2

Dimension – Data collectionNarrative/Biography Primarily interviews and documents

Phenomenology Long interviews with up to 10 people

Grounded Theory Interviews with 20-30 individuals to

“saturate” categories and detail a theory

Ethnography Primarily observations and interviews

with additional artifacts during extended time in the filed (e.g., 6 months to a year)

Case Study Multiple sources – documents, archival

records, interviews, observations, physical artifacts

Nonbehavioural observationالالسلوكية المشاهدات

◦ Record analysis ◦ السجالت تحليل◦ Physical condition analysis◦ ) الفيزيائية ) المادية الظروف تحليل◦ Process or activity analysis◦ األنشطة أو العمليات تحليل

Behavioural observation السلوكية المشاهدات◦ Nonverbal analysis◦ الشفهي غير التحليل◦ Linguistic analysis◦ اللغوي التحليل◦ Extralinguistic analysis◦ اللغوية فوق العناصر تحليل◦ Spatial analysis◦ الحيزي التحليل

Observation المشاهدات

Classification of Observational Studiesالمشاهدات على المعتمدة الدراسات تصنيف

Research classالبحث نوع

Environmentبيئته

Purposeهدفه

Research tool أداته

1. Completely unstructured غير

نهائيا مقولب

Natural settingالطبيعية البيئة

Generate hypotheses

الفرضيات توليد

2. Unstructured مقولب غير

Laboratory المختبر

3. Structured مقولب

Natural settingالطبيعية البيئة

Observation checklist

فحص قائمةالمشاهدات

4. Completely structured مقولب تماما

Laboratory المختبر

Test hypotheses الفرضيات فحص

Observation checklist

فحص قائمةالمشاهدات

Who من What ماذا

◦ Event Sampling ◦ الحدث حول العينات أخذ◦ Time Sampling◦ الزمن حول العينات أخذ

When متى How كيف Where اين

Observation Data Collectionرصد على المعتمدة الدراسات بيانات جمع

المشاهدات

Seeing through others’ eyes Learning the native language The taken-for-granted Deviant and hidden activities Sensitivity to context Encountering the unexpected and

flexibility Naturalistic emphasis

Write down notes, however brief, as quickly as possible after seeing or hearing something interesting.

وهام مثير حدث ألي سماعك أو رؤيتك فور مقتضبة كانت مهما مالحظاتك دون Write up full field notes at the very latest at the end of the day

and include such details as location, who is involved, what prompted the exchange or whatever, date and time of the day, etc.

وضمن الوقت من لك تتاح فرصة أقرب في المطولة التفصيلية المالحظات أكتبكالتاريخ التفاصيل من وغيرها والدوافع واألشخاص كالموقع الهامة التفاصيل فيها

وغيرها والوقت Nowadays, people may prefer to use a tape recorder to record

initial notes, but this may create a problem of needing to transcribe a lot of speech.

المالحظات ألخذ اآللية التسجيل أداة استخدام األيام هذه في البعض يفضل قدمسموعة من النصوص كتابة اعادة الى الحاجة مشكلة يخلق قد هذا ولكن األولية

مقروءة الى Notes must be vivid and clear - you should not have to ask at

a later date `what did I mean by that?‘ المالحظات تكون أن يجبماذا – ” مثل سؤاال نفسك فيه تسأل الذي الوقت يأتي أن يجب ال وواضحة سهلة

المالحظة؟ هذه من أقصد “كنت You need to take copious notes, so, if in doubt, write it down. الشك موقع في كنت ان شيء كل اكتب لذلك مسهبة مالحظات الى تحتاج قد

Mental notes - particularly useful when it is inappropriate to be seen taking notes

فيها – يستحسن ال التي األماكن في تحديدا ومفيدة هامة وهي ذهنية مالحظاتتكتب وأنت رؤيتك

Jotted notes (also called Scratch notes) - very brief notes written down on pieces of paper or in small notebooks to jog one's memory about events that should be written up later

– ) على ) تكتب مقتضبة مالحظات وهي الخربشة شكل تأخذ المختصرة المالحظاتالحق وقت في كتابتها حين التفاصيل حول الباحث ذاكرة تحريك بهدف صغير .دفتر

Full field notes - as soon as possible make detailed notes, which will be your main data source

سنحت – متى متكاملة تامة مالحظات بأخذ قم الكاملة الميدانية المالحظاتللمعلومات الرئيسي مصدرك تكون بحيث الفرصة

Ethnographic fieldnotes are traditionally handwritten in a notebook or ‘diary’. This has a number of advantages, it is flexible and discrete, the diary can be taken most places (including the toilet!) and can be slipped into a pocket when not required.

“ كثيرة ” فوائد ولهذا صغيرة، مذكرة أو صغير دفتر على عادة اإلثنوغرافية الميدانية المالحظات كتابة تتم ) ويمكن ) التواليت حتى األماكن معظم الى أخذه ويمكن ومميزا مرنا يكون بحجمه الدفتر هذا أن حيث

إليه الحاجة عدم حال في بسهولة الجيب في وضعهThe main disadvantage is that at the end of the fieldwork you will be left with a huge quantity of notes (possibly in very bad handwriting) and to analyse the data with the aid of CAQDAS (see Chapter 23), or even to quote extensively from your fieldnotes in a dissertation, you will have the laborious and time consuming task of transcribing them into word-processed form.

في ) سيء بخط المالحظات من هائل بكم والرصد المالحظة بعد تنتهي أنك فهي األسلوب هذا سلبية أما ( ) الفصل انظر أس إيه دي كيو إيه سي نظام بمساعدة البيانات تحلل أن عليك ويكون الحاالت ( 23معظم

الجهد تتحمل أن عليك يكون وبذلك أطروحتك، لكتابة مالحظاتك من الواسع اإلقتباس الى تحتاج قد أوالنهائية الكتابية صورتها الى المالحظات لتحويل الالزم والوقت

Consider using a palmtop computer if you have access to one, it is unlikely to make you stand out and may help you to blend into the setting. By taking the palmtop into the field, you will be able to type fieldnotes straight into a word processor (unless you are a slow typist!), though they are at risk of being stolen so you will probably have to either carry the machine around with you or find somewhere secure to keep it. ) الجو ) في اإلنخراط على يساعدك فهو ذلك أمكنك إذا اليد راحة بحجم المصغر الكمبيوتر باستخدام فكركنت ) إذا إال مباشرة الميدانية المالحظات طباعة بإمكانك سيكون الميدان الى للجهاز وبأخذك المحيط،

)! مأمن في فاحفظها سرقتها أمكانية من واحذر ببطء يطبعون ممن

There is a tendency for ethnographic research to lack a sense of an obvious end point

في النهاية نقطة هي أين يعرفون ال أنهم وهي اإلثنوغرافيا باحثي لدى عامة مشكلة هناكأبحاثهم

In organizational research it is likely that a deadline for data collection will be negotiated at the outset

بها الخاصة البيانات لجمع النهائي الموعد يكون أن المؤسساتية الدراسات على يغلبالبحث بداية عند للنقاش موضعا

The ethnographer may feel that they have simply had enough التوقف عليه وأن التعب أصابهم قد المجتمع افراد أن ببساطة اإلثنوغرافي يشعر أحيانا The researcher's categories are thoroughly saturated اإلشباع حد الى الباحث تصنيفات تصل أن Disengagement has to be managed االرتباط فض لعملية الترتيب يجب ‘Getting out’, should be handled in such a way as to leave the door

open to the possibility of future research or fieldwork “ أي ” أما مفتوحا الباب إبقاء مع للمنطقة مغادرة أنها على التوقف عملية مع التعامل يجب

المستقبلية لألبحاث امكانية The ethnographer's ethical commitments must not be forgotten لإلثنوغرافي األخالقي االلتزام نسيان عدم يجب

Semi-structured interview:

beginning the investigation with a fairly clear focus

more than one person is to carry out the fieldwork ◦ to ensure comparability of

interviewing style

doing multiple-case study research ◦ to ensure cross-case

comparability

Unstructured interview: beginning with a general

notion of wanting to research a topic

using an interview guide will not allow genuine access to world views (see Research in focus 18.5)◦ of members of a social

setting ◦ of people sharing common

attributes

difficulties in gaining access to managers & employees

Structured and Unstructured Interviews

المقولبة وغير المقولبة المقابالت Structured

مقولبة Unstructuredغيرمقولبة

Purposeمنها الهدف

Providing valid and reliable measurements of theoretical conceptsوموثوقة صحيحة قياسات توفير

النظرية المفاهيم حول

Learning the respondent’s viewpoint regarding situations relevant to the broader research problemالمشتركين نظر وجهة على التعرفبالمشكلة المتعلقة للمواقف بالنسبة

للبحث العامة

Instrument أداتها

Questionnaire, i.e. specified set of pre-defined questionsمن مجموعة كوضع االستبيانات،

مسبق بشكل المدروسة األسئلة

Memory list التذكيرية القائمةInterview guide

المقابالت دليل

Format بنيتها

Fixed to the initial questionnaire

األولي باالستبيان االلتزام

Flexible depending on the course of the conversation, follow-up and new questions are raisedإذ الحوار، سير خط حسب مرنة

جديدة أو تابعة أسئلة تظهر أن يمكن

Ensure all topics are covered المواضيع كافة تغطية من التأكد Formulate in an easy language سهلة بلغة صياغتها Ensure questions are not too specific التخصص في مفرطة األسئلة تكون ال أن من التأكد Reduce your influence as interviewer as much as possible اإلمكان قدر للمقابلة كمشرف تأثيرك من التقليل Ensure also to record some general information

(demographics etc.) العامة المعلومات بعض تدوين من التأكد

Guidelines for Interview Guideالمقابالت لمشرف إرشادات

Find:◦ a quiet, private space in which to conduct an interview

uninterrupted (e.g. a suitable spare room that is not being used)

Be careful of:◦ agreeing to interview someone in their own office◦ frequent telephone calls or interruptions ◦ traffic, aircraft, machinery or background noise making

recorded speech inaudible

Think about: ◦ closing doors or windows◦ turning off noisy heaters, fans etc◦ the comfort and convenience of your interviewee

Spend some time:◦ getting hold of a good tape recorder and microphone ◦ checking the room prior to the interview◦ doing a speech recording to test acoustics and carefully

positioning the furniture◦ positioning the microphone as near to your interviewees as

possible (and make sure that they are unlikely to knock it!)

Prepare yourself by: ◦ not being afraid to explain what you need in order to conduct

the interview◦ compromising when it comes to actually getting it◦ making yourself familiar with the setting in which the

interviewee works, lives or engages in the behaviour of interest to you

◦ cultivating as many of the criteria of a quality interviewer suggested by Kvale as possible (see Tips and skills p484)

Make notes about:

how the interview went (was interviewee talkative, cooperative, nervous, well-dressed/scruffy, etc.?)

where the interview took place

any other feelings about the interview (did it open up new avenues of interest?)

the setting (busy/quiet, many/few other people in the vicinity, new/old buildings, use of computers)

Formulateinterviewquestions

Specificresearchquestions

Generalresearcharea

Interviewtopics

Review/reviseInterview questions

Pilot guide

Identify novelissues

Revise interviewquestions

Finalize guide

1. Knowledgeable: thoroughly familiar with the focus of the interview; pilot interviews of the kind used in survey interviewing can be useful here.

2. Structuring: gives purpose for interview; rounds it off; asks whether interviewee has questions.

3. Clear: asks simple, easy, short questions; no jargon.

4. Gentle: lets people finish; gives them time to think; tolerates pauses.

5. Sensitive: listens attentively to what is said and how it is said; is empathetic in dealing with the interviewee.

6. Open: responds to what is important to interviewee and is flexible.

7. Steering: knows what he/she wants to find out.

8. Critical: is prepared to challenge what is said, for example, dealing with inconsistencies in interviewees' replies.

9. Remembering: relates what is said to what has previously been said.

10. Interpreting: clarifies and extends meanings of interviewees' statements, but without imposing meaning on them.

11. Balanced: does not talk too much, which may make the interviewee passive, and does not talk too little, which may result in the interviewee feeling he or she is not talking along the right lines.

12. Ethically sensitive: is sensitive to the ethical dimension of interviewing, ensuring the interviewee appreciates what the research is about, its purposes, and that his or her answers will be treated confidentially.

1. Introducing questions: `Please tell me about when your interest in X first began?'; `Have you ever . . .?'; `Why did you go to . . .?' .

2. Follow-up questions: getting the interviewee to elaborate his/her answer, such as `Could you say some more about that?'; `What do you mean by that . . .?'; ‘Can you give me an example…?’ even `Yeeees?‘

3. Probing questions: following up what has been said through direct questioning.

4. Specifying questions: `What did you do then?'; `How did X react to what you said?‘

5. Direct questions: `Do you find it easy to keep smiling when serving customers?'; `Are you happy with the amount of on-the-job training you have received?' Such questions are perhaps best left until towards the end of the interview, in order not to influence the direction of the interview too much.

6. Indirect questions: `What do most people round here think of the ways that management treats its staff?', perhaps followed up by `Is that the way you feel too?', in order to get at the individual's own view.

7. Structuring questions: `I would now like to move on to a different topic'.

8. Silence: allow pauses to signal that you want to give the interviewee the opportunity to reflect and amplify an answer.

9. Interpreting questions: `Do you mean that your leadership role has had to change from one of encouraging others to a more directive one?'; `Is it fair to say that what you are suggesting is that you don't mind being friendly towards customers most of the time, but when they are unpleasant or demanding you find it more difficult?'

Values—of interviewee, of group, of organization

Beliefs—of interviewee, of others, of group Behaviour—of interviewee, of others Formal and informal roles—of interviewee,

of others Relationships—of interviewee, of others Places and locales Emotions—particularly of the interviewee, but

also possibly of others Encounters Stories

If you are doing research for a project or dissertation you may not have the resources to pay for professional transcription and unless you are an accurate touch typist, it may take you a lot longer than the suggested five to six hours per hour of speech. If you have access to a transcription machine with a foot operated stop-start mechanism this will make the task of transcription somewhat easier. However, the important thing to bear in mind is that you must allow sufficient time for transcription and be realistic about how many interviews you are going to be able to transcribe in the time available.

Since interviewees sometimes ‘open up’ at the end of the interview, perhaps just when the tape recorder has been switched off, there are good grounds for suggesting that you should keep it switched on for as long as possible. So, when you are winding the interview down, don’t switch off the tape recorder immediately.

Issues resistant to observation Reconstruction of events Ethical considerations Reactive effects Less intrusive in people’s lives Longitudinal research easier Greater breadth of coverage Specific focus

Composition of the group المجموعات هذه تركيبة

- rather homogenous (if intended participants are heterogeneous, consider splitting the group)

التفكير ) - يجب التجانس يتوفر لم إن المجموعة أفراد تجانس) أفرادها يتجانس بحيث المجموعة بتقسيم

Quality of outcomes depends crucially on ability of the moderator to trigger discussions

المجموعة رئيس قدرة على أساسي بشكل المخرجات تعتمدالنقاشات وتحريك إثارة على

The focus group method is a form of group interview where: there are several participants (in addition to the moderator/

facilitator) there is an emphasis on questioning on a particular, fairly tightly

defined topic the accent is upon interaction within the group and the joint

construction of meaning

The focus group contains elements of two methods: the group interview, in which several people discuss a number of

topics, though in a less tightly defined fashion than a focus group the focused interview, which may involve individuals or groups

and where interviewees are selected because they `are known to have been involved in a particular situation' (Merton et al. 1956: 3) and are asked about that involvement

As such focus groups: append an interest in group interaction to the focused interview are more focused than the group interview

Focus groups typically emphasize a specific theme or topic that is explored in depth, whereas group interviews often span very widely

Group interviews, unlike focus groups, are often carried out to save time and money by carrying out interviews with a number of individuals simultaneously

Focus group practitioners are interested in the ways individuals discuss issues as members of a group, rather than as individuals. Focus group researchers are interested in how people respond to each other's views and build up a view out of interactions taking place within the group

Need for tape recording and transcription How many groups? Size of groups Level of moderator involvement Selecting participants Asking specific questions

It fosters building explicit “what” and “how” questions into the data collection

“ ” “ جمع ” بهدف بالوضوح المتسمة كيف و ماذا أسئلة تكوين النظرية هذه تدعمالبيانات

Examples: أمثلة ◦ She said…,But, fortunately, I had the experience of at some

point surrendering, you know.كما ◦ قبل من االستسالم تجربة لي كان الحظ لحسن ولكن وكذا، كذا قالت

تعلم◦ I asked, What does that mean to you, surrendering?◦ لك؟: بالنسبة االستسالم يعني كان ماذا فسألت◦ She said, It means that I don't have, I can't control it and to

look at what it has to teach me. Just, you know, let it tell me what it needs to tell me. You know, that willingness and that acceptance.

الى ◦ وسأنظر به، التحكم أستطيع ال لدي، ليس أنه يعني هذا إن فقالتهي فهذه به، يخبرني أن يريد بما يخبرني سأدعه سأتعلمه، الذي الشيء

تعلم كما القبول هو وهذا الرغبة

What is the nature of the data to be collected? (e.g. textual, visual etc.)

What is the unit of analysis? (e.g. the text, the argument; the individual, the group, the organization, the relationship etc.)

Is the research about individuals, groups, or organizations more generally?

What are the assumptions underlying your epistemological approach?

What are the ethical issues involved?

Ali et al. (2008) have published a research paper which provide a conceptual model to study cultural influence (national culture) on multi-channel customer management (Call centre, Web site, Store, Digital TV, etc.) in multi-national organizations.

This is new research area where Ali et al. are trying to explore. The current state of the research area has identified that culture values (Uncertainty avoidances, Power distance, etc.) may have influence on the way organization should manage their customers channels.

However, no published research to date has identified what are these cultural values nor how that influence multi-channel customer management in organizations.

Ali et al. are new researchers in the area and have no experience of working in multi-channel customer management in multinational organizations.

Ali et al. have limited time and resources and there is no sponsor of their project.

1. Discuss different alternatives for the research design that Ali et al. could use in their future research to identify the influence of culture values on multi-channel customer management in multinational organizations?

2. Identify the strengths and limitations of using each research design and the influence of the choice on the research quality?

• The process of systematically arranging and presenting information • to find meaning in the information collected (making sense of human action)• to conceptualise data into theory• Three stages:

• coding• discovering themes • developing propositions

• Analytic induction

– developing a general hypothesis

– collecting data, analysing

– modifying and revising the hypothesis as data are collected and analysed

– developing a satisfactory explanation

• Interpreting and theorising data– forging connections between codes

– significance of findings for the lives of people studied

– importance of findings for the research question and the research literature

• Typologies (conceptualising situations with similar/different characteristics)

• Case study analysis (case summaries)

• Thematic analysis (themes and illustrations; headings)

If you are doing research for a project or dissertation you may not have the resources to pay for professional transcription and unless you are an accurate touch typist, it may take you a lot longer than the suggested five to six hours per hour of speech. If you have access to a transcription machine with a foot operated stop-start mechanism this will make the task of transcription somewhat easier. However, the important thing to bear in mind is that you must allow sufficient time for transcription and be realistic about how many interviews you are going to be able to transcribe in the time available.