1 Career Needs and Career Development Programs: An Investigation of the Concept of Gap Pao-Long...

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Career Needs and Career Career Needs and Career Development Programs: An Development Programs: An

Investigation of the Concept of GapInvestigation of the Concept of Gap

Pao-Long ChangPao-Long ChangDepartment of Business AdministrationDepartment of Business Administration

Feng Chia UniversityFeng Chia University2005-05-122005-05-12

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Chen, T.Y., Chang, P.L., and Yeh, C.W. An investigation oChen, T.Y., Chang, P.L., and Yeh, C.W. An investigation of career development programs, job satisfaction, professiof career development programs, job satisfaction, professional development and productivity: The case of Taiwan. nal development and productivity: The case of Taiwan. HuHuman Resource Development Internationalman Resource Development International

Chen, T.Y., Chang, P.L., and Yeh, C.W. (2004). A study of Chen, T.Y., Chang, P.L., and Yeh, C.W. (2004). A study of career needs, career development programs, job satisfactiocareer needs, career development programs, job satisfaction and the turnover intentions of R&D personnel. n and the turnover intentions of R&D personnel. Career DCareer Development International, 9evelopment International, 9(4), 424-437. (4), 424-437.

Chen, T.Y., Chang, P.L. and Yeh, C.W. (2003). The study oChen, T.Y., Chang, P.L. and Yeh, C.W. (2003). The study of career needs, career development programs and job satisff career needs, career development programs and job satisfaction levels of R&D personnel: The case of Taiwan. action levels of R&D personnel: The case of Taiwan. InternInternational Journal of Human Resource Management,ational Journal of Human Resource Management, 1414(6), 10(6), 1001-1026. (SSCI) 01-1026. (SSCI)

Chen, T.Y., Chang, P.L. and Yeh, C.W. (2003). Square of cChen, T.Y., Chang, P.L. and Yeh, C.W. (2003). Square of correspondence between career needs and career developmorrespondence between career needs and career development programs for R&D personnel. ent programs for R&D personnel. Journal of High TechnolJournal of High Technology Management Research,ogy Management Research, 1414, 189-211 , 189-211

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Career Stage (I)Career Stage (I) Super’s theory(1957)Super’s theory(1957)

5 stages5 stages childhood growth (up to the age of 14)childhood growth (up to the age of 14) search and inquiry (up to the age of 25)search and inquiry (up to the age of 25) establishment (up to age 45)establishment (up to age 45) continuity or maintenance (up to age 56)continuity or maintenance (up to age 56) decline or disengagementdecline or disengagement

age age career stage career stage age age social roles: child, student, leisure seeker, social roles: child, student, leisure seeker,

citizen, worker, home-makercitizen, worker, home-maker

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Career Stage (II)Career Stage (II)

Super, Savickas and Super (1996) give the dSuper, Savickas and Super (1996) give the description of Super’s stages (1)escription of Super’s stages (1) growth stagegrowth stage

dealing with the tasks associated with becoming concerned dealing with the tasks associated with becoming concerned about the future, increasing control over one’s own life, cabout the future, increasing control over one’s own life, committing to school and work, acquiring competent work ommitting to school and work, acquiring competent work habits and attitudeshabits and attitudes

exploration stageexploration stageencounter crystallizing, specifying and implementing occupencounter crystallizing, specifying and implementing occup

ational choiceational choice

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Career Stage (III)Career Stage (III)

Super, Savickas and Super (1996) give the dSuper, Savickas and Super (1996) give the description of Super’s stages (2)escription of Super’s stages (2) establishment stageestablishment stage

beginning of one’s career; the tasks are stabilizing, consolidbeginning of one’s career; the tasks are stabilizing, consolidating and advancing in one’s occupational positionating and advancing in one’s occupational position

maintenance stagemaintenance stageconcerned with issue of middle crisis; the tasks of holding oconcerned with issue of middle crisis; the tasks of holding o

n , keeping up and innovating. (career plateau)n , keeping up and innovating. (career plateau)

disengagement stagedisengagement stagephasing out and retirementphasing out and retirement

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Career Stage (IV)Career Stage (IV)

Levinson’s theory (1978)Levinson’s theory (1978)Seasons of man’s lifeSeasons of man’s life childhoodchildhood early adulthoodearly adulthood middle adulthoodmiddle adulthood late adulthoodlate adulthood

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Career Stage (V)Career Stage (V)

Dalton, Thompson and Price (1977)Dalton, Thompson and Price (1977)focus on professional growth and managerial focus on professional growth and managerial

developmentdevelopment apprenticesapprentices autonomous workautonomous work mentoring othersmentoring others direction, representation, sponsoringdirection, representation, sponsoring

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In our study, we focus on professional life In our study, we focus on professional life with specific stages of with specific stages of

explorationexploration establishmentestablishment maintenancemaintenance disengagementdisengagement

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Career Practices in 1990s Studies (I)Career Practices in 1990s Studies (I)

1.1. Job postingsJob postingsexternal recruitment vs. internal recruitmentexternal recruitment vs. internal recruitment

2.2. Formal education / tuition reimbursementFormal education / tuition reimbursement a first degree in engineering; an MBA; professional and a first degree in engineering; an MBA; professional and

vocational qualification coursesvocational qualification courses insecurity and instability of investment in peopleinsecurity and instability of investment in people

3.3. Performance appraisal for career Performance appraisal for career planningplanning

PA is the most fundamental practice of all career practicesPA is the most fundamental practice of all career practices

4.4. Counseling by managerCounseling by manager individual interestindividual interest career optionscareer options

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Career Practices in 1990s Studies Career Practices in 1990s Studies (II)(II)

5.5. Lateral movesLateral moves the flattening of organizationthe flattening of organization job rotations and role changesjob rotations and role changes

6.6. Counseling by HRCounseling by HRknowledge of organizational goals and development; HRM knowledge of organizational goals and development; HRM

planning for the whole enterpriseplanning for the whole enterprise

7.7. Pre- retirement programsPre- retirement programs financial programsfinancial programs psychological programspsychological programs Information on leisure activities and other fulfilling tasksInformation on leisure activities and other fulfilling tasks

8.8. Succession planningSuccession planningto decide on the possible replacement of every manager to decide on the possible replacement of every manager

within the organizationwithin the organization

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Career Practices in 1990s Studies (III)Career Practices in 1990s Studies (III)

9.9. MentoringMentoringbring togather a person with managerial potential and an ebring togather a person with managerial potential and an e

xperienced managerxperienced manager

10.10. Common career pathCommon career pathto lead people through various departments and units withito lead people through various departments and units withi

n the organization and in overseas subsidiariesn the organization and in overseas subsidiaries

11.11. Dual ladderDual laddera different promotion path for non-managerial staffa different promotion path for non-managerial staff

12.12. Career booklets / pamphletsCareer booklets / pamphletsInformation on career paths, the competencies required for Information on career paths, the competencies required for

each position on the path, time scales , ……each position on the path, time scales , ……

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Impact factorsImpact factors

sizesize ageage globalizationglobalization workforce diversityworkforce diversity

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Career Needs (I)Career Needs (I) Schein (1978, 1980), Hall (1986) and Meehan (19Schein (1978, 1980), Hall (1986) and Meehan (19

95) mentioned the importance of the concept of c95) mentioned the importance of the concept of career needs.areer needs.

We define career needs as:We define career needs as: Career goalsCareer goals focus on existing career needs and deter focus on existing career needs and deter

mination of the direction and aims of an individual’s cmination of the direction and aims of an individual’s current efforts.urrent efforts.

Career tasksCareer tasks pertain to the career needs that exist dur pertain to the career needs that exist during the achievement of these career goals.ing the achievement of these career goals.

Career challengesCareer challenges relate to future career needs which relate to future career needs which arise from subsequent career development opportunitarise from subsequent career development opportunities or obstacles.ies or obstacles.

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Career Needs (II)Career Needs (II) Using R&D personnel in high-tech Using R&D personnel in high-tech

industries as example.industries as example. a higher turnover rate exists among R&D a higher turnover rate exists among R&D

personnel in high-tech industries than personnel in high-tech industries than average level for industry as a wholeaverage level for industry as a whole

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Table 1a R&D personnel’s career needs and appropriate career development programs (during the exploration stage)

Constructs Career needs Career development programs

Career goals (i) gaining an understanding of their

own abilities and ascertaining their

interests.

(ii) evaluating the job requirements

and expectations in relation to the

organization’s values.

(iii) obtaining the support of superiors

along with the acceptance of

co-workers.

(i) self-assessment by those involved in

order to gain a complete

understanding of their professional

interests.

(ii) provision by the company of a job

description for each position.

(iii) the support of superiors, and

discussions between employees and

superiors concerning job content.

Career tasks (i) striving to achieve professional

knowledge.

(ii) making an effective contribution to

the organization.

(i) the provision of professional

training.

(ii) the implementation of on-the-job

training.

Career

challenges

(i) establishing one’s own inner

professional identity.

(ii) employing one’s knowledge within

the organization.

(iii) receiving challenging tasks.

(i) the provision of training that will

allow employees to realize their

potential.

(ii) the provision of guidance to help

employees to improve their job

performance.

(iii) clarification by superiors of the

prerequisites for the job, in terms of

characteristics, content and

qualifications.

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Table 1b R&D personnel’s career needs and appropriate career development programs (during

the establishment stage)


Career goals (i) striving to achieve success and to

become a professional in a certain

field.

(ii) seeking out their unique competitive

advantage, in order to rise above

others and win the respect of

co-workers.

(i) adopting project assignments as a

means of facilitating on-the-job

training.

(ii) encouraging personnel to participate

in seminars and to present their

project findings.

(iii) offering tuition fee assistance.

Career tasks (i) honing their professional skills and

know-how.

(ii) acquiring on-the-job autonomy.

(iii) developing their personal creativity

and innovative skills.

(i) assigning individuals for periods of

engagement in foreign training.

(ii) introducing job rotation.

(iii) providing opportunities for job

enrichment.

Career

challenges

(i) to improve their job performance in

order to enhance their promotional

prospects.

(ii) to try to maintain a balance between

the demands of the job and the

needs of their families.

(i) evaluating performance to help

employees to adjust their efforts

accordingly and to provide an

understanding of promotional

prospects and routes.

(ii) helping employees to find the

appropriate balance between their

jobs and their families.

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Table 1c R&D personnel’s career needs and appropriate career development programs (during the maintenance stage)


Career goals (i) to retain the status earned so far in

their career.

(ii) to reevaluate their current career

direction, finding the ‘second wind’

that will take them through the next

stage of their careers.

(iii) to be provided with opportunities

to guide the more junior members of

their core team.

(i) careful consideration of employees’

career paths within the organization.

(ii) consideration of offering

dual-career programs, to enable

personnel to select their future

direction, without jeopardizing their

promotion prospects.

(iii) cultivating personnel to become

professional consultants or

specialized lecturers.

Career tasks (i) maintaining a high level of

on-the-job performance.

(ii) broadening personal professional

horizons.

(iii) extending professional channels.

(i) setting up objective performance

appraisals to assess management

performance and future development.

(ii) encouraging personnel to learn

additional interpersonal skills,

counseling skills, and so on; and

(iii) assisting employees to jointly

formulate a development plan involving

more demanding roles.

Career

challenges

(i) maintaining their job motivation,

professionalism and competitiveness.

(ii) finding suitable ways of entering

into relevant fields where they can

continue to be innovative.

(iii) preventing new competitors from

entering their own fields.

(i) designing appropriate (material)

rewards and motivational systems.

(ii) subsidizing external educational

activities, and (iii) providing

interpersonal relationship counseling

and guidance, according to specific

needs.

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Table 1d R&D personnel’s career needs and appropriate career development programs (during the disengagement stage)


Career goals (i) the completion of a successful career

and preparations for a successful

handover.

(ii) gaining recognition as an

expert/specialist, passing on

knowledge and experience and

providing guidance.

(iii) securing an adequate pension

package for retirement.

(i) establishing succession planning and

training replacements.

(ii) providing retirement planning and

counseling.

(iii) possibly establishing an honorary

consultancy position.

Career tasks (i) maintaining an acceptable level of

performance.

(ii) seeking an identity outside of the

working environment.

(i) providing employees with

self-assessment means to maintain or

improve their performance.

(ii) setting basic job standards.

(iii) encouraging participation in

associations.

Career

challenges

(i) accepting career achievements.

(ii) adjusting identity and work

schedules.

(iii) adjusting and rearranging leisure

time.

(i) providing staff with counseling on

role-shifting.

(ii) providing staff with post-retirement

planning.

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The concept of Gap between career The concept of Gap between career development programs and career needsdevelopment programs and career needs

Three types of the gapThree types of the gap the gap between career goal needs and the gap between career goal needs and

corresponding career development programscorresponding career development programs the gap between career task needs and the gap between career task needs and

corresponding career development programscorresponding career development programs the gap between career challenge needs and the gap between career challenge needs and

corresponding career development programscorresponding career development programs

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Hypotheses (I)Hypotheses (I)1.1. Three types of the gap between career Three types of the gap between career

development programs and career needs will be development programs and career needs will be positively influenced with turnover intentionspositively influenced with turnover intentions

2.2. Three types of the gap between career Three types of the gap between career development programs and career needs will be development programs and career needs will be negatively influenced with job satisfactionnegatively influenced with job satisfaction

3.3. We expect job satisfaction to mediate the We expect job satisfaction to mediate the relationship between gap and turnover intentionsrelationship between gap and turnover intentions

4.4. Career stages may moderate the effect on job Career stages may moderate the effect on job satisfaction from the gap between career satisfaction from the gap between career development programs and career needsdevelopment programs and career needs

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Hypotheses (II)Hypotheses (II)

GapJob

SatisfactionTurnover intentions

Career stages

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Data sourceData source

The sample was drawn from R&D personnel The sample was drawn from R&D personnel in high-tech industry in HSIPin high-tech industry in HSIP

1300 questionnaires were distributed,1300 questionnaires were distributed, 367 valid questionnaires.367 valid questionnaires. Overall return rate 28.2%Overall return rate 28.2%

2323

Characteristics No %

Age

Under 25 years (Exploration stage) 128 34.9

25-44 years (Establishment stage) 170 46.3

45-64 years (Maintenance stage) 38 10.4

65 years or above (Disengagement stage) 31 8.4

Sex

Male 308 83.9

Female 59 16.1

Education

High School 2 0.5

Bachelors degree 120 32.7

Master 223 60.8

PhD 22 6

Income

Less than US$571 (NT 20,000) 1 0.3

US$572-1000 (NT 20,001-35,000) 40 10.9

US$1001-1429 (NT 35,001-50,000) 209 56.9

US$1430-2000 (NT 50,001-70,000) 85 23.2

US$2001-2857 (NT 70,001-100,000) 25 6.8

US$2858 or Above (NT 100,000 above) 7 1.9

Marital Status

Married 226 61.6

Single 141 38.4

Total 367 100

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Measurements (I)Measurements (I) Career stagesCareer stages Stage I

(Exploration)

At present, I hope to choose, as soon as possible, an occupation

which suits me so as to learn the skills required for my job. I

hope my superiors will support me and my co-workers will

accept me. Now I have a senior co-worker to guide me and, if I

have any problems, I may consult him. I am in charge of minor

details or routine work in the research projects.

Stage II

(Establishment)

I have consistently employed my skills to produce the best

possible results in my job so as to let others be aware of my

capabilities. In my current projects, I am responsible for a

specific technical sphere and I may make important decisions

with regard to the conduct of the projects. I hope to be

outstanding in my present position so as to gain the opportunity

for promotion in my job.

Stage III

(Maintenance)

I hope to be able to maintain the position that I have attained.

In an environment in which newcomers are competing against

one another, I hope to retain a space for myself. I spend most of

my time co-ordinating and integrating the projects in my

organization. I currently direct subordinates in the development

of several projects. The results of my subordinates’ work are

closely related to my job performance.

Stage IV

(Disengagement)

I am responsible for long-range planning in my organization

and determining the strategic responses to future organizational

development. I have begun to decentralize my responsibilities

and to seek a person with the ability to take over my job. I have

begun to find the jobs which, as an aging person, I will be able

to do and have started saving for my retirement years. I have

also started to make appropriate plans for my life after

retirement and have discussed life after retirement, and ways of

adjusting, with my retired friends. I hope to do the things that I

desire before retiring.

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Measurements (II)Measurements (II)

Career Needs: a 32-item scaleCareer Needs: a 32-item scale factor analyses confirm the underlying constructs factor analyses confirm the underlying constructs

(all Cronbach’s α are larger than 0.7)(all Cronbach’s α are larger than 0.7) Career development programs: a 33-item scaleCareer development programs: a 33-item scale

(all Cronbach’s α are larger than 0.7) (all Cronbach’s α are larger than 0.7)

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Measurements (III)Measurements (III)

The gaps are measured by subtracting the average aThe gaps are measured by subtracting the average awareness values of career development programs frowareness values of career development programs from the average career needs valuesm the average career needs values

Job satisfaction-- Job Descriptive Index scale of SmitJob satisfaction-- Job Descriptive Index scale of Smith et al. (1987), using a composite of 5 sub-scales: pay, h et al. (1987), using a composite of 5 sub-scales: pay, promotion, supervisors, co-workers and work (Cronpromotion, supervisors, co-workers and work (Cronbach’s α=0.92)bach’s α=0.92)

Turnover intentions-- based on Mobley, Horner and Turnover intentions-- based on Mobley, Horner and Hollingsworth (1978) (Cronbach’s α=0.88)Hollingsworth (1978) (Cronbach’s α=0.88)

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Empirical Results (I)Empirical Results (I)

Career needs Career stages

Exploration Establishment Maintenance Disengagement Mean

Goals

Tasks

Challenges

4.32

4.57

4.30

4.39

4.49

4.35

3.96

4.15

3.76

4.18

4.36

4.00

4.31

4.48

4.26

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Empirical Results (II)Empirical Results (II)

Career Stage Mean S.D.

Exploration 1.22 0.92

Establishment 1.39 0.93

Maintenance 1.40 0.91

The gap between

career development

programs and career

goal needs Disengagement 0.97 1.23




The gap between

career development

programs and career

task needs Disengagement 1.09 0.91




The gap between

career development

programs and career

challenge needs Disengagement 1.05 0.88

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Empirical Results (III)Empirical Results (III)Variables mediator

Job satisfaction

(equation 1)

dependent variable

Turnover intention

(equation 2)

Independent Variables

The gap between career development programs and

career needs for goals

-0.30*** 0.25**


career needs for tasks

-0.25*** 0.14*


career needs for challenges

-0.36*** 0.23***

R2 0.56 0.30

F 149.623*** 47.93***

NA dependent variable

Turnover intention

(equation 3)

Job satisfaction -0.76**

R2 0.57

F 489.69***

* P<0.05; **P<0.01; ***P<0.001

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Empirical Results (IV)Empirical Results (IV)

Variables Turnover

intentions

dependent

variable

(equation 4)

Independent Variables

Job satisfaction (mediator)

-0.81***

The gap between career development programs and career needs for goals 0.04

The gap between career development programs and career needs for tasks 0.07

The gap between career development programs and career needs for challenges 0.06

R2 0.58

F 124.37***

***P<0.001

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Empirical Results (V)Empirical Results (V)Source of variation Sum of

squares

Degrees of

freedom

Mean

square

F-value p-value

(1)

Career stages

The gap between career

development programmes

and career needs

Interaction

1.63

49.26

7.23

3

2

6

0.54

24.63

1.21

1.62

73.44***

3.59**

0.185

0.001

0.002

(2) The simple main effects on the gap between career development

Exploration

Establishment

Maintenance

Disengagement

39.99

95.07

12.24

4.62

2

2

2

2

19.99

47.53

6.12

2.31

67.58***

134.31***

14.08***

26.26***

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.001

(3) The simple main effects on career stages

Low gaps between career


and career needs

Medium gaps between

career development

programmes and career

needs

High gaps between career


and career needs

2.33

0.73

5.99

3

3

3

0.78

0.24

1.99

2.72

0.81

3.96*

0.052

0.489

0.012

Notes ***p< .001; **P< .01; *P< .05.

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Empirical Results (VI)Empirical Results (VI)

Career stages The gaps between career development programmes and career needs

High (72) Medium (230) Low (65) Mean

Exploration (128)

Establishment (190)

Maintenance (38)

Disengagement (11)

Mean

2.84

2.24

2.71

3.33

2.45

3.47

3.44

3.62

3.67

3.47

4.57

4.33

4.85

4.89

4.63

3.65

3.34

3.73

4.30

3.47

Note

Values represent cell means. Number of cases is given in parentheses.

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Research IssuesResearch Issues

1.1. Scale development for general useScale development for general use

2.2. Explanatory power of gap vs. programs onExplanatory power of gap vs. programs onlyly

3.3. Procedual and distributive justiceProcedual and distributive justice

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