1. Journal of Business Ethics Volume 18 Issue 4 1999 Gillian Rice -- Islamic Ethics and the...

8/16/2019 1. Journal of Business Ethics Volume 18 Issue 4 1999 Gillian Rice -- Islamic Ethics and the Implications for Business …

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Islamic Ethics and the Implications for BusinessAuthor(s): Gillian RiceSource: Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Feb., 1999), pp. 345-358Published by: SpringerStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25074059 .

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2/15

Islamic Ethics and the

Implications

for

Business

Gillian

Rice

ABSTRACT.

As

global

business

operations

expand,

managers

need

more

knowledge

of

foreign

cultures,

in

particular,

information

on

the ethics of

doing

business

across

borders.

The

purpose

of this

paper

is twofold:

(1)

to

share

the

Islamic

perspective

on

business

ethics,

little

known

in

the

west,

which

may

stimulate further

thinking

and debate

on

the

relationships

between

ethics and

business,

and

(2)

to provide some knowledge of Islamic philosophy

in

order

to

help

managers

do business

in

Muslim

cultures. The

case

of

Egypt

illustrates

some

divergence

between

Islamic

philosophy

and

practice

in economic

life. The

paper

concludes

with

managerial

implica

tions

and

suggestions

for further

research.

KEYWORDS: business

ethics,

Egypt,

Islamic business

ethics,

Muslim

culture

Introduction

Over

the

centuries,

as

state

and church

separated,

particularly

in

western

societies,

religion

became

a

private

matter.

The

so-called

"value-free

society"

developed

and economists

focused

exclusively

on

the

mechanics

of

economics.

There is

a

growing

realization that value-free

economics

is

a

misnomer.

Post-modern thinkers

Gillian

Rice is Associate

Professor

of

Marketing

at

Thunderbird,

The

American

Graduate School

of

Inter

national

Management.

Her

research includes

study

of

economic

development,

environmental

concerns

and

marketing

practices

in

developing

countries.

She

is

a

founding

member

of

the International

Management

Development

Association.

Her

publications

include

articles

in

International

Marketing

Review,

International

Journal

of

Forecasting,

Information

and

Management,

The

International Executive and

Journal

of the

Academy

of

Marketing

Science.

have advocated

changes

over

the

past

few decades

and there has been

a

reintroduction of

a

moral

dimension

in

business.

An

important

task for

many managers

is

how

to

integrate

this moral

dimension

into

business

conducted

across

borders.

Managers

need

an

appreciation

of the ethical

norms

of

different

groups

and cultures

in

order

to

gain complete

understanding

of the cultural

environment

in

which the firm

must

operate

(Al-Khatib

et

al.,

1995).

Relatively

few

empirical

studies

have

addressed

culturally-related

ethical

issues

(see

for

example,

Becker and

Fritzsche,

1987; Akaah,

1990;

Vitell

et

al.,

1993;

Nyaw

and

Ng,

1994).

Based

upon

the results of

a

study

that found

some

surprising

significant

differences

between the

values of

American

and Thai

marketers,

Singhapakdi

et

al.

(1995)

suggest

that multina

tional

corporations

should

train their

marketing

professionals

differently

in

different

parts

of the

world.

Amine

(1996)

goes

further

and

urges

that

the

role

of

global

managers

should be

one

of

"moral

champions,"

committed

to

pursuing

the

best

in

ethical

and moral

decision-making

and

behavior.

The

definition

of

"best" is

not

an

easy

task,

however,

when

one

takes

into

account

the

many

different

moral

philosophies

that

exist.

In

recent

years

there have been

a

number of

articles

published

in

the

Journal of

Business

Ethics

which have discussed the positions of various

faiths

regarding

the

relevance of

religious

ethical

principles

to

business

decision-making

(see

for

example,

Williams,

1993;

Green,

1993; Rossauw,

1994;

Gould,

1995).

The

Pope's

Centesimus

Annus

argues

that what

is

lacking

in

our

time is

a

moral culture

capable

of

transforming

economic life

so

that it

has

a

context

in

a

humane

community

(Williams,

1993).

Journal of Business Ethics 18: 345-358, 1999.

? 1999 Kluwer

Academic

Publishers. Printed

in

theNetherlands.

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3/15

346

illian

Rice

My

focus

in

this

paper

is

on

the

ethical

principles

which relate

to

business and which

are

contained

in

the

religion

of Islam. Islam

is

gen

erally

misunderstood and

it is

often

surprising

to

some

that

it

contains

an

entire socio-economic

system. In Islam, it is ethics that dominates eco

nomics

and

not

the other

way

around

(Naqvi,

1981).

My

purpose

is

twofold:

(1)

to

share

a

per

spective

on

business

ethics,

little known

in

the

west,

which

may

stimulate further

thinking

and

debate

on

the

relationships

between ethics and

business,

and

(2)

to

provide

some

knowledge

of

Islamic

philosophy

in

order

to

help

managers

doing

business

in

Muslim cultures deal

with

cultural differences.

The

paper

is

organized

as

follows. First

is

a

description

of the

Islamic

ethical

system.

Next is a discussion of the dif

ferences between

philosophy

and

practice

in

Islamic business

ethics.

This

discussion forms

the

basis

for

guidelines

on

doing

business with

people

in

Muslim cultures.

Egypt

is used

as an

illustra

tive

case.

The

Islamic ethical

system

Muslims

derive their ethical

system

from the

teachings

of

the

Qur'an

(which

Muslims believe

is

a

book

revealed

by

God

to

Muhammad

in

seventh

century Arabia),

and

from the

sunnah

(the

recorded

sayings

and behavior

of

Muhammad).

The

goals

of Islam

are

not

pri

marily

materialist.

They

are

based

on

Islamic

concepts

of

human

well

being

and

good

life

which

stress

brotherhood/sisterhood

and

socio

economic

justice

and

require

a

balanced

satisfac

tion

of both the material

and

spiritual

needs

of

all

humans

(Chapra,

1992).

A

umoral

filter^

There

exists

in

most

societies

a

relative

scarcity

of

resources

with unlimited

claims

upon

them.

A

free-market

capitalist

economy

uses

market

determined

prices

as a

filtering

mechanism

to

distribute

resources.

The

use

of the

price

system

alone,

however,

can

frustrate

the

realization

of

socio-economic goals. Under

a

system of

state

control,

the

allocation

of

resources

is

in

the

hands

of

a

bureaucracy,

which

is

cumbersome

and inef

ficient.

According

to

Chapra

(1992),

the

Islamic

worldview

implies

that the market

system

should

be

maintained,

but that

the

price

mechanism be

complemented with a device that minimizes

unnecessary

claims

on resources.

This

device

is

the "moral filter." This

means

that

people

would

pass

their

potential

claims

on resources

through

the "filter

of

Islamic values"

so

that

many

claims

would be eliminated before

being expressed

in

the

marketplace.

Resources

would

not

be

allowed

to

be diverted

to

the

production

of luxuries until

the

production

of

necessities

was

ensured

in

suf

ficient

quantities

(Siddiqi,

1981).

The definition

of luxurious

or

extravagant

is

related

to

the

average standards of

consumption

in a

society,

the

idea

being

that

large

departure

from the standards

would

not

be

permissible.

Keynes'

(1972)

observations

on

this

subject

may

be useful. He stated that

even

though

"the

needs of human

beings

may

seem

to

be

insa

tiable,"

. . .

"they

fall into

two

classes

?

those

needs

which

are

absolute

in

the

sense

that

we

feel

them

whatever

the situation

of

our

fellow

human

beings

may

be,

and those which

are

relative

ones

in

the

sense

that

their satisfaction lifts

us

above

or

makes

us

feel

superior

to

others.

Needs

of the

second

class,

which

satisfy

the desire

for

superi

ority,

may

indeed be

insatiable;

for the

higher

the

general

level,

the

higher

still

are

they.

But

this

is

not

so

true

of the

absolute

needs." Islamic

jurists'

categories

of necessities

(daruriyyat),

conveniences

(hayiyyat)

and

refinements

(tahsiniyyat)

would fall

into

Keynes'

first

class

of

needs. These

are

any

goods

and

services

which

fulfill

a

need

or

reduce

a

hardship

and make

a

real difference

in

human

well-being.

Thus

"comforts"

are

included

here

(Chapra,

1992).

Luxuries

(the

second

class

of

needs),

however,

are

goods

and services derived

for their snob

appeal

and

make

no

difference

to

a

person's well-being.

Galbraith

(1958)

refers

to

this

second class

of

needs

as

"wants."

Consumer

advocates

in

the

U.S.

have

long

been

critical

of

business

practices

that

increase

the desire for "wants"

and

subsequently

have

adverse

cultural

and social

effects

(Williams,

1993).

For

example,

in

pursuit

of

profit

maxi

mization, businesses often subject the

consumer




4/15

Islamic

Ethics

347

to

advertising

and sales

promotion campaigns

that

appeal

to

the consumer's

vanity,

sex

appetite

and

envy,

either

overtly

or

covertly.

Consumers

are

encouraged

to

believe that their actualization

and

social

esteem

are

dependent

on

the

frequency

and

value of their

purchases.

This leads in turn to a

tremendous

amount

of

wasteful

production,

with

adverse environmental

as

well

as

social

implications. According

to

the

United

Nations

Development

Program

(UNDP)

Human Devel

opment

Report

(1994),

the

lifestyles

of

the

rich

nations

must

change;

the

north

has

a

fifth

of

the

world's

population

and four-fifths

of

its

income

and

it

consumes

seventy

percent

of the world's

energy,

seventy-five

percent

of its

metals and

eighty-five

percent

of

its wood.

Even

in

these

rich

countries,

some

of the essential needs of

the

poor

remain

unfulfilled,

and

high pollution

and

rapid depletion

of

non-renewable

resources

occur.

The

question,

of

course,

is how

to

implement

the "moral

filter" without

coercion

or

despotism.

The

filter mechanism of

values

must

be

socially

agreed

upon

and

some

way

has

to

be devised

to

motivate

consumers

and

businesspeople

to

abide

by

these

values.

From

an

Islamic

point

of

view,

social change

must

be gradual and

cannot

be

achieved

through

force. The

Qur'anic

injunction

"There

is

no

compulsion

in

religion"

(Qur'an

2:256)

is

relevant

here.

Change

can

occur

by

inviting

people

to

alter their

ways

or

by

setting

an

example.

Historically

this is

how

Islam

rapidly

spread

through

a

large

part

of the

world

in

the

seventh and

eighth

centuries

(Eaton, 1994).

For

example,

when

Muslim merchants traveled

to

distant

lands,

the

inhabitants

of

those lands

were

impressed

by

the traders'

social

and business

conduct and so became curious about their

beliefs.

Many

of these

inhabitants

subsequently

became Muslims.

A

parallel

exists

today

with

respect

to

the

"green"

movement

which

con

tinues

to

spread

around the

globe.

The

adoption

of

environmentally

conscious

behavior

is

occur

ring

through

example,

encouragement

and

edu

cation,

as

well

as

by legislation.

Indeed,

in

the

environmental

context,

legislation

is

insufficient.

Only

when

the

political

will

and

support

of the

populace

are

strong

enough,

are

environmental

laws

adequately

enforced.

The Islamic

ethical

system

contains

specific

guidelines

for

achieving

the moral filter and for

conducting

business. These

guidelines

derive

from the

interrelated

concepts

of

unity, justice

and

trusteeship

which

I

explain

below.

Unity

(tawhid)

The

key

to

the

business

philosophy

of Islam lies

in

a

person's

relationship

with

God,

His universe

and

His

people.

In

common

with other revealed

religions

is

the moral

appeal

to

humans

to

sur

render

themselves

to

the

will

of

God. Islam

goes

beyond

this

exhortation

and

teaches that all

life

is

essentially

a

unity

because

it

also

provides

the

practical

way

to

pattern

all facets

of

human life

in

accordance with

God's

will. There should be

unity

of

ideas

and actions

in

a

person's

existence

and

consciousness

(Asad,

1993).

Muslims believe

that because

people

are

accountable

to

God,

and

their

success

in

the hereafter

depends

on

their

performance

in

this

life

on

earth,

this adds

a new

dimension

to

the

valuation

of

things

and deeds

in

this

life

(Siddiqi,

1981).

Islam is

simply

a

program

of

life

in

accord with the "laws of

nature"

decreed by God.

A

definite relationship

between fellow

humans

is

thus

prescribed.

This

is

the

relationship

of

brotherhood

or

sisterhood

and

equality

(Abu-Sulayman,

1976).

In

this

sense,

unity

is

a

coin

with

two

faces:

one

implies

that God

is

the sole

creator

of the

universe

and

the other

implies

that

people

are

equal

partners

or

that each

person

is

a

brother

or

sister

to

the

other.

As far

as

business

is

concerned,

this

means

cooperation

and

equality

of

effort

and

opportunity.

Justice

(adalah)

Islam

is

absolutely unambiguous

in

its

objective

of

eradicating

from

society

all

traces

of

inequity,

injustice,

exploitation

and

oppression.

The

Qur'an

also

condemns

vicarious

guilt

or

merit

and

teaches

the

greatest

possible

individualism

"...

no

bearer of

burdens

can

bear the burdens

of

another;

. . .

man

can

have

nothing

but what

he strives for . . ."

(Qur'an

53:38-9).

This indi




5/15

348 illian

Rice

vidualistic

outlook

on

the

spiritual

destiny

of

humanity

is

counterbalanced

by

a

rigorous

con

ception

of

society

and social collaboration.

In

their

acquisition

of

wealth, however,

people

should

not

lie

or

cheat;

they

must

uphold

promises

and fulfill

contracts.

Usurious

dealings

are

prohibited.

Islam teaches that

all

wealth

should

be

productive

and

people

may

not

stop

the circulation of

wealth

after

they

have

acquired

it,

nor

reduce the

momentum

of circulation

(Chapra,

1992).

The intense commitment

of Islam

to

justice

and brotherhood

demands that Muslim

society

take

care

of the basic needs of the

poor.

Individuals

are

obliged

to

earn a

living

and

only

when this is

impossible

does

the

state

intervene.

The Islamic

institution of

zakah,

that

is,

a

wealth

tax

comprising compulsory charitable-giving

for

specially designated

groups

in

society,

facilitates

the

care

of

all members

of

society.

The rich

are

not

the

real

owners

of

their

wealth;

they

are

only

trustees.

They

must

spend

it

in

accordance

with

the

terms

of the

trust,

one

of

the

most

impor

tant

of

which

is

fulfilling

the needs of the

poor.

The

word

"zakah"

means

purification

and

as

such,

income

redistribution

is

not

only

an

economic necessity but also

a means

to spiritual

salvation

(".

. .

of

their wealth take alms

so

that

you

might purify

and

sanctify."

Qur'an

9:103).

Thus,

economics

is

effectively

integrated

with

ethics

(Naqvi,

1981).

Trusteeship

(khilafah)

People

are

viewed

as

trustees

of

the

earth

on

behalf of God. This does

not

mean a

negation

of private property but does have some impor

tant

implications.

No

inhibitions

attach

to

economic

enterprise

and

people

are

encouraged

to

avail themselves

of all

opportunities

available.

There

is

no

conflict between

the

moral and

socio-economic

requirements

of

life.

There

is

a

very

wide

margin

in

a

person's personal

and

social

existence.

People

may

be

ascetics

or,

after

paying

the wealth

tax,

may

enjoy

fully

their

remaining

wealth.

Yet,

resources are

for

the

benefit

of all and

not

just

a

few

and

everyone

must

acquire

resources

rightfully.

Although

material

prosperity

is

desirable,

it

is

not

a

goal

in

itself. What

is

crucial

is

the

motivation,

the

"ends"

of

economic

activity.

Given the

right

motivation,

all

economic

activity

assumes

the

character of

worship

(Siddiqi,

1982).

Indulgence

in

luxurious

living

and

the desire

to

show-off

is

condemned.

Islam

does

not

tolerate

conspicuous

consumption

(Chapra,

1992).

Resources

must

also be

disposed

of

in

such

a

way

as

to

protect

everyone's

well-being

(Al

Faruqi,

1976).

No

one

is

authorized

to

destroy

or

waste

God-given

resources.

This

is

very

relevant

to

ethics

concerning

business and the

environment: when Abu

Bakr,

the first ruler of

the Islamic

state

after

Muhammad,

sent

someone

on a war

assignment,

he

exhorted

him

not

to

kill

indiscriminately

or

to

destroy

vegetation

or

animal

life,

even

in

war

and

on

enemy

territory.

Thus

there

was

no

question

of this

being

allowed

in

peacetime

or

on

home

territory.

Trusteeship

is

akin

to

the

concept

of sustainable

development.

Models of

sustainable

development

do

not

regard

natural

resources as a

free

good,

to

be

plundered

at

the

free

will

of

any

nation,

any

generation

or

any

individual

(UNDP,

1994).

The notion

of

trusteeship

is

also

common

to

the

Jewish

and

Christian faiths; Green (1993) refers

to

Psalms

24:1,

"The

earth

is

the

Lord's

and the fullness

thereof."

The need

for

balance

Muhammad advised Muslims

to

be moderate

in

all their

affairs;

he

described Islam

as

the "middle

way."

A

balance

in

human

endeavors

is

neces

sary

to

ensure

social

well-being

and

continued

development of human potential. Chapra (1992)

notes

that Islam

recognizes

what

Marxism

sought

to

deny:

the contribution

of individual self

interest

through profit

and

private

property

to

individual

initiative, drive,

efficiency

and

enter

prise.

At the

same

time,

Islam

condemns the evils

of

greed,

unscrupulousness

and

disregard

for

the

rights

and

needs

of

others,

which

the

secularist,

short-term,

this-worldly

perspective

of

capitalism

sometimes

encourages.

The individual

profit

motive

is

not

the chief

propelling

force

in

Islam

(Siddiqi,

1981).

Social

good

should

guide

entre




6/15

IslamicEthics 349

preneurs

in

their

decisions,

besides

profit.

A

relevant

saying

of

Muhammad

is

"work for

your

worldly

life

as

if

you

were

going

to

live

forever,

but

work for the life

to

come as

if

you

were

going

to

die

tomorrow."

Islam,

like

some

other

religions,

places

a

greater

emphasis

on

duties

than

on

rights.

The

wisdom behind this

is

that

if

duties

(relating

to

justice

and

trusteeship,

for

example)

are

fulfilled

by

everyone,

then

self-interest

is

automatically

held

within

bounds and the

rights

of all

are

undoubtedly safeguarded. Society

is

the

primary

institution

in

Islam,

not

the

state

(Cantori

and

Lowrie,

1992).

Chapra

(1992)

argues

that in

order

to create

an

equilibrium

between

scarce

resources

and

the

claims

on

them

in

a

way

that

realizes both

efficiency

and

equity,

it is

neces

sary

to

focus

on

human

beings

themselves,

rather

than

on

the market

or

the

state.

As

emphasized

by

Cantori

and

Lowrie

(1992),

the Islamic

jurists

and the Islamic law

or

"shari'ah"

(literally,

"road")

limit

governmental

power.

The sharVah

is

so

all

encompassing

that

there

is

less

need for

legislation

regarding

issues

of

ethics,

social

responsibility

and

human

interaction.

In

partic

ular,

Muslims

believe

that the

Qur'an

contains

a

final and

unambiguous

statement of the truth,

added

to

what had

gone

before

(for

example,

the

messages

delivered

to

Moses

and

Jesus).

The

duty

of the Muslim

community

is

to

preserve

this

message.

Thus,

Muslims

have

a

profound

horror

of

anything regarded

as

innovation

in

matters

of

religion,

including

what modern Christians

interpret

as

necessary

adaptations

of

religion

to

changing

times

(Eaton, 1994).

The

emphasis

is

therefore

on

the human

being

rather

than

on

state

power.

The real wealth

of

societies iswith their

people.

An excessive obses

sion

with the

creation

of

material

wealth

can

obscure the

ultimate

objective

of

enriching

human lives.

Humans

are

thus the ends

as

well

as

the

means.

Unless humans

are

motivated

to

pursue

their

self-interest

within

the

constraints of

economic

well-being

(the

application

of the

"moral

filter"),

neither the "invisible hand" of

the market

nor

the

"visible hand" of

central

planning

can

succeed

in

achieving

socio

economic

goals (Chapra,

1992).

Summary

It

should be

emphasized

that

in

Islam,

business

activity

is

considered

to

be

a

socially

useful

function;

Muhammad

was

involved in

trading

for

much of

his

life. Great

importance

is

attached

to

views

relating

to

consumption,

ownership,

goals

of

a

business

enterprise

and the code of conduct

of

various

business

agents.

A

summary

of the

key

ethical

principles

in

Islam which relate

to

business

practices

is

presented

in

Table

I.

Because

Judaism,

Christianity

and Islam

are

closely

related,

many

ethical

principles

such

as

honesty,

trustworthiness and

taking

care

of the less

fortunate,

are

universal

among

the three

religions,

and

indeed, among

most

moral codes.

For

example,

as

pointed

out

by

Rossauw

(1994),

someone

with

a

Christian

understanding

of

the

unconditional value of life

cannot

be careless

in

the

workplace

about

product

and

quality

stan

dards that

pose

a

threat

to

the

lives

of

consumers

or

employees.

However,

Rossauw

suggests

that

it

is

not

the role of the church

to

approve

or

condemn

economic

systems.

As

economic

systems

are

morally

ambiguous,

he

encourages

Christians

to

"keep

a

critical distance from the

economic system in which

they

are

working."

In

contrast,

because

Islam

supplies

a

practical

life-program,

it is

important

to

note

that

the

Islamic

socio-economic

system

includes detailed

coverage

of

specific

economic

variables such

as

interest,

taxation,

circulation of

wealth,

fair

trading,

and

consumption.

Islamic law

(shari'ah)

derived

from

the

Qur'an

and sunnah

also

covers

business

relationships

between

buyers

and

sellers,

employers

and

employees

and lenders

and

borrowers

(for

full

details,

see

for

example,

Keller,

1994).

Note that there is no difference

between Muslims

and

non-Muslims

in

legal

rulings

concerning

commercial

dealings.

For

example,

it is

unlawful

to

undercut

another's

price

(whether

that

person

be Muslim

or non

Muslim)

during

a

stipulated

option

to

cancel

period.

A

seller

is

not

permitted

to

tell the

buyer

"cancel

the deal

and

I'll

sell

you

one

cheaper."

Also,

whoever

knows of

a

defect in

an

article he/she

is

selling

is

obliged

to

disclose

it,

to

any

buyer,

Muslim

or

non-Muslim.

Both

Islamic

and

non-Islamic

employees

must

be




7/15

350

Gillian

Rice

TABLE

I

Examples

of

ethical

principles

in

Islam

relating

to

business

practices

Ethical

principle

Relevant business

practice(s)

Unity

"No Arab has

superiority

over

any

non-Arab and

no non

Arab

has

any

superiority

over

an

Arab;

no

dark

person

has

superiority

over

a

white

person

and

no

white

person

has

any

superiority

over a

dark

person.

The

criterion of

honor

in

the

sight

of

God

is

righteousness

and

honest

living."

Saying

of

Muhammad

(Sallam

and

Hanafy,

1988).

Equal

opportunity

and

non-discriminatory

behavior

in

hiring, buying

and

selling.

"O mankind

We

created from

you

from

a

single (pair)

of

a

male and

a

female,

and made

you

into

nations

and

tribes,

that

you may

know

each

other

. .

."

(Qur'an 49:13).

Teamwork. International

business.

"...

man

can

have

nothing

but

what he

strives

for

. .

."

(Qur'an

53:39).

Rewards

should be received

only

after

expending

efforts.

"God likes

that

when

someone

does

anything,

it

must

be

done

perfectly

well."

Saying

of

Muhammad

(Sallam

and

Hanafy,

1988).

Excellence

and

quality

of work.

"...

say,

'O

my

Lord increase

me

in

knowledge.'

"

(Qur'an 20:114).

"The

acquisition

of

knowledge

is

a

duty

incumbent

on

every

Muslim,

male

and

female."

Saying

of

Muhammad

(Sallam

and

Hanafy,

1988).

Importance

of

knowledge-seeking,

research

and

development,

scientific

activity,

training

programs,

executive

training,

technology

transfer.

Trusteeship

"God does command

you

to

render

back

your

trusts to

those

to

whom

they

are

due

.

.

."

(Qur'an 4:58)

Fulfilling obligations

and

trust

in

business

relationships

and

the

workplace.

"...

wear

your

beautiful

apparel

at

every

time

and

place

of

prayer:

eat

and drink:

but

waste

not

by

excess

. .

."

(Qur'an

7:31).

It is

acceptable

to

have

wealth

and

to

consume

but

not

to waste

resources.

Care

for

the

environment.

".

.

.to

God

belongs

all

that

is in

the heavens and

on

earth

.

.

."

(Qur'an 3:129).

There

is

no

unlimited

right

to

private

property.

Justice

"...

God

loves

not

the

arrogant,

the

vainglorious

(nor)

those

who

are

niggardly,

enjoin

niggardliness

on

others

.

.

."

(Qur'an

4:36-7).

Prohibition

of

hoarding.

Encouragement

of

spending,

investment

in

business

enterprise

and

circulation

of

wealth.

"...

and

spend

of

your

substance

in

the

cause

of

God,

and

make

not

your

own

hands

contribute

to

your

destruction;

but do

good

.

.

."

(Qur'an 2:195).

Condemnation of

ostentatious

consumption.




8/15

Islamic Ethics 351

Table

I

(continued)

Ethical

principle

Relevant

business

practice(s)

Justice

continued.

. . .

"...

wealth and

children

are

allurements of

the

life

of this

world

.

.

."

(Qur'an 18:46).

Acquisition

of wealth

is

given

reduced

consideration

in

the scale of human values.

"... He has raised

you

in

ranks,

some

above others: that

He

may

try

you

in

the

gifts

that

He

has

given

you"

(Qur'an

6:165).

Income

inequality

is

permitted.

"...

it is

We

(God)

who

portion

out

between them their

livelihood

in

the

life

of this

world:

and

We

raise

some

of

them

in ranks

so

that

some

may

command work of others.

But

the

Mercy

of

your

Lord

is

better than the

(wealth)

which

they

amass."

(Qur'an 43:32).

Distinction between

managers,

workers,

professionals,

etc.

is

acceptable.

"...

of their

wealth take

alms,

so

that

you

might

purify

and

sanctify

. .

."

(Qur'an

9:103).

Income

redistribution: wealth should be

shared with those less fortunate.

"God

permits

trade

but

forbids

usurious

gain*."

(Qur'an

2:275).

Unlawfulness

of

loans

by

which lender

obtains benefit.

"...

give

just

measure

and

weight,

nor

withhold from

the

people

the

things

that

are

their due

. .

."

(Qur'an 11:85).

Give

full

measure

and

weight.

"He who cheats is

not

one

of us." Saying of Muhammad

(Keller, 1994).

Whoever knows of

a

defect in something is

obliged

to

disclose

it.

"...

don't outbid

one

another

in

order

to

raise

the

price,

.

. .

don't

enter

into

a

transaction

when others

have

already

entered

into

that

transaction

and be

as

brothers

one

to

another."

Saying

of

Muhammad

(Hanafy

and

Sallam,

1988).

Fairness in

contract

negotiation.

"...

make

your

utterance

straightforward

. .

."

(Qur'an 33:70).

Truthfulness and directness

in

negotiation.

"On the

day

of

judgment,

the honest Muslim merchant

will stand side

by

side with

the

martyrs." Saying

of

Muhammad

(Ali,

1992).

".

. .

stand

out

firmly

for

justice,

as

witnesses

to

God,

even

against

yourselves,

or

your

parents,

or

your

kin,

and whether

it

be

(against)

rich and

poor."

Non-discriminatory workplace

practices.

Protection for

"whistle-blowers."

No

special

privileges

for those with wealth

or

status.

"...

nor

shall

We

(God)

deprive

them

(of

the

fruit)

of

aught

Importance

of

individual

responsibility,

of their works:

(yet)

is

each individual

in

pledge

for his deeds."

(Qur'an 52:21).

*

In

the

Qur'an,

the

Arabic word

used

is

"riba"

which

lexically

means

"increment"

(Keller,

1994).




9/15

352 illian

Rice

treated with the

same

just,

equitable

and honest

approach.

Note

that Islam

is

not

an

ascetic

religion.

Islam

allows

people

to

satisfy

all

their

needs

and

to

go

beyond.

The

objective

should

not

be

to create

a

monotonous

uniformity

in

Muslim

society.

Simplicity

in

consumption

can

be attained

in

lifestyles alongside

creativity

and

diversity.

Neither

does

Islam

mean an

absence

of

economic

liberalization. There

is

a

different kind of liber

alization:

one

in which

all

private

and

public

sector

economic

decisions

are

first

passed

through

the filter of

moral

values before

they

are

made

subject

to

the

discipline

of the market.

Undoubtedly,

to

implement

the "moral

filter"

in

practice requires the dedication of

a

large

number

of

market

participants.

There

is

there

fore

frequently

a

wide

gap

between the

philos

ophy

and

practice

of Islamic ethics

in

countries

with

predominantly

Muslim

populations.

The

next

section

examines

this

issue

with reference

to

Egypt.

Philosophy

and

practice:

the

example

of

Egypt

The

reality

of

present-day

Muslim life

is

far from

the ideal

possibilities

given

in

the

religious

teach

ings

of Islam

(Asad, 1993).

Because

of

a

number

of historical

factors,

the

dominant

ideology

in

Muslim

countries

is

not

Islam but

rather

secu

larism

along

with

a

mixture

of

feudalism,

capi

talism and

socialism

(Chapra,

1992).

Islam

is

conspicuous by

its

absence,

particularly

in

the

political

and

economic

fields.

In

the Muslim

countries,

unjust

and

oppressive

political

and

socio-economic

systems

have been the cause of

the Islamic

resurgence.

The

socio-economic

restructuring

that

Islam

represents

threatens the

governments'

short-term

(but

not

necessarily

long-term)

interests.

Impact

of

economic

liberalization

For

one

dimension

of

life

such

as

business,

it

is

difficult

to

differentiate between

the

impact

of

the

religious

context

of the behavior

and

the

total

cultural

system

(Moore

and

Delener,

1986).

Egyptians

are a

religious people closely

attached

to

their

religious

culture and

identity.

There

is

a

growing

awareness

among

them that

many

Islamic cultural traits

are

being

superseded

by

western

values,

institutions

and

practices

(Najjar,

1992;

Asad,

1993).

Joy

and

Ross

(1989)

observe

how,

today,

societal

success

in

the third world

is

measured and

evaluated

in

terms

of

proximity

to

the

institutions

and values of the

west.

Nevertheless,

new

techniques,

ideas and values

will be

accepted only

if

they

meet

the

real

needs

of

people

more

effectively

than

existing

ones.

Had such institutions such

as

liberal

democracy,

capitalism

or

socialism succeeded

in

solving

the

pressing problems of Egyptian society, they

probably

would

not

have

generated

such

hostility

(Najjar,

1992).

Instead,

they

have been

seen as

the

cause

of

rapid

deterioration of the

quality

of

Islamic life and the decline of the Muslim world.

The

emphasis

on

conspicuous consumption

and

changes

in

lifestyles

which followed Sadat's

"infitah" (open-door)

economic

policy

and

move

to

a

free market

economy

in

the

seventies

and

eighties

aggravated

inflation and

unemployment

in

Egypt,

sharpened

social

disparities

and

enlarged the class of dispossessed and disaffected.

The

economic

liberalization

policy

concentrated

on

trade,

the

importance

of

consumer

items

and

expansion

of

services

such

as

tourism

and hotel

management (Tuma,

1988),

rather than

on

indus

trial

projects.

Privatization efforts

continue,

although

rather

slowly

because

of

the

govern

ment's

philosophy

of control.

A

"new class" has

arisen

as

a

result

of the

open-door

policy.

Although

it

is

relatively

small,

it

accumulated

much

economic

and

political

power

during

the

eighties (Jabber,

1986).

This class consists

mainly

of

entrepreneurs,

professional

and

high

salaried

employees

of the

private

economy.

Cultural

dualism

The

artificial

symbiosis

of Islamic ethical beliefs

and

"alien"

socio-economic

philosophies

and

systems

has

led

to

the

emergence

of bifurcated

societies

promoting schizophrenic

behavior

both

at

the

individual

and

collective

level

(Naqvi,




10/15

IslamicEthics

353

1981).

Ali

(1992)

discusses

the

Arab dual

identity

in

detail,

attributing

it

to two

main

factors:

(1)

colonialism which instilled

feelings

of

inferiority

in

Arab

thought

and

(2)

the artificial

division

of

lands

into

nation-states. The influx of multina

tional

corporations

into the

region

also con

tributed

to

cultural and social alienation.

Because

of

social and

political

instability

in

countries like

Egypt,

people

tend

to

believe

everything

in

life

is

temporary

and

they

make their

way

on

doubt.

Previous

studies

(for

example,

Rawwas

et

al.,

1994;

Al-Khatib

et

al.,

1994)

suggest

that social

and

political instability

or

economic

hardship

may

cause

tense,

pessimistic

and

struggling

indi

viduals

to

sacrifice

ethicality

for basic survival

needs.

In

particular,

Tuma

(1988)

identifies

three main features of

Egyptian

culture which

Egyptians

have internalized

in

their behavior

to

enable

them

to

deal

with the difficulties of life

in

Egyptian

society.

These three

features

are

inde

cision,

procrastination

and

indifference.

People

will

not

firmly

answer

yes

or

no

to

a

request,

but will

say

"insha'Allah

(God

willing). They

will

not

do

today

what

they

can

do

tomorrow,

but

will

say

"bukra"

(tomorrow),

as

if time

had

no

cost.

They

accept

indecision and

procrastination

and their effects with apparent indifference, and

say

"ma'alesh"

(it

doesn't

matter),

even

though

the

costs

may

be substantial.

If

God's

name

is invoked

in

every

situation

and

if

every

action

depends

on

the will of

a

higher

authority,

Tuma

(1988)

asks,

what

role

does

the

individual

play?

What

responsibility

must

he

or

she

carry?

It

is

important

to note

that Muslims

are

exhorted

in

the

Qur'an

never

to

say

that

they

will

do

something

the

next

day

without also

saying

"insha'Allah."

This does

not

absolve the

individual of responsibility; people should make

strong

effort and

work

hard

to

achieve

their

business

plans.

If

these

go awry,

in

hindsight,

a

Muslim would consider this

to

be the

will

of

God. This

may

be viewed

as

"predestination

in

reverse."

Yet

there is

no

concept

of

predestina

tion

in

terms

of the

future

as

humans

have free

will

and

must

make their

own

conscious

life

(and

business)

decisions.

As

Eaton

(1994)

explains,

the

concept

of the divine omniscience would

be

empty

if

humans did

not

acknowledge

that

God

knows not

only

all that has ever

happened

but

also all that

will

ever

happen,

and that "the

'future'

is

therefore

in

a

certain

sense,

already

'past.'

"

In

the words of

the

Bible,

"That

which

hath been

is

now;

and

that

which

is

to

be hath

already

been"

(Ecclesiastes,

3:15).

Since humans

are

subject

to time and cannot see the

future,

they

have

an

experience

of free choice.

They

make their

choices and

act

accordingly; only

when the

act

is

past

can

they

say

"it

was

written"

or

"it

was

decreed

for

us

from the

beginning

of

time"

(Eaton, 1994).

The

Qur'an

states

that

a

person

achieves

only

that for

which he

makes

an

effort:

"... And

that

man can

have

nothing

but

what he

does

(good

or

bad)

.

.

."

(Qur'an 53:39).

With

respect

to

"insha'Allah,"

there

appears

to

be

a

tension

between

the

Qur'an's

teaching

and what

sometimes

occurs

in

practice.

Tuma

(1988) suggests

that,

in

practice,

the deference

to

a

higher authority

may

be understood

to

mean

"if

the boss wills it."

If

no-one

will make

deci

sions,

then

no-one

will bear

responsibility.

Individual

initiative is

therefore

reduced,

as

all

decisions

are

centralized,

as a

way

of

avoiding

responsibility

and blame. Based

on

this author's

experiences

in

Egyptian

society,

the

term

"insha'Allah"

is

also often used

as a

way

of

meaning "no" without actually saying "no." It is

difficult

to

obtain

firm commitment from

business

partners

and

to

plan

accordingly.

Al-Khatib

et

al.

(1995)

provide

the

following

explanation

for

this

type

of

behavior:

one

ethical

standard is used

to

handle

daily

decisions

while

the

other,

influenced

by religious

teachings,

is

not

implementable

because of the economic

hardship

faced

by

the

people.

Informality in business relationships

Social

relations,

the

traditional

extended

family

structure

and

nepotism

have

a

strong

influence

on

business

behavior.

Egyptians

prefer

to

do

business with

people they

know

and

like

and

who

they

consider

as

friends.

They

are

extremely

hospitable

and

generous

and

exchange gifts

often.

As

business

relationships

are

often with friends

or

family,

these

relationships

are

characterized

by

informality

which

is

subsequently

reflected

in

the

treatment of

time,

weights

and measures, and




11/15

354

Gillian

Rice

quality

control of

goods

and

services

(Tuma,

1988).

Table

I

includes

several Islamic ethical

principles

which

counter

this

informality.

For

example,

there should be

no

discrimination

between human

beings,

whether

they

are

family

members or not, full measure and full

weight

should

always

be

given

to

buyers, along

with

explanation

of

any

deficiencies

in

products

to

be

sold,

and hard

work

and

excellence

or

quality

in

work

is

urged.

Implications

for

doing

business

with

people

in

Muslim cultures: the

case

of

Egypt

The bifurcated

nature

of the

Egyptian

culture

creates

some

interesting

problems

for

foreign

executives

doing

business

in

Egypt.

On

the

one

hand,

it

might

be useful for

a

foreign

executive

to

understand

and show

appreciation

for the

Islamic

concepts

of

unity

(unity

of

faith

and

action,

equality

of

humans),

trusteeship

and

justice.

On

the

other

hand,

managers

must

consider the difficult realities of

everyday

living

which lead

people

to

forgo

the ethical

princi

ples

of the Islamic tradition.

Can managers of multinationals play the role

of

"moral

champions"

as

Amine

(1996)

suggests?

About

sixty

percent

of

multinationals have codes

of ethics

in

place

(The

Economist,

1995).

Many

managers

ignore

ethical

diversity,

however,

and

implement

the

same

code of ethics around the

world.

Vasquez-Parraga

and

Kara

(1995)

argue

that codes of ethics

have

not

worked. Some

contend that

ethics

cannot

be

taught

to

managers

because

their values

are

already

formed. There

are,

however,

numerous

documented

cases

that

show ethics can be influenced by organizational

pressures

(Smith

and

Quelch,

1992).

Rogers

et

al.

(1995)

state

that,

especially

in

developing

countries

like

Egypt,

managers

should

develop

and

implement

a

balanced business

philosophy

which

integrates

the

profitability

requirements

of

multinationals with the

social,

economic

and

ecological

needs

of

developing

countries

and

those

who live

in

them.

For

example,

the U.K.-based

retail outlet

"Egyptian

House" is

a

joint

venture

with

Egypt's

Foundation for the Productive

Families,

a

gov

ernment-funded

cooperative

set

up

to

make

needy

Egyptian

families

self-sufficient

(Thomas,

1996a).

A

non-profit

U.S.-based

cooperative,

"Women's

Organization

Middle

East

Network"

(WOMEN),

unites

women

from

Egypt,

Israel,

Jordan

and Palestine. Its

goals

include

training

women

in

management,

technology,

finance and

marketing techniques,

as

well

as

promoting

social

services. Products

are

to

be

marketed

regionally

and

internationally,

with the ultimate

aim

of

developing

a

franchise

system

(Thomas,

1995).

Niclas,

a

German

clothing

retailer is

opening

a

large

number of outlets

in

the Middle

East,

with

plans

to

locate

production

as

well

as

retail outlets

in

Egypt.

It

can

be

argued

that

Niclas

is

pro

moting

fashion

and "luxurious"

clothing

items.

Nevertheless,

the

company's

plans

to

promote

brand

loyalty

also include

starting

a

children's

club

led

by eco-friendly

character

"Niclas"

who

will

give

talks about

nature

and

ecology.

Niclas

has

a

regional

partner

to

assure

regional

adapta

tion

of business

approaches

(Thomas, 1996b).

There

is

undoubtedly

a

need

for

genuine

understanding

of

the ethics

of

foreigners

with

whom

an

international

manager

seeks

to

do

business,

whether these

are

other

businesspeople,

consumers or

government representatives.

In

each

particular

culture,

this

understanding

should

extend

to

people's

aspirational

ethics

as

well

as

to

their

everyday

practices.

Managers

should

not

look

merely

at

the

practices

of

the

most

corrupt

level

of

society

(Tuma,

1988;

Al-Khatib

et

al.,

1995).

The

foregoing

discussion

of

Islamic

philosophy

and

practice

in

Egypt

suggests

a

number

of

impli

cations for international

executives.

These

are

detailed

in

Table

II.

The

Egyptian

culture,

based

in the Islamic tradition, focuses on social issues

such

as

family,

health

and

training

for

young

people.

Marketing

and

public

relations

efforts

must

therefore

emphasize

these

issues

(Wilkinson,

1996).

For

example,

Egyptian

House

is

planning

to

sponsor

Egyptian

students

on

annual

place

ments to

learn

marketing

techniques.

In

the

tele

phone

switching

market,

European

firms

have

strengthened

their

position

in

Egypt by

visiting

agents

more

frequently

and

educating

their

agents

regarding

new

technology.

Such

efforts have

led

to

closer,

more successful business

relationships




12/15

Islamic Ethics

355

TABLE II

Illustrations

of the

business

implications

of Islamic

philosophy

and

practice

in

Egypt

Islamic

philosophy

Egyptian practice

Implications

for

the

foreign

executive

Unity

Non-discrimination

in

the

workplace

Importance

of

knowledge-seeking

Trusteeship

Care

of the

environment

Use

of

wealth

for social

causes,

to

aid less

fortunate

people.

Justice

Precision

in

business

dealings,

honesty,

full

information

to

the

buyer,

etc.

Individual

responsibility.

Prohibition of usurious

transactions

e.g.

payment

and

receipt

of

interest.

Nepotism,

importance

of social

relationships

in

business

Egyptians

place

great

emphasis

on

education,

wherever

possible,

given

the

country's

level of

economic

development.

Egyptians

have

neglected

this,

in

part

because

of

more

pressing

economic

problems,

but also

because of

attitude.

Changes

are

occurring.

Environmental

laws

being implemented.

The

"new"

class

which

benefited

from

liberalization

tends

to

engage

in

conspicuous consumption.

Yet,

there

are

also efforts

on

the

part

of

some

Islamists

to

develop

social

welfare

programs.

Informality

in

treatment

of

time,

weights

and

measures,

business

on a

"handshake."

Indecision,

procrastination.

Lack of

trust.

Efforts

to

gain

benefits

from

the

state^

Some

Egyptian

businesspeople

observe this

ruling;

others

do

not.

Trust

and

friendship

must

be

developed,

often

slowly,

before

business

is

possible. Hiring

of

family

members/friends

by

Egyptian

partner

may

result

in

less

than

qualified

individuals

for certain

positions.

Provide

training

as

part

of

contracts;

technology

transfer;

visits

to

foreign

company's

home

facilities

much

appreciated.

Business

opportunities

in

environmental

technology

field.

Marketing

appeals

could

be made

using

the Islamic

perspective

on

the

environment.

International

managers

have

the

opportunity

to

be

"moral

champions."

E.g.

success

of

Egyptian

House in

UK,

a

joint

venture with

Egypt's

Foundation for the

Productive Families

(Thomas,

1996a).

Also,

possibilities

for

cause-related

marketing

in

Egypt.

Foreign

executives

need

to

be

extremely

patient

and

cautious.

Showing

strong

commitment,

however,

will

likely

increase

the

commitment

of the

Egyptian

partner.

Need

for

local

agent/

partner.

Need

to

find

out

the views of

the

Egyptian

partner.

Foreign

executives

would

be

wise

to

avoid

expressing

opinions,

but should

follow desires of

Egyptian

partner.

Opportunity

for

innovative

financing

methods. Islamic

financing

institutions

and

instruments

growing

worldwide

with

many

major

western

banks

involved.




13/15

356

illian

Rice

(Middle

East

Executive

Reports,

1995).

Innovative

financing

methods based

on

Islamic

practice

are

growing

worldwide and

are

accessible

to western

business

executives.

For

example,

Citibank's

Islamic

investment

bank

is

headquartered

in

Bahrain. The Islamic

Development

Bank has an

export

credit

agency,

The Islamic

Corporation

for the

Insurance

of

Investment and

Export

Credit

(Middle

East

Economic

Digest,

1995).

While there

are some

differences

between

phi

losophy

and

practice,

it

should be remembered

that the Islamic worldview has

an

enduring

and

strong

influence

on

Egyptian

culture.

In

common

with

most

peoples

of

the

world,

Egyptians

are

very

favorably

impressed

and

honored

by

a

for

eigner's

genuine

desire

to

learn about

the

ideal

to

which

they

aspire.

An

understanding

of

Egyptians'

inner

conflicts

in

business ethics will

be

appreciated.

At

all

times,

foreign

executives

should demonstrate

respect

for Islam and

they

will

find

that,

in

turn,

the

Egyptians

will

truly

respect

the

foreigners'

religious

beliefs and ethical

ideals.

Conclusion

In

response

to

the

need for

further research and

discussion about business

ethics

in

different

cultures,

I

have

described Islamic

philosophy

regarding

business

practices.

It is

important

not

merely

to

understand

the

philosophy

or

ideal,

however.

Knowledge

of ethics

in

practice

is

vital

to

the

international

manager.

The illustration of

Egypt

shows considerable

diversities between

philosophy

and

practice;

diversities which

if

understood,

can

provide

a

foreign

executive

with

ideas

on

how

to

negotiate with Egyptians and

even

what

kinds of

products

or

services

might

be

appreciated.

The

specific

Egyptian

case,

of

course,

has limited

generalizability,

as

all cultures

have

unique

traits.

Nevertheless,

the

analytical

framework

I

use

is

applicable

in

any

culture.

Managers

should

examine first

a

culture's

ideal

set

of

ethics,

and

second,

the

actual

ethical

practice. They

should

also

attempt

to

investigate

reasons

for

differences between these

two.

Future

empirical

research could focus

on

what

are the ethical issues of most concern toMuslim

managers

and

how these

managers

deal with

issues

of social

responsibility

in

their

countries.

The

results would

be salient

in

the

development

and

implementation

of multinational

companies'

codes

of

ethics.

In

addition,

organizations

seeking

to be

"good

corporate citizens" inMuslim coun

tries

could benefit from this kind

of research.

Because

much

international

business

is conducted

using

agents

and

various

types

of

joint

ventures,

it is

important

to

understand

the ethical ideals

and

practices

of Muslim

business

partners.

Also,

how

do

they

resolve

conflicts with non-Muslim

partners?

Research

should include

comparisons

of different Muslim

countries,

such

as

those

from

North

Africa,

the

Gulf

region,

and Southeast

Asia.

Furthermore,

what

is

the

impact

of Islamic

thinking

on

different business

functions such

as

finance

and

marketing?

For

example,

what kind

of

advertising

is

not

only acceptable

in

Islamic

cultures,

but

is

preferred

and

more

effective?

The

most

appropriate

way

to

research these

issues

is

by

conducting

surveys

to

ascertain

the attitudes

and

practices

of

managers

and

consumers

in

Muslim

countries.

In

some

contexts,

such

as

advertising

research,

laboratory

and

field

exper

iments

may

also

be

feasible.

The

Islamic ideal

is

part

of

a

universal Islamic

culture,

common

to

all

Muslims

around the

world.

Hence,

a

deeper

appreciation

of

Islam

can

be

advantageous

to

executives

conducting

business

with

any

Muslims,

from Indonesia

to

Morocco,

and from the former Soviet Central

Asian

republics

to

South

Africa.

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1992,

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paper

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Business

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April

9-12

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University

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O

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