THE IMPLICATIONS AND CONSEQUENCES OF FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE OUTBREAK ON FOOD SECURITY AND HOUSEHOLD

INCOMES IN SELECTED DISTRICTS IN UGANDA

BY

THEOGEN RUTAGWENDA

FACULTY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE

MAKERERE UNIVERSITY KAMPALA

A draft consultancy report submitted to the FAO Regional office Kampala Uganda

Emergency control of Foot and Mouth Disease outbreak

TCP/UGA/ 0168 (E) 1

May 2003

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

LIST OF TABLES:....................................................................................................................................v

LIST OF FIGURES:.................................................................................................................................vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:...................................................................................................................vii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY:...................................................................................................................viii

1: INTRODUCTION:................................................................................................................................1

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1.1: Background:.........................................................................................................................................1

1.2: Terms of reference:...............................................................................................................................2

2: METHODS OF THE STUDY:...........................................................................................................3

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........................................................................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................................................................

2.1: Study sites:...........................................................................................................................................3

2.2: Data collection.....................................................................................................................................3

2.2.1: Selection of farmers:..............................................................................................................6

ii

2.2.2: Personal interviews:...............................................................................................................6

2.2.3: Secondary data:......................................................................................................................6

2.2.4: Data analysis:.........................................................................................................................6

3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION............................................................................................................7

3.1: Effects of Foot and Mouth Disease on food security and household incomes:..................................7

3.1.1: Effects of FMD outbreak on food production capacity:........................................................7

3.1.1.1: Agricultural Technology:............................................................................................7

3.1.1.2: Change in the cost of hire of oxen:.............................................................................7

3.1.1.3: Loss of revenue by oxen owners:...............................................................................8

3.1.1.4: Change in size of cultivated area:................................................................................8

3.1.1.5: Change in yield per type of crop:.................................................................................8

3.1.1.6: Deterioration of agricultural land:...............................................................................9

3.1.1.7: Change in crops cultivated:..........................................................................................9

3.1.1.8: Shortage of agricultural labour:...................................................................................9

3.1.2: Effects of FMD outbreak on household food situation:...................................................10

3.1.2.1: Food efficiency:.........................................................................................................10

3.1.2.2: Food sources:.............................................................................................................11

3.1.2.3: Food consumption patterns:.......................................................................................12

3.1.3: Effects of FMD outbreaks on household income and expenditure patterns:......................12

3.1.3.1: Sources of Income:...................................................................................................12

3.1.3.1.1: Number of animals sold:............................................................................14

3.1.3.1.2: Prices of animals:.......................................................................................14

3.1.3.2: Expenditure patterns during outbreaks:..................................................................14

iii

3.1.3.2.1: Major drugs used during outbreaks:..........................................................14

3.1.3.2.2: Cost of animal drugs:................................................................................15

3.1.3.2.3: Increase in prices of food items:...............................................................15

3.1.4: Effects of FMD outbreaks on social services:.................................................................15

3.1.4.1: School attendance:.....................................................................................................15

3.1.4.2: Access to markets:.....................................................................................................15

3.1.4.3: Access to credits:.......................................................................................................16

3.1.5: Effects of FMD outbreaks on natural resource utilization:..................................................16

3.1.6: Diminishing benefits associated with FMD outbreaks:.......................................................17

3.1.7: Other factors contributing to reduced incomes and food insecurity....................................17

3.1.7.1: Drought:..................................................................................................................17

3.1.7.2: Political instability:..................................................................................................18

3.1.7.3: Cattle raids:......................................................................................................................18

3.1.7.4: Wild animals:...................................................................................................................18

3.1.7.5: Plant diseases:..................................................................................................................18

3.1.7.6: Lack of land:....................................................................................................................18

3.1.8: Coping Mechanisms:......................................................................................................................19

3.1.8.1: Communal labour:...........................................................................................................19

3.1.8.2: Liquidation of assets:.......................................................................................................19

3.1.8.3: Borrowing:.......................................................................................................................20

3.1.8.4: Income from side business:..............................................................................................20

3.1.8.5: Foregoing of certain items:..............................................................................................20

3.1.8.6: Marketing by proxy:........................................................................................................20

iv

3.1.8.7: Coping mechanisms with negative implications:............................................................21

3.1.8.7.1: Out migration:...................................................................................................21

3.1.8.7.2: Lawlessness:.....................................................................................................21

3.1.8.7.3: Charcoal burning and brick making:................................................................21

3.2: The economic costs of FMD outbreaks:............................................................................................22

4.0 CONCLUSIONS: .............................................................................................................................28

5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS..................................................................................................................30

6.0 REFERENCES:................................................................................................................................31

7.0 APPENDIX: Questionnaire used in the survey...........................................................................32

v

LIST OF TABLES

Tables1: Use of oxen in agricultural practices.................................................................................7

Table 2: Number of meals per day in the two districts..................................................................10

Table 3: Proportion of food items grown and purchased during and when there

is no FMD......................................................................................................................................11

Table 4: Major source of income...................................................................................................12

Table 5: Income brackets of the respondents form the two districts.............................................13

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1: Map of Uganda showing the cattle corridor.........................................................................4

Fig. 2: Map of Uganda showing areas under the Teso framing system...........................................5

Fig. 3: Cost:Benefit analysis of FMD control in six districts visited.............................................25

vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to the Food and Agricultural organization for having

trusted me and accorded me the task of carrying out this consultancy. Dr.. David Nyakahuma of

FAO Rome, Dr. Rose Ademun, FMD national coordinator are thanked for the useful discussions

with regards to the concept and methodology. I wish to sincerely thank Dr. Ademun for her

contribution to the discussion especially with regard to the Teso farming system. My

appreciation goes to Dr. Rutebarika the PACE coordinator for the fruitful discussions regarding

the work.

I wish to thank Dr. E. Kabagambe for his invaluable contribution in the study design, execution

data analysis and modeling. The interest and his personal involvement were of great help in the

preparation or this report. The District Veterinary officers of Mbarara and Kumi and their

extension staff, the farmers are all recognized for their contribution during data collection. Last

but not least, Mr. G. Atuhaire for his careful driving while doing field work.

viii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report presents the findings of a study that was carried out to examine the implications and

consequences of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) outbreaks on food security and household

incomes in Uganda. The study is a follow-up of an earlier one that investigated factors that

predispose to the occurrence of FMD in six districts of Mbarara, Ntungamo, Luwero, Mbale,

Pallisa and Kumi.

The objectives of this study were to:

Assess the implications and consequences of FMD outbreaks on food security and

household incomes.

Assess in financial terms, the costs associated with FMD outbreaks

Find out any other aspects relevant to FMD that can be extrapolated to other areas.

This study confined itself to two districts of Kumi and Mbarara, representing the Teso and the

pastoral farming systems, respectively. The study used qualitative and quantitative methods to

assess the implications and consequences of FMD outbreaks on food security and household

incomes. The qualitative methods were based on participatory workshops, group discussions and

personal interviews of farmers, pastoralists as well as local and central government officials in

the two districts. The quantitative aspects involved administration of a questionnaire to

households in the two districts to obtain data on income, expenditure, food acquisition, levels of

meal efficiency, agricultural technology used in crop production and coping mechanisms used in

FMD outbreaks. Those interviewed included farmers whose animals were affected as well as

those whose animals had not been affected during the outbreak. Kumi district was under

quarantine when this study was carried out.

Data from the questionnaire survey, the original FAO report from the six districts as well as

published data on FMD were used in a spreadsheet model to estimate the costs associated with

FMD outbreaks and their control assuming a 100% vaccination coverage and quarantine in the

six districts. The assumptions used in the model included those related to cattle production, trade

ix

of cattle and their products, lost government revenue (i.e., due to an increase in number of tax

defaulters as a result of FMD outbreaks) in addition to revenue foregone by various stakeholders

in the livestock industry.

The results of the study showed that FMD had severe effects on food security and household

incomes. This was manifested in the reduction of food production capacity. Because of FMD

outbreaks, ox ploughs in Teso were substituted with a less efficient method of using hand hoes

and this affected food production capacity as follows:

The size of area under cultivation was reduced from 67% to 38% during FMD outbreaks.

The price of oxen hire went up by 39% during FMD outbreaks and oxen owners lost

income as they could not hire them out because of fear of contracting FMD.

Growing of cash crops was affected by lack of ploughing oxen and farmers changed to

growing food crops and this greatly reduced their income.

There was shortage of agricultural labour as most farmers were doing similar agricultural

activities at the same time.

Foot and Mouth disease also affected the food situation at the household level. Among the

pastoralists, the proportion of households who could afford three meals in a day was reduced

from 38% to 9% during FMD outbreaks and at the same time, 53% of the households could only

afford one meal in a day. In addition, the consumption of lower grade maize meal increased

among pastoralist families during FMD outbreaks. Consumption of protein was reduced as

more starch was substituted during FMD outbreaks. In the Teso farming system, the proportion

of farmers buying food increased during FMD outbreaks. Poverty increased among households

as their monthly income was reduced and more demands in expenditure increased. Cattle prices

fell by 55% during FMD outbreaks resulting in increased number of cattle sold by pastoralists to

obtain the same income they would obtain in times of no FMD. At the same time, food prices

increased causing farmers to spend more when their income was low and this increased their

level of poverty and food insecurity

x

School attendance as well as social gatherings at funerals and markets was reduced and social

functions like weddings suspended. Grazing under FMD outbreaks increased environmental

degradation as a result of animals concentrating only in a small area that is under quarantine

restrictions. There were other factors which contributed to food insecurity and this included

drought, political instability, cattle raids, wild animals, crop pests and lack of a secure land

tenure system.

The farmers and pastoralists coped with problems of FMD outbreaks by doing communal

cultivation in Teso, selling off more of their livestock, borrowing money as well as foregoing

social activities. However, out migration of young men from villages to towns, lawlessness,

charcoal burning and brick making, which are environmentally destructive, increased during

FMD outbreaks.

The economic costs of FMD outbreaks showed that stakeholders in the livestock industry lost

income. The total amount of money lost due to FMD outbreak was calculated for the six districts

of Mbarara, Ntungamo, Mbale, Kumi, Pallisa and Luwero as US $ 8,010,000 and the cost of

complete control by 100% vaccine coverage, quarantine and monitoring as US$ 3,300,000

giving a benefit:cost ratio of 2.4. This indicates that if US$ 3,300,000 was spent for the control

of FMD, US$ 4,690,000 would be saved from getting lost as a result of FMD outbreaks in the six

districts. The results from this study indicate that a strong national FMD control programme

involving 100% vaccine coverage, strict quarantine enforcement and monitoring should be

instituted.

xi

1.0: INTRODUCTION:

1.1: Background:

The current status of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) in Uganda indicates that it is endemic

in the country (Nantima, 2002). Disease outbreaks have recently been reported in several

districts and have been associated with movement of livestock in search of better markets,

water and pasture especially during the dry seasons. In addition, movement of animals

through restocking has also contributed to the spread of the disease (Nantima, 2002). Wild

animals play a major role in the dynamics of the disease especially around the Lake Mburo

area of Mbarara District. In Kapchorwa, the disease has been associated with movement of

animals by the Pokot of Northwestern Kenya (Nantima, 2002).

Whenever FMD breaks out in an area, it usually starts from a focal point from which it

spreads to other areas. As the disease spreads, it affects animals and causes considerable

economic loses among the various key players in the livestock industry. The disease causes

death among affected animals and those that do not die may remain sick for a long time.

There is a decrease in milk production, animals take long to mature and long to conceive. In

addition, the control of the disease involves cash outflow from farmers, donors and

governments in purchasing drugs and vaccines. During disease outbreaks, quarantines are

imposed necessitating closing of cattle markets. Livestock owners find it difficult to market

their animals and resort to selling them to middlemen and itinerant traders who flock the

areas that are under quarantine restrictions. Faced with a situation where there is no

competition as in cattle markets, such itinerant traders offer very low prices for the animals

and this affects the cash incomes of farmers and may threaten their food security.

Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to

sufficient, safe and nutritious food for a healthy and active life (World Food Summit Plan

of Action Par.1, 1996). Food security embraces food production, stability of supply and

access to food. The three most important dimensions of food security are; ensuring a safe

and nutritionally adequate food supply at the national and household levels, a reasonable

degree of stability in the supply of food from year to year and ensuring that each household

1

has physical, social and economic access to enough food to meet its needs. Livestock play a

role in all the three dimensions of food security. They make a contribution to food

production through the provision of high value protein-rich animal products. They indirectly

support crop production through draught power and provision of manure. They stabilize

food supply as they can provide milk and meat all the year round in addition to being the

most significant source of income and store of wealth for small holders thereby providing

access to food all the time. Food insecurity therefore occurs if food production capacity is

affected or if there is instability in food supply and if there is inaccessibility to food as a

result of a reduced purchasing power of the population.

In an earlier survey, several possible predisposing factors that lead to the occurrence of

FMD were identified (Rutagwenda, 2002). However, because of shortage of time, it was not

possible to exhaust the consequences and implications of FMD on food security and

household incomes thus the need to extend the study. This report presents the findings of

the second study.

1.2: Terms of reference:

The terms of reference for this study were as follows:

1. To assess the implications and consequences of Foot and Mouth Disease

outbreaks on food security and household incomes.

2. To assess in financial terms the costs of FMD outbreaks.

3. To find out any other aspects relevant to the disease that can be extrapolated to

other areas.

2: METHODS OF THE STUDY:

2.1: Study sites:

2

Two farming systems were used in this study. A farming system was defined as an area

where the prevailing environmental conditions (physical, biological and human) allow

similar agricultural practices (MAAIF, 1997). The first was Sanga and Nyakashashara Sub-

counties in Nyabushozi County Mbarara District representing the pastoral farming system

where results obtained could be extrapolated to the cattle corridor (Fig. 1). The second was

Kumi district representing the Teso farming system where animal traction is used for

farming and whose results could be extrapolated to areas under similar farming systems

(Fig 2) (MAAIF 1997). In Kumi District, the study was carried out in three sub-counties of

Ongino, Kumi, and Ngora. In Ongino sub county, the study was carried out in Kachaboi,

Morupeded and Achelakweny parishes. In Kumi subcounty, two primary schools; Adesso

and Olelia were visited in addition to Ngora trading centre in Ngora sub county. Mbarara

and Kumi Districts were used in the first study and had yielded very useful information in

addition to representing the two farming systems.

2.2: Data collection:

The assessment of the implications and consequences of FMD on food security and

household incomes was conducted using qualitative and quantitative methods. The

qualitative methods were based on participatory workshops, group discussions and personal

interviews. The quantitative aspects of the study involved administration of a questionnaire

and analysis of household level data on income, expenditure and other economic activities.

Data from butchers, meat roasters, ghee vendors and other players in the livestock industry

was also collected.

3

Figure 1. Map of Uganda showing the cattle corridor.

4

KATAKWI

KUMISOROTI

KABERAMAIDO

PALLISA

90 0 90 180 Miles

Admin1.shpDistricts underTeso farming system.shp

N

EW

S

MAP SHOWING DISTRICTS UNDER THE TESO FARMING SYSTEM

Figure 2. Map of Uganda showing the areas under the Teso farming system.

5

2.2.1: Selection of farmers:

In each of the study sites, farmers were invited to participate in group discussions which

involved open ended questions being asked in these meetings to assess the economic

activities of farmers and evaluate problems caused by FMD and how they coped with the

outbreaks.

2.2.2: Personal interviews:

Personal interviews were held with staff of the veterinary department in both Mbarara and

Kumi Districts and officials from MAAIF. In addition, households from both districts were

interviewed (Appendix) in order to obtain household income and expenditure data, the

acquisition of food, the levels of meal efficiency, the agricultural technology used in crop

production, the coping mechanisms employed in FMD outbreaks and the cost of the

outbreak at the household level. Those interviewed included farmers who had had FMD in

their herds and those that were not affected by the FMD outbreaks. In Kumi District, the

study was carried out when the area was under FMD quarantine.

2.2.3: Secondary data:

Data from Sanga sub-county on tax collected was analyzed to find out the impacts of FMD

outbreak on tax collection in the sub-county. Data from the districts veterinary offices and

from the PACE office on the expenditure for controlling FMD was also used for calculating

economic losses due to the disease.

2.2.4: Data analysis:

The data obtained was managed and analyzed using Epi Info 2002 (CDC, 2002) to obtain

descriptive statistics of the various parameters investigated in the field. The results obtained

from the field were used to calculate the economic costs of FMD control in the districts

visited and extrapolated to the whole country.

6

3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

3.1: Effects of Foot and Mouth Disease on food security and household incomes:

3.1.1: Effects of FMD outbreak on food production capacity:

Foot and Mouth Disease outbreak had a significant effect on the food production capacity

especially in the Teso farming system and this was manifested in the region as follows.

3.1.1.1: Agricultural Technology:

The major source of agricultural labour for land preparation in the Teso farming system is

the use of oxen to plough the land. Oxen are either individually owned or hired. The use of

oxen in agricultural practices without and under FMD outbreaks is given in Table 1.

Table 1: Use of oxen in agricultural practices

Use Oxen (% respondents) Use hand labour (% respondents)

NO FMD 67 33

FMD 14 86

The result show that 67% of the respondents use oxen for cultivation when there is no FMD

and 86% use hand hoes when there is FMD. This is because the majority of farmers hire

oxen from oxen owners to carry out cropping activities. However, during FMD outbreaks,

fewer oxen are available for hire and the majority of those who use hired oxen are forced to

change to hand hoes. It was established that the work done by one pair of oxen in one day

takes on average 15 days to be completed by one man. Therefore changes in agricultural

technology from using oxen to hand hoes during FMD outbreaks is a less efficient way of

food production in the Teso farming system. As a result of this change in technology, the

following effects were observed.

3.1.1.2: Change in the cost of hire of oxen:

From the survey, 18% of the respondents said they hired oxen when there is no FMD. The

mean price of hire of a pair of oxen was 9,200/= with no FMD but increased to 12,800/=

during FMD outbreaks representing a 39% increase in price. The increase in price of hiring

7

oxen was due to the fear of disease transmission oxen owners had as a result of the FMD

outbreak. Those who were willing to risk their oxen charged higher prices. The use of oxen

for agriculture is therefore reduced during FMD outbreaks. Moreover, oxen that have

contracted FMD cannot plough the land and this greatly affects the food production capacity

of the area.

3.1.1.3: Loss of revenue by oxen owners:

The FMD outbreak caused loss of revenue to oxen owners who normally hire them out.

From the survey, it was established that the average income from hiring out a pair of oxen

by the owners in one season was 75,000/=. That means the owners do not earn that money if

they fail to hire out their oxen as a result of FMD outbreaks.

3.1.1.4: Change in size of cultivated area:

As a result of not using oxen but hand hoes, the size of the cultivated area is reduced.

From the survey, it was established that the size of agricultural land is reduced by 67% in

size during FMD outbreaks when ploughing oxen are not used. This was further confirmed

by observations and discussions with leaders and farmers in the field.

3.1.1.5: Change in yield per type of crop:

Because of reduction in size of the land that is normally under cultivation, there was a

decrease in crop yield. The reduction in crop yield is very critical because it was established

that for a family of 10 people, it would require the following yields to ensure food security.

3 gardens of cassava ( 18 bags)

3 gardens of groundnuts (18 bags)

1 garden of sorghum (6 bags)

1 garden of millet (6 bags)

1 garden of peas (6 bags)

1 garden of sweet potatoes (6 bags)

It would require 10 days for a pair of working oxen to produce this amount of food as a pair

normally ploughs one garden in a day. Without using oxen during FMD outbreaks, the

family would need 5 months to cultivate the same size of land with one man working every

8

day. However, the rainy season normally lasts only about three months and this would mean

that this family would not be able to produce the required amount of food to ensure food

security. In addition, agricultural time would be lost resulting in late planting because the

dry season normally starts after three months. The average family size according to the

survey was 12 people per household making food sufficiency at the household level a major

challenge (MFPED, 1996) but a real threat without animal labour.

3.1.1.6: Deterioration of agricultural land:

Agricultural land is an important asset for food production. However, as indicated in 3.1.1.4

above, 67% of the total cultivated area is not used because of the reduced capacity caused by

changing from the use of oxen to hand hoes. That indicates that previously used land for

crop production becomes bush. As a result, undesirable weeds tend to flourish in wasted

land and it becomes difficult to open up such land during the next planting season which

further contributes to reduction in food production

3.1.1.7: Change in crops cultivated:

Because of the difficulties caused by the FMD outbreaks where hand-hoes were used instead

of oxen, farmers changed from growing cash crops to fast growing food crops. The main

cash crop grown was said to be cotton which sells at 750/= per kilogram compared to 120/=

per kilogram of groundnuts. This means that farmers lost income by changing from growing

cotton to groundnuts as a result of FMD outbreaks. Growing cotton needs to be done on a

large scale and covering a wider area. This can only be done by using ox ploughs. With the

cotton industry, there is also the use of cotton seed cake for animal feeding which is not

realized when cotton is substituted by groundnuts as a result of FMD out breaks.

3.1.1.8: Shortage of agricultural labour:

As a result of the shift from using oxen to hand hoes, farmers complained of shortage of

labour to carry out agricultural activities. This is because almost all households are involved

in similar activities at the same time and it becomes difficult to get labour for agricultural

activities in addition to attending to sick animals.

9

This shows that food production capacity which is one of the key pillars of food security is

greatly affected by FMD outbreaks. The same effects can also be obtained as a result of

other epidemic disease outbreaks in the country.

3.1.2: Effects of FMD outbreak on household food situation:

As earlier observed, food insecurity occurs when there is instability in food supply from

time to time and when people do not access food because of the low purchasing power in

addition to the low agricultural production. At the household level, FMD outbreak had the

following effects on food security.

3.1.2.1: Food efficiency:

The proportion of respondents from the two districts who could afford 1, 2, or 3 meals per

day during and without FMD are shown in table 2.

Table 2: Number of meals per day in the two districts:

NUMBR OF

MEALS/DAY

MBARARA (% respondents) KUMI (% respondents)

No. FMD FMD NO. FMD FMD

1 11 53 0 0

2 51 38 42 75

3 38 9 58 25

The survey results show that 38% of the respondents in Mbarara could afford 3 meals in a

day when there was no FMD but this proportion dropped to 9% during FMD outbreaks. The

results further show that more than 50% of the respondents in Mbarara can only afford one

meal in a day during FMD outbreaks. In Kumi, 58% could afford 3 meals in a day but this

dropped to 25% during FMD outbreaks. The results also show that at least every body can

still afford two meals per day in Kumi even during FMD outbreaks. It was mentioned in

Kumi that households can still have the meals but reduce in quantities consumed during

FMD outbreaks.

10

3.1.2.2: Food sources:

Most food crops like beans, peas, cassava, matoke, groundnuts, millet and sweet potatoes

are grown in the Teso farming system. However, their availability varies from time to time

as some of them cannot be stored for use during critical periods. The availability of food

crops grown during FMD and normal times when there is no FMD is given in table 3.

Table 3: Proportion of food items grown and purchased during and when there is no FMD.

Food type No FMD (% respondents) Under FMD (%respondents)

Grown Purchased Grown Purchased

Cassava 81 19 19 81

Beans 30 70 17 83

Matoke 34 66 27 73

Groundnuts 100 0 14 86

Millet 96 4 0 100

Peas 95 5 11 89

Sweet potatoes 89 11 17 83

The results show that in the Teso farming system under no FMD, most of the respondents

grow the important food items themselves. The proportion of foods purchased when there is

no FMD is lower for every food category apart from beans and matooke. However, during

FMD outbreaks the proportion of respondents purchasing all the food items increases. The

results further show that the proportion of the respondents buying food increases during

FMD outbreaks as compared to when there is no FMD. The implications of this is that the

food production capacity is not sufficient to meet the demands of the population as they

have to purchase various food items. It was mentioned that during some seasons, the harvest

is good but most of the foods cannot be stored for critical periods. Farmers therefore tend to

sell food at cheap prices after harvest only to be insecure during the dry season and then buy

them at higher prices. They requested to be guided in knowledge of food preservation.

11

3.1.2.3: Food consumption patterns:

All the pastoralists interviewed indicated that they consumed mainly maize meal and

matoke purchased from the market and shops. However, during FMD outbreaks, more

maize meal and beans are consumed. Changes in food consumption patterns in Kumi were

not very apparent as they said that after harvest there is normally a wide variety of

categories of food items to eat. In Mbarara, it was stated (20% of the respondents) that

during FMD outbreaks the consumption of maize meal changes from grade 1 to grade 3. Of

course grade 3 is more nutritious than grade 1 because of the higher fibre content it contains

but because grade 1 is whiter, more sifted and finer, it is preferred than grade 3. It is also

more prestigious to eat grade 1 and families who buy grade 3 are considered poor

households. It was also established (30% of the respondents) that certain food items like

sugar and tea are completely done away with during FMD outbreaks. In addition milk would

be sold to neighbours in order to raise cash with which to buy maize meal. This of course

has implications especially on growing children if one is substituting proteins to starch

denying the children of an important protein source.

3.1.3: Effects of FMD outbreaks on household income and expenditure patterns:

3.1.3.1: Sources of Income:

The major source of income of the respondents is given in Table 4.

Table 4. Major source of income

Source

Kumi

( % respondents)

Mbarara

(% respondents)

Crops 70 6

Livestock 26 70

Others 4 24

The results show that 70% of the respondents from Kumi rated crops as their major source

of income while 30% obtained their income from livestock and other sources which

included trade and labour. Seventy percent of respondents in Mbarara stated that their

major source of income was livestock and only 6% depended on crops. The income bracket

12

of the respondents from the two districts was divided into 4 categories and the results are

summarized in table 5.

Table 5. Income brackets of the respondents from the two districts.

Income/month

(Shs)

NO FMD (% of the respondents) FMD (% of the respondents)

KUMI MBARARA KUMI MBARARA

< 10,000/= 13 12 29 87

10,000/= -

49,000/=

61 36 57 9

50,000/= -

100,000/=

13 30 14 4

> 100,000 13 22 - -

In both districts, income per household is reduced during FMD outbreaks. With no FMD,

61% of the respondents from Kumi stated that their monthly income is between 10,000 -

49.000/= with 13% of the respondents having a monthly income of over 100.000/= per

month with a similar number of respondents below 10.000/= per month. However, in

Mbarara the proportion of people with less then 10,000/= income increases from 12% when

there is no FMD to 87% during FMD outbreaks. Among the pastoralists, no one had an

income of more than 100,000/= per month. Poverty in Uganda is defined as lack of income,

material assets and absence of social aspects that support life. Poverty is also seasonal

depending in climatic patterns that create seasonality in production and disease incidence

coupled with seasonality of expenditure that fluctuate in levels from year to year (UNDP,

2002). It clearly shows that FMD increases poverty among the population especially among

pastoralists whose major source of income is from livestock. Poverty is also a big problem

for Kumi because the proportion of people with less than 10,000/= income per month

doubles and no body earns more than 100,000/= per month like when there is no FMD.

13

3.1.3.1.1: Number of animals sold:

The results from Mbarara showed that the average number of animals sold per household

per year is 10. However, during the FMD quarantine of three months, each family would

sell on average 6 animals to be able to afford the needs of the family which were mainly

animal drugs and food. That shows that many animals are sold during FMD outbreaks than

when there is no disease. When asked to chose only one item to be bought during the FMD

outbreak, 95% of the respondents chose animal drugs with food obtaining a mere 5%

arguing that only healthy animals were a good source of livelihood.

3.1.3.1.2: Prices of animals:

The average price of a mature cow when there is no FMD was given as 290.000/= but went

down to 130.000/= during FMD outbreak. This shows that a household has to sell more

than two animals during FMD outbreak to realize the value of one animal. This supports the

observation made in 3.1.3.1.1 above.

3.1.3.2: Expenditure patterns during outbreaks:

As observed elsewhere in this report, several factors contribute to changes in the expenditure

patterns during disease outbreaks. The incomes are reduced, food prices increase and the

family needs change because it has to deal with a crisis when the purchasing power is low.

Therefore patterns of expenditure shift to only critical needs and the family has to devise

survival strategies. During FMD outbreaks, several social obligations are completely

suspended. In the Teso region, the number of Ajon (local brew) drinking places is reduced

and most people completely give up drinking. This is also the same with pastoralists. The

contributions to weddings and funerals is also reduced, children may fail to go to school

because of school fees as the only emphasis on expenditure is on animal drugs and food if

money can be obtained.

3.1.3.2.1: Major drugs used during outbreaks:

The major drugs used by the farmers during FMD outbreaks were mainly antibiotics and

antiseptics to manage wounds caused by the disease. All the respondents said they used

antibiotics but only 40% said they used antiseptics to clean the wounds in addition to the

14

antibiotic treatments. Long acting oxy tetracycline accounted for 90% of the antibiotic used

while Penstrep accounted for 10%.

3.1.3.2.2: Cost of animal drugs:

The mean cost of drugs for treatment was 190,232/=. This ranged between 50,000/= to

800,000/= depending on the number of animals treated.

3.1.3.2.3: Increase in prices of food items:

All the respondents indicated that food items increase during FMD outbreaks. This is

significant in food insecurity because as indicated in 3.1.3.1 above, the income of the

farmers and therefore their purchasing power is low. And as mentioned earlier, food

insecurity occurs if there is inaccessibility of food as a result of reduced purchasing power

of the population. This was reported during FMD outbreaks and therefore the disease

contributes significantly to food insecurity.

3.1.4: Effects of FMD outbreaks on social services:

3.1.4.1: School attendance:

There are times when school attendance in both study areas is reduced. Lack of food and

increased labour demands were cited as the major reasons for the withdrawal of children

from school. “Up to 30% of the school enrollment may not turn up in the second term”

affirmed teachers from Adesso and Olelia primary schools in Kumi. This trend is due to the

fact that there is increased labour demands during FMD outbreaks and also because there is

no money for fees. Very few households can afford to hire extra outside labour to help so

they greatly rely on the family labour to do all the jobs of working in gardens and looking

after animals. The withdrawal of children from school is critical as it affects their

performance.

3.1.4.2: Access to markets:

Cattle markets are big events in the pastoralist’s calendar. These are held regularly on

weekly, bi monthly or monthly basis. These markets not only serve as avenues for selling

cattle and buying essentials like animal drugs and food, they are also centers for meeting and

15

socializing among pastoralists. They serve as meeting places where market information is

shared. They also serve as meeting places for social transactions among the community. For

example when a donation involving cattle is made, the animals may be driven to the market

and the person receiving the cow picks it from the market and takes it to his home. As a

result of FMD and quarantines, all these social gatherings do not take place and no wonder

cattle traders who come buying animals from pastoralists pay little money because

pastoralists have no way of knowing the current cattle prices.

3.1.4.3: Access to credits:

As a result of closing cattle markets during quarantines, pastoralists have to obtain credits

from business people but there are always at exorbitant interest rates. What usually happens

is that a pastoralist gives a cow or bull to a shop owner and takes goods from the shop until

the money equivalent is exhausted. However, pastoralists complained that shop owners

sometimes cheat them as the pastoralists may not be able to keep a proper record of the cost

of items removed from the shop. They end up losing many animals in this barter with shop

owners.

3.1.5: Effects of FMD outbreaks on natural resource utilization:

From years of experience, pastoralists have developed numerous strategies to cope with

economic and ecological challenges in their often harsh environment (Morton, 2002). Most

of these strategies revolve around the flexibility that is offered by the mobility of livestock.

In times of water and pasture shortages, pastoralists move in the cattle corridor until they

find sufficient water and pasture for their livestock. The pastoralists may also split their

herds with one part remaining at the homestead to provide milk for the household and the

other part moving to look for better pastures. When the situation improves, the part of the

herd that had moved comes back to the original home. This is also done to even out the

odds should there be a severe drought or serious disease outbreak, at least part of the herd

would remain to provide starting stock. This is also a way to manage the fragile rangeland

ecosystem in which pastoralists live without concentrating their stock in one area (Pratt and

Gwyne, 1963). However, when FMD breaks out, this mobility is restricted by quarantines.

Cattle are restrained and graze in the same place exhausting pasture and water. Their

16

production is reduced and animals are prone to other diseases. The ecosystem is

considerably damaged by overgrazing leading to a vicious cycle of poverty. The animals do

not look healthy and itinerant traders take advantage and buy them “at throw away prices”

commented one elder in Sanga.

3.1.6: Diminishing benefits associated with FMD outbreaks:

An indirect effect of FMD and indeed other epidemic diseases are resistance of the

population especially pastoralists to benefits of improved technology in animal production.

Exotic animals were imported into Uganda to enhance milk and meat productivity. Cross

breeding programes between exotic and local breeds were started in order to improve the

productivity of the local breeds. It is a well established fact that the productivity of exotic,

crosses and indigenous breeds decreases in that order. However, pastoralists expressed a

reluctance to acquire high yielding animals for fear of FMD and other diseases. It was

revealed that pastoralists from Bukanga sub county Mbarara District refused to take high

breeding animals offered by the Prime Minister’s office under the restocking programe for

fear of FMD and other diseases. They argued that only local breeds could survive FMD

although they are of low productivity. Obviously these farmers cannot benefit from higher

productivity offered by the exotic animals. The low productivity of indigenous animals

especially in marginal areas increases the food insecurity problems.

3.1.7: Other factors contributing to reduced incomes and food insecurity:

3.1.7.1: Drought:

Drought was major cause of food insecurity according to 85% of the respondents in

Mbarara and 32% of Kumi. For the pastoralists, drought was associated with lack of water

and pasture necessitating the animals to move out of their homes. Some moved into Lake

Mburo National park from where they contracted diseases. Others move into northern

Tanzania where animal diseases are a problem in addition to families now having to split

with some members living with the animals and others staying in the homesteads with

insufficient food.

17

3.1.7.2: Political instability:

Insurgency in Teso was mentioned by 36% of the respondents as one major cause of food

insecurity in the region. This is because there were a lot of insecurity in the area and people

could not attend to their gardens. As a result, there was little farming activity carried out

and most families were food insecure. In Mbarara, political instability was also mentioned

especially during wars of 1979 and 1985 when families had to migrate and others could not

attend to their livestock. Many animals died because of lack of care and animal drugs and

families were insecure as far as food security was concerned.

3.1.7.3: Cattle raids:

Cattle raids by the Karimajong from the Teso region have according to 25% of the

respondents contributed to food insecurity. The raids deny the population of cattle to

provide milk, meat and the cash income. They also deny them the work force for land

preparation as ox ploughing is a major component of agricultural practice in the region.

3.1.7.4: Wild animals:

Wild animals were mentioned by 15% of respondents from Mbarara as a problem associated

with food security. This is because the wild animals especially wild pigs destroy crops from

the area of study near lake Mburo National park and this had discouraged them from

attempting to do crop agriculture.

3.1.7.5: Plant diseases:

Plant diseases especially cassava mosaic and groundnut rosette had according to 33% of the

respondents from Kumi contributed to food insecurity. This is because the diseases affect

the crops and greatly reduce the yields.

3.1.7.6: Lack of land:

The study in Mbarara was conducted among pastoralists living in the Ankole Ranching

Scheme. These were originally squatters who were allocated land by Government in the

ranching scheme. However, 35 % of the respondents said that lack of sufficient land was a

18

problem to food security. This is because they felt that they land allocated to them was not

sufficient to carry out crop agriculture as well as animal farming.

3.1.8: Coping mechanisms:

There are several mechanisms by which the farmers were found to use in coping with

problems associated with food insecurity. From years of experience, pastoralists have

developed numerous strategies to cope with economic, political and ecological challenges in

their often harsh environment (Morton and Meadows, 2002). Pastoralism is more than an

extensive production system that exploits the natural resources. It is away of life (Swift and

Hamilton, 2002). It is often confined to regions with high environment constraints and

therefore bound to the changes of climate and resources. The more the arid the

environment, the higher the increase in pastoralism and the greater is the risk to food

security. Several coping mechanisms to food insecurity which were found among

pastoralists included selling cattle, borrowing from friends, having income generating

business, casual labour and migration. In the Teso farming system, food purchases,

reduction in size of meals, growing fast maturing crops, income generating business and

communal labour. It is important to discuss how some of these mechanisms work.

3.1.8.1: Communal labour:

It was mentioned in the Teso farming system that during times of food crisis as in FMD

outbreaks, farmers come together to contribute agricultural labour to one individual (Eitai).

They dig for one person and move to dig for another in a rotational communal basis. This is

done for activities like weeding and harvesting which needs to be completed as fast as

possible. What is only needed is for the farmer to prepare local millet wine (Ajon) with

which communal labour is done.

3.1.8.2: Liquidation of assets:

Selling assets during times of crisis was common among the respondents. The major assets

sold were cattle. 47% of the respondents in Mbarara said they sell cattle as quick way of

raising income to buy food during the crisis period created by FMD outbreaks. The average

19

number of cattle sold during the crisis period as seen earlier is higher than during the normal

period.

3.1.8.3: Borrowing:

This was common among the pastoralists as 50% of the respondents admitted that they

borrow money from their friends in times of severe shortage. The borrowing among

pastoralists involved cash or taking credits of food from the shops till markets opened when

they would be able to pay back. A pastoralist would borrow a bull or a mature cow from a

friend, sell it to raise cash and would pay in kind a similar animal later. Borrowing was only

reported by 4% of respondents from Kumi

3.1.8.4: Income from side business:

Among the respondents, were shop owners whose coping mechanisms involved income

from business especially trade. Other people would take up casual labour to raise money to

buy food during the crisis period.

3.1.8.5: Foregoing of certain items:

It was mentioned earlier that during times of crisis, households especially pastoralist

families would forego taking sugar in their tea.. Drinking of alcohol would also be reduced

Farmers in the Teso farming system forego Ajono drinking during periods of outbreaks. A

trader who normally sold 5 crates a beer and 10 of soda per day would now be selling one

crate of beer in 3 days and 1 crate of soda per day. Other social activities like wedding and

dowry payments would all be suspended.

At the same time payment of graduated tax also goes down. In Sanga subcounty, the number

of tax defaulters went up by 6%. All these are done in order to reduce expenditure as the

level of poverty in the household increases.

3.1.8.6: Marketing by proxy:

A survival strategy according to 45% of the pastoralists interviewed was that of animal

exchange. This worked in situations where a household would not have a category of

animals that is preferred by the livestock traders usually mature cows and big bulls. An

20

arrangement would be made with another pastoralist to exchange two or three young heifers

with the adult cow which would then be sold to generate cash income. However, in terms of

numbers, this could indicate that the herd size of the person borrowing would be reduced

tremendously. The other alternative would be to request his friend to give him an animal

which would be sold and this would be replaced later.

3.1.8.7: Coping mechanisms with negative implications:

There are several coping mechanisms which according to the local authorities have negative

implications and these include:

3.1.8.7.1: Out migration:

Out migration was reported in Kumi district as one of the coping mechanism during FMD

outbreaks. This involves young men moving out of the villages to towns like Kumi , Soroti

and Mbale just “ to do nothing” according to one councilor. However, with many

unemployed young men in town, chances of engaging themselves in lawless activities is

high and this is a concern to the authorities.

3.1.8.7.2: Lawlessness:

Lawlessness was mentioned by local officials in Mbarara as of major concern during FMD

outbreaks. Livestock thefts were said to increase by 10% in Sanga and Nyakashashara sub

counties of Mbarara district during FMD outbreaks. These thefts were attributed to young

men who were redundant in trading centers with no economic activities as a result of closing

cattle markets.

3.1.8.7.3: Charcoal burning and brick making:

Charcoal burning as a means of raising income was said to increase in Mbarara area during

FMD outbreaks. Charcoal burning involves cutting down of trees and this is an obvious

environmentally unfriendly act to an already fragile ecosystem where pastoralists live. In

addition, making bricks also involves cutting down trees to make bricks and this contributes

to environmental degradation.

21

3.2: The economic costs of FMD outbreaks:

A cost benefit analysis of controlling FMD by vaccination and quarantine was done in order

to find out the economic costs of FMD outbreak. This analysis is described in detail in the

next sections.

22

24

25

Figure 3. Cost:Benefit analysis of FMD control in six districts visited.

26

Methodology:

A spreadsheet model in Excel (Microsoft Office XP) was used to estimate the costs

associated with FMD outbreaks and the costs associated with control of FMD by 100%

vaccine coverage and quarantine. The model inputs were obtained from (a) published

data, (b) FAO report on FMD effects in Uganda (Rutagwenda, 2002) and (c)

questionnaire interviews in Kumi (representing the Teso farming system) and from

Mbarara (representing the pastoral system). Model outputs are presented in Uganda

shillings and in US$. In all the computations the following assumptions were made.

General assumptions

1. The average dollar exchange rate is US$1 to UShs. 1800.

2. FMD effects last for at least 90 days, the average duration of quarantine in most

districts.

3. Salaries for regulatory veterinarians in charge of control of FMD were computed

assuming that they work all year round and that for each district there would be 3

veterinarians spending 6 nights in the field per month.

4. It was assumed that there is no significant export of animals and animal products in

Uganda that has greatly been impacted by FMD outbreaks. In addition, it was

assumed that outbreaks and effects of FMD in pigs and small ruminants are not

significant in Uganda.

Assumptions on costs directly related to cattle

5. It was assumed that 10% of all cattle in an FMD area are at risk of FMD and that

FMD causes mortality of up to 10%.

6. It was also assumed that 20% of cattle are in lactation and that on average each

cow’s milk production decreased by 10% due to FMD. The average milk production

per cow per day was assumed to be 3 Litres. The cost of a litre of milk was reported

at 300/= in times of no FMD.

7. Because of quarantine restrictions—usually for 90 days—the milk prices fall by 33%.

8. Published morbidity rates for FMD (80%) were used in this study. A 5% loss in value

of an adult cattle following clinical FMD was assumed.

9. It was estimated from the FMD survey that on average a farmer spends 10,000/= on

treating one animal for FMD.

10. It was further assumed that 40% of cattle are of breeding age and 50% of affected

cattle will get reproductive problems.

Assumptions on costs related to trade of cattle and their products

11. These were based on survey data in Sanga and Nyakashara subcounties in Mbarara

district and are outlined in the attached spreadsheet.

Assumptions on the computation of lost government revenue

The FMD survey in Sanga and Nyakashara showed that in times of FMD the percentage

of tax defaulters increased by 13%. Because Sanga and Nyakashara are pastoral areas and

are more likely to have been more impacted by FMD that other places, a tax default rate

attributable to FMD outbreak and quarantine was set at 10%. It was also assumed that of

the published 4,000,000 graduated tax payers in the 56 districts in Uganda, about 50,000

are in each study district.

28

4. 0: CONCLUSIONS:

The following conclusions can be drawn from this study.

1. Foot and Mouth Disease greatly affects food security and household incomes in

Uganda by reducing the food production capacity of farmers.

When there is FMD, the use of oxen for ploughing land is reduced because

oxen owners fear hiring them out. This reduces the size of land ploughed

for crop agriculture and decreases household income because their oxen

are not hired.

The price of hire of a pair of oxen increases by 39% during FMD

outbreaks.

Using hand hoes as a substitute for oxen is a less efficient way of food

production and this leads to low yields as less land is cultivated during

FMD outbreaks.

Farmers shift from growing cash crops to annual food crops which

generate less household income.

2. Foot and Mouth Disease affects the availability of food to the households.

The number of pastoral households who can afford three meals in a day is

reduced from 38% to 9% during FMD outbreaks.

More than 50% of pastoral households can only afford one meal a day

during FMD outbreaks while it was only 11% during times of no FMD.

Consumption of poor quality maize meal increases and certain food items

are withdrawn from their menu during FMD outbreaks.

3. Foot and Mouth Disease increases the levels of poverty and reduces the

purchasing power of pastoralists and farmers in Uganda.

Cattle prices fall by 55% during FMD outbreaks.

Pastoralists have to double the number of animals sold in order to meet

their financial obligations.

Demands for drugs and food go up during FMD outbreaks and food prices

increase.

29

To maintain their living standards households have to spend more money

at a time when their income sources are reduced. This increases their level

of poverty.

Pastoralists are reluctant to upgrade their livestock for fear of FMD and

other diseases and prefer to keep indigenous animals which have low

productivity. This prevents farmers from improving their household

incomes.

4. Foot and Mouth Disease causes disruption in the social lives of the farmers.

School drop out rate increases during FMD outbreaks.

Social gatherings e.g., funerals and weddings are reduced.

There is an increase of young men migrating to towns to look for

employment.

Lawlessness as well as charcoal burning and brick making increase. The

latter severely damage the environment.

5. Foot and Mouth Disease, especially if it occurs during the dry season, causes

environmental degradation as animals are forced to concentrate in small grazing

areas that are under the quarantine.

6. Foot and Mouth Disease causes loss of money to Government, farmers and other

stakeholders. The loss of revenue as a result of FMD outbreak in the districts of

Mbarara, Ntungamo, Luwero, Pallisa, Mbale and Kumi was estimated at US$

8,010,000. The total cost of control of FMD by vaccination (100% coverage),

quarantine and monitoring in the six districts was estimated at US$ 3,300,000

giving a benefit:cost ratio of 2.4.

30

5. 0: RECOMMENDATIONS:

It is strongly recommended that a strong national FMD vaccination strategy

involving 100% vaccination coverage, strict quarantine restrictions and

monitoring of the vaccinated cattle for vaccine efficacy should be instituted. The

key elements of the strategy will be to:

Ensure 100% vaccination coverage

Establish a vaccine bank in the country for emergency disease outbreaks.

This will involve availability of the vaccine in the country within the

shortest time possible.

Sufficient mobilization of farmers on the effects of FMD and its control.

Ensuring that there is sufficient logistical support to the field veterinarians

to carry out vaccination as quickly as possible.

Ensure adherence to quarantine restrictions

The central and local administration should work together to ensure strict

adherence to quarantine restrictions.

Regular checks on highways for animal movement should be instituted.

Regulations on trade of livestock and livestock products should be

enforced.

Clearly gazette holding grounds where impounded animals found to be

breaking quarantine restrictions should be established.

Foot and mouth disease sero-monitoring

Improve the capacity to monitor the serological status of vaccinated

animals and be able to type each particular FMD outbreak.

31

6.0 REFERENCES

MAAIF (1997): Meat Production Master Plan study. Draft Final Report. Ministry of

Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, Uganda.

MFPED (1996): National Food Strategy Report. Ministry of Planning and Economic

Development. Entebbe Government of Uganda Publications.

Morton J., and N. Meadows (2000): Pastoralism and Sustainable Livelihoods: An

Emerging Agenda, Policy Series 11. Chatham, UK, Natural Resources Institute,

University of Greenwich.

Nantima, N. (2002): Current disease status in the country, PACE Uganda Bulletin,

September – December 2002. PACE Office, MAAIF Entebbe.

Pratt D.J., and Gwynne M.D., (1963): Rangeland Management and ecology in East

Africa, London Sidney, Aukland, Toronto. Hodder and Staughton.

Rutagwenda T., (2002): Report on the study of the Implications and Consequences of

Foot and Mouth Disease outbreak in Selected Districts in Uganda. FAO office Kampala.

Swift J., and K., Hamilton (2000): Household Food and Livelihood Security. In Devereux

S and Maxwell S (Eds) Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa, London, ITDG/IDS.

UNDP, (2002): Eradicating poverty by transforming subsistence agriculture to

commercial agriculture. UNDP 2002 Report.

32

7. 0 APPENDIX

Baseline data for the effect of FMD on food security and household incomes

Basic information

Last name____________________ First name____________________________

Date_________ District_____________________

Number of persons in the household -------------------------------

Food security

1. In order to consider your household secure in terms of food what must you have?

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

2. What are your staple foods with and without FMD quarantine?

Without FMD With FMD Reason for change

Food Grown Purchased Grown Purchased

Matooke

Cassava

Potatoes

Millet

Posho

Peas

Beans

Groundnuts

Vegetables

Tea/Sugar

3. On average, how many meals do you have per day?

Without

FMD

With

FMD

Reason for change

Meals/day

33

FMD effect on agricultural technology and farm outputs

Variable Witho

ut

FMD

With

FMD

Reason for change

How land is

ploughed

for food

Hand

Oxen

Labour

Source of

oxen

Own

Hired

Other

Price of hire of an ox

Availability

of oxen

Readily available

No readily

available

Acreage

used for

food

production

¼ of the land

½ of the land

¾ of the land

All the land

Types of crops grown (list

below)

House hold incomes

What is your major source of income from? Tick the most important source of income

only. Livestock____ Crops________ Other_______

34

Witho

ut

FMD

With

FMD

Reason for change

Which of the

following

categories best

describes your

monthly

household income?

<10,000/= pm

10,000-49,000/= pm

50,000-100000/= pm

>100,000/= pm

Without FMD

With FMD

Reason for change

Where do you spend most of your household income?

Food

Livestock drugs, salt,

etc

Social events e.g.,

weddings, funerals,

etc

Coping strategies in times of financial stress

Liquidate assets

Forego certain servicesBorrow

Any other

KUMI

1. How much time can 2 men take to dig an area that is ploughed by a pair of bulls?

2. Compare prices of food items during and not so good a harvest.

3. What happens to the population during disease outbreaks?

4. What is the price of 1 kilo of cotton?

5. What is the price of 1 kilo of groundnuts?

6. Which are the critical months as far as food security is concerned?

7. When was the last time your family was insecure with regards to food?

35

8. What had happened? How did you cope?

9. What advice can you give to avoid such a situation?

MBARARA

1. How many animals do you normally sell in a year?

2. During the last outbreak how many did you sell?

3. Which drugs did you use?

4. What was the cost?

5. How many animals did you sell and where in the last quarantine?

6. Which are the critical months as far as food security is concerned?

7. When was the last time your family was insecure with regards to food?

8. What had happened? How did you cope?

9. What advice can you give to avoid such a situation?

36