1

SQLConstraints and Programming

2

Agenda

• Constraints in SQL

• Systems aspects of SQL.

3

Constraints in SQL

• A constraint = a property that we’d like our database to hold

• The system will enforce the constraint by taking some actions:– forbid an update– or perform compensating updates

4

Constraints in SQL

Constraints in SQL:• Keys, foreign keys• Attribute-level constraints• Tuple-level constraints• Global constraints: assertions

The more complex the constraint, the harder it is to check and to enforce

simplest

Mostcomplex

5

Keys

OR:

CREATE TABLE Product (name CHAR(30) PRIMARY KEY,category VARCHAR(20))

CREATE TABLE Product (name CHAR(30) PRIMARY KEY,category VARCHAR(20))

CREATE TABLE Product (name CHAR(30),category VARCHAR(20)

PRIMARY KEY (name))

CREATE TABLE Product (name CHAR(30),category VARCHAR(20)

PRIMARY KEY (name))

6

Keys with Multiple Attributes

CREATE TABLE Product (name CHAR(30),category VARCHAR(20),price INT,

PRIMARY KEY (name, category))

CREATE TABLE Product (name CHAR(30),category VARCHAR(20),price INT,

PRIMARY KEY (name, category))

7

Other Keys

CREATE TABLE Product ( productID CHAR(10),

name CHAR(30),category VARCHAR(20),price INT,

PRIMARY KEY (productID), UNIQUE (name, category))

CREATE TABLE Product ( productID CHAR(10),

name CHAR(30),category VARCHAR(20),price INT,

PRIMARY KEY (productID), UNIQUE (name, category))

There is at most one PRIMARY KEY;there can be many UNIQUE

8

Foreign Key Constraints

CREATE TABLE Purchase (prodName CHAR(30)

REFERENCES Product(name), date DATETIME)

CREATE TABLE Purchase (prodName CHAR(30)

REFERENCES Product(name), date DATETIME)

prodName is a foreign key to Product(name)name must be a key in Product

Referentialintegrity

constraints

9

Name Category

Gizmo gadget

Camera Photo

OneClick Photo

ProdName Store

Gizmo Wiz

Camera Ritz

Camera Wiz

Product Purchase

10

Foreign Key Constraints

• OR

• (name, category) must be a PRIMARY KEY

CREATE TABLE Purchase (prodName CHAR(30),category VARCHAR(20),

date DATETIME, FOREIGN KEY (prodName, category) REFERENCES Product(name, category)

CREATE TABLE Purchase (prodName CHAR(30),category VARCHAR(20),

date DATETIME, FOREIGN KEY (prodName, category) REFERENCES Product(name, category)

11

Name Category

Gizmo gadget

Camera Photo

OneClick Photo

ProdName Store

Gizmo Wiz

Camera Ritz

Camera Wiz

Product Purchase

What happens during updates ?

Types of updates:

• In Purchase: insert/update

• In Product: delete/update

12

What happens during updates ?

• SQL has three policies for maintaining referential integrity:

• Reject violating modifications (default)• Cascade: after a delete/update do a

delete/update• Set-null set foreign-key field to NULL

READING ASSIGNEMNT: 7.1.5, 7.1.6

13

Constraints on Attributes and Tuples

• Constraints on attributes:NOT NULL -- obvious meaning...CHECK condition -- any condition !

• Constraints on tuplesCHECK condition

14

CREATE TABLE Purchase (prodName CHAR(30)

CHECK (prodName IN SELECT Product.name FROM Product), date DATETIME NOT NULL)

CREATE TABLE Purchase (prodName CHAR(30)

CHECK (prodName IN SELECT Product.name FROM Product), date DATETIME NOT NULL)

Whatis the difference from

Foreign-Key ?

15

General Assertions

CREATE ASSERTION myAssert CHECK NOT EXISTS(

SELECT Product.nameFROM Product, PurchaseWHERE Product.name = Purchase.prodNameGROUP BY Product.nameHAVING count(*) > 200)

CREATE ASSERTION myAssert CHECK NOT EXISTS(

SELECT Product.nameFROM Product, PurchaseWHERE Product.name = Purchase.prodNameGROUP BY Product.nameHAVING count(*) > 200)

16

Final Comments on Constraints

• Can give them names, and alter later– Read in the book !!!

• We need to understand exactly when they are checked

• We need to understand exactly what actions are taken if they fail

17

Triggers in SQL

• A trigger contains an event, a condition, an action.• Event = INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE• Condition = any WHERE condition (may refer to

the old and the new values)• Action = more inserts, deletes, updates• Many, many more bells and whistles...• Read in the book (it only scratches the surface...)

18

Embedded SQL

• direct SQL (= ad-hoc SQL) is rarely used

• in practice: SQL is embedded in some application code

• SQL code is identified by special syntax

19

Impedance Mismatch

• Example: SQL in C:– C uses int, char[..], pointers, etc– SQL uses tables

• Impedance mismatch = incompatible types

20

The Impedance Mismatch Problem

Why not use only one language?

• Forgetting SQL: “we can quickly dispense with this idea” [textbook, pg. 351].

• SQL cannot do everything that the host language can do.

Solution: use cursors

21

Programs with Embedded SQL

Host language + Embedded SQL

Preprocessor

Host Language + function calls

Host language compiler

Host language program

Preprocessor

Host language compiler

Call-levelinterface (CLI):ODBC,JDBC,

ADO

22

Interface: SQL / Host Language

Values get passed through shared variables.

Colons precede shared variables when they occur within the SQL statements.

EXEC SQL: precedes every SQL statement in the host language.

The variable SQLSTATE provides error messages and status reports (e.g., “00000” says that the operation completed with noproblem).

EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION; char productName[30];EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;

EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION; char productName[30];EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;

23

Example

Product (pname, price, quantity, maker)Purchase (buyer, seller, store, pname)Company (cname, city)Person(name, phone, city)

24

Using Shared VariablesVoid simpleInsert() {

EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION; char n[20], c[30]; /* product-name, company-name */

int p, q; /* price, quantity */ char SQLSTATE[6]; EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;

/* get values for name, price and company somehow */

EXEC SQL INSERT INTO Product(pname, price, quantity, maker) VALUES (:n, :p, :q, :c); }

Void simpleInsert() {

EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION; char n[20], c[30]; /* product-name, company-name */

int p, q; /* price, quantity */ char SQLSTATE[6]; EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;

/* get values for name, price and company somehow */

EXEC SQL INSERT INTO Product(pname, price, quantity, maker) VALUES (:n, :p, :q, :c); }

25

Single-Row Select Statements

int getPrice(char *name) {

EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION; char n[20]; int p; char SQLSTATE[6]; EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;

strcpy(n, name); /* copy name to local variable */

EXEC SQL SELECT price INTO :pFROM ProductWHERE Product.name = :n;

return p;}

int getPrice(char *name) {

EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION; char n[20]; int p; char SQLSTATE[6]; EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;

strcpy(n, name); /* copy name to local variable */

EXEC SQL SELECT price INTO :pFROM ProductWHERE Product.name = :n;

return p;}

26

Cursors

1. Declare the cursor

2. Open the cursor

3. Fetch tuples one by one

4. Close the cursor

27

Cursors

void product2XML() { EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION; char n[20], c[30]; int p, q; char SQLSTATE[6]; EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;

EXEC SQL DECLARE crs CURSOR FOR

SELECT pname, price, quantity, maker

FROM Product;

EXEC SQL OPEN crs;

28

Cursorsprintf(“<allProducts>\n”);while (1) { EXEC SQL FETCH FROM crs INTO :n, :p, :q, :c; if (NO_MORE_TUPLES) break; printf(“ <product>\n”); printf(“ <name> %s </name>\n”, n); printf(“ <price> %d </price>\n”, p); printf(“ <quantity> %d </quantity>\n”, q); printf(“ <maker> %s </maker>\n”, c); printf(“ </product>\n”);}EXECT SQL CLOSE crs;printf(“</allProducts>\n”);

}

29

• What is NO_MORE_TUPLES ?

#define NO_MORE_TUPLES !(strcmp(SQLSTATE,”02000”))

30

More on Cursors

• cursors can modify a relation as well as read it.

• We can determine the order in which the cursor will get tuples by the ORDER BY keyword in the SQL query.

• Cursors can be protected against changes to the underlying relations.

• The cursor can be a scrolling one: can go forward, backward +n, -n, Abs(n), Abs(-n).

31

Dynamic SQL

• So far the SQL statements were visible to the compiler

• In dynamic SQL we have an arbitrary string that represents a SQL command

• Two steps:– Prepare: compiles the string– Execute: executes the compiled string

32

Dynamic SQL

Void someQuery() {EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;char *command=“UPDATE Product SET quantity=quantity+1 WHERE

name=“gizmo”EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;

EXEC SQL PREPARE myquery FROM :command;

EXEC SQL EXECUTE myquery;

}

myquery = a SQL variable, does not need to be prefixed by “:”

33

Transactions

Address two issues:

• Access by multiple users– Remember the “client-server” architecture: one

server with many clients

• Protection against crashes

34

Multiple users: single statements

Client 1:UPDATE ProductSET Price = Price – 1.99WHERE pname = ‘Gizmo’

Client 2:UPDATE ProductSET Price = Price*0.5WHERE pname=‘Gizmo’

Client 1:UPDATE ProductSET Price = Price – 1.99WHERE pname = ‘Gizmo’

Client 2:UPDATE ProductSET Price = Price*0.5WHERE pname=‘Gizmo’

Two managers attempt to do a discount.Will it work ?

35

Multiple users: multiple statements

Client 1: INSERT INTO SmallProduct(name, price)SELECT pname, priceFROM ProductWHERE price <= 0.99

DELETE ProductWHERE price <=0.99

Client 2: SELECT count(*)FROM Product

SELECT count(*)FROM SmallProduct

Client 1: INSERT INTO SmallProduct(name, price)SELECT pname, priceFROM ProductWHERE price <= 0.99

DELETE ProductWHERE price <=0.99

Client 2: SELECT count(*)FROM Product

SELECT count(*)FROM SmallProduct

What’s wrong ?

36

Protection against crashes

Client 1:INSERT INTO SmallProduct(name, price)

SELECT pname, priceFROM ProductWHERE price <= 0.99

DELETE ProductWHERE price <=0.99

Client 1:INSERT INTO SmallProduct(name, price)

SELECT pname, priceFROM ProductWHERE price <= 0.99

DELETE ProductWHERE price <=0.99

What’s wrong ?

Crash !

37

Transactions

• Transaction = group of statements that must be executed atomically

• Transaction properties: ACID– ATOMICITY = all or nothing

– CONSISTENCY = leave database in consistent state

– ISOLATION = as if it were the only transaction in the system

– DURABILITY = store on disk !

38

Transactions in SQL

• In “ad-hoc” SQL:– Default: each statement = one transaction

• In “embedded” SQL:BEGIN TRANSACTION

[SQL statements]

COMMIT or ROLLBACK (=ABORT)

39

Transactions: Serializability

Serializability = the technical term for isolation

• An execution is serial if it is completely before or completely after any other function’s execution

• An execution is serializable if it equivalent to one that is serial

• DBMS can offer serializability guarantees

40

Example

• T1: R(x) R(y) W(x) W(y)

• T2: R(x) R(z) R(y) W(x) W(y)

• R(x) R(y) W(x) R(x) R(z) W(y) R(y) W(x) W(y)

• R(x) R(y) W(x) R(x) R(z) R(y) W(y) W(y) W(x)

• R(x) R(z) R(y) R(x) R(y) W(x) W(y) W(y) W(x)

41

Serializability

• Enforced with locks, like in Operating Systems !• But this is not enough:

LOCK A[write A=1]UNLOCK A. . .. . .. . .. . .LOCK B[write B=2]UNLOCK B

LOCK A[write A=1]UNLOCK A. . .. . .. . .. . .LOCK B[write B=2]UNLOCK B

LOCK A[write A=3]UNLOCK ALOCK B[write B=4]UNLOCK B

LOCK A[write A=3]UNLOCK ALOCK B[write B=4]UNLOCK B

User 1 User 2

What is wrong ?

time

42

Serializability

• Solution: two-phase locking– Lock everything at the beginning– Unlock everything at the end

• Read locks: many simultaneous read locks allowed

• Write locks: only one write lock allowed• Insert locks: one per table

43

Isolation Levels in SQL

1. “Dirty reads”SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ UNCOMMITTED

2. “Committed reads”SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ COMMITTED

3. “Repeatable reads”SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL REPEATABLE READ

4. Serializable transactions (default):SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL SERIALIZABLE

Recommended Reading: chapter 8.6