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Transcript of 10-1 Organic Chemistry William H. Brown Christopher S. Foote Brent L. Iverson William H. Brown...
![Page 1: 10-1 Organic Chemistry William H. Brown Christopher S. Foote Brent L. Iverson William H. Brown Christopher S. Foote Brent L. Iverson.](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022081418/56649db05503460f94a9ecd4/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
10-10-11
Organic Organic ChemistryChemistry
William H. BrownWilliam H. Brown
Christopher S. FooteChristopher S. Foote
Brent L. IversonBrent L. Iverson
William H. BrownWilliam H. Brown
Christopher S. FooteChristopher S. Foote
Brent L. IversonBrent L. Iverson
![Page 2: 10-1 Organic Chemistry William H. Brown Christopher S. Foote Brent L. Iverson William H. Brown Christopher S. Foote Brent L. Iverson.](https://reader036.fdocuments.net/reader036/viewer/2022081418/56649db05503460f94a9ecd4/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
10-10-22
AlcoholsAlcoholsand Thiolsand Thiols
Chapter 10Chapter 10
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10-10-33
Structure - AlcoholsStructure - Alcohols
The functional group of an alcohol is an -OH group bonded to an sp3 hybridized carbon• bond angles about the hydroxyl oxygen
atom are approximately 109.5°
Oxygen is sp3 hybridized• two sp3 hybrid orbitals form sigma bonds
to carbon and hydrogen• the remaining two sp3 hybrid orbitals each
contain an unshared pair of electrons
108.9°O
CH H
H
H
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10-10-44
Nomenclature-AlcoholsNomenclature-Alcohols
IUPAC names• the parent chain is the longest chain that contains the
OH group• number the parent chain to give the OH group the
lowest possible number• change the suffix -e-e to -ol-ol
Common names • name the alkyl group bonded to oxygen followed by
the word alcoholalcohol
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10-10-55
Nomenclature-AlcoholsNomenclature-Alcohols
Examples
1-Propanol(Propyl alcohol)
2-Propanol(Isopropyl alcohol)
1-Butanol(Butyl alcohol)
OHOH
OH
2-Butanol(sec-Butyl alcohol)
2-Methyl-1-propanol(Isobutyl alcohol)
2-Methyl-2-propanol(tert-Butyl alcohol)
OHOH
OH
cis-3-Methylcyclohexanol
OH
OH
Bicyclo[4.4.0]decan-3-ol
14
58
10
912 2
3
3
4
56 76
Numbering of thebicyclic ring takes precedence overthe location of -OH
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10-10-66
Nomenclature of AlcoholsNomenclature of Alcohols
Compounds containing more than one OH group are named diols, triols, etc.
CH3CHCH2
HO OHCH2CH2
OH OH
CH2CHCH2
HO HO OH1,2-Ethanediol
(Ethylene glycol) 1,2-Propanediol
(Propylene glycol)1,2,3-Propanetriol
(Glycerol, Glycerine)
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10-10-77
Nomenclature of AlcoholsNomenclature of Alcohols
Unsaturated alcohols • show the double bond by changing the infix from -an-
to -en--en-• show the the OH group by the suffix -ol-ol• number the chain to give OH the lower number
12 3
4 56
(E)-2-Hexene-1-ol(trans-2-Hexen-1-ol)
HO
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10-10-88
Physical PropertiesPhysical Properties
Alcohols are polar compounds
• they interact with themselves and with other polar compounds by dipole-dipole interactions
Dipole-dipole interaction:Dipole-dipole interaction: the attraction between the positive end of one dipole and the negative end of another
O
HH
H
CH
δ+δ-
δ+
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10-10-99
Physical PropertiesPhysical Properties
Hydrogen bondingHydrogen bonding: when the positive end of one dipole is an H bonded to F, O, or N (atoms of high electronegativity) and the other end is F, O, or N• the strength of hydrogen bonding in water is
approximately 21 kJ (5 kcal)/mol• hydrogen bonds are considerably weaker than
covalent bonds• nonetheless, they can have a significant effect on
physical properties
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10-10-1010
Hydrogen BondingHydrogen Bonding
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10-10-1111
Physical PropertiesPhysical Properties
Ethanol and dimethyl ether are constitutional isomers.
Their boiling points are dramatically different• ethanol forms intermolecular hydrogen bonds which
increase attractive forces between its molecules resulting in a higher boiling point
• there is no comparable attractive force between molecules of dimethyl ether
bp -24°CEthanolbp 78°C
Dimethyl ether
CH3CH2OH CH3OCH3
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10-10-1212
Physical PropertiesPhysical Properties
In relation to alkanes of comparable size and molecular weight, alcohols• have higher boiling points• are more soluble in water
The presence of additional -OH groups in a molecule further increases solubility in water and boiling point
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10-10-1313
Physical PropertiesPhysical Properties
Structural FormulaName bp(°C)
Solubilityin Water
Methanol 32 65 InfiniteEthane 30 -89 Insoluble
Ethanol 46 78 InfinitePropane 44 -42 Insoluble
1-Propanol 60 97 InfiniteButane 58 0 Insoluble
1-Pentanol 88 138 2.3 g/100 g1,4-Butanediol90 230 Infinite
Hexane 86 69 Insoluble
8 g/100 g117741-ButanolPentane 72 36 Insoluble
CH3CH2 CH2OH
CH3CH2 CH2CH3
CH3OH
CH3CH3
CH3CH2 OH
CH3CH2 CH3
CH3(CH2)3CH2 OH
HOCH2(CH2)2CH2 OH
CH3(CH2)4CH3
CH3(CH2)2 CH2OH
CH3(CH2)3CH3
MW
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10-10-1414
Acidity of AlcoholsAcidity of Alcohols
In dilute aqueous solution, alcohols are weakly acidic
CH3O H : HOH
[CH3OH]
[CH3O-][H3O+]
CH3O:– O
H
HH+
+
= 10-15.5
pKa = 15.5
Ka =
+
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10-10-1515
Acidity of AlcoholsAcidity of Alcohols
(CH3)3COH
(CH3)2CHOH
CH3CH2OH
H2O
CH3OH
CH3COOH
HCl
15.5
15.7
15.9
17
18
4.8
Hydrogen chloride
Acetic acid
Methanol
Water
Ethanol
2-Propanol
2-Methyl-2-propanol
Structural Formula
Stronger acid
Weaker acid
*Also given for comparison are pKa values for water, acetic acid, and hydrogen chloride.
Compound pKa
-7
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10-10-1616
Acidity of AlcoholsAcidity of Alcohols
Acidity depends primarily on the degree of stabilization and solvation of the alkoxide ion• the negatively charged oxygens of methanol and
ethanol are about as accessible as hydroxide ion for solvation; these alcohol are about as acidic as water
• as the bulk of the alkyl group increases, the ability of water to solvate the alkoxide decreases, the acidity of the alcohol decreases, and the basicity of the alkoxide ion increases
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10-10-1717
Reaction with MetalsReaction with Metals
Alcohols react with Li, Na, K, and other active metals to liberate hydrogen gas and form metal alkoxides
Alcohols are also converted to metal alkoxides by reaction with bases stronger than the alkoxide ion• one such base is sodium hydride
2CH3OH 2Na 2CH3O- Na+ H2Sodium methoxide
(MeO-Na+)
++
CH3CH2OH Na+ H- CH3CH2O- Na+ H2
Ethanol Sodiumhydride
Sodium ethoxide+ +
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10-10-1818
Reaction with HXReaction with HX
• 3° alcohols react very rapidly with HCl, HBr, and HI
• low-molecular-weight 1° and 2° alcohols are unreactive under these conditions
• 1° and 2° alcohols require concentrated HBr and HI to form alkyl bromides and iodides
reflux1-Bromobutane1-Butanol
++ HBr H2OH2O
OH Br
OH + H2O+HCl 25°C Cl
2-Methyl-2-propanol
2-Chloro-2-methylpropane
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10-10-1919
Reaction with HXReaction with HX
• with HBr and HI, 2° alcohols generally give some rearranged product
• 1° alcohols with extensive -branching give large amounts of rearranged product
2-Bromopentane3-Bromopentane(major product)
3-Pentanolheat
+ +HBr + H2OOH Br
Br
a product ofrearrangement
α 2-Bromo-2-methylbutane(a product of rearrangement)
2,2-Dimethyl-1-propanol
+ +HBr H2OOHBr
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10-10-2020
Reaction with HXReaction with HX
Based on • the relative ease of reaction of alcohols with HX (3° >
2° > 1°) and • the occurrence of rearrangements,
Chemists propose that reaction of 2° and 3° alcohols with HX • occurs by an SN1 mechanism, and
• involves a carbocation intermediate
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10-10-2121
Reaction with HX - SReaction with HX - SNN11
Step 1: proton transfer to the OH group gives an oxonium ion
Step 2: loss of H2O gives a carbocation intermediate
CH3
CH3
CH3-C-OH:
H
H
H O O
H
H
CH3-C
CH3
CH3
: H
H
O+
+
rapid andreversible+
+
O
H
H
CH3-C
CH3
CH3 CH3
CH3
CH3-C+ :
H
H
O+
A 3° carbocation intermediate
slow, ratedetermining
SN1+
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10-10-2222
Reaction with HX - SReaction with HX - SNN11
Step 3: reaction of the carbocation intermediate (an electrophile) with halide ion (a nucleophile) gives the product
CH3
CH3
CH3-C+ :Cl CH3-C-Cl
CH3
CH3
2-Chloro-2-methylpropane (tert-Butyl chloride)
fast+
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10-10-2323
Reaction with HX - SReaction with HX - SNN22
1° alcohols react with HX by an SN2 mechanism
Step 1: rapid and reversible proton transfer
Step 2: displacement of HOH by halide ion
RCH2-OH:
H
H
H O RCH2-O
H
H
: H
H
O+
rapid andreversible+ +
+
Br:- RCH2-O
H
H
RCH2-Br :H
HO
++
SN2+
slow, ratedetermining
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10-10-2424
Reaction with HXReaction with HX
For 1° alcohols with extensive -branching• SN1 is not possible because this pathway would
require a 1° carbocation
• SN2 is not possible because of steric hindrance created by the -branching
These alcohols react by a concerted loss of HOH and migration of an alkyl group
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10-10-2525
• Step 1: proton transfer gives an oxonium ion
• Step 2: concerted elimination of HOH and migration of a methyl group gives a 3° carbocation
Reaction with HXReaction with HX
+OH
O
H
HH+
rapid and reversible+
O H
H2,2-Dimethyl-1-propanol
An oxonium ion
OH
H+
OH
H slow andrate determining (concerted)
OH
H
+
A 3° carbocationintermediate
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10-10-2626
Reaction with HXReaction with HX
Step 3: reaction of the carbocation intermediate (an electrophile) with halide ion (a nucleophile) gives the product
2-Chloro-2-methylbutane
Cl-
+fast Cl
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10-10-2727
Reaction with PBrReaction with PBr33
An alternative method for the synthesis of 1° and 2° bromoalkanes is reaction of an alcohol with phosphorus tribromide• this method gives less rearrangement than with HBr
PBr3 H3PO30°
Phosphorousacid
+ +2-Methyl-1-propanol
(Isobutyl alcohol)Phosphorus tribromide
1-Bromo-2-methylpropane(Isobutyl bromide)
OH Br
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10-10-2828
Reaction with PBrReaction with PBr33
Step 1: formation of a protonated dibromophosphite converts H2O, a poor leaving group, to a good leaving group
Step 2: displacement by bromide ion gives the alkyl bromide
BrO PBr2R-CH2
H
P BrBr
Br
R-CH2-O-H + +
a good leaving group
+••
Br - O PBr2R-CH2
H
R-CH2-Br HO-PBr2
+++
SN2• • • •
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10-10-2929
Reaction with SOClReaction with SOCl22
Thionyl chloride is the most widely used reagent for the conversion of 1° and 2° alcohols to alkyl chlorides• a base, most commonly pyridine or triethylamine, is
added to catalyze the reaction and to neutralize the HCl
OH SOCl2
Cl SO2 HCl
Thionylchloride
1-Heptanol
1-Chloroheptane
pyridine+
+ +
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10-10-3030
Reaction with SOClReaction with SOCl22
Reaction of an alcohol with SOCl2 in the presence of a 3° amine is stereoselective• it occurs with inversion of configuration
OH
SOCl2
Cl
SO2 HCl+3° amine
+ +(S)-2-Octanol Thionyl
chloride(R)-2-Chlorooctane
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10-10-3131
Reaction with SOClReaction with SOCl22
Step 1: formation of an alkyl chlorosulfite
Step 2: nucleophilic displacement of this leaving group by chloride ion gives the chloroalkane
C
R1
HR2
O SO
ClCl +C
R1
HR2
Cl + Cl+ O SOSN2
C
R1
HR2
O H Cl-S-Cl
OC
R1
HR2
O SO
ClH-Cl+ +
An alkylchlorosulfite
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10-10-3232
Alkyl SulfonatesAlkyl Sulfonates
Sulfonyl chlorides are derived from sulfonic acids • sulfonic acids, like sulfuric acid, are strong acids
A sulfonylchloride
A sulfonate anion(a very weak base and
stable anion; a verygood leaving group
A sulfonic acid(a very strong acid)
R-S-OH R-S-O-R-S-ClO
O
O
O
O
O
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10-10-3333
Alkyl SulfonatesAlkyl Sulfonates A commonly used sulfonyl chloride is p-
toluenesulfonyl chloride (Ts-Cl)
+
p-Toluenesulfonylchloride
pyridine
Ethyl p-toluenesulfonate(Ethyl tosylate)
+
Ethanol
O
OCl-S CH3CH3CH2 OH
HClCH3CH2 O-SO
OCH3
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10-10-3434
Alkyl SulfonatesAlkyl Sulfonates
Another commonly used sulfonyl chloride is methanesulfonyl chloride (Ms-Cl)
Methanesulfonylchloride
+pyridine
+
Cyclohexyl methanesulfonate
(Cyclohexyl mesylate)
Cyclohexanol
OH Cl-S-CH3
O-S-CH3 HCl
O
O
O
O
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10-10-3535
Alkyl SulfonatesAlkyl Sulfonates
Sulfonate anions are very weak bases (the conjugate base of a strong acid) and are very good leaving groups for SN2 reactions
Conversion of an alcohol to a sulfonate ester converts HOH, a very poor leaving group, into a sulfonic ester, a very good leaving group
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10-10-3636
Alkyl SulfonatesAlkyl Sulfonates
This two-step procedure converts (S)-2-octanol to (R)-2-octyl acetateStep 1: formation of a p-toluenesulfonate (Ts) ester
Step 2: nucleophilic displacement of tosylate
OH
TsCl
OTs
HCl(S)-2-Octanol (S)-2-Octyl tosylate
+ pyridine +
Tosylchloride
O-Na+
O OTs O
O
Na+OTs-
(S)-2-Octyl tosylate
+
Sodiumacetate
ethanol
SN2+
(R)-2-Octyl acetate
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10-10-3737
Dehydration of ROHDehydration of ROH
An alcohol can be converted to an alkene by acid-catalyzed dehydration (a type of -elimination)• 1° alcohols must be heated at high temperature in the
presence of an acid catalyst, such as H2SO4 or H3PO4
• 2° alcohols undergo dehydration at somewhat lower temperatures
• 3° alcohols often require temperatures at or slightly above room temperature
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10-10-3838
Dehydration of ROHDehydration of ROH
180°CCH3CH2OH
H2SO4CH2=CH2 + H2O
140°CCyclohexanol Cyclohexene
OH+ H2O
H2SO4
CH3COH
CH3
CH3
H2SO4 CH3C=CH2
CH3+ H2O
50°C
2-Methyl-2-propanol(tert-Butyl alcohol)
2-Methylpropene(Isobutylene)
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10-10-3939
Dehydration of ROHDehydration of ROH
• where isomeric alkenes are possible, the alkene having the greater number of substituents on the double bond (the more stable alkene) usually predominates (Zaitsev rule)
1-Butene (20%)
2-Butene (80%)
2-Butanol
+
heat85% H3PO4
CH3CH=CHCH3
CH3CH2 CHCH3
CH3CH2 CH=CH2 + H2O
OH
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10-10-4040
Dehydration of ROHDehydration of ROH
Dehydration of 1° and 2° alcohols is often accompanied by rearrangement
• acid-catalyzed dehydration of 1-butanol gives a mixture of three alkenes
OH
H2SO4
140 - 170°C+
3,3-Dimethyl-2-butanol
2,3-Dimethyl-2-butene
(80%)
2,3-Dimethyl-1-butene
(20%)
H2SO4
140 - 170°C1-Butanol
+
trans-2-butene(56%)
cis-2-butene(32%)
+
1-Butene(12%)
OH
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10-10-4141
Dehydration of ROHDehydration of ROH
Based on evidence of • ease of dehydration (3° > 2° > 1°)• prevalence of rearrangements
Chemists propose a three-step mechanism for the dehydration of 2° and 3° alcohols• because this mechanism involves formation of a
carbocation intermediate in the rate-determining step, it is classified as E1
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10-10-4242
Dehydration of ROHDehydration of ROH
Step 1: proton transfer to the -OH group gives an oxonium ion
Step 2: loss of H2O gives a carbocation intermediate
O
H O
H
H+
+
rapid andreversible O
OH
H+
H H+H
A 2° carbocationintermediate
OH H+ slow, rate
determiningH2O+
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10-10-4343
Dehydration of ROHDehydration of ROH
Step 3: proton transfer from a carbon adjacent to the positively charged carbon to water; the sigma electrons of the C-H bond become the pi electrons of the carbon-carbon double bond
rapid andreversible
OH
HHH
+ + O
H
++ H H
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10-10-4444
•Dehydration of ROHDehydration of ROH
1° alcohols with little -branching give terminal alkenes and rearranged alkenes• Step 1: proton transfer to OH gives an oxonium ion
• Step 2: loss of H from the -carbon and H2O from the α-carbon gives the terminal alkene
O-H O H
H
H O-H
H
O-HH
++
++
1-Butanol
rapid andreversible
H
OH O-HHH H
H O H
H
O H
H
++
++
1-Butene
E2 +
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10-10-4545
Dehydration of ROHDehydration of ROH
Step 3: shift of a hydride ion from -carbon and loss of H2O from the α-carbon gives a carbocation
Step 4: proton transfer to solvent gives the alkene
O-H
HHHO-HH
+++
1,2-shift of ahydride ion
A 2° carbocation
H O H
H
+ E1+ ++
+
trans-2-Butene cis-2-Butene
HH O
H
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10-10-4646
Dehydration of ROHDehydration of ROH
Dehydration with rearrangement occurs by a carbocation rearrangement
A 2° carbocationintermediate
A 3° carbocationintermediate
H2O
H2O
2,3-Dimethyl-2-butene
2,3-Dimethyl-1-butene
+ H3O+
+ H3O+
OH
3,3-Dimethyl-2-butanol
-H2O
H+
+
+
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10-10-4747
Dehydration of ROHDehydration of ROH
Acid-catalyzed alcohol dehydration and alkene hydration are competing processes
Principle of microscopic reversibility:Principle of microscopic reversibility: the sequence of transition states and reactive intermediates in the mechanism of a reversible reaction must be the same, but in reverse order, for the reverse reaction as for the forward reaction
An alkene An alcohol
C C C C
H OH
+ H2O
acidcatalyst
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10-10-4848
Pinacol RearrangementPinacol Rearrangement
The products of acid-catalyzed dehydration of a glycol are different from those of alcohols
OHHOH2SO4
OH2O
2,3-Dimethyl-2,3-butanediol(Pinacol)
3,3-Dimethyl-2-butanone(Pinacolone)
+
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10-10-4949
Pinacol RearrangementPinacol Rearrangement
Step 1: proton transfer to OH gives an oxonium ion
Step 2: loss of water gives a carbocation intermediate
OHHO +
H
H HO+
rapid andreversible OHO
+ H
H
OHH
An oxonium ion
OHO HHHO
+ H2O
A 3o carbocationintermediate
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10-10-5050
Pinacol RearrangementPinacol Rearrangement
Step 3: a 1,2- shift of methyl gives a more stable carbocation
Step 4: proton transfer to solvent completes the reaction
A resonance-stabilized cation intermediate
OH OH OH
OHH2O +
O+H3O
+
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10-10-5151
Oxidation: 1° ROHOxidation: 1° ROH
Oxidation of a primary alcohol gives an aldehyde or a carboxylic acid, depending on the experimental conditions
• to an aldehyde is a two-electron oxidation• to a carboxylic acid is a four-electron oxidation
[O] [O]OH
H
HCH3-C
A primary alcohol
An aldehyde A carboxylic acid
CH3-C-H
O
CH3-C-OH
O
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10-10-5252
Oxidation of ROHOxidation of ROH
A common oxidizing agent for this purpose is chromic acid, prepared by dissolving chromium(VI) oxide or potassium dichromate in aqueous sulfuric acid
Potassiumdichromate
Chromic acid
K2Cr2O7H2SO4 H2Cr2O7
H2O2H2CrO4
+Chromic acidChromium(VI)
oxide
CrO3 H2O H2CrO4H2SO4
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10-10-5353
Oxidation: 1° ROHOxidation: 1° ROH
Oxidation of 1-octanol gives octanoic acid• the aldehyde intermediate is not isolated
OHH2CrO4
H
O
OH
O
1-Hexanol Hexanal(not isolated)
Hexanoic acid
H2O, acetone
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10-10-5454
Oxidation: 2° ROHOxidation: 2° ROH
2° alcohols are oxidized to ketones by chromic acid
2-Isopropyl-5-methyl-cyclohexanone(Menthone)
2-Isopropyl-5-methyl-cyclohexanol(Menthol)
acetone+ H2CrO4 + Cr
3+OH O
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10-10-5555
Chromic Acid Oxidation of ROHChromic Acid Oxidation of ROH
• Step 1: formation of a chromate ester
• Step 2: reaction of the chromate ester with a base, here shown as H2O
H
OH O
HO-Cr-OH
OH
O-Cr-OH
O
O
H2O
fast and reversible
+ +
An alkyl chromateCyclohexanol
H
O Cr-OH
O
O
OHH
O O H
H
H
O
O -
Cr-OH+ +
Cyclohexanone
chromium(IV)
+
slow, ratedetermining
chromium(VI)
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10-10-5656
Chromic Acid Oxidation of RCHOChromic Acid Oxidation of RCHO
• chromic acid oxidizes a 1° alcohol first to an aldehyde and then to a carboxylic acid
• in the second step, it is not the aldehyde per se that is oxidized but rather the aldehyde hydrate
OR-C-H H2O
H2CrO4R-C-OH
O-CrO3H
HH2O
R-C-OH
OH
H
R-C-OHO
HCrO3-
+
An aldehyde An aldehyde hydrate
fast andreversible
A carboxylic acid
+ H3O++
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10-10-5757
Oxidation: 1° ROH to RCHOOxidation: 1° ROH to RCHO
Pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC):Pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC): a form of Cr(VI) prepared by dissolving CrO3 in aqueous HCl and adding pyridine to precipitate PCC as a solid
• PCC is selective for the oxidation of 1° alcohols to aldehydes; it does not oxidize aldehydes further to carboxylic acids
CrO3 HClN N
H
ClCrO3-
chlorochromate ion
pyridinium ion
Pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC)
Pyridine
+ +
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10-10-5858
Oxidation: 1° ROHOxidation: 1° ROH
• PCC oxidizes a 1° alcohol to an aldehyde
• PCC also oxidizes a 2° alcohol to a ketone
PCC
Geraniol GeranialOH H
O
OH PCC O
MenthoneMenthol
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10-10-5959
Oxidation of Alcohols by NADOxidation of Alcohols by NAD++
• biological systems do not use chromic acid or the oxides of other transition metals to oxidize 1° alcohols to aldehydes or 2° alcohols to ketones
• what they use instead is a NAD+
• the Ad part of NAD+ is composed of a unit of the sugar D-ribose (Chapter 25) and one of adenosine diphosphate (ADP, Chapter 28)
N
NH2
O
AdN
OH
O
Nicotinic acid(Niacin; Vitamin B6)
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)
A pyridinering
An amide group
The plus sign in NAD+
represents this chargeon nitrogen
The businessend of NAD+
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10-10-6060
Oxidation of Alcohols by NADOxidation of Alcohols by NAD++
• when NAD+ functions as an oxidizing agent, it is reduced to NADH
• in the process, NAD+ gains one H and two electrons; NAD+ is a two-electron oxidizing agent
AdN
CNH2
O
H+ 2e-
AdN
CNH2
H H O
+
NAD+
(oxidized form)NADH
(reduced form)
reduction
oxidation+ +
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10-10-6161
Oxidation of Alcohols by NADOxidation of Alcohols by NAD++
• NAD+ is the oxidizing in a wide variety of enzyme-catalyzed reactions, two of which are
CH3CH2OH NAD+ CH3CHO
NADH H++
alcoholdehydrogenase
+ +Ethanol Ethanal
(Acetaldehyde)
CH3CHCOO-OH
NAD+ CH3CCOO-O
NADH H++ ++
lactatedehydrogenase
Lactate Pyruvate
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10-10-6262
Oxidation of Alcohols by NADOxidation of Alcohols by NAD++
• mechanism of NAD+ oxidation of an alcohol
• hydride ion transfer to NAD+ is stereoselective; some enzymes catalyze delivery of hydride ion to the top face of the pyridine ring, others to the bottom face
H
C
O
H
N
C-NH2
O
Ad
H
- B
NAD+ NADH
C-NH2
N
O
Ad
H H
C
OH
BE E
2
3
••
• •••
+
reductionof NAD+
oxidationof NADH
1
••4-5
••• •
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10-10-6363
Oxidation of GlycolsOxidation of Glycols
Glycols are cleaved by oxidation with periodic acid, HIO4
OH
OH+ HIO4 CHO
CHO+ HIO3
cis-1,2-Cyclo-hexanediol
HexanedialPeriodicacid
Iodicacid
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10-10-6464
Oxidation of GlycolsOxidation of Glycols
The mechanism of periodic acid oxidation of a glycol is divided into two stepsStep 1: formation of a cyclic periodate
Step 2: redistribution of electrons within the five-membered ring
A cyclic periodate
+C
C
OH
OHIO
OOC
CO
OO
O
IOH OH + H2O
OC
C O
I
O
OH
O
C O
C OO
O
I OH+OC
C O
I
O
OH
O
C O
C OO
O
I OH+
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10-10-6565
Oxidation of GlycolsOxidation of Glycols
• this mechanism is consistent with the fact that HIO4 oxidations are restricted to glycols that can form a five-membered cyclic periodate
• glycols that cannot form a cyclic periodate are not oxidized by HIO4
OH
OH
OH
HOHIO4
O
O
The trans isomer isunreactive toward
periodic acid
The cis isomer forms a cyclic periodate and
is cleaved
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10-10-6666
Thiols: StructureThiols: Structure
The functional group of a thiol is an SHSH (sulfhydrylsulfhydryl) group bonded to an sp3 hybridized carbon
The bond angle about sulfur in methanethiol is 100.3°, which indicates that there is considerably more p character to the bonding orbitals of divalent sulfur than there is to oxygen
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10-10-6767
NomenclatureNomenclature
IUPAC names:• the parent is the longest chain that contains the -SH
group• change the suffix -e-e to -thiol-thiol• when -SH is a substituent, it is named as a sulfanyl
group
Common names:• name the alkyl group bonded to sulfur followed by the
word mercaptanmercaptan
1-Butanethiol(Butyl mercaptan)
2-Methyl-1-propanethiol(Isobutyl mercaptan)
2-Sulfanylethanol(2-Mercaptoethanol)
SH SH OHHS
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10-10-6868
Thiols: Physical PropertiesThiols: Physical Properties Because of the low polarity of the S-H bond,
thiols show little association by hydrogen bonding• they have lower boiling points and are less soluble in
water than alcohols of comparable MW
• the boiling points of ethanethiol and its constitutional isomer dimethyl sulfide are almost identical
1177865
1-ButanolEthanolMethanol
98356
1-ButanethiolEthanethiolMethanethiol
bp (°C)Alcoholbp (°C)Thiol
CH3CH2SH CH3SCH3Dimethyl sulfide
(bp 37°C)Ethanethiol(bp 35°C)
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10-10-6969
Thiols: Physical PropertiesThiols: Physical Properties Low-molecular-weight thiols = STENCH• the scent of skunks is due primarily to these two thiols
• a blend of low-molecular weight thiols is added to natural gas as an odorant; the two most common of these are
3-Methyl-1-butanethiol(Isopentyl mercaptan)
2-Butene-1-thiol
SHSH
2-Methyl-2-propanethiol(tert-Butyl mercaptan)
2-Propanethiol(Isopropyl mercaptan)
SH SH
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10-10-7070
Thiols: preparationThiols: preparation
The most common preparation of thiols depends on the very high nucleophilicity of hydrosulfide ion, HS-
CH3(CH2)8CH2I Na+ SH
-CH3(CH2)8CH2SH Na
+I-
Sodium hydrosulfide
1-Decanethiol1-Iododecane
++SN2ethanol
Na+ SH
-ICH2CO
- Na
+O
HSCH2CO- Na
+O
Na+ I
-
Sodium hydrosulfide
Sodium mercaptoacetate (Sodium thioglycolate)
++SN2
Sodiumiodoacetate
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10-10-7171
Thiols: acidityThiols: acidity
Thiols are stronger acids than alcohols
• when dissolved an aqueous NaOH, they are converted completely to alkylsulfide salts
CH3CH2OH +
CH3CH2SH
CH3CH2O-
CH3CH2S-
H3O+
H3O+
H2O
H2O pKa = 8.5
pKa = 15.9+
++
CH3CH2SH Na+OH
- CH3CH2S-Na+ H2O+ +
pKa 8.5(Stronger acid)
pKa 15.7(Weaker acid)
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10-10-7272
Thiols: oxidationThiols: oxidation
The sulfur atom of a thiol can be oxidized to several higher oxidation states
• the most common reaction of thiols in biological systems in interconversion between thiols and disulfides, -S-S--S-S-
A thiol A disulfide2
+ 1 +2RSH O2 RSSR H2 O
[O]
R-S-H
[O]R-S-OH
O
R-S-S-R
[O]R-S-OH
O
OA sulfonic
acid
A thiol
A disulfide
A sulfinicacid
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10-10-7373
Alcohols Alcohols and and
ThiolsThiolsEnd of Chapter 10End of Chapter 10