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![Page 1: 1 Pulmonary Critical Care ------------- The Approach to Acute Respiratory Failure –By: John J. Beneck MSPA, PA-C.](https://reader035.fdocuments.net/reader035/viewer/2022062718/56649e845503460f94b867e8/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
1
Pulmonary Critical Care-------------
The Approach to Acute Respiratory Failure
– By: John J. Beneck MSPA, PA-C
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Objectives
• Understand lung function as it applies to pathological processes including:– Air movement– Diffusion– Circulation– Gas transport
• Understand Acute Respiratory Failure with regard to:– Clinical manifestations– Etiology– Presentation– Diagnosis– Treatment
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Objectives (Cont)
• Understand the role of PPV in the care of respiratory failure
• Introduce various mechanical ventilation modalities and weaning strategies
• Understand ARDS with regard to:– Definition– Presentation– Diagnosis / Differential Diagnosis– Etiology– Complications– Treatment– Prognosis
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Abbreviations
• ARDS-Acute respiratory distress syndrome
• BNP-B type naturetic peptide
• CBC-Complete blood count
• CK-MB-MB fraction of creatinine kinase
• CMP-Complete metabolic panel
• CMV-Continuous mechanical ventilation
• DVT-Deep vein thrombosis
• ED-Emergency department
• F/U-Follow up
• FiO2-Fraction of inspired oxygen
• GI-Gastrointestinal
• Hb-Hemoglobin
• Mg-Magnesium
• MI-Myocardial infarction
• mmHg-Millimeters of mercury
• NIF-Negative inspiratory force
• NPPV-Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation
• PAO2-Partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli
• PaO2/CO2-Partial pressure of oxygen and CO2 in the arteries
• Patm-Atmospheric pressure
• PH2O-Partial pressure of water vapor
• PCWP-Pulmonary capillary wedge pressure
• PE-Pulmonary embolus
• PNA-Pneumonia
• PPV-Positive pressure ventilation
• R-diffusion coefficient of CO2
• SOB-Short of breath
• VTE-Venous thromboembolism
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Case 1
• 18 year old male in ED with history of anxiety and acute onset of dyspnea and SOB. P: 94, R: 28, BP: 132/78, T: 37.0, SaO2: 99% on room air.
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Case 2
• You are called for a 58 year old female admitted 2 days prior with sepsis. Now with severe SOB. P: 110, R:36, BP: 105/66, T:37.6, SaO2 90% on 4 liter nasal cannula.
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Case 3
• You are called for a 78 year old male admitted 10 hours prior for exacerbation of COPD. He is obtunded and barely rousable. P: 88, R: 6, BP: 146/88, T: 36.8, SaO2 95% on 4 liter nasal cannula. ABG: 7.13 / 103 / 86 / 33 / 93%
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Lung Function
• Oxygenation
• Ventilation
• Dependent on circulation
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Air Movement - Breathing
• Negative intra-thoracic force– The role of the pleura
• Compliance• Airway resistance• Radial traction – dec resistance – pulls on
tubes to make a larger lumen
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Factors Affecting Intra-thoracic Force
• Trauma
• Neuromuscular disease
• Pleural effusion
• Pneumothorax
• Sedation
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Factors Affecting Compliance
• Chest wall compliance– Trauma– Hyper-expansion – gets bigger b/c lungs push it out.
Ribs lever against diaphragm. Dec chest wall compliance
– Pleural changes
• Lung compliance– Interstitial edema– Fibrosis– Air trapping
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Factors Affecting Resistance
• COPD
• Asthma
• Pulmonary edema
• Airway edema
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Après Air Movement(What Comes Next)
• Diffusion in the lungs
• Circulation
• Diffusion in the tissues
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Circulatory Gas Transport
• Pulmonary circulation
• Gas transportability
• Systemic circulation
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Gas Diffusion
• Layers– Surfactant– Alveolar membrane– Interstitial fluid– Capillary membrane– Plasma
• Healthy barrier is 0.5 microns• Different gases behave differently
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Factors Affecting Diffusion
• Type of gas
• Membrane thickness
• Pressure gradient
• Blood flow
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Normal Oxygenation
• It’s all about DIFFUSION
– Confounders
• Other gases: N2, H2O, CO2, trace gases
• Speed of the blood
– Erythrocyte exposure time 0.75 - 0.25 seconds
• Diffusion membrane
• Hemoglobin status
(Rest) (Exercise)
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www.anaesthetist.com/icu/organs/lung/lungvol.gif
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Oxygen Cascade
• Inspired oxygen – 160 mmHg• Alveolar oxygen – 100 mmHg• Oxygen in blood – 90 mmHg
– Dissolved in plasma
• Oxygen at tissue (mitochondrial) level 4 - 20 mmHg
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Pulmonary Math
• Alveolar gas equation (short)
– PAO2 = [(P atm - P H2O) x FiO2] - PaCO2 / R
– (760-47) x FiO2(%) – PaCO2 / 0.8
– 713 x 0.21– 40 / 0.8
– 150-50
– Approx 100 mmHg
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A(Alveolar)-a(Arterial) GradientA-a Gradient
• PAO2 – PaO2(P atm – P H2O) x FiO2 - PaCO2 / R - PaO2 (obtained from
ABG)(760-47) x FiO2(%) – PaCO2 / 0.8 – PaO2 713 x 0.21– 40 / 0.8 – PaO2 150– 50 – PaO2 100 – PaO2
*Normal gradient = Age/4+4*In a healthy young adult, this is about 10 mmHg but can change
dramatically with diseases affecting diffusion membrane
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Oxygen in the Blood
• Total O2– Total O2 = (Hb(g/dl) x 1.34 x SaO2) + (PaO2 x 0.003)
= (14 x 1.34 x 0.98) ….… + (90 x 0.003)
=18.4 ml/100ml blood …. + 0.27 ml/100ml blood
Oxygen Bound toHemoglobin
OxygenDissolved inPlasma
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Point for Possible Confusion
• PaO2 and SaO2 are completely different, though interdependent measurements
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Oxyhemoglobin Dissociation Curve
• What moves it to the right?– Lower pH– Higher PaCO2– Higher temp– Higher level of
2,3 BPG• Usually
induced by chronic hypoxemia
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CO2 Transport
• CO2 transport– 23% bound to Hb – Carbaminohemoglobin– 70% as HCO3 – Bicarbonate– 7% dissolved in plasma
• Volatile as H2CO3– H20 + CO2 H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
– Amount present is unmeasureable due to volatility but proportional to PaCO2
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Normal VentilationAir Movement + Diffusion
• Inspiration– Negative intrathoracic pressure via diaphragm
and intercostal muscles
• Simple diffusion of O2 and CO2• Expiration
– Positive intrathoracic pressure via relaxation of diaphragm and intercostals
– Lung recoil
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Working Together
• V/Q – Ventilation / Perfusion– Matching/mismatching
• Shunting– PNA, pulmonary edema, atelectasis…
• Dead space ventilation– Pulmonary embolism
• Compensatory mechanisms– Pulmonary arteriole constriction
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Acute Respiratory FailureWhere To Start
• Where does the problem lie?– Air movement
• Apnea/Hypopnea
• Airway resistance– Asthma
– Edema
– Lung or chest wall compliance• Restriction/Trauma
• Interstitial fibrosis
• Air trapping
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Acute Respiratory FailureWhere Else…
• Diffusion abnormalities– Interstitial edema/fibrosis– Gradient abnormalities
• Relation to diffusion membrane– (A-a gradient)
• Ambient hypoxemia
– V/Q mismatch• Shunting
• Dead space ventilation
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Acute Respiratory FailureWhere Else…
• Blood flow– Fast flow
• Rest vs. exercise
– Slow flow• HF
• Pulmonary vascular resistance
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Acute Respiratory FailureWhere Else…
• Gas transport– Hemoglobin level
• Anemia
– Oxyhemoglobin dissociation
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Acute Respiratory FailureManifestations
• Hypoxemia
• Hypercapnia (ventilatory failure)
• ABG representation
• Rapid onset, severe V/Q mismatch
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Acute Respiratory Failure Etiology
• Pneumonia• COPD• Sepsis• MI• PE• Pulmonary edema
• Pneumothorax• Lung Path.• Drugs• Shock• Trauma• ARDS
Complication of another condition…
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Acute Respiratory Failure Typical Presentation
• Respiratory distress Respiratory rate
– Use of accessory muscles of respiration
• Scalene m.
• Sternocleidomastoid m.
• Pectoralis Major m.
• Abdominals
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Acute Respiratory Failure Presentation (Cont)
• Coma
• Cyanosis
• Diaphoresis –sweating
• Delirium
• Lethargy (esp. with COPD)– CO2 narcosis / hypoxic drive
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Acute Respiratory Failure Mimics
• Anxiety
• Pain
• Agitation
• Panic attack
• Kussmaul’s breathing
• Cheyne-Stokes breathing – between hypo/hyperventilation
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Acute Respiratory Failure Rapid Diagnostics
• ABG – the way to know
• CXR
– PA/Lat vs. portable
• EKG
• CBC, CMP, Mg, CK-MB, Troponin I
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Acute Respiratory Failure Interventions
• Hypoxemia
– O2 delivery systems
• Nasal cannula/Oxymizer
• Simple mask - not used
• Partial rebreather mask - not used
• Venturi mask
• Non-rebreather mask
• To maintain PaO2 60 or SaO2 90%
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Acute Respiratory Failure Interventions
• Ventilatory support
– BIPAP (NPPV) –non invasive pos pressure –
when we think it will only be for a short time.
– Endotracheal intubation
– Mechanical ventilation (PPV)
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Reasons to Intubate
• Airway obstruction• Airway protection• Secretion management• Unresponsive hypoxemia• Ventilation management
– Acidosis– Apnea– Injury/toxicity
• Anesthesia
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Mechanical Ventilation Modes
• CMV – controlled mechanical ventilation
• A/CMV – assist/control mechanical ventilation
• IMV/SIMV – synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation
• PSV – pressure support ventilation
• PCV – pressure control ventilation
• PEEP – positive end expiratory pressure
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Consequences of PPV
• Barotrauma• Vent. assoc. lung
injury• Hemodynamic effects• Hemodynamic
monitoring changes• Muscle atrophy
• Impaired mucociliary clearance
• O2 toxicity• GI• Splanchnic / Renal• Cerebral• Auto PEEP
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Consequences of PPV (Cont)
• Auto PEEP
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CMV - Weaning Modalities
• Treat underlying
illness or cause of
respiratory failure to
maximum effect.
• Treat complications.
• Then...
• Wean O2 / PEEP Assist Breaths• Use of PSV• NIF
– At least -20 cmH2O
• F/U ABG
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Acute Lung Injury (ALI)
• “Acute and persistent lung inflammation with increased vascular permeability”
• 3 clinical features:– Bilateral infiltrates– PaO2 / FiO2 ratio 201-300 (room air PaO2
60)• Lower value = worse disease
– No evidence of left atrial pressure• PCWP 18 mmHg or less
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Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)
• Definition
– “Severe end of the spectrum of “acute lung
injury””
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Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
• ALI - worse
• PaO2 / FiO2 ratio 200 or less– Room air PaO2 40
• Diffuse alveolar damage
• Low lung compliance vascular permeability diffusion gradient
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ARDS Presentation
• Initial– Severe Hypoxemia
– Tachypnea / Dyspnea
– Diffuse rales
– Rapid decline and need for mechanical ventilation
• ABG– Acute respiratory alkalosis – so hypoxic that they are
hyperventilationg
– Severe hypoxemia
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ARDS Dx
• Initially resembles CHF or Pulmonary
Edema
• Importance of clinical course
• Swan Ganz catheter
• BNP or NT-Pro BNP
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ARDS Etiology
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ARDS Occurrence
• Approx. 190,600 cases / yr
• 15% ICU pts
• 20% mech vent pts
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ARDS DDx
• Diffuse alveolar hemorrhage
• Acute interstitial pneumonia
• Idiopathic acute eosinophilic pneumonia
• Carcinoma
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ARDS Complications
• Mostly related to CMV– Barotrauma– Nosocomial Pneumonia– Multisystem failure
• DVT – pt not mobile• GI bleed• Malnutrition• Catheter related infections• Drug effects
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ARDS Tx
• O2• Prudent sedation /
paralysis• Analgesia• Diuresis• PPV
• Nutritional support• Glucose control• VTE prophylaxis• GI prophylaxis• Prudent transfusions• Monitor for
nosocomial pneumonia
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ARDS Prognosis
• 25-30% mortality
– Multisystem failure
• Variable outcomes in survivors
– Long term neurocognitive impairment
– Ventilatory impairment resolves
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Remember the Cases?
• 18 year old male in ED with history of anxiety and acute onset of dyspnea and SOB. P: 94, R: 28, BP: 132/78, T: 37.0, SaO2: 99% on room air. Panic attack
• You are called for a 58 year old female admitted 2 days prior with sepsis. Now with severe SOB. P: 110, R:36, BP: 105/66, T:37.6, SaO2 90% on 4 liter nasal cannula. Give more o2, investigate, ddx ARDS
• You are called for a 78 year old male admitted 10 hours prior for exacerbation of COPD. He is obtunded and barely rousable. P: 88, R: 6, BP: 146/88, T: 36.8, SaO2 95% on 4 liter nasal cannula. Partially comp resp acidosis. Went into acute resp failure on acute resp acidosis. Decreased resp drive.ABG: 7.13 / 103 / 86 / 33 / 93%R.O.M.E. ?
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References
• 1. Prchal, J.T. Diagnosis and Treatment of Methemoglobinemia. In UpToDate, Rose, BD (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2006.
• 2. Lyn-Kew, K., Hyzy, R.C. Physiologic and Pathophysiologic Consequences of Positive Pressure Ventilation. In UpToDate, Rose, BD (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2006.
• 3. Hansen-Flaschen, J., Siegel, M.D. Acute Respiratory Distress syndrome: Definition; Epidemiology; Diagnosis; and Etiology. In UpToDate, Rose, BD (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2006.
• 4. Siegel, M.D. Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome: Pathophysiology; Clinical Manifestations; and Prognosis. In UpToDate, Rose, BD (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2006.
• 5. Siegel, M.D. Supportive Care and Oxygenation in Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome. In UpToDate, Rose, BD (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2006.
• 6. Lung Function Fundamentals. At www.anaesthetist.com/icu/organs/lung/lungvol.gif accessed 9/09.