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1 The Notion of Context in [email protected]@rutgers.edu; tefko/tefko/ “Information...
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Transcript of 1 The Notion of Context in [email protected]@rutgers.edu; tefko/tefko/ “Information...
1
The Notion of Context in
[email protected]; http://comminfo.rutgers.edu/~tefko/
“Information Interaction in Context”
Tefko Saracevic, PhDRutgers University
Central ideasEverybody knows
what is context.RIGHT!RIGHT? ?? ???
Everybody knows where to look for context.RIGHT!RIGHT? ?? ???
Tefko Saracevic 2
Problems at hand
A. Theoretical: Finding a conceptual foundation for CONTEXT in the context of human-information interaction
B. Practical: In searching for information using not only CONTENT information from a query (as we do now well), but also CONTEXT information (as we do now badly, or not at all)
Dealing here with A only
Tefko Saracevic 3
ToC
1. Human-information interaction2. Context3. Five axioms related to context in
information interaction4. Implications
Tefko Saracevic 4
1. Human-information interaction
User – information – [and what else?]
Tefko Saracevic 5
Elements, processes to consider
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Tefko Saracevic 7
“Information is anything that can change person’s knowledge.” (Belkin, 1978)
Information as we consider it includes objects in the world potentially conveying
information what is transferred from people or objects
to a person’s cognitive system components of internal knowledge in
people’s mind
What do we mean by it?
Tefko Saracevic 8
Process in which humans purposefully engage in order to change their state of knowledge (Marchionini, 1995)
A conscious effort to acquire information in response to a need or gap in your knowledge (Case, 2002)
The process of construction within information seeking involves fitting information in with what one already knows and extending this knowledge to create new perspectives (Kuhlthau, 2004)
What do we mean by it?
Information seeking concentrations
Purposeful process to: change state of knowledge respond to an information need or gap fit information in with what one already knows
All cognitive:To seek information people seek to change
the state of their knowledgeSome critiques: Broader social, cultural,
environmental … factors not included
Tefko Saracevic 9
“HCI is a discipline concerned with the design, evaluation and implementation of interactive computing systems for human use and with the study of major phenomena surrounding them.” (CHI Curriculum, 1996, 2009)
Many fields and areas involvedCHI conferences huge, popular
in these conferences next to nothing on context; but some papers consider social impact
note: is CHI the same as HCI? Tefko Saracevic 10
What do we mean by it?
CHI concentrations
Primary concentration on interfaces – that is where interaction occurs design, effectiveness, innovations, issues … includes both software and hardware
Important part: user satisfaction however, no rigorous definition what it means
often mixed with usability, usefulness
no theoretical base
Tefko Saracevic 11
“... the interactive communication processes that occur during the retrieval of information by involving all the major participants in IR, i.e. the user, the intermediary, and the IR system.” (Ingwersen, 1992)
Often distinguished as direct (or end user searching) and mediated
Tefko Saracevic 12
What do we mean by it?
Concentrations
Direct (end user searching) A process where users interact with and search
an IR system by and for themselves prevalent today; everybody is a searcher
Mediation:A process where an intermediary – a searcher –
acts on behalf of a user who seeks information Informal mediators: colleagues, friends, family …Formal mediators: searchers, teachers …
but is disappearing fast in academic & public institutions, not so in commerce & some fields
Tefko Saracevic 13
What do we mean by it?
"how human beings interact with, relate to, and process information regardless of the medium connecting the two." (Nahum Gershon, 1995, credited with coining the term)
At CHI 2006 a debate: is it a separate field?
Tefko Saracevic 14
Michigan IS
“Research in this area [i.e. HII] examines the behavior of people in the use of information embedded in systems, services, networks, and devices (information seeking, intermediation, information retrieval, design and evaluation of information systems and services, information visualization, and information use in various environments).”
Tefko Saracevic 15
and at IS, Washington(Center for Human-information Interaction)
“Cognitive Work Analysis provides a multi-pronged analytical framework for studying various human interactions with information. It helps researchers and other professionals to study the work people do, the tasks they perform, the decisions they make, the way they interact with information channels, systems and products, and the collaborative, organizational and social context in which they perform their work—all for the purpose of designing more effective systems and services.”
Tefko Saracevic 16
As to: What do we mean by it?
Not quite clear although
intuitively well understood
Tefko Saracevic 17
2. ContextMilieu for interaction
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“Context - Linguistic context, context of use:Discourse that surrounds a language and
helps to determine its interpretation Context – circumstance, setting:The set of facts or circumstances that
surround a situation or event; “the historic context” “ Wordnet
from Latin: contextus "a joining together," contexere "to weave together"
Tefko Saracevic 19
Context:What do we mean by it?
Concentrations - properties
Language: surrounds a language helps in interpreting, giving meaning
Circumstances: provides a setting surrounds an event, situation
Tefko Saracevic 20
There is no term more often used, less often defined and, when defined, defined so variously, as context. Context has the potential to be virtually anything that is not defined as the phenomenon of interest. Dervin, 1997
and context
Is there such a thing as context-free information?
Tefko Saracevic 21
and context
Theoretically, context may be considered as “objectified” (entities – actors, structures,
attributes - which affect the research object) & “interpretive” (constructing meaning from data)
Talja et al 1999
Many information seeking studies involved TASK or SITUATION as context But: there is more to task then task itself
Tefko Saracevic 22
Tefko Saracevic 23
Task assumptions, properties
Information seeking is not an end in itself It serves a work task
task is a process in relation to which information is needed
Tasks have been categorized from simple to complex (and a number in-between) complex tasks have a number of sub-tasks the more complex a task the complexity of
information needed increasesImplication: user modeling & searching
should be oriented toward tasks
HCI theories & context
Many HCI theories derived from various fields but criticized for not informing design
Theories not strong on context some exceptions: activity theory; & anthropological
argument: human action is constantly constructed and reconstructed from dynamic interactions with the material and social worlds
In design: contextual inquiry & contextual design based on understanding of context of use
Tefko Saracevic 24
model from: ACM SIGCHI Curricula for Human-Computer Interaction
Tefko Saracevic 25
and context
“Context is one of the most important concepts in information seeking and retrieval research. However, the challenges of studying context are great; thus, it is more common for researchers to use context as a post hoc explanatory factor, rather than as a concept that drives inquiry.” Kelly (2006)
Tefko Saracevic 26
Ingwersen model of IR interaction
(earliest IR model with explicit context)
Tefko Saracevic 27
Information objects
Interface/
intermediary
Individual user’scognitive
space
Social/organizational environment
IR system setting
Query Request
Cognitivetransformations
& influences
Interactivecommunication
of cognitive structures
Saracevic’s stratified model of IR interaction
Tefko Saracevic 28
INTE
RA
CTI
ON
& R
ELE
VA
NC
ES
TRA
TA
Ad
apta
tio
n
Ad
apta
tio
n
Use
of
info
rmat
ion
CO
MP
UT
ER
US
ER
Contentinf. objects; representations...
Processingsoftware; algorithms …
Engineeringhardware; connections...
Surface level
INTERFACE
Querycharacteristics …
Affectiveintent; motivation ...
Cognitiveknowledge; structure...
Context
Situationaltasks; work context...
social, cultural
Context in two modelsIngwersen
Individual user’s cognitive space Work task/interests Current cognitive state Problem/goal Uncertainty Information need Information behavior
Social/org. environment Domains/goals Tasks Preferences
Saracevic strata
Cognitive knowledge; structure …
Affective intent; motivation …
Situational task; work context …
Social, cultural context
Tefko Saracevic 29
Tefko Saracevic 30
User modeling for searching
User modeling is a process of identifying, understanding, and defining user information needs, context, requirements, and preferences, together with factors or attributes in the profile of the user that affect subsequent search for information.
Mediation & user modeling
Professional mediation involves diagnosing the user’s problem and identifying what interventions would be helpful professional searchers mediate the interaction
of users with information
In practice user modeling heavily involves context mediators make many search decisions based
on context information
Tefko Saracevic 31
IR testing and context
Majority of IR tests rest on traditional model all TREC tracks with one exception – interactive track
“At its core, the modern-day test collection is little different from the structures that the pioneering researchers in the 1950s and 1960s conceived of.” (Sanderson, 2010)
Context not presentMany calls to change testing model not headed
Tefko Saracevic 32
and context
Tefko Saracevic 33
Where is Taj Mahal?
3.Axioms about contextPrinciples without proof
Tefko Saracevic 34
Axiom is …(from Latin axiōma a principle, from Greek axioun to consider worthy)
A principle that is accepted as true without proof
A self-evident or universally recognized truth; a maxim
(Mathematics) a generally accepted proposition or principle, sanctioned by experience; maxim
(Philosophy / Logic) a self-evident statement
Tefko Saracevic 35
Inspired by …
Paul Watzlawick (1921-2007)
Theoretician in communication theory (Austria, Switzerland, California)
Communication axioms In his theory on
communication, defined five basic axioms that are necessary to have a functioning communication between two individuals. If one of these axioms is somehow disturbed, communication might fail.
Tefko Saracevic 36
Most famous of Watzlawick’s axioms
Axiom 1
One Cannot Not Communicate (Man kann nicht nicht kommunizieren)
I.e. - explanation
“Every behavior is a kind of communication. Because behavior does not have a counterpart (there is no anti-behavior), it is not possible not to communicate.”
Tefko Saracevic 37
“… lousy grammar, impeccable logic.”
Context: Axiom 1
Statement
One cannot not have a context in information interaction.
Id est – i.e. Every interaction is
conducted within a context.
Because context-less information interaction is impossible, it is not possible not to have a context.
Tefko Saracevic 38
Axiom 2
Statement
Every interaction has a content and relationship aspect – context is the later and classifies the former.
Id est It means that all
interactions, apart from information derived from meaning of words or terms describing the content, have more information to be derived from context.
Tefko Saracevic 39
Axiom 3
Statement
The nature of information interaction including context is asymmetric; it involves differing processes and interpretation by parties involved.
Id est Contexts are
asymmetric as well. Medium or systems context is primarily about meanings; user context is primarily about situations.
Tefko Saracevic 40
Axiom 4
Statement
Context is multilayered. It extends beyond users or systems.
Id est In interactions it is
customary to consider direct context, but context extends indirectly to broader social context also.
Tefko Saracevic 41
Axiom 5
Statement
Context is not self-revealing, nor is it self-evident.
Id est Context may be
difficult to formulate and synthesize. But plenty can go wrong when not taken into consideration in interactions.
Tefko Saracevic 42
4. In conclusionTough problems
Tefko Saracevic 43
People
In information interactions people act & compensate in many ways including errors & failures
Considerable amount of research is devoted to these processes
Tefko Saracevic 44
Information retrieval
Considerable amount of research is devoted to IR but almost exclusively from system not people orientation
TREC is a great success in that respect
Tefko Saracevic 45
Interaction & information retrieval
Interaction is central to IR particularly including searching of the Web
Design of interfaces for IR interaction still lacking many users have difficulties so do many professionals
TREC is a colossal failure in that respect
Tefko Saracevic 46
Tefko Saracevic 47
Symbolic connections between HII research & IR research
Tough problem
Integrating human-information interaction research with IR research
Meaning that HII research must be directed toward results
directly informing IR IR research must be radically redirected
Tefko Saracevic 48
Tougher problem
Creating a different mindset in allTo see and act on the necessity to view,
research, and implement Human-information interaction in all its facets
Tefko Saracevic 49
Toughest problem
To integrate context in IR theory and practice
Yet professional searchers do that all the time
They understand context axioms intuitively
Tefko Saracevic 50
Question
Can HII, IR and HCI truly progress without addressing tough, tougher, and toughest problems??
Tefko Saracevic 51
Tefko Saracevic 52
Thank youM.C. Escher and the Escher Foundation
Presentation in Wordle
Tefko Saracevic 53