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Everyday Social Everyday Social InteractionInteractionChapter 6Chapter 6

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Key TermsKey Terms Social StructureSocial Structure: the integration of statuses, roles, : the integration of statuses, roles,

groups, and institutions into a complex web of social groups, and institutions into a complex web of social relationships.relationships.

Group:Group: a collection of people who share a collection of people who share expectations about each other.expectations about each other.

Primary groupPrimary group: small, informal, intimate, : small, informal, intimate, emotional, meaningful, lasting. Example: family and emotional, meaningful, lasting. Example: family and friends.friends.

Secondary groupSecondary group: formal, task oriented, members : formal, task oriented, members may be anonymous. Examples: a job hiring may be anonymous. Examples: a job hiring committee or a large scale bureaucracy.committee or a large scale bureaucracy.

Institution:Institution: a collection of groups, statuses, and a collection of groups, statuses, and roles established to address an important societal roles established to address an important societal need, such as reproduction of members, or providing need, such as reproduction of members, or providing food and housing, or defense of borders, etc.food and housing, or defense of borders, etc.

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Key TermsKey Terms StatusStatus: a social identity such as student, : a social identity such as student,

athlete, teacher, mother, boyfriend, etc.athlete, teacher, mother, boyfriend, etc. Status set:Status set: all the statuses an individual holds all the statuses an individual holds

at one time.at one time. Ascribed statusAscribed status: a social identity that a : a social identity that a

person has no control over. person has no control over. Achieved statusAchieved status: a social identity that a : a social identity that a

person is able to have some control over.person is able to have some control over. Master statusMaster status: a particular status of most : a particular status of most

importance to an individual.importance to an individual. Status inconsistency:Status inconsistency: possessing multiple possessing multiple

statuses, some of which are not compatible or statuses, some of which are not compatible or which do not seem to go together, such as a which do not seem to go together, such as a wealthy person who works at McDonalds. wealthy person who works at McDonalds.

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Key TermsKey Terms RoleRole: a behavioral expectation of a particular status.: a behavioral expectation of a particular status. Role set:Role set: all of the roles expected of a particular status. all of the roles expected of a particular status. Role expectationRole expectation: the “ideal” behaviors expected of a : the “ideal” behaviors expected of a

particular status.particular status. Role performanceRole performance: how well an individual’s behavior conforms : how well an individual’s behavior conforms

to role expectations. We tend to feel pride with a good role to role expectations. We tend to feel pride with a good role performance.performance.

Role conflictRole conflict: when two or more statuses are incompatible with : when two or more statuses are incompatible with each other. Example: when a wage-earning parent is expected each other. Example: when a wage-earning parent is expected to care for their sick children at the expense of coming in to to care for their sick children at the expense of coming in to work it produces a role conflict.work it produces a role conflict.

Role strainRole strain: when a single status as different role expectations, : when a single status as different role expectations, some of which are incompatible with each other. Example: when some of which are incompatible with each other. Example: when a coach must train an athlete yet they must also bench them it a coach must train an athlete yet they must also bench them it produces a role strain.produces a role strain.

Role exitRole exit: the process of disengaging from a status and the : the process of disengaging from a status and the roles it implies, such as brought by divorce or by graduation roles it implies, such as brought by divorce or by graduation from college.from college.

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The Symbolic Interactionist The Symbolic Interactionist PerspectivePerspective The Interactionist perspective focuses on The Interactionist perspective focuses on

everyday social interaction at the micro level. everyday social interaction at the micro level. Humans rely upon symbols, especially Humans rely upon symbols, especially

language, to make sense of the world. language, to make sense of the world. Through symbols we learn to interpret Through symbols we learn to interpret events, people, and things.events, people, and things.

We respond to people according to how we We respond to people according to how we have have learned to interpretlearned to interpret them. them.

Orderly social interaction is possible only Orderly social interaction is possible only when we learn appropriate (socially when we learn appropriate (socially negotiated and approved) interpretations. negotiated and approved) interpretations. Everyday life has a taken-for-granted quality to it. Everyday life has a taken-for-granted quality to it.

Our everyday interpretations become Our everyday interpretations become habitualized.habitualized.

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InteractionismInteractionism We do not respond to people directly, but rather on the We do not respond to people directly, but rather on the

basis of the meanings we interpret from their actions.basis of the meanings we interpret from their actions. We are able to interpret the behavior of others because We are able to interpret the behavior of others because

we have all learned common symbols and common we have all learned common symbols and common interpretations. We share meanings in common.interpretations. We share meanings in common. Given these common meanings, we are able to take Given these common meanings, we are able to take

the view of others, or see the world from their the view of others, or see the world from their perspective.perspective.

For example, the clothing we wear communicates a For example, the clothing we wear communicates a message to others about who we are. Most people message to others about who we are. Most people can basically tell if one is intending to be “sexy” or can basically tell if one is intending to be “sexy” or be “casual” or be “colorful” or be “authoritative” be “casual” or be “colorful” or be “authoritative” based on the way we dress. based on the way we dress. We use various We use various symbols to create and affirm our social symbols to create and affirm our social identities.identities.

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Unspoken rulesUnspoken rules Much of everyday life is guided by unspoken Much of everyday life is guided by unspoken

rules – or norms - of social interaction.rules – or norms - of social interaction. For example, we learn to show For example, we learn to show civil civil

inattentioninattention to strangers in public. to strangers in public. We avoid eye contact and politely ignore others We avoid eye contact and politely ignore others

when they are in near proximity, such as when when they are in near proximity, such as when we walk by others on the sidewalk or stand in an we walk by others on the sidewalk or stand in an elevator.elevator.

We learn these norms during socialization We learn these norms during socialization and they form the backdrop to everyday and they form the backdrop to everyday social interaction.social interaction.

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RitualsRituals Informal rituals are informal customary Informal rituals are informal customary

practices and procedures that are part of practices and procedures that are part of everyday life interaction. Everyday informal everyday life interaction. Everyday informal rituals reveal everyday taken-for-granted rituals reveal everyday taken-for-granted meanings. They are part of the unspoken meanings. They are part of the unspoken rules of everyday life.rules of everyday life.

Example: Example: the door opening ritual or the door opening ritual or ceremonyceremony The everyday practice of holding a door The everyday practice of holding a door

open for another person affirms politeness.open for another person affirms politeness. Yet men hold the door for women rather Yet men hold the door for women rather

than the other way around. Why?than the other way around. Why?

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The Door Opening RitualThe Door Opening Ritual When men hold the door open for When men hold the door open for

women it also affirmswomen it also affirms chivalry chivalry – a – a polite relationship between men and polite relationship between men and women in which the “knight” women in which the “knight” gallantly takes charge of the door to gallantly takes charge of the door to usher or “protect” the lady (the usher or “protect” the lady (the “weaker sex”) through the door. “weaker sex”) through the door. This everyday ritual subtly affirms This everyday ritual subtly affirms

patriarchalpatriarchal masculinity and masculinity and femininity.femininity.

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The Door Opening RitualThe Door Opening Ritual However, we do not all share the same However, we do not all share the same

exact interpretations of human behavior. exact interpretations of human behavior. The act of opening a door for another The act of opening a door for another

may be interpreted differently by may be interpreted differently by different people using different different people using different perceptual filters.perceptual filters. While a “traditional-values” woman While a “traditional-values” woman

might feel complimented by a man might feel complimented by a man holding a door open for her, a radical holding a door open for her, a radical feminist woman might feel insulted feminist woman might feel insulted because she objects to patriarchy and because she objects to patriarchy and the everyday norms that affirm it.the everyday norms that affirm it.

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Everyday informal rituals affirm Everyday informal rituals affirm patriarchypatriarchy

There are many everyday informal rituals There are many everyday informal rituals that symbolically affirm patriarchythat symbolically affirm patriarchy Men are socialized to be the driver of the car Men are socialized to be the driver of the car

while women are the passengers.while women are the passengers. Men are expected to initiate a date more than Men are expected to initiate a date more than

women, who are not expected to be too “pushy.”women, who are not expected to be too “pushy.” Conclusion: social interaction at the everyday Conclusion: social interaction at the everyday

(micro) level is related to the macro structure (micro) level is related to the macro structure of society.of society. If the macro structure is patriarchal then the If the macro structure is patriarchal then the

micro behaviors will often symbolically affirm the micro behaviors will often symbolically affirm the gender pecking order that favors males over gender pecking order that favors males over females.females.

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Dramaturgy – Erving Dramaturgy – Erving GoffmanGoffman

DramaturgyDramaturgy is an Interactionist model is an Interactionist model proposed by Erving Goffman in his book, “The proposed by Erving Goffman in his book, “The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life” (1959).Presentation of Self in Everyday Life” (1959).

The stage metaphorThe stage metaphor: dramaturgy analyzes : dramaturgy analyzes everyday social life as though the participants everyday social life as though the participants were actors on a stage.were actors on a stage.

Impression managementImpression management: the self we present : the self we present to others differs across different situations – to others differs across different situations – various “various “frontfront stagesstages” - and it is presented in ” - and it is presented in such a way as to generate a favorable such a way as to generate a favorable impression.impression. As actors, we seek favorable reviews by the As actors, we seek favorable reviews by the

audience, so we adjust our role performances audience, so we adjust our role performances to try to meet audience expectations.to try to meet audience expectations.

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Dramaturgy – Erving Dramaturgy – Erving GoffmanGoffman We sometimes play the role of We sometimes play the role of actoractor, and sometimes , and sometimes

we are the we are the audienceaudience. Each of us is called upon to . Each of us is called upon to perform various roles, and we also form the perform various roles, and we also form the audience for the role performances of others.audience for the role performances of others.

As actors, we seek to generate favorable As actors, we seek to generate favorable impressions, so we often design our role impressions, so we often design our role performances using performances using propsprops, , costumescostumes, and other , and other theatrical devicestheatrical devices to enhance the believability of our to enhance the believability of our performance.performance. A teacher’s A teacher’s propprop might be a podium, while a might be a podium, while a

student’s prop might be a notebook.student’s prop might be a notebook. A teacher may tailor their A teacher may tailor their costumecostume – maybe by a – maybe by a

male teacher wearing a leather patch with a male teacher wearing a leather patch with a tweed jacket - to enhance their role performance.tweed jacket - to enhance their role performance. He may even grow a professorial beard to He may even grow a professorial beard to enhance his authority.enhance his authority.

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Dramaturgy – Erving Dramaturgy – Erving GoffmanGoffman

The elements of impression management includeThe elements of impression management include Performances (role performances)Performances (role performances) Costumes (clothing)Costumes (clothing) Props and make-up (objects used to enhance the Props and make-up (objects used to enhance the

performance)performance) Gestures (our mannerisms)Gestures (our mannerisms) The Setting (we also craft the setting for our The Setting (we also craft the setting for our

performance – a teacher’s office is not supposed to performance – a teacher’s office is not supposed to look like a bedroom)look like a bedroom)

Front stage versus back stage (performing vs. Front stage versus back stage (performing vs. rehearsing)rehearsing)

Scripts (proper dialogue attached to the performance)Scripts (proper dialogue attached to the performance) Improvisation (unscripted performances)Improvisation (unscripted performances)

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Dramaturgy – Erving Dramaturgy – Erving GoffmanGoffman Front stage versus Back stageFront stage versus Back stage

Front stage is wherever a role performance is Front stage is wherever a role performance is occurring before an audience.occurring before an audience.

Back stage is wherever we are NOT role Back stage is wherever we are NOT role performing. Back stage is where we go after a performing. Back stage is where we go after a performance. We use back stage to rehearse, to performance. We use back stage to rehearse, to relax, to review a performance, or to be alone. relax, to review a performance, or to be alone.

ScriptsScripts. Role performances are largely scripted. . Role performances are largely scripted. During socialization we learn the script for how to During socialization we learn the script for how to act like a mommy or a daddy, a teacher or a act like a mommy or a daddy, a teacher or a student, etc.student, etc.

ImprovisationImprovisation. Sometimes we forget our lines or . Sometimes we forget our lines or for some reason we are forced to improvise. for some reason we are forced to improvise. Improvisation is spontaneous performance that is Improvisation is spontaneous performance that is off the script, and it requires wit. Some actors are off the script, and it requires wit. Some actors are better at it than others.better at it than others.

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Dramaturgy – Erving Dramaturgy – Erving GoffmanGoffman

What criteria does the audience use to What criteria does the audience use to evaluate the actor’s performance?evaluate the actor’s performance?

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Evaluation CriteriaEvaluation Criteria 1. Whether the role performance matches 1. Whether the role performance matches

role expectations.role expectations. 2. Role sincerity. We must believe that the 2. Role sincerity. We must believe that the

actor is sincere about their performance.actor is sincere about their performance. A performance includes impressions that are A performance includes impressions that are

intentionally “given”, but they also include intentionally “given”, but they also include impressions that are unintentionally “given impressions that are unintentionally “given off” – perhaps because the actor is nervous, off” – perhaps because the actor is nervous, twitching, sweating, avoiding eye contact, twitching, sweating, avoiding eye contact, etc.etc.

The audience The audience scrutinizesscrutinizes the actors the actors performance.performance.

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Dramaturgy – Erving Dramaturgy – Erving GoffmanGoffman

Generally, the audience is expected to Generally, the audience is expected to applaud and support the actor – even if applaud and support the actor – even if their performance is not great. their performance is not great. For example, if an actor commits a For example, if an actor commits a faux pasfaux pas

(loss of face) by forgetting his lines, the (loss of face) by forgetting his lines, the audience is expect to show audience is expect to show tacttact – they audience – they audience engages in face saving actions. They may engages in face saving actions. They may politely ignore faux pas or even help them out. politely ignore faux pas or even help them out.

Rarely does the audience Rarely does the audience openlyopenly criticize a criticize a role performance. After all, we can all role performance. After all, we can all empathize with the actor because we too empathize with the actor because we too are actors.are actors.

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Dramaturgy – Erving Dramaturgy – Erving GoffmanGoffman

Actors may team up and form acting troupes. Actors may team up and form acting troupes. When a couple get close they typically form an When a couple get close they typically form an

acting troupe when they are entertaining guests acting troupe when they are entertaining guests for dinner.for dinner. They rehearse and evaluate each other’s They rehearse and evaluate each other’s

performances, help each other with their performances, help each other with their costumes and props, engage in teamwork, etc.costumes and props, engage in teamwork, etc.

The mating ritual involves eventually taking The mating ritual involves eventually taking off one’s acting masks (and make-up) and off one’s acting masks (and make-up) and inviting their partner back stage, where both inviting their partner back stage, where both partners feel freer to be whoever they really partners feel freer to be whoever they really are. This is what intimacy is about.are. This is what intimacy is about.

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Conditions of ScrutinizationConditions of Scrutinization

Sometimes we find ourselves in special Sometimes we find ourselves in special conditions of scrutinization. conditions of scrutinization. A job interview.A job interview. A first date.A first date. Meeting future in-laws.Meeting future in-laws.

Under these situations we are keenly Under these situations we are keenly aware of the need for favorable aware of the need for favorable impression management.impression management.

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Dramaturgy – Erving Dramaturgy – Erving GoffmanGoffman

Summary: the self is situational – we present the Summary: the self is situational – we present the “right” self according to the norms of specific social “right” self according to the norms of specific social situations.situations.

Goffman’s model assumes that humans are approval Goffman’s model assumes that humans are approval seekers. We wish to be applauded, so we present the seekers. We wish to be applauded, so we present the best face we can. Appearance matters.best face we can. Appearance matters.

The ultimate display of social morality is protecting The ultimate display of social morality is protecting the image of others. We show tact and use discretion.the image of others. We show tact and use discretion.

Humans, as actors, follow norms/scripts, but do not Humans, as actors, follow norms/scripts, but do not necessarily believe in all of these scripts. necessarily believe in all of these scripts.

To Goffman, society is a stage on which the actors, To Goffman, society is a stage on which the actors, with premeditation, manipulate and withhold with premeditation, manipulate and withhold information about themselves to some extent to information about themselves to some extent to secure a favorable impression. secure a favorable impression.

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Institutionalized Impression Institutionalized Impression ManagementManagement Impression management may also be institutionalized. Impression management may also be institutionalized.

In our modern society, some institutions may In our modern society, some institutions may requirerequire that we engage in impression management. that we engage in impression management.

Food service corporations require scripted impression Food service corporations require scripted impression management. management. Roy Rogers requires its food service workers to Roy Rogers requires its food service workers to

smile, wear uniforms and say “howdy partner” to smile, wear uniforms and say “howdy partner” to incoming patrons – whether they are sincere about incoming patrons – whether they are sincere about it or not.it or not.

Most modern jobs require that we Most modern jobs require that we managemanage our feelings our feelings and presentation of self. This “emotional work” takes and presentation of self. This “emotional work” takes a psychological toll, particularly when workers do not a psychological toll, particularly when workers do not believe in the role performance that has been scripted believe in the role performance that has been scripted for them. for them.

For more, read “The Managed Heart” by Artie Russell For more, read “The Managed Heart” by Artie Russell Hochschild (1983).Hochschild (1983).

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EthnomethodologyEthnomethodology This is a branch of Interactionism that This is a branch of Interactionism that

studies how people construct and share their studies how people construct and share their definitions of reality in everyday interaction.definitions of reality in everyday interaction.

Exposing the rulesExposing the rules One of their basic techniques is to break the One of their basic techniques is to break the

unspoken rules of interaction – to violate unspoken rules of interaction – to violate folkways – in order to “map” the boundaries of folkways – in order to “map” the boundaries of the folkway.the folkway.

Examples: Examples: At what point is eye contact with a stranger At what point is eye contact with a stranger

inappropriate? inappropriate? How much bargaining is permitted at a How much bargaining is permitted at a

supermarket? supermarket? What is the appropriate body space between What is the appropriate body space between

two men talking to each other?two men talking to each other?

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EthnomethodologyEthnomethodology

The reactions of subjects reveals The reactions of subjects reveals understandings of social reality and understandings of social reality and the unspoken rules that guide the unspoken rules that guide everyday social interaction. everyday social interaction.

The typical reaction to the violation The typical reaction to the violation of an unspoken rule (a folkway) is of an unspoken rule (a folkway) is anger, anxiety, confusion, or even anger, anxiety, confusion, or even aggression.aggression.

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Social PsychologySocial Psychology This discipline examines how personality and This discipline examines how personality and

behavior are influenced by the social context.behavior are influenced by the social context. The Bystander EffectThe Bystander Effect Sometimes called “bystander apathy,” this Sometimes called “bystander apathy,” this

refers to the reluctance of people to get refers to the reluctance of people to get involved in the apparent emergency of a involved in the apparent emergency of a stranger.stranger.

Two factors are criticalTwo factors are critical 1. Appearance of ambiguity in emergencies.1. Appearance of ambiguity in emergencies. 2. Individuals look for cues from other bystanders 2. Individuals look for cues from other bystanders

to help define the situation. to help define the situation. If others appear unconcerned then the individual is not If others appear unconcerned then the individual is not

likely to define the situation as an emergency. likely to define the situation as an emergency.

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The Bystander EffectThe Bystander Effect

People are hesitant to over-react and People are hesitant to over-react and make the wrong interpretation. make the wrong interpretation.

Only when somebody acts do others Only when somebody acts do others follow.follow.

The larger the crowd, the less likely The larger the crowd, the less likely the individual will act.the individual will act.

ConclusionConclusion: interpretations of events : interpretations of events are derived from cues given off by are derived from cues given off by other people.other people.

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Human AggressionHuman Aggression Humans are aggressive as a species, but its expression Humans are aggressive as a species, but its expression

and interpretation are social constructions. and interpretation are social constructions. We learn about aggression from our parents, from history, We learn about aggression from our parents, from history,

from television and the movies, and from a variety of sources.from television and the movies, and from a variety of sources. In the U.S. the average child will witness more than 10,000 In the U.S. the average child will witness more than 10,000

acts of violence in the media by the time they reach acts of violence in the media by the time they reach adolescence.adolescence.

Aggression is generally not an individual phenomenon – it is a Aggression is generally not an individual phenomenon – it is a social phenomenon. It is dependent upon the social context.social phenomenon. It is dependent upon the social context.

Generally, the more intimate the social relationship, Generally, the more intimate the social relationship, the more likely there will be aggression or violence in the more likely there will be aggression or violence in the interaction.the interaction.

Individual excuses for aggression appear more Individual excuses for aggression appear more legitimate when ratified legitimate when ratified by a groupby a group or by or by an an authority figureauthority figure..

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Hurting OthersHurting Others In 1962, Social Psychologist Stanley Milgram In 1962, Social Psychologist Stanley Milgram

performed one of the most famous social performed one of the most famous social psychological experiments in history.psychological experiments in history.

Milgram was interested in human aggression Milgram was interested in human aggression – specifically what made ordinary people in – specifically what made ordinary people in Germany commit such horrible crimes as Germany commit such horrible crimes as mass murder during World War II.mass murder during World War II.

Interviews with the perpetrators revealed Interviews with the perpetrators revealed that they justified their actions by saying they that they justified their actions by saying they were being were being obedient to authorityobedient to authority – “I was – “I was only following orders.”only following orders.”

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Stanley Milgram’s Stanley Milgram’s Obedience to Authority Obedience to Authority

StudiesStudies To examine this, Stanley Milgram set up an To examine this, Stanley Milgram set up an experiment in which subjects were told that they experiment in which subjects were told that they would be participating in a learning study involving would be participating in a learning study involving negative conditioning.negative conditioning.

They were to issue shocks to a “learner” on the They were to issue shocks to a “learner” on the other side of a partition whenever the learner failed other side of a partition whenever the learner failed a word-pair recall they were supposed to memorize. a word-pair recall they were supposed to memorize.

In front of the subject was an electrical switch box In front of the subject was an electrical switch box with switches ranging from 15 to 450 volts. For with switches ranging from 15 to 450 volts. For each wrong answer by the learner, they were to each wrong answer by the learner, they were to increase the voltage. increase the voltage. In the room with the subject was a the official In the room with the subject was a the official

experimenter, who continually told the subject that “the experimenter, who continually told the subject that “the experiment must continue.”experiment must continue.”

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Stanley Milgram’s Stanley Milgram’s Obedience to Authority Obedience to Authority

StudiesStudies Milgram wondered how far the subjects would go Milgram wondered how far the subjects would go

before they refused to participate in the experiment. before they refused to participate in the experiment. He performed many variations of the experiment. He performed many variations of the experiment.

He found that, on average, between 60-65% of the He found that, on average, between 60-65% of the subjects administered the maximum of 450 volts, subjects administered the maximum of 450 volts, where the switch was labeled “XXX Danger Severe where the switch was labeled “XXX Danger Severe Shock.”Shock.”

Before reaching the maximum, the subject heard Before reaching the maximum, the subject heard screams of pain from the learner. They also heard screams of pain from the learner. They also heard the learner scream out that they had a heart the learner scream out that they had a heart condition.condition.

Only about 1/4Only about 1/4thth or less of the subjects refused to or less of the subjects refused to participate further after hearing protests by the participate further after hearing protests by the learner.learner.

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ConclusionConclusion Ordinary people are capable of doing great harm to Ordinary people are capable of doing great harm to

others under the right social circumstances.others under the right social circumstances. In this case, the presence of an authority figure In this case, the presence of an authority figure

urging them on was crucial to their willingness to urging them on was crucial to their willingness to increase the harm they were doing.increase the harm they were doing. ““I was only following orders” was the refrain heard during I was only following orders” was the refrain heard during

the Nuremberg trials after World War II, and this was the the Nuremberg trials after World War II, and this was the refrain heard when subjects were asked why they refrain heard when subjects were asked why they administered such severe shocks.administered such severe shocks.

People defer responsibility to authority figures. They People defer responsibility to authority figures. They allow “experts” to define the situation, even despite allow “experts” to define the situation, even despite obvious cues to the contrary. By being obedient to obvious cues to the contrary. By being obedient to authority, this allows people to disclaim personal authority, this allows people to disclaim personal responsibility for wrong behavior.responsibility for wrong behavior.

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Conclusion, continuedConclusion, continued

Milgram's findings suggest that personal morality Milgram's findings suggest that personal morality is vulnerable to social pressure. is vulnerable to social pressure. Under certain social situations, the influence of others Under certain social situations, the influence of others

can override strongly held personal convictions.can override strongly held personal convictions. Obedience to legitimate authority took precedence Obedience to legitimate authority took precedence

over the desire to avoid doing harm to others. over the desire to avoid doing harm to others. (See (See

Wortman, Camille, Elizabeth Loftus and Charles Weaver. Psychology. 5th ed. Boston: The McGraw-Wortman, Camille, Elizabeth Loftus and Charles Weaver. Psychology. 5th ed. Boston: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1999.)Hill Companies, Inc., 1999.)

This is a Link to a Google video on the Milgram obedience experiment, as REVISITED recently by ABC News. Think about what explains their gender findings. (30min). Think about what explains their gender findings. (30min)

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Nonverbal Nonverbal CommunicationCommunication

Two key forms of nonverbal Two key forms of nonverbal communicationcommunication 1. Body language1. Body language 2. Use of physical space between people2. Use of physical space between people

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Body LanguageBody Language The behavior of our faces and bodies gives off The behavior of our faces and bodies gives off

information which may be consciously or information which may be consciously or unconsciously picked up by others.unconsciously picked up by others. To some, it is like a “feeling” that we get about another To some, it is like a “feeling” that we get about another

person.person. Lie DetectorsLie Detectors

Designed to pick up changes in pulse, blood pressure, Designed to pick up changes in pulse, blood pressure, breathing, sweating, etc as a result of lying.breathing, sweating, etc as a result of lying.

Lie detectors work on the idea that well-socialized people Lie detectors work on the idea that well-socialized people should feel guilt when they lie. The emotion of guilt should feel guilt when they lie. The emotion of guilt produces stress, which is a heightened physiological produces stress, which is a heightened physiological response that can be measured.response that can be measured.

However, lie detectors are not reliable. Why?However, lie detectors are not reliable. Why? Pathological liars or sociopaths can lie without stress.Pathological liars or sociopaths can lie without stress. Some nervous people Some nervous people appearappear to be liars. to be liars. The machine operator may have a vested interest in The machine operator may have a vested interest in

detecting lies.detecting lies.

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Facial ExpressionsFacial Expressions

The facial expressions that convey The facial expressions that convey our basic emotions are culturally our basic emotions are culturally universal. universal. They appear to be a species reflex They appear to be a species reflex

recognized by humans everywhere.recognized by humans everywhere. Example: raised eyebrows when people Example: raised eyebrows when people

meet each other.meet each other.

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GesturesGestures Unlike basic facial expressions, gestures are not Unlike basic facial expressions, gestures are not

universal. They are culturally relative and vary universal. They are culturally relative and vary across different cultures.across different cultures. Example: The “V” sign for victory used by President Example: The “V” sign for victory used by President

Richard Nixon is an insult sign in some cultures. Nixon Richard Nixon is an insult sign in some cultures. Nixon learned this the hard way on one of his trips overseas.learned this the hard way on one of his trips overseas.

Gestures that Americans should learn before going to Gestures that Americans should learn before going to Iraq:Iraq:

1. Men greet each other with hugs, and you are never 1. Men greet each other with hugs, and you are never to withdraw from an attempted hug.to withdraw from an attempted hug.

2. Iraqis forbid pointing your finger at someone. It is a 2. Iraqis forbid pointing your finger at someone. It is a sign of contempt.sign of contempt.

3. Iraqis forbid using the OK gesture with the thumb 3. Iraqis forbid using the OK gesture with the thumb pointed up. It is an obscene gesture in Iraq.pointed up. It is an obscene gesture in Iraq.

4. Iraqis forbid using the left hand for gestures or 4. Iraqis forbid using the left hand for gestures or shaking hands. The left hand is “unclean.”shaking hands. The left hand is “unclean.”

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Pupil DilationPupil Dilation

An uncontrolled reflex that An uncontrolled reflex that communicates spontaneous excitement. communicates spontaneous excitement. Examples:Examples:

It communicates sexual interest in It communicates sexual interest in another person that one has just seen and another person that one has just seen and found attractive.found attractive.

It communicates a good poker hand.It communicates a good poker hand. Poker players learn to wear a “poker face,” Poker players learn to wear a “poker face,”

with eyes kept down or with a hat or glasses with eyes kept down or with a hat or glasses covering the eyes.covering the eyes.

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Physical ProximityPhysical Proximity Attached to our sense of self is a sense of Attached to our sense of self is a sense of

physical space around the self. This physical physical space around the self. This physical space is called space is called personal spacepersonal space, or , or body body spacespace..

The violation of personal space is associated The violation of personal space is associated with stress and higher levels of aggression.with stress and higher levels of aggression. Subways, elevators, waiting rooms where the Subways, elevators, waiting rooms where the

chairs are too close, bathroom urinals, and other chairs are too close, bathroom urinals, and other places of congestion can be stressful for this places of congestion can be stressful for this reason.reason.

Personal distance between people reflects Personal distance between people reflects the degree of closeness or identification with the degree of closeness or identification with that person. The closer, the more intimate.that person. The closer, the more intimate.

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Personal spacePersonal space Personal space varies by culture.Personal space varies by culture. Americans require a relatively large space - about 2 Americans require a relatively large space - about 2

to 3 feet between two strangers or acquaintances to 3 feet between two strangers or acquaintances talking to each other.talking to each other. If it is two close friends or relatives, then the distance can If it is two close friends or relatives, then the distance can

be shorter.be shorter. The Iraqis prefer close proximity, and it is The Iraqis prefer close proximity, and it is

considered rude to back away from a person.considered rude to back away from a person. The exception is Iraqi women. It is important to keep your The exception is Iraqi women. It is important to keep your

distance from an Iraqi (Muslim) woman.distance from an Iraqi (Muslim) woman. Because of these cultural differences, Americans Because of these cultural differences, Americans

can appear to be stand-offish to the Iraqis, and can appear to be stand-offish to the Iraqis, and Iraqis can appear to stand “offensively close” to the Iraqis can appear to stand “offensively close” to the Americans.Americans.

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Personal spacePersonal space Personal space also varies by gender. Men use Personal space also varies by gender. Men use

more personal space than women in patriarchal more personal space than women in patriarchal societies. It is a privilege of power.societies. It is a privilege of power. It is much more likely that a man will violate the It is much more likely that a man will violate the

personal space of a woman than the other way personal space of a woman than the other way around.around.

The violation of another’s personal space is often a The violation of another’s personal space is often a behavior intended to establish dominance by the behavior intended to establish dominance by the invader (who may be a powerful person due to their invader (who may be a powerful person due to their authority, sex, size, or other factor).authority, sex, size, or other factor).

The invasion of personal space tends to incite a The invasion of personal space tends to incite a reaction like withdrawal or glaring by the reaction like withdrawal or glaring by the “victim,” and may even result in aggression “victim,” and may even result in aggression (especially if it involves males).(especially if it involves males). Men tend to be more aggressive than women if their Men tend to be more aggressive than women if their

body space is violated. body space is violated.

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Personal spacePersonal space

Research into personal space has Research into personal space has implications for industrial implications for industrial psychology and architectural design. psychology and architectural design. It is important to pay attention to the It is important to pay attention to the

degree of personal space allowed degree of personal space allowed workers.workers.

If space is regularly violated it If space is regularly violated it increases stress levels and affects increases stress levels and affects worker productivity.worker productivity.

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Edward Hall’s 4 Zones of Edward Hall’s 4 Zones of Physical SpacePhysical Space

Hall researched American body zones and found Hall researched American body zones and found 4 physical zones recognized by Americans4 physical zones recognized by Americans 1. 1. Intimate zoneIntimate zone. 0-18 inches on average. This is the . 0-18 inches on average. This is the

zone used between intimates.zone used between intimates. 2. 2. Personal zonePersonal zone. 18inches – 4 feet. This is the zone . 18inches – 4 feet. This is the zone

used between friends in ordinary interaction.used between friends in ordinary interaction. 3. 3. Social zoneSocial zone. 4 feet – 12 feet. This is the zone used . 4 feet – 12 feet. This is the zone used

for formal situations.for formal situations. 4. 4. Public zonePublic zone. 12 feet or more. This is the zone . 12 feet or more. This is the zone

used to maintain social distance. used to maintain social distance. One of the latent functions of certain props like One of the latent functions of certain props like

podiums is to create a public zone of distance podiums is to create a public zone of distance between the speaker and the audience. between the speaker and the audience.

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The Social Construction of The Social Construction of RealityReality This is the process by which people creatively shape This is the process by which people creatively shape

subjective realitysubjective reality through social interaction. through social interaction. The The sociology of knowledge examines how people come examines how people come

to see the world through social interaction processes.to see the world through social interaction processes. People negotiate common understandings about the nature of People negotiate common understandings about the nature of

reality and what is True and what is False.reality and what is True and what is False. W.I Thomas theorumW.I Thomas theorum: if people : if people definedefine situations as real, situations as real,

they become real in their consequences.they become real in their consequences. Examining different religions provides a glimpse of how Examining different religions provides a glimpse of how

different cultures make sense of spiritual reality. These are different cultures make sense of spiritual reality. These are socially negotiated understandings.socially negotiated understandings.

The key insight is that knowledge and beliefs are The key insight is that knowledge and beliefs are influenced by the social location of those who produce influenced by the social location of those who produce these beliefs.these beliefs. What is real in one culture may not be real in another, or may What is real in one culture may not be real in another, or may

not be real later on.not be real later on.

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The Social Construction of The Social Construction of RealityReality

Example: the Earth and the Universe.Example: the Earth and the Universe. For 1500 years the Church taught people that For 1500 years the Church taught people that

the Earth was at the center of the universe.the Earth was at the center of the universe. This socially-negotiated understanding was accepted This socially-negotiated understanding was accepted

as Truth until Galileo learned otherwise with a as Truth until Galileo learned otherwise with a telescope. The Church, however, did not want to telescope. The Church, however, did not want to appear fallible, so it forced Galileo to recant his appear fallible, so it forced Galileo to recant his findings. Eventually science won out, but scientific findings. Eventually science won out, but scientific understandings are not fixed either. We are still understandings are not fixed either. We are still theorizing about the nature of time and space. There theorizing about the nature of time and space. There are no absolute answers because are no absolute answers because subjective reality subjective reality is socially constructed and it is subject to social is socially constructed and it is subject to social change.change.

What is taken for Truth today may not be taken What is taken for Truth today may not be taken for Truth tomorrow. for Truth tomorrow.

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Gender and Everyday Social Gender and Everyday Social InteractionInteraction 1. Demeanor.1. Demeanor.

Men are more direct, aggressive, and interrupting toward Men are more direct, aggressive, and interrupting toward women than the other way around.women than the other way around.

2. Use of space.2. Use of space. Men claim more body space than women and interrupt Men claim more body space than women and interrupt

women’s body space more than women do men.women’s body space more than women do men. 3. Body use.3. Body use.

Men stare at women, smile less, and touch more.Men stare at women, smile less, and touch more. The level of power between two people influences The level of power between two people influences

demeanor, use of space, and body use. Patriarchy demeanor, use of space, and body use. Patriarchy gives men more social power than women. As our gives men more social power than women. As our society adopts feminism (gender equality) it is likely society adopts feminism (gender equality) it is likely that these male dominance behaviors toward women that these male dominance behaviors toward women will decline.will decline.

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Deborah Tannen and Gender Deborah Tannen and Gender CommunicationCommunication

Deborah Tannen conducted linguistic studies on Deborah Tannen conducted linguistic studies on gender and communication and found major gender and communication and found major differences. differences.

““Troubles Talk” is Tannen’s term for how women like Troubles Talk” is Tannen’s term for how women like to talk about the day’s problems at length in order to to talk about the day’s problems at length in order to build intimacy in a relationship. build intimacy in a relationship. She may be less interested in solving the problems than in She may be less interested in solving the problems than in

talking about them as a means to connect with her husband.talking about them as a means to connect with her husband. Men, on the other hand, tend to interrupt women Men, on the other hand, tend to interrupt women

during troubles talk to offer solutions, frustrating the during troubles talk to offer solutions, frustrating the woman. woman. Men are generally uncomfortable with using the Men are generally uncomfortable with using the

conversation to build intimacy.conversation to build intimacy. Men are socialized to be problem solvers, while Men are socialized to be problem solvers, while

women are socialized toward intimacy skills. This can women are socialized toward intimacy skills. This can be lead to misunderstandings during communication. be lead to misunderstandings during communication.

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End of Chapter 6End of Chapter 6