Before this course, what were your impressions of psychology?

Layperson’s Psychology

Who’s Interested In Psychological Processes? Not just psychologists… Most (if not all) people are interested in

basic psychological processes. Understanding Ourselves

What makes us happy? Successful? Understanding Others

Predicting how people will act/feel. The social nature of human beings.

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

What is psychology (as a field)?

Psychology Definition, Field, & Methods

DefinitionPsychology is the scientific Study of behavior and mental processes

behavior (what people do as actions and reactions to stimuli) mental processes( think, feel, perceive, reason, remember and biological activities) and how they are affected by:

1 -an organism’s : 1.1 physical state, 1.2 affective state,

1.3 and mental state , 2 -and external environment .

Psychology Scientifically describes, predicts and explains human behavior and mental processes It aims at changing and improving People’s lives.

Psychology: Subfields or Branches (what psychologists do) 1

Psychologists seek knowledge as basic psychology is the study of psychological issues to find out about rules and principles

governing behavior. Applied Psychology is the study of psychological issues that have direct practical significance

and the application of psychological findings. Psychologists usually fall into three categories: 1) academic & research, 2)

Psychological practice, and 3) community psychology.

Academic / research psychologists

clinicalPsychologists in industry, law, or other settings

Specialize in areas of pure or applied research

Work in one or combination of

Do research or consult to institutions in the

communityDevelopmentalPsychometricHealthEducationalSocialIndustrial/organizationalConsumerPhysiologicalPerception and sensation

Private practiceMental health clinics / servicesHospitalsResearchteaching

SportsConsumer issuesAdvertisingEnvironmental issuesPublic policy analysisSurvey research / opinion polls

Psychology: Subfields or Branches (what psychologists do) 2 Area of Study of Behavior Related Subfield

Biological Foundation of BehaviorNeuropsychology

Perception sensation of our worldExperimental Psychology

Change and stability in life spanDevelopmental Psychology

Psychological factors on physical & Mental Health

Health PsychologyClinical PsychologyCounseling PsychologySchool PsychologyEducational Psychology

Effects of Social Networks on Behavior

Social PsychologyCross-cultural PsychologyOrganizational Psychology

Psychology expandedEvolution PsychologyBehavioral geneticsClinical Neuropsychology

Psychology: Subfields or Branches (what psychologists do) 3 Experimental psychologists: conduct laboratory

studies of learning , motivation, emotions, sensation and perception, physiology, human performance, and cognition.

Health Psychologists: help people to deal with health problems due to psychological factors. (blood pressures, heart problems, ulcers etc….)

Clinical Psychologists: diagnose, treat and study mental or emotional problems and disabilities.

Counseling Psychologists: help people deal with everyday life problems.

Psychology: Subfields or Branches (what psychologists do) 4 Educational psychologists: study psychological

principles that explain learning and search for ways to improve learning in educational systems. Their interests range from the application of findings on memory and thinking to the uses of rewards to encourage achievement.

School psychology: work with parents, teachers, and students to enhance students’ performance and emotional development.

Developmental psychologists: study how people change and grow over time, physically, mentally, ,and socially.

Psychology: Subfields or Branches (what psychologists do) 5 Psychometric psychologists: design and evaluate

tests of mental abilities, attitudes, interests, and personality Social psychologists: study how groups, institutions,

and the social context influence individuals and vice versa. Among their interests are conformity, obedience, competition, cooperation, leadership styles, group decision making, and prejudice.

Industrial / organizational psychologist: study behavior in the work place. They are concerned with group decision making, employee morale, work motivation, productivity, job stress, job satisfaction, personnel selection, marketing strategies, and equipment design, and many other issues.

A science Evolves: The past, The Present, and the Future : Origins of Development

Thinkers and philosophers in the past have tried to understand people’s behavior and mental processes. They did not however use empirical evidence.

Empirical: relying on or derived from observation, experimentation, or measurement.

Many pioneers contributed to psychology (such as John Locke, in England).

Wilhem Wundt (1832-1929) established the first laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.

He studied sensation, perception, reaction times, imagery, and attention.

He used a method called introspection.

Introspection is a form of self-observation in which individuals examine and report the contents of their own consciousness.

Psychology: Early Developments

Structuralism ( Developed by Tichener (1867-1927), a student of Wundt). - An early psychological approach that stressed analysis of immediate experience into basic elements (of behavior). - The approach relied heavily on introspection.

Functionalism: An early psychological approach that stressed the function or purpose of behavior and consciousness (W. James), & what psychologists benefited from C. Darwin).

Gestalt approach opposed to structuralism the perception and thinking are organized as a whole rather than individual elements

Today’s Perspectives 1 Perspectives refer to different kinds of explanations,

assumptions, and questions asked about human behavior.

Neuroscience perspective: views behavior from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions (Pioneer: Wilhelm Wundt ). It emphasizes body events and changes associated with actions, feelings, and thoughts.

The Psychodynamic perspective approaches that emphasize unconscious dynamics within the individual, such as inner forces, conflicts, or the movement of instinctual energy. (Freud is the creator of this approach).

Behavioral Perspective: emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior. (pioneers: J. Watson, E. Pavlov & B.F. Skinner).

Psychology: Perspectives 2 Social Learning theory (or cognitive social learning

theory): propagates the idea that behavior is learned and maintained through observation and imitation of others, position consequences, and cognitive processes such as plans and expectations. (proponent R. Bandura).

The cognitive Perspective: emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior. How people think, understand, and know about the world. (pioneers :Ellis, Neisser, Piaget Bruner, Chomsky ).

The Humanistic Perspective: believe in the will power of humans. All individuals naturally strive to grow, develop and be in control of their lives and behavior. (Abraham Maslow)

Today’s PerspectivesCompared on controversial issues

What can Psychology do for you? make you a more informed person: as it plays a large role in

our culture. We Know about ourselves and others in many aspects of our behavior.

Satisfies your curiosity about human nature: It helps you to understand yourself and others

Helps you control your life: you can apply psychological findings to your own life. It offers techniques which help you solve your problems, mange your feelings, improve your memory deal properly with others, etc.

Help you on the job: the degree helps you get a job. It also helps in other jobs: especially those which involve interaction with others (teachers, doctors etc… What can you benefit from psychology in your field of specialization?).

Give you insights into political and social issues: psychology can help you make informed judgments about issues such as crime, prejudice, discrimination etc…..

What can’t Psychology do for you?

It can’t tell you the meaning of life: A philosophy about the purpose of life requires not only the acquisition of knowledge but also reflection and a willingness to learn from life’s experiences.

It won’t relieve you of responsibility for life actions: it is one thing to understand the origins of offensive or antisocial behavior and another thing to excuse it.

It doesn’t provide simple answers to complex questions: as psychologists disagree (perspectives), one note answer to any question is somehow not possible. The solution is integrating the best contribution of each perspective.

How Psychologists Know What They Know “ Research in Psychology”

Definition of Scientific Method:

The approach used by psychologists to systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest.

It is done in steps:1. Identifying questions of interest2. Formulating an explanation (s). Hypotheses & Theories, 3. Carry research to support or refute the explanation(s).4. Communication of the findings.

How Psychologists Know What They Know “

Research in Psychology” characteristics of science 1. Precision: Scientists use specific precise ways to prove or explain a phenomenon.

They formulate explanations that can be tested. These are called Hypotheses. They are derived from theories or observations.

A Theory: is an organized system of assumptions and principles that purports to explain a specified set of phenomena and their interrelationships.

A Hypothesis: is a statement put into specific terms. It attempts to describe or explain behavior. It is a statement that attempts to predict or to account for a set of phenomena. Scientific hypotheses specify relationships among events or variables.

Operational definition: A precise definition of a term in a hypothesis, which specifies the operations for observing and measuring the process or phenomenon being defined.

2- Skepticism: means accepting new or old conclusions with caution.3. Reliance on empirical evidence: scientific theories and hypotheses are judged to be

true or acceptable if they are backed (supported) by evidence. The evidence for a scientific idea must be empirical, that is, based on systematic observation.

4- Willingness to make “risky predictions’: the scientist must state an idea in such a way that it can be refuted, or disproved by use of the principle of falsifiability, It means that a scientific theory must make predictions that are specific enough to expose the theory to the possibility of disconfirmation

5. Openness: Scientists must be willing to tell others where they got their ideas, how they tested them, and what the results were. They must do this clearly and in detail so that other scientists can repeat, or replicate, their studies and verify the findings.

Methods of Research Descriptive Research

Description methods give descriptions of behavior to explain behavior without intervening.

Archival Research: The psychologist looks into existing data, documents, census, records (medical, school, newspapers etc..) to test hypotheses.

Naturalistic Observation (Observational Studies): the researcher carefully and systematically observes and records behavior without interfering with it (does not make any change in the situation).

Survey Research: Asking a representative sample of people questions about their behavior, thoughts, and attitudes.

Case Studies: is in-depth study (a detailed description) of an individual: studying anything that will increase insight in the individual’s behavior. by observation or formal psychological testing.

Correlational Research: Looks at the relationship between two variables (how one changes as the other does). The correclation could be positive or negative.

Variable behavioral events or characteristics that vary in some way. Tests: are procedures used to measure and evaluate personality

traits, emotional state, aptitudes, interests, abilities and values.

Methods of Research Experimetal Research

This research tries to find explanations by controlling the situation by

experimental manipulation. The experimenter deliberately changes one

variable to observe the effects on another variable.Elements of Experimentation: Treatment: the manipulation don by the experimenter.Experimental Group: The group which receives the treatment in

the experiment. Control Group: the one does not receive the treatment.

Independent Variable: The one manipulated by the experimenter to effect another.

Dependent Variable: the one that is affected (change as a consequence) to another (independent).