1 I/O Management and Disk Scheduling Chapter 8 Advanced Operating System.
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Transcript of 1 I/O Management and Disk Scheduling Chapter 8 Advanced Operating System.
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Test
In your opinion, what multimedia applications or tasks, if any, might be candidates for inclusion in a near-future operating system
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Categories of I/O Devices
Human readable Used to communicate with the user Printers Video display terminals
Display Keyboard Mouse
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Categories of I/O Devices
Machine readable Used to communicate with electronic
equipment Disk and tape drives Sensors Controllers Actuators
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Categories of I/O Devices
Communication Used to communicate with remote
devices Digital line drivers Modems
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Differences in I/O Devices
Data rate May be differences of several orders
of magnitude between the data transfer rates
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Differences in I/O Devices
Application Disk used to store files requires file
management software Disk used to store virtual memory
pages needs special hardware and software to support it
Terminal used by system administrator may have a higher priority
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Differences in I/O Devices
Complexity of control Unit of transfer
Data may be transferred as a stream of bytes for a terminal or in larger blocks for a disk
Data representation Encoding schemes
Error conditions Devices respond to errors differently
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Performing I/O
Programmed I/O Process is busy-waiting for the operation
to complete Interrupt-driven I/O
I/O command is issued Processor continues executing
instructions I/O module sends an interrupt when
done
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Performing I/O
Direct Memory Access (DMA) DMA module controls exchange of
data between main memory and the I/O device
Processor interrupted only after entire block has been transferred
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Direct Memory Access
Processor delegates I/O operation to the DMA module
DMA module transfers data directly to or form memory
When complete DMA module sends an interrupt signal to the processor
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Operating System Design Issues
Efficiency Most I/O devices extremely slow compared
to main memory Use of multiprogramming allows for some
processes to be waiting on I/O while another process executes
I/O cannot keep up with processor speed Swapping is used to bring in additional
Ready processes which is an I/O operation
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Operating System Design Issues
Generality Desirable to handle all I/O devices in
a uniform manner Hide most of the details of device I/O
in lower-level routines so that processes and upper levels see devices in general terms such as read, write, open, close, lock, unlock
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I/O Buffering
Reasons for buffering Processes must wait for I/O to
complete before proceeding Certain pages must remain in main
memory during I/O
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I/O Buffering Block-oriented
Information is stored in fixed sized blocks Transfers are made a block at a time Used for disks and tapes
Stream-oriented Transfer information as a stream of bytes Used for terminals, printers,
communication ports, mouse and other pointing devices, and most other devices that are not secondary storage
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Single Buffer
Operating system assigns a buffer in main memory for an I/O request
Block-oriented Input transfers made to buffer Block moved to user space when
needed Another block is moved into the buffer
Read ahead
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Single Buffer
Block-oriented User process can process one block of
data while next block is read in Swapping can occur since input is
taking place in system memory, not user memory
Operating system keeps track of assignment of system buffers to user processes
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Single Buffer
Stream-oriented Used a line at time User input from a terminal is one line
at a time with carriage return signaling the end of the line
Output to the terminal is one line at a time
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Double Buffer Use two system buffers instead of one A process can transfer data to or from
one buffer while the operating system empties or fills the other buffer
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Circular Buffer More than two buffers are used Each individual buffer is one unit in a circular
buffer Used when I/O operation must keep up with
process
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Disk Performance Parameters To read or write, the disk head must
be positioned at the desired track and at the beginning of the desired sector
Seek time Time it takes to position the head at the
desired track Rotational delay or rotational latency
Time its takes for the beginning of the sector to reach the head
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Disk Performance Parameters
Access time Sum of seek time and rotational delay The time it takes to get in position to
read or write Data transfer occurs as the sector
moves under the head
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Disk Scheduling Policies
Seek time is the reason for differences in performance
For a single disk there will be a number of I/O requests
If requests are selected randomly, we will poor performance
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Process B reads tracks 3, 5
Process A reads tracks 2, 5
Process C reads tracks 8, 4
OS has to read these tracks:
2,3,4,5,8.
Disk Scheduling
At runtime, I/O requests for disk tracks come from the processes
OS has to choose an order to serve the requests
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Disk Scheduling The order that the read/write head is
moved to satisfy several I/O requests determines the total seek time affects performance the OS cannot change the rotational delay or
transfer time, but it can try to find a ‘good’ order that spends less time in seek time.
If requests are selected randomly, we will get the worst possible performance...
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Disk Scheduling Policy
FIFO: fair, but near random scheduling
SSTF: possible starvation SCAN: favor requests for tracks near
the ends C-SCAN FSCAN: avoid “arm stickiness” in
SSTF, SCAN and C-SCAN
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First-in-first-out, FIFO process requests in the order that the
requests are made fair to all processes approaches random scheduling in
performance if there are many processes
1 2 7 108
Read write head starting at track 8, in the direction of increasing track number Pending
read/write request for a track
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Shortest Service Time First, SSTF
select the disk I/O request that requires the least movement of the disk arm from its current position
always choose the minimum seek time new requests may be chosen before an
existing request1 2 7 108
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SCAN arm moves in one direction only,
satisfying all outstanding requests until there is no more requests in that direction. The service direction is then reversed.
favor requests for tracks near the ends
1 2 7 108
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C-SCAN restrict scanning to one direction only when the last track has been visited in
one direction, the arm is returned to the opposite end of the disk and the scan begins again.
1 2 7 108
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FSCAN “Arm stickiness” in SSTF, SCAN, C-SCAN in
case of repetitive requests to one track FSCAN uses two queues. When a scan
begins, all of the requests are in one of the queues, with the other empty. During the scan, all new requests are put into the other queue.
Service of new requests is deferred until all of the old requests have been processed.
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Disk Cache
Buffer in main memory for disk sectors
Contains a copy of some of the sectors on the disk
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Disk Cache, Hit and Miss
When an I/O request is made for a particular sector, the OS checks whether the sector is in the disk cache. If so, (cache hit), the request is
satisfied via the cache. If not (cache miss), the requested
sector is read into the disk cache from the disk.
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Least Recently Used The block that has been in the cache
the longest with no reference to it is replaced
The cache consists of a stack of blocks Most recently referenced block is on
the top of the stack When a block is referenced or brought
into the cache, it is placed on the top of the stack
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Least Recently Used
The block on the bottom of the stack is removed when a new block is brought in
Blocks don’t actually move around in main memory
A stack of pointers is used
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Least Frequently Used The block that has experienced the
fewest references is replaced A counter is associated with each block Counter is incremented each time block
accessed Block with smallest count is selected for
replacement Some blocks may be referenced many
times in a short period of time and the reference count is misleading
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Windows Supports a wide range of computer
hardware Large library software Unstable: blue screen of death (Except
windows XP) Requires a system reboot when facing
errors Secure operating system Target of Viruses and spyware
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Windows
Microsoft’ s reaction Windows TCO and Security Windows Genuine Advantage
Notifications Internet Explorer has lost market share
to Firefox and Opera Internet Explorer: Windows Firefox: Windows, Linux Opera: Windows, Linux
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Windows Total cost of ownership (TCO)
Cost of computer and software Maintenance Training Technical support Hardware and software upgrade
Windows has a lower TCO: “Get the Facts”
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Windows
Security Closed-source is invisible for crackers
Windows Vista (Longhorn) High security Easy to management Detecting hardware feature problem Faster start up time
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Technical Comparison Kernel space: The central module of an operating
system. It is the part of the operating system that loads first, and it remains in main memory. Because it stays in memory, it is important for the kernel to be as small as possible while still providing all the essential services required by other parts of the operating system and applications. Typically, the kernel is responsible for memory management, process and task management, and disk management.
Windows: file system, Internet explorer, windows media player, GUI
Linux: only file system Memory management
Windows: Swap file Linux: avoiding swapping and allocating memory
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Technical Comparison Swapping
To replace pages or segments of data in memory.
Swapping is a useful technique that enables a computer to execute programs and manipulate data files larger than main memory.
The operating system copies as much data as possible into main memory, and leaves the rest on the disk.
When the operating system needs data from the disk, it exchanges a portion of data (called a page or segment ) in main memory with a portion of data on the disk.