Choosing and evaluating coursebooks========================================

When teachers have the freedom to choose course materials, they need to take a structured approach to coursebook evaluation and base their decision on certain criteria that will help them judge whether the coursebook will be suitable for a particular group of learners. Cunningsworth (1995:14) points out that ‘coursebook analysis and evaluation is useful in teacher development and helps teachers to gain good and useful insights into the nature of the material. Similarly, in teacher training, materials evaluation is a valuable component and serves the dual purpose of sensitizing student teachers to some of the more important features to look for in coursebooks and familiarizing them with a range of published materials’.

It is very important to make the right decision concerning the choice of a coursebook because ‘the results of an evaluation will probably lead to a large investment of money in a published course’ and ‘from the moment such an investment is made, you will probably have to live with the consequences of it for some time, even if it later proves to have been a bad choice” (Hutchinson & Waters 1987:96).

Hutchinson and Waters (ibid.: 97) describe the evaluation of a coursebook as a ‘matching process: matching needs to available solution’. The first step in this matching process is carrying out needs analysis which involves the assessment of learners’ need and aims concerning the language they are going to learn. Other factors that need to be considered are learners’ gender, nationalities and educational backgrounds. Apart from learners, teachers need to think about themselves as well, and various aspects of a learning teaching situation, such as the methodological approach they tend to prefer, the level of personal initiative they bring to their teaching, their freedom to diverge from the syllabus and whether they have the right to adapt or supplement the standard coursebook (Cunningsworth, 1995).

The next step in evaluation a coursebook is considering the aims and objectives of the course such as the language items, skills and functions that have to be covered (ibid.). Not less important is the context in which the learning and the teaching processes will take place such as the role and status of the target language in learners’ home country, the intensity and length of the course, the availability of technical and other resources, and so on.

General criteria for coursebook evaluation

Cunningsworth (1995: 14) suggests three types of material evaluation:

Pre-use evaluation. This is the most difficult type of evaluation ‘as there is no actual experience of using the book

for us to draw on. In this case we are looking at future or potential performance of the course-book.

In-use evaluation means that the material is evaluated while one applies it in the current teaching-learning context.

Post-use evaluation involves a ‘retrospective assessment of a course-book’s performance and can be useful for identifying strengths and weaknesses which emerge over a period of continuous use’.

Grant (1987: 120) also suggest a three-stage evaluation process which includes initial evaluation, detailed evaluation and in-use evaluation. Initial evaluation functions as a filter with which one can filter out obviously unsuitable materials. This filtering out is best achieved by the application of the so-called CATALYST test. He explains that a coursebook should act as a catalyst in the classroom and as such, it should facilitate change. The letters of the acronym CATALYST stand for ‘the eight criteria by which we can decide whether a textbook is suitable for our classroom’:

C stands for questioning whether the material is communicative enough.

According to this criterion, learners should be able to communicate in the

target language as a result of using the given book.

A stands for aims. Teachers should investigate whether the material fits in with

their aims and objectives, which may be laid down by the authorities or set by

themselves.

T refers to the course’s teachability in terms of the clear layout of the book and

its easy-to-use organisation.

A stands for available add-ons, that is one should examine whether additional

materials such as teacher’s books, workbooks, CDs and other components are

available for classroom use.

L refers to learners’ level as well as that of the book. They should by all means

match.

Y stands for (y)our overall impressions of the material.

S means the extent to which students are likely to find the coursebook interesting.

T stands for the question whether the book has been tried and tested in real

learning situations.

Another three-stage procedure that will ‘allow teachers to assess books on basis of their own beliefs and their assessment of their students’ needs and circumstances’ is suggested by Harmer (2001: 301-302):

Selecting areas for assessment: we first need to list the features we wish to look at in the coursebook(s) under consideration, as in the following example:

Price (of coursebook components)AvailabilityLayout and designInstructionsMethodologySyllabus type, selection and gradingLanguage study activitiesLanguage skill activitiesTopicsCultural acceptabilityUsabilityTeacher’s guide

Stating beliefs: we are now in a position to make ‘belief statements’ about any or all of the areas we have decided to concentrate on. Thus can be done by a group of teachers writing their individual beliefs and then combining them an agreed set – such as the following statements about layout:

The page should look clean and unclutteredThe lesson sequence should be easy to followThe illustrations should be attractive and appropriateThe instructions should be easy to read

Using statements for assessment: we are now ready to use our statements of

belief as assessment items. This means that for each of our areas we list our statements, and can then use a simple tick and cross system to compare different books, as in this layout and design checklist:

Area Assessment statements Coursebook 1

Coursebook 2

Coursebook 3

Layout and design

The page is uncluttered. √ x √√

The lesson sequence is easy to follow.

√ √ x

The illustrations are attractive/ appropriate for the age group.

√√ √ x

The instructions are easy to read.

√ x √√

A more precise evaluation of a coursebook can be carried out by applying Cunningsworth’s guidelines (1995: 15):

Guideline One conveys the message that a course-book should correspond to its users’ – that is the learners’ needs, which means that they should match the aims and objectives of the language-learning programme.

Guideline Two emphasises the importance of engaging students’ interest and challenging their intellect, which will motivate them to become more independent in their learning and in their use of English. This can be done by including interesting, stimulating topics and by encouraging learners to think for themselves around these topics and discuss them with others’.

Guideline Three directs one’s attention to course-books that are interesting for our learners and contain lively and well presented topics and activities aiming at the strengthening of learners’ motivation. ‘Helping students to realize how much progress they have made and encouraging them to review their achievement will also add to motivation and enhance learning’.

Guideline Four suggests that the course-book should not only support learning but it should also provide a methodology.

There are a number of checklists that may help teachers make the right choice of coursebook materials. They usually contain key categories and a number of questions for each of them. Hedge (2000: 358) gives an example of such a checklist:

Category QuestionsThe view of language What levels of language receive attention?

How is the language system categorized? Are social aspects of language as communication taken into account, e.g. level of formality?

The view of language learning

Is there explicit reference to grammatical terms and concepts?

Is there an appropriate balance of accuracy and fluency activities?

Is there a balance of modes of language use, i.e. listening, speaking, reading and writing?

Does the first language have a role in the materials?Learners What age group do the materials have in mind?

How does the book relate to the needs of learners? Is the content interesting and challenging to the learners?

The view of education Does the book have general educational goals? Are these appropriate to the learners? Do they fit the national curriculum? Do the materials encourage learner independence?

The environment of Does the teacher’s role in the book fit in with local

learning perceptions? Is the cultural content accessible/appropriate? Is the grading and sequencing appropriate to the amount

and intensity of time available?

Grant’s questionnaires (1987: 122-127) can also be very helpful for teachers when they have to choose and evaluate coursebooks:

Questionnaire - Part 1: Does the book suit to your students?

1. Is it attractive? Given the average age of your students, would they enjoy using it? 2. Is it culturally acceptable? 3. Does it reflect what you know about your students' needs and interests? 4. Is it about the right level of difficulty? 5. Is it about the right length? 6. Are the course's physical characteristics appropriate? 7. Are there enough authentic materials, so that the students can see that the book is relevant to real life? 8. Does it achieve an acceptable balance between knowledge about the language, and practice in using the language? 9. Does it achieve an acceptable balance between the relevant language skills, and integrate them so that work in one skill area helps the others?10. Does the book contain enough communicative activities to enable the students to use the language independently?

Questionnaire - Part 2: Does the book suit the teacher?

1. Is your overall impression of the contents and layout of the course favourable? 2. Is there a good, clear teacher's guide with answers and help on methods and additional activities? 3. Can one use the book in the classroom without constantly having to turn to the teacher's guide? 4. Are the recommended methods and approaches suitable for you, your students and your classroom? 5. Are the approaches easily adaptable if necessary? 6. Does using the course require little or no time-consuming preparation? 7. Are useful ancillary materials such as tapes, workbooks and visuals provided? 8. Is there sufficient provision made for tests and revision? 9. Does the book use a 'spiral' approach, so that items are regularly revised and used again in different contexts?10. Is the course appropriate for, and liked by, colleagues?

Questionnaire - Part 3: Does the textbook suit the syllabus and examination?

1. Has the book been recommended or approved by the authorities? 2. Does the book follow the official syllabus in a creative manner? 3. Is the course well-graded, so that it gives well-structured and systematic coverage of the language?

4. If it does more than the syllabus requires, is the result an improvement? 5. Are the activities, contents and methods used in the course well-planned and executed? 6. Has it been prepared specifically for the target examination? 7. Do the course's methods help the students prepare for the exam? 8. Is there a good balance between what the examination requires, and what the students need? 9. Is there enough examination practice?10. Does the course contain useful hints on examination technique?

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) divide the evaluation process into four basic steps such as defining criteria, subjective analysis, objective analysis and matching. The first step involves our decision concerning the bases on which we will judge our materials. It also requires us to decide which criteria we will consider important. Subjective analysis means the analysis of our course, in terms of materials requirements whereas objective analysis means the analysis of materials being evaluated. They give their own checklist for objective analysis:

Category QuestionsAudience • Who is the material intended for? (Learners’ ages,

gender, nationality, study or work specialism, status/role with respect to specialism, knowledge of English, knowledge of specialism, knowledge of the world, educational backgrounds, interests.)

Aims • What are the aims of the materials?Content • What type(s) of linguistic description is/are used in

the materials?• What language points do the materials cover? (What particular structures, functions, vocabulary areas?)• What is the proportion of work on each skill? Is there skills integrated work?• What micro-skills are covered in the material?• What kinds of texts are there in the materials? (For example manuals, letters, dialogues, reports, visual texts, listening texts.)• What is/are the subject-matter area(s), assumed level of knowledge, and types of topics in the materials? What treatment are the topics given? (For example medicine, biology; secondary school, first year college, postgraduate level of knowledge;

hospital organisation, medical technology as types of topics; straightforward topic treatment, factual.)• How is the content organised throughout the materials? (Around language points, by subject-matter, by study skills, by a combination of means.)• How is the content organised within the units? (By a set pattern of components, by a variety of patterns.)• How is the content sequenced throughout the book? (From easier to more difficult, to create variety, to provide recycling, for example.)• How is the content sequenced within a unit? (From guided to free, from comprehension to production.)

Methodology • What theory/ies of learning are the materials based on?• What attitudes to/expectations about learning English are the materials based on?• What kinds of exercises/tasks are included in the materials? (For example guided or free, comprehension-orientated or production orientated, ones that require one right answer or can be given many possible right answers, mechanical ones or problem-solving ones, role plays, simulation, drama games.)• What teaching-learning techniques can be used with the materials? (Pair-work, small-group work, student presentations, for instance.)• What aids do the materials require? (Cassette recorders, overhead projectors, realia, wall charts, video.)• What guidance do the materials provide? (Lists of vocabulary and language-skills points, technical information, suggestions for further work, tests, and methodological hints.)• In what ways are the materials flexible? (Can they be begun at different points? Can the units be used in different orders? Can they be linked to other materials? Can they be used

without some of their components?)

Others • What is the price?• When and how readily can the materials be obtained?

Specific criteria for coursebook evaluation

While general criteria may be applicable to any language teaching coursebook, specific criteria refer to relevance and appropriateness of the coursebook for a particular group of learners in a particular context. Cunningsworth (1995) points out several aspects to check in course materials such as language form and language use, grammar, vocabulary, phonology, discourse, style and appropriacy. Coursebooks focus ‘selectively on different aspects of language form and language use. Language is analysed and broken down into small units for teaching purposes. An essential question for teachers and material writers is how far a language can be analysed and fragmented in this way without losing its nature and identity’ (Cunningsworth, 1995:31). Here are some of Cunningsworth’s criteria that might be taken into consideration when choosing a coursebook:

Grammar

• The grammar items included;• The presentation of grammar in small enough units for easy learning;• The extense of emphasising language forms;• The extense of emphasising language use (meaning);• The balanced of the treatment of form and use;• The relation and contrast of newly introduced items and items already familiar to the learners; The presentation of grammatical forms with more than one

meaning.

Vocabulary

• The vocabulary-learning material included in its own right: – Evidence for its prominence; – Its relation to the course: central or peripheral;• The amount of vocabulary taught;• The basis for the selection of vocabulary;• The distinction between active and passive vocabulary, or classroom vocabulary;• The ways of presenting vocabulary;

• The sensitization of learners to the structure of the lexicon through vocabulary- learning exercises based on: – semantic relationships; – formal relationships; – collocations; – situation-based word groups;• The capacity of the material to enable students to expand their own vocabularies independently by helping them to develop their own learning strategies.Phonology

• The extense of thorough and systematic coverage of each of the following aspects of the phonological system covered: – articulation of individual sounds; – words in contact (e.g. assimilation); – word stress; – weak forms; – sentence stress; – intonation;• The extense of emphasising areas of pronunciation that are important to meet learners’ needs and help avoid misunderstandings;• The relation of pronunciation work to other types of work, such as listening, dialogue practice etc.;• The extense of using terminology;• The comprehensibility of terminology used;• The extense of using phonemic alphabet;• The extense and ways of training students in learning phonemic alphabet;• The extense of using a diagrammatic system to show stress and intonation;• Availability of cassettes for pronunciation practice;• The provision of good models for learners of cassettes for pronunciation practice;

Style and appropriacy

• The reference to appropriacy;• The teaching of appropriacy with reference to: – choice of grammar; – choice of vocabulary; – discourse structure; – pronunciation;• Matching language style to social situation;• The identification of situations or areas of language use where learners should be

particularly sensitive to using appropriate styles.

Skills development is another basic issue during a course evaluation process, which means that we have to check to what extent the materials concentrate on the development of and the balance among all four skills. Cunningsworth (1995) implies that ideal coursebooks include skills work that progresses in terms of complexity and difficulty, in line with the grammatical and lexical progression of the course. He also deals with the question of authenticity and suggests checking whether the presentation and practice activities include the integration of skills in realistic contexts; whether we can find authentic materials in our coursebook; whether the semi-authentic materials found in the course-book can be regarded as representative of authentic discourse.

Cunningsworth’s checklists for language skills development contain the following points to take into consideration during the evaluation process:

Listening skills

• The type(s) and quality of listening material of the course;• The extense of integrating the listening part in dialogue and conversation work;• Types of activities based on specific listening passages;• The extense and nature of the meaningful context the listening material is set in;• Types of pre-listening tasks;• The quality of the recorded material in terms of: – sound quality; – speed of delivery; – accent; – authenticity.

Reading skills

• The quantity of reading material;• The type of reading passages included;• The provision of reading passages introduced in a beginners’ course;• The extense and quality of help given to learners in developing good reading strategies;• The nature and range of exercises and activities linked to the reading passages;• The appropriacy of the subject matter;• The types (genres) of text used and their appropriacy;• The nature of texts in terms of their being complete or gapped;• The ways the material helps comprehension by:

– setting the scene – providing background information – giving pre-reading questions?• The types of comprehension questions;• The extense of the involvement of learner’s knowledge system in the material.

Writing skills

• How the materials deal with controlled writing, guided writing, free or semi-free writing;• The variety of writing tasks found in the course-book;• The extent to which the materials teach punctuation and spelling;• The emphasis on accuracy and different styles of written English;• How learners are encouraged to review and edit their written work;• A possible readership to whom students produce different sorts of texts.

In connection with speaking skills Cunningsworth remarks that ‘few courses treat speaking as a separate skill in the same way as listening, reading and writing. Speaking practice takes place through the oral presentation and practice of new language items, in dialogue work and in role play’ (Cunningsworth 1995:69). However, coursebooks can provide students with carefully selected topics for discussion or communication activities, thus making students take part in more or less realistic interactions. Teachers should also look for specific strategies that help students manage their conversation.

Teaching the rules of communicative interactions should be considered as another important function of course materials. In order that students can best use their oral communicative skills, they have to be aware of basic points such as how other speakers can join a conversation, where a current speaker is most vulnerable to interruption, how to appoint someone to speak next, how to use and interpret the combination of linguistic, paralinguistic and kinetic cues (the use of eye contact, for example). ‘Course-books interested in equipping learners communicatively could provide models of and practice in turn-taking and interruption techniques’ (Cunningsworth, 1995:127-128). Cunningsworth suggests a number of points to look at in connection with communicative interactions:

• The elements of genuine communication present in the course material: – unpredictability – opportunities to express real information, feelings, opinions etc. – opportunities for learners to structure their own discourse – need to formulate and use communication strategies

– emphasis on co-operation between speakers in communicative interaction?• At the appropriate level, does the course-book include material that reflects the nature of communicative interaction, in respect of: – structure of discourse in interactions (including openers, confirmation checkers, pre-closers etc.) – complexity of structure – range of appropriate lexis – features such as fillers and incomplete sentences – roles of speakers in interactions;• The extense the material helps learners in the skill of turn-taking in conversations;• Examples of preferred sequences.

Cunningsworth (1995) states that coursebooks directly or indirectly communicate sets of social and cultural values. They constitute the so-called hidden curriculum, which is part of all educational programmes, but is never explicitly articulated. He suggests that the following points should be taken into account when cultural considerations are concerned:

• Are the social and cultural contexts in the course-book comprehensible to the learners?• Can learners interpret the relationships, behaviour, intentions etc. of the characters portrayed in the book?• Are women given equal prominence to men in all aspects of the course-book?• What physical and character attributes are women given?• What professional and social positions are women shown as occupying?• What do we learn about the inner lives of the characters?• To what extent is the language of feeling depicted?• Do the course-book characters exist in some kind of social setting, within a social network?• Are social relationships portrayed realistically?

End-of-course coursebook evaluation

The previous sections dealt with the evaluation of coursebooks for classroom use before the beginning of the course. However, evaluation should be carried out at the end of the course as well, in order to find out if the coursebook has met the

expectations of the course, and if necessary, what further steps we need to take. Harmer (2001: 302-302) suggests three steps:

Teacher record: in order to evaluate materials we need to keep a record of how successful different lessons and activities have been. One way of doing this is to keep a diary of what happens in each lesson. A more formal version of the same thing might involve detailed comments on each activity. There are many other ways of keeping records: we could give each activity a score from 0-5; we could design a rating scale to measure students’ satisfaction with a lesson or parts of a lesson. We could write reports at the end of every week under headings such as recycling, reading progress, vocabulary work or teacher’s guide. Some teachers write comments in the coursebook itself. But in each case we will end up with something which is more useful than a mere feeling.

Teacher discussion: when new books are being used it helps if the teachers who are using the same book get together and compare their experience. This may involve going through lessons (and exercises) one by one, or it may centre around a discussion of the audio material and its related exercises. Someone in the group should circulate a record of what is said, so that teachers can review the discussions before coming to a conclusion.

Student response: as with teacher’s reactions, student responses can be collected in a number of ways. One way is to ask them if they enjoyed the material they have just been using. This kind of oral feedback can be unreliable, however, since some students can dominate the conversation and influence their colleagues. We may get better feedback by asking for a written response to the materials with questions such as the following:

- What was your favourite lesson in the book during the last week? Why? - What was your least favourite lesson from the book during the last week? Why? - What was your favourite activity during the last week? - What was your least favourite activity during the last week? Why?

Using coursebooks

In some situations teachers have to follow a set coursebook and are not allowed to make any modifications. In other situations they are given a syllabus and they have to choose and design the materials according to the needs of the learners and the requirements of the programme. Probably the most likely situation is where teachers use a coursebook, but they are free to use it selectively and to supplement it with other materials.

Grant (1987: 7-8) maintains that perfect coursebooks do not exist, but there is a best book available for every teacher and their learners due to the wide range of published materials on the market. According to him, the ideal coursebook should satisfy three conditions: it should suit learners’ needs, interests and abilities, it should suit the teachers, and it also has to meet the needs of official

public teaching syllabuses or examinations. Coursebooks have various uses such as presenting language material, providing learners with a wide range of activities, providing learners with grammatical rules and exercises, vocabulary and phonetic transcriptions; they can also stand for a given syllabus; they can instigate autonomous learning; they may be considered as a set of guidelines along which young, inexperienced teachers can manage their lessons. On the other hand, teaching without a coursebook would be very difficult for most teachers, and probably even more difficult for learners: ‘They find that a folder full of classroom handouts fails to satisfy in ways that a textbook can. A folder is no substitute for a textbook which offers a systematic revision of what learners have done and functions as a guide to what they are going to do’ (ibid.)

Harmer (1991: 257) mentions a number of obvious advantages of coursebooks for both teachers and students

Good textbooks often contain lively and interesting material; They provide a sensible progression of language items, clearly

showing what has to be learnt and in some cases summarising what has been studied so that students can revise grammatical and functional points that they have been concentrating on.

Textbooks can be systematic about the amount of vocabulary presented to the student and allow student to study on his own outside the class.

Good textbooks also relieve the teacher from the pressure of having to think of original material for every class

Ur (1991: 184) lists the following points in favour of using a coursebook:

1. FrameworkA coursebook provides a clear framework: teacher and learners know where they are going and what is coming next, so that there is a sense o structure and progress.

2. SyllabusIn many places the coursebook serves as a syllabus: it is followed systematically, a carefully planned and balanced selection of language content will be covered.

3. Ready-made texts and tasksThe coursebook provides texts and learning tasks which are likely to be of an appropriate level for most of the class. This of course saves time for the teacher who would otherwise have to prepare his or her own.

4. EconomyA book is the cheapest way of providing learning material for each learner; alternatives, such as kits, sets of photocopied papers or computer software, are likely to be more expensive relative to the amount of material provided.

5. ConvenienceA book is a convenient package. It is bound, so that the components stick together and stay in order; it is light and small enough to carry around easily; it is of a shape that is

easily packed and stacked; it does not depend for its use on hardware or a supply of electricity.

6. GuidanceFor teachers who are inexperienced or occasionally unsure of their knowledge of the language, the coursebook can provide useful guidance and support.

7. AutonomyThe learner can use the coursebook to learn new material, review and monitor progress with some degree of autonomy. A learner without a coursebook is more teacher-dependent.

Despite the advantages of coursebooks for both teachers and learners, there are some drawbacks as well. Because in a way coursebooks impose certain teaching methodologies, it is advisable for teachers to change the coursebooks after certain period of time so that they can have an opportunity to re-evaluate the coursebook they have been using and to reflect on their beliefs about language learning and teaching. Teachers should also be aware that they should not follow the coursebook rigidly if they feel that it does not satisfy the learners’ needs or the program requirements.

Harmer (1991: 257) points out that coursebooks can have negative effects on teachingas well, since they tend to concentrate on introducing new language and controlled work, which might result in teachers’ depending heavily on the course-book. Since textbooks tend to follow the same format from one unit to the next, each unit looks more or less alike. Thus, a teacher ‘who over-uses a textbook and thus repeatedly follows the sequence in each unit may become boring over a period of time for he will find himself teaching the same type of activities in the same order again and again. In such a situation, even with good textbooks, students may find the study of English becoming routine and thus less and less motivating. Classes will start appearing increasingly similar and the routine will become increasingly monotonous’.

Ur (1991: 185) adds other disadvantages of using coursebooks:

1. InadequacyEvery class – in fact, every learner – has their own learning needs: no one coursebook can possibly supply these satisfactorily.

2. Irrelevance, lack of interestThe topics dealt in the coursebook may not necessarily be relevant or interesting for your class.

3. LimitationA coursebook is confining: its set structure and sequence may inhibit a teacher’s initiative and creativity, and lead to boredom and lack of motivation on the part of the learners.

4. Homogeneity

Coursebooks have their own rationale and chosen teaching/learning approach. They do no usually cater for the variety of levels of ability and knowledge, or of learning styles and strategies that exist in most classes.

5. Over-easinessTeachers find it too easy to follow the coursebook uncritically instead of using their initiative; they may find themselves functioning merely as mediators of its content instead of as teachers in their own right.

Grant (1987: 13) compares traditional coursebooks to those published under the influence of the communicative approach in order to get a clearer picture of the differences between the two types of materials and says that ‘these days the word communicative is on everyone’s lips. Almost every new textbook claims to be communicative’. He explains that traditional coursebooks emphasise the grammatical aspect of language and concentrate on accuracy rather than fluency. They contain more reading and writing activities than speaking or listening ones, so that students learning from such materials will probably find it difficult to achieve successful oral communication. ‘The main problem with traditional textbooks is this: students work through them, sometimes for years, and often conscientiously. However, despite this, at the end of their studies they are still incapable of using the language: they may 'know' its grammar - the system - but they can't communicate in it (ibid.). Communicative coursebooks, according to Grant, emphasise the importance of communicative functions, contain activities centred around skills using, reflect the authentic language of everyday life and encourage intensive cooperation among students, and in that way they make heavier demands on teachers’ organisational abilities. Students working with such materials are more likely to produce fluent oral communication than those learning from traditional course-books.

Harmer (1991: 258) claims that coursebooks rarely provide a balanced selection of skills and activities and focus on presenting language and controlled practice. The need for balance is a methodological consideration since it is through this balance thatstudents are exposed to a variety of learning experiences that will help them to acquire and learn English, and ‘the best person to achieve to achieve the correct balance is the teacher who knows the students and can gauge the need for variety and what the balance should be. He concludes that a coursebook should not be considered as a sacred text but rather as an aid: ‘Teachers will have to work out the best way to use their books: they should never let the textbook use them, or dictate the decisions they make about the activities in which the students are going to be involved’ (ibid.).

Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 107-108) identify six main purposes of course materials:

Materials provide a stimulus to learning. Good materials do not teach: they encourage learners to learn.

Materials help to organise the teaching-learning process, by providing a path through the complex mass of the language to be learnt.

Materials embody a view of the nature of language and learning. Materials should try to create a balanced outlook which both

reflects the complexity of the task, yet makes it appear manageable.

Materials can have a very useful function in broadening the basis of teacher training, by introducing teachers to new techniques.

Materials provide models of correct and appropriate language use.

Cunningsworth summarises the roles of coursebooks by stating that they ‘identify the main role of the teacher as that of a guide or facilitator and a monitor. Essentially, the teacher is seen as guiding learners through the learning process, with support from the course-book, and monitoring student progress, correcting errors when this is useful for the learning process (Cunningsworth 1995:110).

Adapting the coursebook

No matter how good a coursebook is, teachers often have to omit, change or adapt certain sections in the coursebook they are using. Harmer (2001: 305-306) lists several possible options. If a coursebook lesson does not teach anything fundamentally necessary and is not especially interesting, teachers can either omit it or replace it with their own alternative if they think that the language or topic area in question is important. However, he warns that if it happens very often it may be difficult for students to revise what they have learned because there will be many handouts and additional materials and the course may lose overall coherence.

If, on the other hand teachers decide to use the coursebook lesson, they might change it to make it more appropriate for their students.

‘If the material is not very substantial we might add something to it – a role play after a reading text, perhaps, or extra situations for language practice. We might rewrite an exercise we do not especially like or replace one activity or text with something else such as a download from the Internet, or any other home-grown items. We could re-order the activities within a lesson, or even re-order lesson (within reason). Finally we may wish to reduce the lesson by cutting out an exercise or an activity. In all or decisions, however, it is important to remember that students need to be able to see a coherent pattern to what we are doing and understand our reasons for changes’ (Harmer, 2001: 306).

Using supplementary materials

Apart from adapting the coursebooks they are using, very often teachers need to use additional materials in order to make the lesson more interesting, to enrich the language input or to answer the needs of particular group of learners. There are various supplementary materials from which teachers can choose. Ur (2001: 190-191) describes some of them and discusses their advantages and disadvantages:

Computers

Computers are seen by many as an important teaching aid. These days learners need to be ‘computer literate’, and since computers use language it would seem logical to take advantage of them for language learning. They enable individual work, since learners can progress at their own pace, and many programs include a self-check facility. Also, younger and adolescent learners in particular find the use of computers attractive and motivating. However, it takes time to train both teachers and students in their use; and in practice a lot of time in a computer lesson often goes on setting up programs, getting students into them, and then solving problems with moving from one stage, or one program, to another.

For teachers who are familiar with their use, computers can be invaluable for preparing materials such as worksheets or tests.

Books

Books are very user-friendly ‘packages’ of material: they are light, easily scanned, easily stacked and do not need hardware or electricity. They are still then most convenient and popular method of packaging large texts, and a library of them is arguably the best way for learners to acquire a wide experience of foreign language learning.

It is very useful to have a collection of reference books, extra textbooks and teacher’s handbooks easily available to the teaching staff; and regular reading of a professional journal can inject new ideas and update teachers on current thinking.

Overhead projectors

These are useful for presenting visual or written material to classes: they are more vivid and attention-catching than the black- or whiteboards. They also save lesson time, since you can prepare the displays in advance. However, this does mean added work in preparation! Another disadvantage is the need to carry the OHP from class to class, unless each classroom has its own – which is true of the more affluent institutions. And of course, like any other electrical equipment, OHPs are vulnerable to breakdowns: electricity failure or bulbs burning out.

Video equipment

Video is an excellent source of authentic spoken language material; it is also attractive and motivating. It is flexible: you can start and stop it, run forward or back, ‘freeze’ frames in order to talk about them. And there are many good programs on the market. A disadvantage is their lack of mobility: few video sets are portable, which means that classes need to be especially scheduled for video rooms; and of course there is the

problem of occasional breakdowns and technical problems. When planning a video lesson, always have a ‘back-up’ alternative lesson ready!

Audio equipment

Cassette recorders and cassettes are relatively cheap and easy to use; and they are the main source (other than the teacher) of spoken language texts in most classrooms. They are more mobile and easier to use than video recorders, but lack, of course, the visual content. Again there may be problems with electricity; on the other hand, most portable cassette recorders – unlike video and most computers – also work on batteries. When buying cassette recorders make sure that there is a counter, and then us it to identify the desired entry-point; otherwise, if you want to replay during the lesson, you may waste valuable time running the tape back and forth to find it.

Posters, pictures, games

Materials of this kind are invaluable particularly for younger learners, and teachers of children find that they constantly use them. However, if you have time, this type of material can be largely home-made: glossy magazines in particular are an excellent source of pictures.

References

Cunnigsworht, A. (1995). Choosing your Course book. Oxford: Heinemann.

Grant, N. (1987). Making the Most of Your Textbook. London: Longman.

Harmer. J. (1991). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Harlow: Longman.

Harmer, J. (2001). The Practice of English Language Teaching. (3rd ed.) Harlow: Longman.

Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Hutchinson, T. and Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A learning-centered approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ur, P. (1991). A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.