1

Chapter 7Learning

2

Definition

Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to

experience.

Learning is more flexible in comparison to the genetically-programmed behaviors of

Chinooks, for example.

3

How Do We Learn?

We learn by association. Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence. 2000 years ago, Aristotle suggested this law of association. Then 200 years ago Locke and Hume reiterated this law.

4

Associative Learning

Learning to associate one stimuluswith another.

5

Associative Learning

Learning to associate one stimuluswith another.

6

Associative Learning

Learning to associate a responsewith a consequence.

7

Associative Learning

Learning to associate a responsewith a consequence.

8

Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old philosophical theories. However, it was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical conditioning. His

work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson.

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Sov

foto

9

Pavlov’s Experiments

Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation

(Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.

10

Pavlov’s ExperimentsDuring conditioning, the neutral stimulus

(tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After

conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation

(now Conditioned Response, CR)http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhqumfpxuzI&feature=related

11

AcquisitionAcquisition is the initial learning stage in

classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an

unconditioned stimulus takes place.

1. In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus.

2. The time in between the two stimuli should be about half a second.

12

Acquisition

The CS needs to come half a second before the US for acquisition to occur.

13

Extinction

When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to

decrease and eventually causes extinction.

14

Spontaneous Recovery

After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the CS

(tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again.

15

Stimulus Generalization

Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization. Pavlov conditioned the dog’s salivation (CR) by

using miniature vibrators (CS) on the thigh. When

he subsequently stimulated other parts of the dog’s body, salivation

dropped.

16

Stimulus Discrimination

Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned

stimulus.

17

Extending Pavlov’s Understanding

Pavlov and Watson considered consciousness, or mind, unfit for the

scientific study of psychology. However, they underestimated the importance of

cognitive processes and biological constraints.

18

Cognitive Processes

Early behaviorists believed that learned behaviors of various animals could be

reduced to mindless mechanisms.

However, later behaviorists suggested that animals learn the predictability of a stimulus, meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a stimulus (Rescorla &

Wagner, 1972).

19

Biological Predispositions

Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of learning were similar for all animals.

Therefore, a pigeon and a person do not differ in their learning.

However, behaviorists later suggested that learning is constrained by an

animal’s biology.

20

Biological Predispositions

John Garcia

Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours), but yet result in

conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to

conditioning but other stimuli (sight or sound) did not.

Courtesy of John G

arcia

21

Biological Predispositions

Even humans can develop classically to conditioned nausea.

22

Pavlov’s greatest contribution to psychology

is isolating elementary behaviors from more

complex ones through objective scientific

procedures.

Pavlov’s Legacy

Ivan Pavlov(1849-1936)

23

1. Former crack cocaine users should avoid cues (people, places) associated with previous drug use.

2. Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

24

Watson used classical conditioning procedures to

develop advertising campaigns for a number of

organizations, including Maxwell House, making

the “coffee break” an American custom.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sJthPwb4yMQ&feature=related

Applications of Classical Conditioning

John B. Watson

Brow

n Brothers

25

Operant & Classical Conditioning

1. Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events.

26

Operant & Classical Conditioning

2. Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.

27

Skinner’s ExperimentsSkinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s

thinking, especially his law of effect. This law states that rewarded behavior is likely to

occur again.

Yale U

niversity Library

28

Operant Chamber

Using Thorndike's law of effect as a starting point, Skinner developed the

Operant chamber, or the Skinner box, to study operant conditioning.

Walter D

awn/ Photo R

esearchers, Inc.

From

The

Ess

entia

ls o

f Con

ditio

ning

and

Lea

rnin

g, 3

rd

Edi

tion

by M

icha

el P

. Dom

jan,

200

5. U

sed

with

per

mis

sion

by

Tho

mso

n L

earn

ing,

Wad

swor

th D

ivis

ion

29

Operant Chamber

The operant chamber, or Skinner box, comes with a bar or key that

an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food or water. The bar or key is connected to devices that record

the animal’s response.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA&feature=PlayList&p=BAFE2398B6EE5A03&playnext=1&playnext_from=PL&index=16

30

ShapingShaping is the operant conditioning procedure in

which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive

approximations.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TtfQlkGwE2U

A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminateobjects of different shapes, colors and sizes.

Kham

is Ram

adhan/ Panapress/ Getty Im

ages

Fred Bavendam

/ Peter Arnold, Inc.

31

Types of Reinforcers

Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. A heat lamp positively reinforces a meerkat’s behavior in the cold.

Reuters/ C

orbis

32

1. Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink.

2. Conditioned Reinforcer: A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer.

Primary & Secondary Reinforcers

33

1. Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press.

2. Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week.

Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers

We may be inclined to engage in small immediate reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large

delayed reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require consistent study.

34

Reinforcement Schedules

1. Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs.

2. Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only part of the time. Though this results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later on.

35

Ratio Schedules

1. Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. e.g., piecework pay.

2. Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. This is hard to extinguish because of the unpredictability. (e.g., behaviors like gambling, fishing.)

36

Interval Schedules

1. Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (e.g., preparing for an exam only when the exam draws close.)

2. Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses. (e.g., pop quiz.)

37

Schedules of Reinforcement

38

Punishment

An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows.

39

Punishment

1. Results in unwanted fears.2. Conveys no information to the organism.3. Justifies pain to others.4. Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear

in its absence.5. Causes aggression towards the agent.6. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear

in place of another.

Although there may be some justification for occasional punishment (Larzelaere &

Baumrind, 2002), it usually leads to negative effects.

40

Extending Skinner’s Understanding

Skinner believed in inner thought processes and biological underpinnings, but many psychologists criticize him for

discounting them.

41

Cognition & Operant Conditioning

Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during

a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious

reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental representations, of the

layout of the maze (environment).

42

Latent Learning

Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent only when an incentive is given (Tolman &

Honzik, 1930).

43

Intrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.

Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments.

44

Biological Predisposition

Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations

that are naturally adaptive.

Breland and Breland (1961) showed that

animals drift towards their biologically

predisposed instinctive behaviors. Marian Breland Bailey

Ph

oto

: Bob

Baile

y

45

Skinner’s Legacy

Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and

feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.

Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

46

Applications of Operant Conditioning

Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements

for correct rewards.

In School

LW

A-JD

L/ C

orbis

47

Applications of Operant Conditioning

Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share

profits and participate in company ownership.

At work

48

Applications of Operant Conditioning

At Home

In children, reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring unwanted behavior decreases their

occurrence.

49

Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

50

Learning by Observation

Higher animals, especially humans,

learn through observing and

imitating others.

The monkey on the right imitates the

monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to

obtain a reward.

© H

erb Terrace

©H

erb Terrace

51

Mirror NeuronsNeuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the

brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BOd3N20XNC4&feature=related

Rep

rint

ed w

ith p

erm

issi

on f

rom

the

Am

eric

an

Ass

ocia

tion

for

the

Adv

ance

men

t of

Scie

nce,

Sub

iaul

et a

l., S

cien

ce 3

05: 4

07-4

10 (

2004

) ©

200

4 A

AA

S.

52

Imitation Onset

Learning by observation begins early in life. This

14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV

in pulling a toy apart.

Mel

tzof

f, A

.N. (

1998

). I

mita

tion

of te

levi

sed

mod

els

by in

fant

s. C

hild

Dev

elop

men

t, 59

122

1-12

29. P

hoto

s C

ourt

esy

of A

.N. M

eltz

off

and

M. H

anuk

.

53

Bandura's Experiments

Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961)

indicated that individuals

(children) learn through imitating

others who receive rewards and punishments.

Cou

rtes

y of

Alb

ert B

andu

ra, S

tanf

ord

Uni

vers

ity

54

Applications of Observational Learning

Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies

show that antisocial models (family,

neighborhood or TV) may have

antisocial effects.

55

Positive Observational Learning

Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects.

Bob

Dae

mm

rich

/ The

Im

age

Wor

ks

56

Television and Observational Learning

Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children

in elementary school who are

exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased

aggression.

Ron

Cha

pple

/ Tax

i/ G

etty

Im

ages

57

Modeling ViolenceResearch shows that viewing media violence leads to an

increased expression of aggression.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vdh7MngntnI&feature=related

Children modeling after pro wrestlers

Bob

Dae

mm

rich

/ The

Im

age

Wor

ks

Gla

ssm

an/ T

he I

mag

e W

orks

58

Trivia Time

59

1. Through direct experience with animals, we come to anticipate that dogs will bark and that birds will chirp. This best illustrates:

A. the law of effect.

B. spontaneous recovery.

C. respondent behavior.

D. associative learning.

60

2. Ivan Pavlov noticed that dogs began salivating at the mere sight of the person who regularly brought food to them. For the dogs, the sight of this person was a(n):

A. primary reinforcer.

B. unconditional stimulus.

C. immediate reinforcer.

D. conditioned stimulus.

61

3. Conditioning seldom occurs when a(n) ________ comes after a(n) _____.

A. CS; US

B. UR; CS

C. secondary reinforcer; operant behavior

D. negative reinforcer; operant behavior

62

4. The predictability of an association between a CS and a US facilitates an organism's ability to anticipate the occurrence of the US. This fact is most likely to be highlighted by a(n) ________ perspective.

A. evolutionary

B. behaviorist

C. cognitive

D. neuroscience

63

5. Researchers condition a flatworm to contract when exposed to light by repeatedly pairing the light with electric shock. The electric shock is a(n):

A. negative reinforcer.

B. conditioned stimulus.

C. conditioned reinforcer.

D. unconditioned stimulus.

64

6. If you get violently ill a couple of hours after eating contaminated food, you will probably develop an aversion to the taste of that food but not to the sight of the restaurant where you ate or to the sound of the music you heard there. This best illustrates that associative learning is

constrained by: A. intrinsic motivation.

B. spontaneous recovery.

C. biological predispositions.

D. conditioned reinforcers.

65

7. After getting ill from eating her friend’s Thanksgiving turkey, Natalia couldn’t stand the the sight or smell of turkey. However, when her friend baked a whole chicken, Natalia thought it sounded good. This illustrates:

A. generalization.

B. discrimination.

C. extinction.

D. acquisition.

66

8. The law of effect relates most closely to:

A. modeling.

B. operant conditioning.

C. classical conditioning.

D. latent learning.

67

9. For some children who bite themselves or bang their heads, squirting water into their faces when they hurt themselves has been observed to decrease the frequency of these self-abusive behaviors. This best illustrates the potential value of:

A. punishment.

B. conditioned reinforcers.

C. negative reinforcers.

D. latent learning.

68

10. Occasional, unpredictable reinforcement usually results in _________ rates of responding.

A. unpredictable

B. steady

C. delayed

D. speedy

69

11. Mirror neurons are important to the process of learning because they:

A. enhance cognitive maps.

B. enable imitation.

C. provide a neurological basis for operant conditioning.

D. explain aversive conditioning.

70

12. Martin likes to shower in the men’s locker room after working out. During a shower he hears a toilet flushing nearby. Suddenly boiling hot water comes out of the showerhead, causing Martin serious discomfort. Later on in the shower, he hears another toilet flush and he immediately jumps out from under the showerhead. In this scenario, what is the unconditioned response (UR)?

A. jumping out of the shower

B. sound of the toilet flushing

C. pain avoidance

D. boiling hot water

71

13. A child is sent to his room with no supper because he presented a bad report card to his parents. The parent’s intent was to:

A. punish poor academic performance.

B. negatively reinforce poor academic performance.

C. extinguish poor academic performance.

D. partially reinforce poor academic performance.

72

14. Brian ate a tuna salad sandwich that had become tainted from being in the sun too long. Not long after eating, Brian became extremely nauseated and felt awful. After that, even the sight of a tuna sandwich caused Brian to feel nauseated. In this scenario, what is the conditioned response (CR)?

A. tuna

B. nausea

C. mayonnaise

D. sight of any sandwich

73

15. Luke gets paid a fixed sum after every four pianos he tunes. He is on a _________ schedule of reinforcement.

A. fixed interval

B. fixed ratio

C. variable interval

D. variable ratio

74

16. Extinction occurs ___________ in classical conditioning and ___________ in operant conditioning.

A. when the CS is presented with the US; when reinforcement increases

B. when the CS is presented alone repeatedly; when reinforcement increases

C. when the CS is presented alone repeatedly; when reinforcement stops

D. when the CS is presented with the US; when reinforcement stops