new information

    to conform old information in new ways

    Thats why a review of the literature on theresearch topic must be done

    This helps you locate your research area. Also it helps you not to select the topic if you

    thought that it had already been sufficientlyaddressed.

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    An Example: If you are to carry out your research on how students

    can perform basic SpeechActs1) First, you need to undertake a review of previous speech

    act: the university library might helpo Look for key words and key authors : in the case of

    Speech Act, you might find terms like directive,assertive, commissive or such authors asAustin, Searle,Gumperz.

    2) The topic is still too broad3) Narrow down the scope of the search

    4) Ask yourself such questions: Which speech act do I want to investigate? What type of learners/ students am I going to talk about? Which area am I going to focus on? What kind of situations should be investigated?

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    The process of narrowing the

    scope of research1) Via key words:

    Speech Acts

    Directive, commissive, etc.2) Via key setences:

    Investigate how well second langauge learners performspeech

    acts

    Investigate MoroccanESL students ability to recognizecomplaint behaviour appropriate in an accademic universitysetting

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    Even a fairly narrow question may need to be more

    carefully defined because previous researchers may

    already have done it.

    Use operational definitions to subcategorize or narrow

    the concept:

    Motivation

    Intrinsic extrinsic instrumental integrative

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    Operational definitions give a tried and true definition and anaccepted method for observing or assessing it. (15)

    Sometimes there are no accepted definitions or no agreement as towhat the terms mean as the case of abstract theoretical concepts such

    as the terms motivation, acquisition, bilingualism. (15) Terms must be operationally defined: an operational definition is aclear statement of how you judge or identify a term in your research. (15)

    Ex:Acquisition in my study means andwill be measured or observed by..

    Good operational definitions can be drawn from the existing literature Sometimes research is difficult to carry out because operational definitions cannot be found that will

    satisfy the researcher. Sometimes no operational definitions exist in the literature and the researcher must define terms.

    Thats why the attempt to establish concepts is an important area of research.

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    The operational definition is

    important for three reasons:1. You will need to be absolutely consistent throughout the

    research processin your definition.

    2. It is important for consumers of your research so thatthey do not misinterpret your findings.

    3. It is important to the research community that yourstudy be replicable.

    A Similar project but a different definition mayresult in different findings.

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    Balance between scope and interest

    We may lose the interest in the topic because it nolonger addresses the larger question

    Try to maintain the original research interest bycarrying out a number of studies with limitedscope

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    Research questions should:1. Interest us

    2. Promise new information or conform oldinformation in new ways

    3. have reasonable scope

    4. have key terms that are clearly defined andoperationalized. (17)

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    Before making a further step or stating the questionsin a more formal way, we need to consider whether ornot the research is feasible.

    The factors that affect the feasibility ofresearch: know the time span it will take

    do you have that amount of time to spend?( when the topic is very broad, it may take a lifetime to be

    investigated)

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    Longitudinal studies: it follows an individual orgroup over a period of time.

    Cross-sectional approach: data are gathered from

    different groups of learners of different ages ordifferent levels of proficiency.

    Longitudinal study of Luisa

    0:9 1:0 1:3 1:6 1:9 2:0

    Cross-Sectional Study of 30 children

    5 at 0:9 5 at 1:0 5 at 1:3 5 at 1:6 5 at 1:9 5 at2:0

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    In Cross-sectional approach: data could becollected at one time rather than spread out overtwo years.

    This makes the study more feasible.

    However, age may not be a very satisfactory way toequate stages.

    The researcher must be able to locate appropriatelearners and have time to collect the data fromeach of them.

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    By quantity and quality of access: For example assume thatthe government is interested in finding out the extent ofbilingualism in your country. One way they could do this isby including questions on the next United States census

    questionnaire. First, the qualityof the sample is likely to be biased given

    the existence of undocumented aliens, who may or may notwant to be part of the census count.

    Second, quantity(the number of questions that could beallocated to this issue on the questionnaire) would beseverly constrained

    Third, the cost, if bilingual census takers must be found toconduct census taking,might not make the project feasible

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    Feasibility may be determined Bytime

    By access: you may have great difficulty in gainingaccess to the classroom. Many schools andteachers require a statement that the research willnot disrupt regular instruction. Restrictions maybe placed on the data-gathering procedure by theschool.

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    The cost of research in planning a

    project Prepare a reasonble budget

    Do you need tape recorders and tapes?

    If videotaped data are required for your study, are

    videocamera and tapes available? Can you operate the videocamera and observe a class

    at the same time, or must you hire a camera?

    Do you need paper supplies, travel to and from a

    school,photocopies? List the procedures needed to gain access to the

    classroom

    Try to make a complete list of everything you need

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    Stating Research Questions and

    HypothesesAfter the scope and feasibility of research questions, it

    is time to consider how these questions can be clearlystated:

    Imagine you want to describe the bilingual languagedevelopment of the child, Luisa.

    Your basic research question:

    Can I describe the bilingual languagedevelopment of Luisa?

    Can I describe the first 50 Spanish and first 50English words acquired by Luisa?

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    What do you expect in the data? Do you expect to see a change in meanings over time?

    Do you expect to see parallel words in the twolangauges? Etc.

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    We often begin a research with questions like:

    Can I describe X ? Rather than Why do I want todescribe X ?

    Can I describe questions are often difficult, for weseldom know how we will go about this descriptivetask until we begin to examine the data.

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    Example Consider the work that is done in needs-assessment

    research: One basic question that pops up:

    Can I describe how X perceive their needs regardinginstruction ( or whatever)?You should expect what to find out:If you involve parents in the instruction process, do you

    expect all parents to respond in the same way? If not, what

    factors might help explain differences in their responses?...Once we start thinking about what might happen inthe data, we begin to think about how to explain thefindings.

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    Practice1) Select one question from your research journal.

    Explain why it is an interesting question to the field.

    2) Frame the general research question for the study.

    3) Consider the possible outcomes of the study. Whatfactors may enter into the research that mightinfluence the outcomes.

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    It is time to: Read

    Observe

    Think about the project very carefully Look at your research journal and revise your research

    question many times and think about manyaternatives and the possible outcomes.

    Dont plunge into a project without taking time to letyour minds sort through many possibilities

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    HYPOTHESES When we have questions about something, we reallydont

    know the answers for sure. This doesnt mean that we have no idea about what those

    answers might be or where to look for them. Our hunches about answers may come from reviewing the

    literature on the toip, from talking with colleagues, orfrom observing classrooms.

    These hunches about answers,when written in a formalway, are called hypotheses.

    We carry out our research to see if the hypotheses aresupported or not.

    Dont forget that research is a way to prove that an answeris right or wrong.

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    You may state the alternative hypothesis in adirectional form ( positive or negative):

    Ex: There is a positive/negative relationship betweenL2 proficiency and placement on the spellingcontiuum.

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    It will seldom be possible to prove that your answer is theright one.

    A hypothesis is a statement of possible outcome ofresearch.

    A hypothesis may be stated as:

    1) a nullhypothesis. Ex: There is no order of acquisition of

    English spelling patterns: in null hypothesis, there is norelationship between L2 proficiency and placement onthe spelling continnum.

    2) an alternativehypothesis. Ex: There is an order of

    acquisition of English spelling patterns: in alternativehypothesis, there is a relationship between L2 proficiencyand placement on the spelling continnum.

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    The null hypothesis is tested rather than a

    directional alternative hypothesis

    It is easier to find evidence that supports a directionalhypothesis than it is to reject a null hypothesis.

    Different statistics will be used on the distinction ofwhether the hypothesis is directional.

    Sometimes you need to write more than onehypothesis to cover the research question

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    -1 Collecting research evidence.-2 Internal and external validity..

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    DEFINITION

    Scientific evidence: evidence which

    serves to either support or countera scientifc theoryor hypothesis.

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    What should be done?When planning a research one should

    consider the kinds of evidence that are

    needed.Your findings will allow you to SUPPORT or

    REJECT your hypotheses.

    Data collection: how to find the mostEFFICIENT way to collect data. Theresearch question(s) determine(s) your data

    collection method.

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    Efficiency: depends on the amount of time onehas to carry out the project in.

    Ample time allows you to think of differentways to gather evidence.

    - Good BUT: 1/ Time is mostly restricted. 2/toostrong.

    Ex: Suppose you want to investigate the typesof spelling errors made by men and womenfrom different first language groups:

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    In this case There are a series of questions to beanswered like:

    - How might you OPERATIONALLY

    define advanced so that you are sure the samples comefrom the appropriate group?

    - how many compositions will youneed?

    - Will words representing all thespelling patterns actually occur in all compositions?

    - HOW LONG will it be before all thesamples arrive?

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    Hence EFFICIENCY isnt

    everything If the method you use isdull or frightening or TAKES TOOLONG, it is unlikely that your subjects

    will be motivated to perform as well asthey might.

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    The data collection method should notonly motivate subjects to participate,but should allow them to give their best

    possible performance.

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    Questionnaires Time requirements and task boredom can discourage

    people from responding.

    To ensure a better way of response and return ofquestionnaires, its important to consider exactly whatinformation must be obtained from the respondentand what information can EASILYbe gathered fromother sources.

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    Internal and external validity Cambel and stanely(1963), note that internal validty

    has to do with the interpretation of the researchfindings within the study iteself. Whereas external

    validty, has to do with the extension of the researchfindings beyond the confinments of the study.

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    Threats to internal validity

    Subject selection : When conducting a

    reserach, the subjects or your sample grouptend to bring with them certaincharacteristics, some learnt and someinherent. Examples inculde : sex, attitude,personality,mental ability etc).

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    During our review and assessment of subject selection,we should consider the following issues:

    - The purposes of the research.- The setting in which the research would beconducted.

    - The Population.

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    Maturation : In any research, there is always thethreat that the subjects may change in the course ofthe experiment due to the passage of time. Forexample BECAUSE OF FATIGUE.

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    History : Refers to the outisde events that mayinfluence subjects in the course of an experiment orbetween repeated measures of the dependent variable.

    Suppose that the dependent varibale is measuredtwice for a group of subjects, once at time or place Aand later at time or place B, in this case theindependent varibale changes and therefore the results

    are not valid.

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    Instrumentation : refers to theobjectivity and validity of the research

    measurments. Data that isnonobjective threatens a studysinternal validity.

    Ex : questionnaire with grammarquestions to test fluency notvalid.

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    Task directions : Refers to howvalid are the instructions of theinstrument used in the reserach.Long , hard to understand, time

    demanding etc.

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    Adequate Data Base : Here, if you are to measureone thing with different items, these items should becarefully arranged. That is , there should be some

    sort ofconsitency; The items should be close to eachother in terms of expectation on the part of thesubject so that it is easy for them to fill it honestlyand comfortably. This is called : FORMING A SET

    RESPONSE. To be valid, the data gathering procedure should

    allow us to tap the true abilities of the Subjects.

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    Testing effects consist of either reactivityas a result of testing or practice/learning

    from exposure to repeated testing.Longitudinal studies which requireparticipants to take certain tests on anumber of occasions are subject to thisthreat to internal validity.

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    External validity

    If a study deos not have internal valdity, it cant havethe external one. we cannot generalize.

    How representative the data are for the group(s) towhich we hope to generalize?

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    Threats to external validity Sample selection: the selection SHOULD NOT be by convenience sampling that is, they happened to be the

    group that was available.

    EX: if we have specified the population as ESL universitystudents elsewhere, then our sample Ss must be selected toREPRESENT ESL students everywhere.

    Hence: The group should be slected RANDOMLY.

    HOWEVER: There are problems with this method; forexamlple: There may be more men that women , moreimmigrant that foreign students, more students from thesciences that humanities etc. ONE WAY TO SOLVE THISIS THROUGh a STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLE.

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    Finally:

    In order to avoid threats to external validity, a detaileddescription of the population to which you willgeneralize must be given, Ss must be randomly slectedusing that description, and threats to internal validitymust be met. Otherwise, no generalization can bemade.

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    Thank you for your

    attention