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Chapter 01Lecture Outline

See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures and tables pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes.

• Early healers depended on superstition and magic

• Followed by observations of injuries, wound healing and dead bodies

• This evolved into experimentation and creation of new terminology for anatomy & physiology

• Finally, study of corpses and cadaver dissection brought new knowledge of human body

1.1: Origins of Medical Science

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• Anatomy: The study of the structure/morphology of the human body and its parts; derived from Greek for “a cutting up”

• Physiology: The study of the functions of the human body and its parts; derived from Greek for “relationship to nature”

• The structure of organs and parts of the human body determines the function.

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1.2: Anatomy & Physiology

All materials, living or non-living, are composed of chemicals, which consist of atoms.

• Subatomic Particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons that make up cells

• Atom: tiny particles that make up chemicals (hydrogen, carbon)

• Molecule: particles consisting of atoms (water, glucose)

• Macromolecule: large particles consisting of molecules (DNA, protein)

• Organelle: functional part of a cell (mitochondrion, lysosome)

• Cell: basic unit of structure and functions (muscle, nerve, or blood cell)

• Tissue: layer or mass of cells with specific function (adipose tissue)

• Organ: group of different tissues with a function (heart, kidney, stomach)

• Organ System: group of organs with common function (digestive system)

• Organism: composed of organ systems interacting (human)

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1.3: Levels of Organization

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Levels of Organization

Clinical Application 1.1

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Noninvasive procedures that provide images of internal structures:

• Ultrasound (US): High-frequency sound waves that provide images of soft internal structures; used to obtain sonogram of fetus in the uterus

• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Magnetic field changes alignment and spin of certain types of atoms; provides high-resolution images of internal structures, such as the brain

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Ultrasound and MRI

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The events inside the body which obtain, release, and utilize energy are the main part of metabolism (all of the chemical reactions in an organism that support life).

1.4: Characteristics of Life

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Life requires / depends on 5 environmental factors:

• Water:- most abundant substance in body- environment for metabolic processes- required for transport of substances- regulation of body temperature

• Food:- provides necessary nutrients- supplies energy- supplies raw materials for building living tissue

1.5: Maintenance of Life

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• Oxygen (gas):- one-fifth of air- used to release energy from nutrients

• Heat:- helps maintain body temperature - partly controls rate of metabolic reactions

• Pressure:- application of force on an object- atmospheric pressure – important for breathing- hydrostatic pressure – keeps blood flowing

Requirements of Organisms

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Homeostasis: Maintenance of a stable internal environment

Homeostatic Mechanisms: Self-regulating systems that monitor aspects of the internal environment and correct them as needed.

There are 3 parts of a homeostatic mechanism:• Receptor: detects and provides information about the

stimuli• Control Center: decision-maker that maintains the set

point• Effector: muscle or gland that responds to the control

center, and causes the necessary change in the internal environment

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Homeostasis

Homeostatic Mechanisms

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Example of a homeostatic mechanism for the regulation of body temperature

Homeostatic Mechanisms

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Negative feedback:

• Most common type of homeostatic mechanism

• Effectors return conditions toward normal range, and the deviation from set point lessens

• Called “negative” because the response to the change moves the variable in the opposite direction of the deviation from the set point

• Prevents sudden, severe changes in the body

• Examples: negative feedback controls body temperature, blood pressure & glucose level in the blood

Homeostatic Mechanisms

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Positive feedback:

• Uncommon in the body

• The change/deviation is intensified, instead of reversed

• Activity of effector is increased initially, instead of decreasing

• Short-lived

• Produce unstable conditions, that seem like they will not lead to homeostasis, but they will.

• Examples: blood clotting and the uterine contractions of childbirth

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Homeostatic Mechanisms

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Human body consists of 2 main portions:Axial portion: head, neck, and trunkAppendicular portion: upper and lower limbs

Major cavities of the axial portion of the body:• Cranial cavity: houses brain• Vertebral canal (spinal cavity): contains spinal cord• Thoracic cavity: houses lungs and thoracic viscera• Abdominopelvic cavity: contains abdominal and pelvic

viscera

1.6: Organization of the Human Body

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1.6: Organization of the Human Body

Cranial Cavity

Vertebral Canal

1.6: Organization of the Human BodyThoracic Cavity

Diaphragm

Abdominopelvic Cavity

Abdominal Cavity Pelvic CavityMediastinum Pulmonary Cavity

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• Diaphragm: muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

• Mediastinum: region between lungs in thoracic cavity, which contains heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus gland

• Abdominopelvic cavity contains 2 portions:a. Abdominal cavity: extends from diaphragm to top of

pelvis, and contains stomach, liver, spleen, kidneys small intestine, most of large intestine

b. Pelvic cavity: enclosed by pelvic bones, and contains end of large intestine, urinary bladder, internal reproductive organs

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Major Body Cavities

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Major Body Cavities

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Small cavities of the head:

• Oral cavity

• Nasal cavity

• Orbital cavities

• Middle ear cavities

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Small Cavities of the Head

The thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are lined by double-layered serous membranes, which secrete serous fluid (slippery fluid that prevents friction between layers).

Serous membranes consist of 2 layers:• Visceral layer: inner layer, which covers an organ• Parietal layer: outer layer, which lines wall of cavity

Examples of serous membranes:• Visceral and parietal pleura (around lungs in thorax)• Visceral and parietal pericardium (around heart in thorax)• Visceral and parietal peritoneum (around abdominopelvic

organs) 22

Thoracic and Abdominopelvic Membranes

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Serous membranes of thethoracic cavity

Serous membranes of theabdominal cavity

Serous Membranes

Pleural Membranes

Visceral pleura Parietal pleura

Pleural cavity

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Pericardium

Visceral pericardium

Pericardial cavity

Parietal pericardium

Peritoneum

Visceral peritoneum

Parietal peritoneum

Peritonealcavity

Lesseromentum

Mesenteryof small intestine

Greateromentum

Peritoneum

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Organ Systems

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Integumentary system:Protection, body temperature regulation, sensory reception,production of Vitamin D

Skeletal system:Framework, protection,attachment sites, storage of inorganic salts, production of blood cells, support and movement

Muscular system:Movement, main source of body heat, maintenance of posture.

Integumentary System

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Skeletal System

Muscular System

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Organ Systems

Nervous andEndocrine systems:

Integration and coordination of organfunction throughnerve impulses or hormones

Nervous System

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Endocrine System

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Organ Systems

Cardiovascular system:Transportation of gases, nutrients, blood cells and wastes

Lymphatic system:Transportation of fluids, lymphocyte production, body defense

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Cardiovascular System

Lymphatic System

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Organ Systems

Digestive system:Receives food, breaks down food, excretes waste

Respiratory system:Exchange of gases

Urinary system:Removes blood wastes, regulates electrolyte & water balance, blood pressure

Digestive System

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Respiratory System

Urinary System

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Organ Systems

Reproductive System: Male and female systems produce and transport sex cells. Female also provides fetal development and childbirth.

Reproductive System

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Organ Systems

1.7: Lifespan Changes

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• Aging occurs from the microscopic to the whole-body level. These are some of the changes that occur with aging:

• Hair loses pigment, becomes gray or white

• Skin wrinkles due to decrease in subcutaneous fat

• Skin stiffens due to decrease in collagen and elastin

• Percentage of fats in the tissues increases

• Elevated blood pressure may become hypertension

• Elevated blood glucose may become type 2 diabetes mellitus

• Tissues atrophy and organs shrink

• Cells reach end of ability to undergo cell division, as they lose tips of chromosomes

• Metabolic rate decreases

• Decreased production of enzymes and other proteins

• Some will develop dementia / Alzheimer disease

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1.8: Anatomical Terminology

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Anatomical Position:Standing erect, facing forward, upper limbs at the sides, palms facing forward

Anatomical terms of relative position are based on a person standing in anatomical position.

Anatomical Position

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Terms of Relative Position

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• Superior (above) / Inferior (below)

• Anterior or ventral (toward the front) / Posterior or dorsal (toward the back)

• Medial (toward the midline) / Lateral (away from midline)

• Bilateral (paired structures; on both sides)

• Ipsilateral (same side) / Contralateral (opposite sides)

• Proximal (close to point of attachment to trunk) / Distal (farther from point of attachment to trunk)

• Superficial (close to body surface) / Deep (more internal)

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Terms of Relative Position

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Body Sections or Planes

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• Sagittal section: longitudinal cut that divides body into left and right portions

• Mid-sagittal/Median section: divides body into equal left and right portions

• Parasagittal section: sagittal section lateral to midline; divides body into unequal left and right portions

• Transverse or Horizontal section: divides body into superior and inferior portions

• Coronal or Frontal section: longitudinal cut that divides body into anterior and posterior portions

Superior Inferior

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Anterior Posterior(Ventral) (Dorsal)

Medial Lateral

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Proximal Distal

Deep Superficial

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Body Sections

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Body Sections

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Sagittal Plane

Midsagittal Plane

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Transverse Plane

Coronal Plane

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Oblique Plane

Body Sections: The Brain

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Sagittal Section Transverse Section Frontal section

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Body Sections in Cylindrical Organs

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Cross section Oblique section Longitudinal section

These sections are found in organs such as blood vessels, the ureter, the trachea, or the intestines.

Body Regions and Quadrants

64Abdominal Regions Abdominal Quadrants

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Rt. HypochondriacEpigastric

Lt. Hypochondriac

Rt. Lumbar  Lt.Lumbar

Umbilical

Rt. Iliac  Lt. IliacPelvic

Body Regions

Nine Abdominal Regions

Rt. Hypochondriac Lt. Hypochondriac

Rt. LumbarLt. Lumbar

Rt. Iliac Lt. Iliac

Epigastric

Umbilical

Pelvic

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Abdominal QuadrantsUpper Right Lower Right Upper Left Lower Left

Abdominal Quadrants

Upper Right

Lower Right

Upper Left

Lower Left

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Body Regions

69Anterior regions Posterior regions

Abdominopelvic Region

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Back

Back Scapular region

Triangle of auscultation

Vertebral region

Sacral region

Lumbar  region

Frontal

Mental

Nasal

Oral

Orbital

Occipital

Parietal

Temporal

Zygomatic

Buccal

Otic Facial

Cephalic

Head Regions

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Lower Limb RegionFemoral

Patellar

Crural

Tarsal PedalDorsum of foot Digits

Calcaneal

Popliteal

Gluteal

Coxal

Popliteal

Sural

Neck (Cervical) Region Anterior cervical

Lateralcervical

Posterior cervical

Sternocleidomastoid