1 Stress, Coping, and Adaption April 14, 2008 Existential Concerns and Death Anxiety Curry College...

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Stress, Coping, and Stress, Coping, and AdaptionAdaptionApril 14, 2008April 14, 2008

Existential Concerns and Death Anxiety Existential Concerns and Death Anxiety

Curry CollegeEric Weiser

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Topics…Topics… ExistentialismExistentialism

Key IdeasKey Ideas

The Rise of The Rise of Experimental Existential Experimental Existential PsychologyPsychology Yalom’s Four Basic Existential Concerns Yalom’s Four Basic Existential Concerns

Death AnxietyDeath Anxiety Kubler-Ross Stages of Death and DyingKubler-Ross Stages of Death and Dying The Effects of Death on Loved OnesThe Effects of Death on Loved Ones

Terror Management TheoryTerror Management Theory Key Ideas and Research Key Ideas and Research

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ExistentialismExistentialism A philosophy that seeks to explain how A philosophy that seeks to explain how

humans find meaning in their lives, given humans find meaning in their lives, given the realities of life, death, suffering, and the realities of life, death, suffering, and an unpredictable, random world devoid of an unpredictable, random world devoid of any true meaningany true meaning

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Existentialism Existentialism Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980), pictured left, and Friedrich

Nietzsche (1844-1900), pictured right, were two highly influential existentialist philosophers.

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Existentialism: Key IdeasExistentialism: Key Ideas ““Existence precedes essence”Existence precedes essence” Existence is just what it is, nothing more nothing lessExistence is just what it is, nothing more nothing less

There is no real “meaning” in the universe; everything There is no real “meaning” in the universe; everything (including our existence) is purely a random event, not part (including our existence) is purely a random event, not part of some grand schemeof some grand scheme

There is no such thing as a “transcendent force” (There is no such thing as a “transcendent force” (e.ge.g., ., God), so each person is ultimately free and thus responsible God), so each person is ultimately free and thus responsible for creating their own meaning for their own livesfor creating their own meaning for their own lives

Any happiness or optimism (although necessary) is just an Any happiness or optimism (although necessary) is just an illusion because you are merely denying the tragic aspects illusion because you are merely denying the tragic aspects of existence (death, freedom, isolation, and of existence (death, freedom, isolation, and meaninglessness) meaninglessness)

Thus, the purpose of life is to find meaning for our Thus, the purpose of life is to find meaning for our existence in a meaningless, random, chaotic universe existence in a meaningless, random, chaotic universe

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The Rise of Experimental The Rise of Experimental Existential Psychology Existential Psychology

Within the field of psychology, a loosely defined Within the field of psychology, a loosely defined existentialist movement began to emerge in the existentialist movement began to emerge in the 2020thth century, mainly as a reaction to orthodox century, mainly as a reaction to orthodox Freudian theoryFreudian theory

This movement sought to explain human behavior not This movement sought to explain human behavior not in terms of repressed instinctual impulses (as did in terms of repressed instinctual impulses (as did Freud), but rather in terms of the Freud), but rather in terms of the phenomenologicalphenomenological world of the personworld of the person

That is, it was based on the premise that “reality” That is, it was based on the premise that “reality” consists of objects and events as they are perceived or consists of objects and events as they are perceived or understood in human consciousness and not of understood in human consciousness and not of anything independent of human consciousness anything independent of human consciousness

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The Rise of Experimental The Rise of Experimental Existential PsychologyExistential Psychology

Irvin Yalom, pictured, Irvin Yalom, pictured, helped put experimental helped put experimental existential psychology “on existential psychology “on the map” with the the map” with the publication of publication of Existential Existential PsychotherapyPsychotherapy (1980), a (1980), a classic textbook on classic textbook on psychotherapypsychotherapy

Born 1931

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The Rise of Experimental The Rise of Experimental Existential PsychologyExistential Psychology

Yalom (1980)Yalom (1980) Viewed existential psychology as dealing with Viewed existential psychology as dealing with

the motivational consequences of important the motivational consequences of important human conflictshuman conflicts

These conflicts flow from the individual’s These conflicts flow from the individual’s confrontation with the “givens of existence”confrontation with the “givens of existence”

In other words, existential psychology In other words, existential psychology attempts to explain attempts to explain how humans come to how humans come to terms with the basic facts and realities of life terms with the basic facts and realities of life with which we must all contendwith which we must all contend. .

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Yalom (1980)Yalom (1980)Four Basic Concerns in LifeFour Basic Concerns in Life

1.1. Death Death How do we confront and deal with the fact How do we confront and deal with the fact

that deal is unavoidable? that deal is unavoidable?

2.2. FreedomFreedom Reflects a conflict between the desire for Reflects a conflict between the desire for

self-determination, and the feelings of self-determination, and the feelings of groundlessness when one realizes that what groundlessness when one realizes that what happens to us in life is really up to ushappens to us in life is really up to us

There are few rules to live by, and few There are few rules to live by, and few people have direct control over our lives people have direct control over our lives

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Yalom (1980) Yalom (1980) Four Basic Concerns in LifeFour Basic Concerns in Life

3.3. Existential isolationExistential isolation Refers to the realization that, despite how close we Refers to the realization that, despite how close we

are to others, entering this world (birth) and leaving are to others, entering this world (birth) and leaving it (death) is done aloneit (death) is done alone

We cannot share all our experiences with others, We cannot share all our experiences with others, the most significant things in life (birth and death) the most significant things in life (birth and death) are done aloneare done alone

4.4. MeaninglessnessMeaninglessness In a world in which death is the only certainty, In a world in which death is the only certainty,

where the only true certainty is death, and where where the only true certainty is death, and where one can never fully share one’s experience with one can never fully share one’s experience with others, what meaning does life have? others, what meaning does life have?

Thus, a key to human life is to construct some kind Thus, a key to human life is to construct some kind of meaning in a world that may be completely of meaning in a world that may be completely devoid of meaningdevoid of meaning

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Making Sense of the WorldMaking Sense of the World How do we create meaning in our lives? We do so by How do we create meaning in our lives? We do so by

believing in things that minimize our acceptance of believing in things that minimize our acceptance of randomness and uncontrollability.randomness and uncontrollability. Belief in a just-world Belief in a just-world (Lerner, 1980)(Lerner, 1980)

Good things happen to good people, bad things happen to bad people Good things happen to good people, bad things happen to bad people Victim derogation – the idea that people get what they deserveVictim derogation – the idea that people get what they deserve

Illusion of Control Illusion of Control (Langer & Rodin, 1975)(Langer & Rodin, 1975) People tend to believe that they have control over random events that People tend to believe that they have control over random events that

they have no actual control overthey have no actual control over

““Illusion of External Agency” Illusion of External Agency” (Gilbert, Brown, Pinel, & Wilson, (Gilbert, Brown, Pinel, & Wilson, 2000)2000)

People tend to underestimate to what extent they can control certain People tend to underestimate to what extent they can control certain outcomes outcomes

They tend to believe that outcomes are, in certain ways, influenced by They tend to believe that outcomes are, in certain ways, influenced by a benevolent, insightful, and influential external agent (a benevolent, insightful, and influential external agent (e.ge.g., God)., God)

Again, minimizes the acceptance of randomness and uncontrollability Again, minimizes the acceptance of randomness and uncontrollability

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Making Sense of the WorldMaking Sense of the World

Creating meaning in our lives (continued)…Creating meaning in our lives (continued)… Relationships with others (Relationships with others (e.ge.g., romantic ., romantic

relationship, marriage, friendships, etc)relationship, marriage, friendships, etc) Quells concerns regarding existential isolationQuells concerns regarding existential isolation

Endorsement of cultural symbols (Endorsement of cultural symbols (e.ge.g., patriotism)., patriotism) Enables us to feel as though we are part of something Enables us to feel as though we are part of something

meaning, lasting, worthwhile, and that will continue to meaning, lasting, worthwhile, and that will continue to exist after we no longer exist (thereby, in a certain way, exist after we no longer exist (thereby, in a certain way, solving the “problem” of death)solving the “problem” of death)

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Death AnxietyDeath Anxiety“Even in the midst of life, we are in

death.”

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Factors Related to Fear of Factors Related to Fear of Death Death

Men typically claim to be less of afraid of death Men typically claim to be less of afraid of death than do womenthan do women

Strongly religious individuals tend to be less Strongly religious individuals tend to be less worried about death, compared to othersworried about death, compared to others

People high in self-esteem and sense of mastery People high in self-esteem and sense of mastery are typically less anxious about death and dying are typically less anxious about death and dying than are people who lack confidence or a sense than are people who lack confidence or a sense of control of control

Older people typically report (on a conscious Older people typically report (on a conscious level) that they are less afraid of death than level) that they are less afraid of death than younger peopleyounger people Also, older people have different concerns in relation Also, older people have different concerns in relation

to dying than do younger peopleto dying than do younger people

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Kalish & ReynoldsKalish & Reynolds(1977)(1977)

Asked members of 4 Asked members of 4 ethnic groups in Los ethnic groups in Los Angeles what they Angeles what they would most want to do would most want to do if they had only 6 if they had only 6 months to live. Results months to live. Results are in the table on are in the table on right. right.

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Who’s Afraid of Death? Who’s Afraid of Death? (Feifel & Branscomb, 1972)(Feifel & Branscomb, 1972)

NN = 371 subjects = 371 subjects 92 seriously and terminally ill92 seriously and terminally ill 94 chronically ill and physically disabled 94 chronically ill and physically disabled 90 mentally ill patients 90 mentally ill patients 95 healthy individuals 95 healthy individuals

A total of 10 predictor variables (e.g., age, A total of 10 predictor variables (e.g., age, education, religious self-rating, etc) were education, religious self-rating, etc) were measured, as were attitudes toward death on 3 measured, as were attitudes toward death on 3 different levels different levels Conscious levelConscious level Fantasy levelFantasy level ““Below-the-level-of-awareness (Unconscious level) Below-the-level-of-awareness (Unconscious level)

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Conscious level Conscious level ““Are you afraid of your own death? Why?” Are you afraid of your own death? Why?”

Fantasy level Fantasy level ““What images or ideas come to mind when you think of your own What images or ideas come to mind when you think of your own

death?” death?” Answers were coded as positive, negative, or ambivalentAnswers were coded as positive, negative, or ambivalent

Unconscious levelUnconscious level Word associationWord association and and recall recall test (10 death and 10 neutral test (10 death and 10 neutral

words)words) Longer time to come up with a similar word when presented with Longer time to come up with a similar word when presented with

“death word,” or to recall the death word, indicates more aversion to “death word,” or to recall the death word, indicates more aversion to the death wordthe death word

Also, Also, color-word interference testcolor-word interference test (i.e., present a word and say its color, not content…a longer time to (i.e., present a word and say its color, not content…a longer time to

do this to “death words” would indicate more “discomfort” with death do this to “death words” would indicate more “discomfort” with death wordword

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Conscious Conscious LevelLevel

71% said “no” when asked if afraid of death71% said “no” when asked if afraid of death Age and religious self-rating the only Age and religious self-rating the only predictor variables related to conscious fear of predictor variables related to conscious fear of death death

Fantasy LevelFantasy Level

62% of subjects reported ambivalent images 62% of subjects reported ambivalent images in response to own death (in response to own death (e.ge.g., “sleeping ., “sleeping peacefully, but cold day)peacefully, but cold day) 27% reported negative images27% reported negative images 11% positive images 11% positive images

Unconscious Unconscious LevelLevel

Subjects had longer reaction time to death Subjects had longer reaction time to death words, as well as worse recall for such wordswords, as well as worse recall for such words Subjects also took longer to read the color of Subjects also took longer to read the color of the death words (vs. neutral words), with older the death words (vs. neutral words), with older people and those closer to death taking the people and those closer to death taking the longestlongest

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SummarySummary On a On a consciousconscious level, people generally do not seem to level, people generally do not seem to

be concerned with deathbe concerned with death Especially older and more religious peopleEspecially older and more religious people

On a On a fantasyfantasy level, the images people have of death level, the images people have of death are ambivalent (good and bad) are ambivalent (good and bad)

On an On an unconsciousunconscious level, people’s responses to death level, people’s responses to death seem generally negative (especially those who are ill seem generally negative (especially those who are ill or old…close to death, in other words)or old…close to death, in other words)

These counterbalanced reactions may be These counterbalanced reactions may be adaptive to people adaptive to people

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Death AnxietyDeath Anxiety

Elizabeth Kubler-Ross, Elizabeth Kubler-Ross, pictured, was a pioneer in pictured, was a pioneer in what’s known as what’s known as thanatologythanatology ((i.ei.e., the psychology of dying). ., the psychology of dying). Her work was very Her work was very controversial. controversial.

In 1969, her book In 1969, her book On Death On Death and Dyingand Dying described the described the stagesstages of dying, based on interviews of dying, based on interviews with terminally ill patients in with terminally ill patients in Billings Hospital in Chicago. Billings Hospital in Chicago.

1926-2004

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Stages of Death and DyingStages of Death and Dying(Kubler-Ross, 1969)(Kubler-Ross, 1969)

1.1. Denial and isolationDenial and isolation

2.2. AngerAnger

3.3. Bargaining Bargaining

4.4. DepressionDepression

5.5. Acceptance Acceptance

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1. Denial and Isolation:1. Denial and Isolation: Used by almost Used by almost all patients in some form. It is a usually all patients in some form. It is a usually temporary shock response to bad news. temporary shock response to bad news. Isolation arises from people, even family Isolation arises from people, even family members, avoiding the dying person. members, avoiding the dying person. People can slip back into this stage when People can slip back into this stage when there are new developments or the there are new developments or the person feels they can no longer cope. person feels they can no longer cope.

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2.2. Anger:Anger: Different ways of expression Different ways of expression Anger at God: "Why me?" Feeling that Anger at God: "Why me?" Feeling that

others are more deserving. others are more deserving.

Envy of others: Other people don't seem to Envy of others: Other people don't seem to care, they are enjoying life while the dying care, they are enjoying life while the dying person experiences pain. Others aren’t person experiences pain. Others aren’t dying. dying.

Projected on environment: Anger towards Projected on environment: Anger towards doctors, nurses, and families. doctors, nurses, and families.

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3.3. Bargaining:Bargaining: A brief stage, hard to study A brief stage, hard to study because it is often between patient and because it is often between patient and GodGod

If God didn't respond to anger, maybe being If God didn't respond to anger, maybe being "good" will work"good" will work

Attempts to postpone: "If only I could live to Attempts to postpone: "If only I could live to see . . ." see . . ."

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4.4. Depression:Depression: Mourning Mourning Sense of hopelessness, despair as one now Sense of hopelessness, despair as one now

realizes the inevitability of his or her realizes the inevitability of his or her impending deathimpending death

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5.5. Acceptance:Acceptance: This is not a "happy" This is not a "happy" stage, it is usually void of feelings. It stage, it is usually void of feelings. It takes a while to reach this stage and a takes a while to reach this stage and a person who fights until the end will not person who fights until the end will not reach it. It generally involves coming to reach it. It generally involves coming to terms with one’s death, for better or terms with one’s death, for better or worse. worse.

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1.1. Denial and isolationDenial and isolation ““It’s not me! It can’t be me!”It’s not me! It can’t be me!”

2.2. AngerAnger ““Why me?? It’s not fair!”Why me?? It’s not fair!”

3.3. BargainingBargaining “ “I’ll be good…just give me another chance!”I’ll be good…just give me another chance!”

4.4. DepressionDepression ““I should have been good…now it’s hopeless”I should have been good…now it’s hopeless”

5.5. Acceptance Acceptance ““It’s my time, and I’ll do what good I can before I check out”It’s my time, and I’ll do what good I can before I check out”

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On Death and DyingOn Death and Dying

Kubler-Ross pointed out that religious Kubler-Ross pointed out that religious beliefs and social support can be of great beliefs and social support can be of great value in promoting acceptance value in promoting acceptance Acceptance is facilitated by counseling Acceptance is facilitated by counseling

(especially cognitive reframing) thought (especially cognitive reframing) thought stoppage, and positive self talk (stoppage, and positive self talk (e.ge.g , focus , focus on one’s legacy through one’s work, children, on one’s legacy through one’s work, children, good deeds, etc AND of course religious faith) good deeds, etc AND of course religious faith)

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The Effects of Death on Loved The Effects of Death on Loved OnesOnes

Research shows that the death of a loved Research shows that the death of a loved one (especially spouse) leads to serious one (especially spouse) leads to serious detriments in physical and psychological detriments in physical and psychological health following in surviving (bereaved) health following in surviving (bereaved) spouses. spouses.

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Parkes & Brown Parkes & Brown (1972)(1972)

Interviewed 49 widows and 19 widowers under age 45 Interviewed 49 widows and 19 widowers under age 45 who had been bereaved for 14 months (Bostonians) who had been bereaved for 14 months (Bostonians) Follow-up interviews conducted 2-4 years later Follow-up interviews conducted 2-4 years later A matched control (A matched control (i.ei.e., nonbereaved) sample was also ., nonbereaved) sample was also

interviewedinterviewed

At 14 months:At 14 months: Disturbances in sleep, appetite and weight were common in Disturbances in sleep, appetite and weight were common in

bereaved group bereaved group Complaints of depression, restlessness, indecisiveness, and Complaints of depression, restlessness, indecisiveness, and

sense of strain sense of strain Increased consumption in alcohol, tobacco, and barbituatesIncreased consumption in alcohol, tobacco, and barbituates Bereaved group more likely than control group to be admitted Bereaved group more likely than control group to be admitted

to the hospital the last yearto the hospital the last year

At 2-4 years:At 2-4 years: No real health differences now between bereaved and control No real health differences now between bereaved and control

group, but bereaved group seemed to be more socially group, but bereaved group seemed to be more socially disengaged (disengaged (e.ge.g., going out socially by one’s self)., going out socially by one’s self)

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The Effects of Death on Loved The Effects of Death on Loved OnesOnes

Research has also shown that bereaved Research has also shown that bereaved spouses (compared to non-bereaved spouses (compared to non-bereaved spouses) are more likely to die within a spouses) are more likely to die within a couple years following the death of a couple years following the death of a spousespouse

This is known as the This is known as the broken-heart effectbroken-heart effect

32Stroebe, Stroebe, Gergen, & Stroebe, Stroebe, Gergen, & GergenGergen

(1982)(1982) Death ratios by age (divided by married Death ratios by age (divided by married

rate)rate) Men age 20-24Men age 20-24

Single = 1.92Single = 1.92 Divorced = 2.94Divorced = 2.94 Widowed = Widowed = 17.2517.25

Women age 20-24Women age 20-24 Single = 1.63Single = 1.63 Divorced = 3.59Divorced = 3.59 Widowed = Widowed = 10.01 10.01

Indicates they were nearly twice as likely to die in the next year than were married men

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(1982)(1982) Researchers noted that the effects were Researchers noted that the effects were

strongest in the first 6 monthsstrongest in the first 6 months Notice that the effects of bereavement were Notice that the effects of bereavement were

much more negative for men than for women much more negative for men than for women (higher death rates for men following (higher death rates for men following bereavement)bereavement)

These rates are much higher than they are for These rates are much higher than they are for older people (in elderly men, the ratio is 2 to 1) older people (in elderly men, the ratio is 2 to 1)

Researchers pointed out that deaths among the Researchers pointed out that deaths among the younger are due to psychology and stress-younger are due to psychology and stress-related diseases (related diseases (e.ge.g., accidents, suicides, CHD) ., accidents, suicides, CHD)

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Terror Management TheoryTerror Management Theory

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Terror Management TheoryTerror Management Theory Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyczszinski (1990)Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyczszinski (1990)

A theory dealing with how the fear of death affects A theory dealing with how the fear of death affects our behavior in a variety of situationsour behavior in a variety of situations

It is a broad, generally theory attempting to explain the It is a broad, generally theory attempting to explain the motivational underpinnings of a broad range of human social motivational underpinnings of a broad range of human social behaviorbehavior

In a general sense, the quest for self-esteem is In a general sense, the quest for self-esteem is presumed to mitigate our fears and anxieties presumed to mitigate our fears and anxieties associated with death and what death really meansassociated with death and what death really means

The key ideas of this theory are drawn heavily from The key ideas of this theory are drawn heavily from the core concepts of existentialism, as well as the the core concepts of existentialism, as well as the writings of writings of Ernest BeckerErnest Becker

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Terror Management Theory Terror Management Theory

Ernest Becker (pictured), a cultural Ernest Becker (pictured), a cultural anthropologist, wrote a Pulitzer anthropologist, wrote a Pulitzer Prize winning book called Prize winning book called The Denial The Denial of Deathof Death in 1973. It is still sold in in 1973. It is still sold in bookstores and makes for very bookstores and makes for very interesting reading. interesting reading.

One of the major contentions of One of the major contentions of Becker’s work was that death denial Becker’s work was that death denial is a is a universal motive underlying universal motive underlying human behaviorhuman behavior. Cultures and their . Cultures and their belief systems are belief systems are constructedconstructed as a as a means to help us fight off death means to help us fight off death anxiety by providing us with a anxiety by providing us with a prescription for how to live and what prescription for how to live and what to believe. to believe.

1924-1974

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Terror Management Theory: Terror Management Theory: Key IdeasKey Ideas

1.1. Human have remarkable intellectual Human have remarkable intellectual capabilitiescapabilities

• ReasonReason• LogicLogic• Determine cause and effectDetermine cause and effect• Self-reflectSelf-reflect• Anticipate future eventsAnticipate future events• Think about our own death and what it means Think about our own death and what it means • Etc. Etc.

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2.2. Being able to self-reflect and anticipate future Being able to self-reflect and anticipate future events is, in a certain sense, a events is, in a certain sense, a curse curse

• Our ability to self-reflect gives us the ability to Our ability to self-reflect gives us the ability to consider philosophical and existential issues consider philosophical and existential issues concerning why we exist, what the meaning of the concerning why we exist, what the meaning of the universe is, and to consider the possibility of how universe is, and to consider the possibility of how insignificant and meaningless we are in the scheme insignificant and meaningless we are in the scheme of things. of things.

• We can anticipate the fact that someday we will die We can anticipate the fact that someday we will die and that there is absolutely nothing we can do about and that there is absolutely nothing we can do about it. it.

Death can come prematurely and unexpectedly Death can come prematurely and unexpectedly Death will probably not be too pretty Death will probably not be too pretty

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Terror Management Theory: Terror Management Theory: Key Ideas Key Ideas

3.3. The problem of deathThe problem of death• Nobody really knows what will happen when we dieNobody really knows what will happen when we die

• Death could be the Death could be the absolute end of all existenceabsolute end of all existence and and nothing more nothing more

Complete Complete annihilationannihilation from the universe, whereby our from the universe, whereby our physical existence is reduced to rotting flesh, then dust, then physical existence is reduced to rotting flesh, then dust, then nothingnothing

• Such an awareness, if contemplated, can “create the Such an awareness, if contemplated, can “create the potential for potential for paralyzing terrorparalyzing terror” (particularly in light of ” (particularly in light of the fact that a “spiritual existence” can never be the fact that a “spiritual existence” can never be scientifically proven)scientifically proven)

• As society evolved, we had to come up with ways to As society evolved, we had to come up with ways to help us fight this potential for terror concerning the help us fight this potential for terror concerning the inevitability of death (and the possibility of eternal inevitability of death (and the possibility of eternal meaninglessness) meaninglessness)

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4.4. People combat this awareness of death by People combat this awareness of death by subscribing to subscribing to cultural worldviewscultural worldviews (CWs). CWs (CWs). CWs are beliefs that transcend death by giving our are beliefs that transcend death by giving our lives a sense of meaning and imparting to us a lives a sense of meaning and imparting to us a sense that we are “good” and “valuable” people sense that we are “good” and “valuable” people whose lives mean something. CWs do this by:whose lives mean something. CWs do this by:

• Giving Giving meaningmeaning and stability to an otherwise and stability to an otherwise meaningless, random, chaotic universemeaningless, random, chaotic universe

• Helping the person acquire a sense of Helping the person acquire a sense of valuevalue if if they live up to the prescriptions of the CWthey live up to the prescriptions of the CW

• Promising or providing the opportunity for either Promising or providing the opportunity for either literal or symbolic immortalityliteral or symbolic immortality if one lives up to if one lives up to the prescriptions of the particular CWthe prescriptions of the particular CW

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Examples of CWsExamples of CWs ReligionReligion Patriotism Patriotism Belief in traditional values (Belief in traditional values (e.ge.g., family, ., family,

marriage, children)marriage, children)

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Terror Management TheoryTerror Management Theory CWs help us acquire a sense of self-esteem and thus CWs help us acquire a sense of self-esteem and thus

help keep the awareness of death (temporarily) out of help keep the awareness of death (temporarily) out of consciousnessconsciousness

Thus, Thus, self-esteemself-esteem serves as a buffer against the serves as a buffer against the awareness of the inevitability of death its terrifying awareness of the inevitability of death its terrifying ramificationsramifications Anything that increases self-esteem makes us feel as though Anything that increases self-esteem makes us feel as though

we are engaged in a meaningful “cultural drama,” that our we are engaged in a meaningful “cultural drama,” that our existence is somehow meaningful and will transcend deathexistence is somehow meaningful and will transcend death

Fame and fortuneFame and fortune Romantic relationships Romantic relationships Success, accomplishments at work, etcSuccess, accomplishments at work, etc

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If people are reminded of their deaths, If people are reminded of their deaths, then not only do they cling to these CWs then not only do they cling to these CWs more strongly, but they also become more strongly, but they also become rather hostile to others who violate the rather hostile to others who violate the ideals of the CWsideals of the CWs

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Terror Management TheoryTerror Management Theory The Mortality Salience ParadigmThe Mortality Salience Paradigm

Two groups of participantsTwo groups of participants One group is asked to write about what they think One group is asked to write about what they think

will happen when they die and their feelings about itwill happen when they die and their feelings about it This is done to activate, or “warm up” the concept of death.This is done to activate, or “warm up” the concept of death. This is called the “This is called the “Mortality SalienceMortality Salience” condition ” condition

The other group (control group) writes about The other group (control group) writes about something unrelated (something unrelated (e.ge.g., favorite TV show)., favorite TV show)

Later, both groups rate target individuals who either Later, both groups rate target individuals who either uphold or violate cherished aspects of one’s uphold or violate cherished aspects of one’s worldviews (e.g., subjects read an anti-American worldviews (e.g., subjects read an anti-American essay that supposedly was written by a student, and essay that supposedly was written by a student, and then are asked how much they like this other person, then are asked how much they like this other person, or how much they would want to punish this person.)or how much they would want to punish this person.)

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Terror Management TheoryTerror Management Theory Study after study has shown that “mortality salient” Study after study has shown that “mortality salient”

subjects will rate others who violate their cherished subjects will rate others who violate their cherished beliefs more negatively than subjects who were not beliefs more negatively than subjects who were not made aware of their death. made aware of their death. MS causes Christians to increase their liking for fellow MS causes Christians to increase their liking for fellow

Christians and to be more hostile toward Jewish peopleChristians and to be more hostile toward Jewish people

MS causes American students to increase their liking for MS causes American students to increase their liking for fellow Americans and to be more hostile toward Arabsfellow Americans and to be more hostile toward Arabs

MS causes law-abiding people to give higher bail to MS causes law-abiding people to give higher bail to prostitutes and other criminals prostitutes and other criminals

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Theory Management TheoryTheory Management Theory In these kinds of experiments, the mortality salience In these kinds of experiments, the mortality salience

condition also causes people to increase or decrease condition also causes people to increase or decrease identification with groups or ideas that impinge identification with groups or ideas that impinge positively or negatively on self-esteem or sense of positively or negatively on self-esteem or sense of values:values:

MS causes subjects to be less willing to use cherished icons MS causes subjects to be less willing to use cherished icons in a blasphemous fashion (e.g., using crucifix as a hammer)in a blasphemous fashion (e.g., using crucifix as a hammer)

MS causes people to donate more money to charityMS causes people to donate more money to charity

MS causes liberals to be more tolerantMS causes liberals to be more tolerant

Ms causes subjects (Germans) to sit closer to an in-group Ms causes subjects (Germans) to sit closer to an in-group member (German confederate) than an out-group member member (German confederate) than an out-group member (Turkish confederate)(Turkish confederate)

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Other ways to increase mortality salience:Other ways to increase mortality salience: Gory automobile accident footageGory automobile accident footage Pictures of funeral homesPictures of funeral homes Footage of 9-11 terrorist attacks Footage of 9-11 terrorist attacks Subliminal death primes Subliminal death primes

Subliminal words related to death (presented at Subliminal words related to death (presented at 1/201/20thth of a sec.) of a sec.)

Death crossword puzzles (Death crossword puzzles (e.ge.g., “coffin,” “skeleton,” ., “coffin,” “skeleton,” “cemetery,” etc)“cemetery,” etc)

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An important means of establishing self-esteem An important means of establishing self-esteem is through romantic relationshipsis through romantic relationships

Thus, relationships may provide a buffer Thus, relationships may provide a buffer against fears of death and meaninglessnessagainst fears of death and meaninglessness

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Terror Management TheoryTerror Management Theory Florian (2002)Florian (2002)

MS increases intentions to seek out relationships, and MS increases intentions to seek out relationships, and it increases self-professed commitment in existing it increases self-professed commitment in existing relationshipsrelationships

Mukilincer et al. (2002)Mukilincer et al. (2002) Thoughts of relationship separation increased the Thoughts of relationship separation increased the

accessibility of death-related thoughts accessibility of death-related thoughts

Thus, rejection of any kind may serve as a Thus, rejection of any kind may serve as a “metaphor” for death“metaphor” for death Perhaps this is the reason why “losses” are highly Perhaps this is the reason why “losses” are highly

stressful and hence so depressogenicstressful and hence so depressogenic

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““One shudders at the thought of the One shudders at the thought of the meaninglessness of life ..." meaninglessness of life ..."

1 Stress, Coping, and Adaption April 14, 2008 Existential Concerns and Death Anxiety Curry College...

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