1 2 Food like corn can provide energy for the body.
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Transcript of 1 2 Food like corn can provide energy for the body.
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Food like corn can provide energy for the body.
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The sugar in it can also undergo fermentation (發酵 ) to produce an alcohol.
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The alcohol can be used as a fuel to power vehicles.
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How does our bodyobtain energy from the food we eat
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How is alcoholproduced from corn by fermentation
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The sugar in corn ismade by photosynthesis. 3What is the relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
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22.1 Basic concepts of respiration
What is respiration?
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What is respiration?• when food is burnt, it reacts with oxygen
(oxidation 氧化 ):
22.1 Basic concepts of respiration
glucose
heat
light
O2 CO2 + H2O
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What is respiration?
- one step reaction
22.1 Basic concepts of respiration
- takes place anywhere
- no enzyme involved
- fast and violent reaction
• when food is burnt, it reacts with oxygen (oxidation 氧化 ):
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the process by which organisms release energy from food through the controlled oxidative breakdown of food
What is respiration?
organisms undergo respiration (呼吸作用 )
• the large amount of heat released in burning kills living cells
22.1 Basic concepts of respiration
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CO2
H2O
Glucose
O2
ATP
ECOSYSTEM
Sunlight energy
Photosynthesis in chloroplasts
Cellular respiration in mitochondria
(for cellular work)
Heat energy
Photosynthesis and respiration provide energy for life
– Cellular respiration makes ATP and consumes O2
– During the oxidation of glucose to CO2 and H2O
– Cellular respiration makes ATP and consumes O2
– During the oxidation of glucose to CO2 and H2O
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Respiration ‡ Breathing
breathing supplies oxygen to our cells and removes carbon dioxide
– Breathing provides for the exchange of O2 and CO2 between an organism and its environment
CO2
CO2
O2
O2Bloodstream
Muscle cells carrying out
Cellular Respiration
Breathing
Glucose O2
CO2 H2O ATP
Lungs
Figure 6.2
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What is respiration?• glucose is the most common substrate
22.1 Basic concepts of respiration
glucose (in the cell)
O2 CO2 + H2O
heat
ATP
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What is respiration?• respiration:
22.1 Basic concepts of respiration
- a series of reactions
- takes place in all living cells all the time
- controlled by many enzymes
- slow and gradual reactions
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What is respiration?• overall equation:
22.1 Basic concepts of respiration
enzymesglucose O2 CO2 energyH2O
C6H12O6 CO26 H2O ATPs
Glucose Oxygen gas Carbon dioxide
6
Water Energy
O2 6+ + +
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The human body uses energy from ATP for all its activities
Table 6.4
ATP powers almost all cellular and body activities
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What is the role of ATP?• as energy carrier
22.1 Basic concepts of respiration
ADP P
ATP
phosphorylation (磷酸化 )
energy released from respiration
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What is the role of ATP?22.1 Basic concepts of respiration
ADP P
ATP
breakdown
releases energy to cells
energy released from respiration
• as energy carrier
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What is the role of ATP?• ATP releases energy for metabolic
activities:
22.1 Basic concepts of respiration
- cell division
- muscle contraction
- transmission of nerve impulse
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What is the role of ATP?• ATP releases energy for metabolic
activities:
22.1 Basic concepts of respiration
- synthesis of biomolecules
- absorption of food molecules or minerals by active transport
amino acids protein
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Types of respiration1 Aerobic respiration (需氧呼吸 )
22.1 Basic concepts of respiration
• glucose is completely broken down• a large amount of energy is released
• requires oxygen
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Types of respiration2 Anaerobic respiration (缺氧呼吸 )
22.1 Basic concepts of respiration
• glucose is only partly broken down
• much less energy is released
• products are different from aerobic respiration
• does not require oxygen
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22.2 Site of respiration
• some reactions occur in the cytoplasm,some in the mitochondria
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Adaptive features of a mitochondrion
• outer membrane controls the movement of substances
• bound by a double membrane
22.2 Sites of respiration
outer membrane
3D model
26
Adaptive features of a mitochondrion
provides a large surface area to pack more enzymes
• inner membrane is highly folded
22.2 Sites of respiration
inner membrane
27
Adaptive features of a mitochondrion• mitochondrial matrix (基質 ) provides
a fluid medium for reactions to take place
22.2 Sites of respiration
mitochondrial matrix
• it also contains enzymes
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Adaptive features of a mitochondrion• most energy in food is released inside
mitochondria
22.2 Sites of respiration
muscle cells
active cells contain many mitochondria
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22.1
22.2 Sites of respiration
2 Identify various structures of the mitochondrion
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22.3 Aerobic respiration
• takes place in the presence of oxygen• three stages:
Krebs cycle (克雷伯氏循環 )
glycolysis (糖酵解 )
oxidative phosphorylation (氧化磷酸化 )
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Food are highly reducedCells tap energy from foods by oxidization
Energy are tapped when electrons “falling” from organic fuels to oxygen
– Electrons lose potential energy• During their transfer from organic compounds to
oxygen
An overview of cellular respiration
NADH
NADH FADH2
GLYCOLYSIS
Glucose Pyruvate CITRIC ACID CYCLE
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
(Electron Transport and Chemiosmosis)
Substrate-level phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation
Mitochondrion
and
High-energy electrons
carried by NADH
ATPATPATP
CO2 CO2
Cytoplasm
Substrate-level phosphorylation
33
– When glucose is converted to carbon dioxide• It loses hydrogen atoms, which are added to
oxygen, producing water
C6H12O6 6 O26 CO2 6 H2O
Loss of hydrogen atoms (oxidation)
Gain of hydrogen atoms (reduction)
Energy
(ATP)Glucose
+ + +
Figure 6.5A
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Dehydrogenase removes electrons (in hydrogen atoms) from fuel molecules (oxidation)
• And transfers them to NAD+ (reduction)
Figure 6.5B
OH H O 2H
Reduction
Dehydrogenase
(carries
2 electrons)
NAD 2H
2H 2e
NADH H
Oxidation
+
+
+
+
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– NADH passes electrons to an electron transport chain
– As electrons “fall” from carrier to carrier and finally to O2
• Energy is released in small quantities / controlled
H2O
NAD
NADH
ATP
H
H
Controlled release of energy for
synthesis of ATP
Electron transport
chain
2 O2
2e
2e
1
2
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Glycolysis22.3 Aerobic respiration
• occurs in the cytoplasm• does not require oxygen
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– In glycolysis, ATP is used to energize a glucose molecule
– Which is split into two molecules of pyruvate
NAD NADH H
Glucose2 Pyruvate
ATP2P2 ADP
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2
2
+
+
Figure 6.7A
Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate
38
22.3 Aerobic respiration
- Breakdown of glucose to triose phosphate
glucose (6-C)
2 ATP
2 ADP + P
2 triose phosphate (3-C)
‘Energy investment’ phase of glycolysis
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- ATP is used to energize a glucose molecule, which is then split in two Triose phosphate
ATP
Glucose PREPARATORY PHASE
(energy investment)
ADP
Step
Glucose-6-phosphate
Fructose-6-phosphate
P
P
Fructose-1,6-diphosphate
ATP
ADP
PP
Steps – A fuel molecule is energized, using ATP.
Step A six-carbon intermediate splits into two three-carbon intermediates.
1
2
3
44
1 3
Figure 6.7C
‘Energy investment’ phase of glycolysis
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22.3 Aerobic respiration
- Oxidation of triose phosphate to pyruvate
2 triose phosphate (3-C)
4 ADP + 4 P
4 ATP
2 pyruvate (3-C)
2 NAD+
2 NADH
‘Energy payoff’ phase of glycolysis
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Glycolysis22.3 Aerobic respiration
2 triose phosphate (3-C)
4 ATP
2 pyruvate (3-C)
2 NAD+
as hydrogen carrier2 NADH
- Oxidation of triose phosphate to pyruvate
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22.3 Aerobic respiration
- Production of ATP
2 triose phosphate (3-C)
4 ADP + 4 P
4 ATP
2 pyruvate (3-C)
‘Energy payoff’ phase of glycolysis
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Glycolysis produces ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation
high energy phosphate- carrying molecules are produced in the conversion of TP to pyruvate
a phosphate group is transferred from the high energy phosphate- carrying molecules to ADP
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Substrate level phosphorylation
high energy molecule
high energy molecule
45
Substrate level phosphorylation
The conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate is another example of substrate level phosphorylation.
high energy molecule
lower energy molecule
lower energy molecule
high energy molecule
46Pyruvate
ATP
ADP
ATP
ADP
P
ATP ATP
ADP ADP
P
2-Phosphoglycerate
P
H2O H2O
Phosphoenolpyruvate(PEP)
Steps – ATP and pyruvate are produced.
P 3 -Phosphoglycerate
P
P
9 9
6 6
7 7
8 8
6 9 Step A redox reaction generates NADH.
P
NADH NADHP
P P P P
P
+H+H
ENERGY PAYOFF PHASE
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate(G3P)
1,3 -Diphosphoglycerate
P
5
6 9
5 5
66
7 7
88
9 9
NAD NAD
- Oxidation of triose phosphate to pyruvate
- ATP, NADH, and pyruvate are formed
Figure 6.7C
‘Energy payoff’ phase of glycolysis
47
GlycolysisFree energy level of intermediates and net energy gain:
48
A summary of glycolysis
49
Glycolysis22.3 Aerobic respiration
• overall equation:
glucose (6-C)
2 pyruvate (3-C)
2 NAD+ 2 NADH
2 ADP + 2 P 2 ATP
transported to mitochondrion
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When pyruvate enters a mitochondrion it is converted to acetylCoA. Coenzyme A (CoA) is a large molecule (and a vitamin) that acts as a coenzyme.
The conversion of pyruvate to acetylCoA is an coupled oxidation-reduction reaction in which high energy electrons are removed from pyruvate and end up in NADH. The three carbon pyruvate is split into CO2 and the two carbon acetate.
The link reaction - before entering the Krebs cycle:
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CO2
Pyruvate
NAD NADH H
CoA
Acetyl CoA(acetyl coenzyme
A)
Coenzyme A
The Link reaction (between glycolysis and Citric acid cycle)
– Prior to the citric acid cycle
– Enzymes process pyruvate, releasing CO2 and producing NADH and acetyl CoA
1
2
3
The link reaction - before entering the Krebs cycle:
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Fate of pyruvate – with oxygen
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Kerbs cycle22.3 Aerobic respiration
• occurs in the mitochondrial matrix• two main steps:
1 Combination of acetyl-CoA with 4-C compound
2 Regeneration of 4-C compound
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Kerbs cycle22.3 Aerobic respiration
1 Combination of acetyl-CoA with 4-C compound
acetyl-CoA (2-C)
4-C compound CoA
6-C compound
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Kerbs cycle22.3 Aerobic respiration
2 Regeneration of 4-C compound
4-C compound
6-C compound
2 CO2
3 NAD+3 NADHFAD
FADH
ADP + P
ATP
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and Steps and
CITRIC ACID CYCLE
Oxaloacetate
CoA
CoA
2 carbons enter cycle
Acetyl CoA
Citrate
leaves cycle
H
NAD
NADH
CO2
Alpha-ketoglutarate
leaves cycleCO2
ADP P
NAD
NADH H
ATP
Succinate
FAD
FADH2
Malate
H
NAD
NADH
Step
Acetyl CoA stokes the furnace.
Steps
NADH, ATP, and CO2 are generated during redox reactions.
Redox reactions generate FADH2 and NADH.
For each turn of the cycle
2
2
1
1
3
3
4
4
5
5
Two CO2 molecules are released
The energy yield is
one ATP,
three NADH, and one FADH2
Kerbs cycle
Kerbs / Citric acid / TCA cycle
Guess why it is also called citric acid and TCA
cycle ?
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Kerbs cycle22.3 Aerobic respiration
• each glucose molecule generates two pyruvate molecules
a total of six NADH,
two FADH2 and
two ATP are formed
a total of six NADH,
two FADH2 and
two ATP are formed
59
Oxidative phosphorylation22.3 Aerobic respiration
• occurs on the inner membrane of the mitochondrion (cristae)
• two main steps:
1 Regeneration of NAD+ and FAD
2 Formation of ATP
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Oxidative phosphorylation22.3 Aerobic respiration
1 Regeneration of NAD+ and FAD
intermembrane space
inner membrane
mitochondrial matrix
61
Oxidative phosphorylation22.3 Aerobic respiration
1 Regeneration of NAD+ and FAD
electron carrier
NADH NAD+
e-
62
Oxidative phosphorylation22.3 Aerobic respiration
1 Regeneration of NAD+ and FAD
+
e-e-
e-
OH2O
NADHFADH2
NAD+FAD H+
63
Oxidative phosphorylation22.3 Aerobic respiration
NADHFADH2
NAD+FAD
2 Formation of ATP
ADP+P
+H+OH2O
ATP
e- e-
e-
64
Oxidative phosphorylation
65
Oxidative phosphorylation22.3 Aerobic respiration
2 Formation of ATP
• one NADH can generate three ATPs
• one FADH2 can generate two ATPs
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An ad of a pharmaceutical product
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Vitamins & energy metabolism
Which vitamin group and How they are involved in cellular energy metabolism?
68
Vitamins Involved in Energy MetabolismVitamins and mineralsVitamins and minerals Are required for proper metabolism
Do not directly provide energy
Often function as coenzymescoenzymes
The B-complex vitamins are especially important for energy metabolism.The B-complex vitamins are especially important for energy metabolism.B-complex Vitamins: Thiamin (Vitamin B1)
Coenzyme thiamin is required for carbohydrate metabolism
Beriberi: deficiency of thiamin resulting in muscle wasting and nerve damage, heart failure
B-complex Vitamins: Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)
Part of coenzymes involved in oxidation-reduction reactions
Milk is a good source of riboflavin
B-complex Vitamins: Niacin
Nicotinamide and nicotinic acid
Coenzyme assists with the metabolism of carbohydrates and fatty acids
Good sources: meat, fish, poultry, enriched bread products
Toxicity can result from supplements
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– Electrons from NADH and FADH2 • Travel down the electron transport chain to
oxygen, which picks up H+ to form water
– Energy released by the redox reactions• Is used to pump H+ into the space between the
mitochondrial membranes (intermembrane space)
Chemiosmosis (reference)
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70
Mitochondrion Structure
Cristae Matrix
Intermembrane Space
• This drawing shows a mitochondrion cut lengthwise to reveal its internal membrane.
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H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
Outside
Intermembrane Space
Matrix
This drawing shows a close-up of a section of a mitochondrion.
Matrix (inside)
ChemiosmoticPhosphorylation
72
00
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
Outside
Intermembrane Space
Matrix
Matrix (inside)
Menu
Pumps within the membrane moves hydrogen ions from the matrix to the intermembrane space creating a concentration gradient.
H+
H+
H+
73
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
Outside
Intermembrane Space
Matrix
Matrix (inside)
This process requires energy – from passing of e- along ETC
H+
74
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
Outside
Intermembrane Space
Matrix
Matrix (inside)
ChemiosmoticPhosphorylation
A high concentration of hydrogen ions in the intermembrane space creates a gradient for diffusion of H+ back to the matrix.
75
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
Outside
Intermembrane Space
Matrix
Matrix (inside)
the hydrogen ions pass through this protein (called ATP synthase) as they return to the matrix down the diffusion gradient.
ChemiosmoticPhosphorylation
76
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
ATP
ADP + Pi
H+
Outside
Intermembrane Space
ATP synthase produces ATP by phosphorylating ADP. The energy needed to produce ATP comes from hydrogen ions forcing their way into the matrix as they pass through the
ATP synthase.
Matrix (inside)
ChemiosmoticPhosphorylation
77
ATP synthase produces ATP using energy from the proton gradient
78
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Chemiosmotic Phosphorylation
• Chemiosmotic phosphorylation is used by the mitochondrion to produce ATP. The energy needed to initially pump H+ ions into the intermembrane space comes from glucose. The entire process is called cellular respiration.
• The chloroplast also produces ATP by chemiosmotic phosphorylation. The energy needed to produce ATP comes from sunlight.
79
79
Chloroplast Structure
• The chloroplast is surrounded by a double membrane.
• Molecules that absorb light energy (photosynthetic pigments) are located on disk-shaped structures called thylakoids.
• The interior portion is the stroma.
Thylakoids
Double membraneStroma
80
80
H+
H+
H+
H+H+H+
H+ H+
H+H+
H+H+
H+
H+
H+ H+
A Thylakoid
In order to synthesize ATP, hydrogen ions must first be pumped into the thylakoid. This process requires energy.
81
81
H+
H+
H+
H+H+H+
H+ H+
H+H+
H+H+
H+
H+
H+ H+
A Thylakoid
A concentration gradient of hydrogen ions is established. The chemical gradient can be used as an energy source for producing ATP.
82
82
H+
H+
H+
H+H+H+
H+ H+
H+H+
H+H+
H+
H+
H+ H+
H+
ADP + Pi
ATP
Chemiosmotic Phosphorylation
ATP synthase produces ATP by phosphorylating ADP. The energy comes from hydrogen ions forcing their way into the stroma as they pass through the ATP synthase
hydrogen ions force through this protein (ATP synthase) as they return to the stroma.
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83
Phosphorylation
• We have just discussed two different forms of phosphorylation:– Substrate-level phosphorylation– Chemiosmotic phosphorylation
• We saw that chemiosmotic phosphorylation occurred in both the mitochondria (during cellular respiration) and in the chloroplast (during photosynthesis). These two processes are sometimes given separate names:
– Oxidative phosphorylation (in mitochondria)– Photophosphorylation (in chloroplast)
84
SimilaritiesSimilarities: In both organelles
–Redox reactions of electron transport chains generate a H+ gradient across a membrane
–Involves ATP synthase which uses this proton-motive force to make ATP
DifferenceDifference:–use different sources of energy to accomplish this (proton gradient). Chloroplasts use light energy (photophosphorylation) and mitochondria use the chemical energy in organic molecules (oxidative phosphorylation).
Chemiosmosis: Chloroplasts vs. Mitochondria
85
– In chemiosmosis, the H+ diffuses back through the inner membrane through ATP synthase complexes --Driving the synthesis of ATP
Intermembrane space
Inner mitochondrial membrane
Mitochondrial matrix
Protein complex
Electron flow
Electron carrier
NADH NAD+
FADH2 FAD
H2OATPADP
ATP synthase
H+ H+ H+
H+
H+H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
P
O2
Electron Transport Chain Chemiosmosis
.
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
+ 212
Chemiosmosis
86
Evidences supporting ChemiosmosisCertain poisons interrupt critical events in cellular respiration
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+ H+ H+ H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
O2
H2OP ATP
NADH NAD+
FADH2 FAD
Rotenone Cyanide, carbon monoxide
Oligomycin
DNP
ATPSynthase
2
ADP
Electron Transport Chain Chemiosmosis
1
2
Figure 6.11
Block the movement of electrons
Block the flow of H+ through ATP synthase
Allow H+ to leak through the membrane
87
Oxidative phosphorylation22.3 Aerobic respiration
2 Formation of ATP (through oxidative phosphorylation)
Pyruvate to acetyl-CoA: 2 NADH
Glycolysis: 2 NADH
Krebs cycle: 6 NADH 2 FADH= 6 ATP = 6 ATP = 22 ATP
Total: 34 ATP
88
22.3 Aerobic respiration
Let’s summarize the overall process of aerobic respiration.
Sure!
89
22.3 Aerobic respiration
90
22.3 Aerobic respiration
enzymes
C6H12O6 6 O2
6 CO2 38 ATP6 H2O
Overall equation:
91
• is split into two molecules of using energy from ATP
Different stages of aerobic respiration:
1 Glycolysis occurs in .Glucose
triose phosphate
22.3 Aerobic respiration
cytoplasm
92
; and are formed
• Triose phosphate is oxidized to
Different stages of aerobic respiration:
1 Glycolysis occurs in .
NADHpyruvate
22.3 Aerobic respiration
ATP
cytoplasm
93
• Net amount of ATP formed:
Different stages of aerobic respiration:
1 Glycolysis occurs in .2
22.3 Aerobic respiration
cytoplasm
94
.• Pyruvate is converted to
acetyl-CoA; and NADH are formed
Different stages of aerobic respiration:
2 Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA occurs in
carbon dioxide
22.3 Aerobic respiration
mitochondrial matrix
95
• Net amount of ATP formed:
Different stages of aerobic respiration:
0
22.3 Aerobic respiration
.mitochondrial matrix
2 Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA occurs in
96
• Acetyl-CoA combines with a 4-C compound to form a compound
Different stages of aerobic respiration:
3 Krebs cycle occurs in mitochondrial matrix.
6-C
22.3 Aerobic respiration
97
and ATP are formed
• The 6-C compound is oxidized step by step to regenerate 4-C compound; carbon dioxide, NADH,
Different stages of aerobic respiration:
3 Krebs cycle occurs in mitochondrial matrix.
FADH
22.3 Aerobic respiration
98
• Net amount of ATP formed:
Different stages of aerobic respiration:
3 Krebs cycle occurs in mitochondrial matrix.
2
22.3 Aerobic respiration
99
• NADH and FADH lose . They are oxidized to regenerate NAD and FAD
Different stages of aerobic respiration:
4 Oxidative phosphorylation occurs ininner
22.3 Aerobic respiration
membrane of mitochondrion.
hydrogen
100
• The oxidation of NADH and FADH releases energy to form by phosphorylation
Different stages of aerobic respiration:
4 Oxidative phosphorylation occurs ininner
22.3 Aerobic respiration
membrane of mitochondrion.
ATP
101
• Hydrogen is finally accepted by oxygen to form
Different stages of aerobic respiration:
4 Oxidative phosphorylation occurs ininner
22.3 Aerobic respiration
membrane of mitochondrion.
water
102
• Net amount of ATP formed:
Different stages of aerobic respiration:
4 Oxidative phosphorylation occurs ininner
22.3 Aerobic respiration
membrane of mitochondrion.
36
103
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
• does not require oxygen
• all reactions occur in the cytoplasm only
• starts with glycolysis but will not proceed to the Kerbs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation
104
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
How does anaerobic respiration occur?
105
Fate of pyruvate depends on the availability of oxygen
106
Fermentation is an anaerobic alternative to aerobic respiration
– Without O2 as the final electron acceptor, oxidative phosphorylation stops– Under anaerobic conditions, many kinds of cells
• Can use glycolysis alone to produce small amounts of ATP
107
– In glycolysis, ATP is used to energize a glucose molecule
– Which is split into two molecules of pyruvate
NAD NADH H
Glucose2 Pyruvate
ATP2P2 ADP
22
2
2
+
+
Figure 6.7A
Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate
108
Fermentation can generate ATP from glucose by substrate-level phosphorylation as long as there is a supply of NAD+ to accept electrons.
•If the NAD+ pool is exhausted, glycolysis shuts down also!
• In aerobic respiration, NAD+ is regenerated in ETC
• Without O2, ETC stops working!!!!!!
• In aerobic respiration, NAD+ is regenerated in ETC
• Without O2, ETC stops working!!!!!!
109
Fermentation is an anaerobic alternative to aerobic respiration to regenerate NAD+
110
In lactic acid fermentation• NADH is oxidized to NAD+ as pyruvate is
reduced to lactate
2 Lactate
NAD NADH NADH NAD2 2 22
2 ATP2 ADP 22 Pyruvate
GLYCOLYSIS
P
Glucose
Figure 6.13A
111
1 Formation of lactic acid (乳酸 ) in muscles
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
glucose (6-C)2 ADP + 2 P
2 ATP
2 pyruvate (3-C)
2 NAD
2 NADH
glycolysis
112
1 Formation of lactic acid (乳酸 )
in muscles
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
2 pyruvate (3-C)
2 lactic acid (3-C)
2 NADH
2 NAD+
113
1 Formation of lactic acid (乳酸 )
in muscles
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
• produces only two ATP through glycolysis
• simple and can supply energy quickly
114
1 Formation of lactic acid (乳酸 )
in muscles
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
• the formation of lactic acid by anaerobic respiration is called lactic acid fermentation (乳酸發酵 )
• overall equation:
2 lactic acidglucose energy (2 ATP)
115
1 Formation of lactic acid (乳酸 )
in muscles
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
• anaerobic respiration provides additional energy in a very short time allows muscles to
contract more powerfully and at a higher rate
116
1 Formation of lactic acid (乳酸 )
in muscles
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
• lactic acid formed builds up in muscles and causes pain muscle fatigue (肌肉疲勞 )
117
1 Formation of lactic acid (乳酸 )
in muscles
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
• after doing strenuous exercise, our breathing remains deep for some time
amou
nt o
f O2
brea
thed
in
timerest exercise recovery rest
118
1 Formation of lactic acid (乳酸 )
in muscles
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
• extra oxygen is used to break down lactic acid
oxygen debt (氧債 )
amou
nt o
f O2
brea
thed
in
timerest exercise recovery rest
119
1 Formation of lactic acid (乳酸 )
in muscles
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
• lactic acid is broken down to CO2 and water or converted to glycogen
amou
nt o
f O2
brea
thed
in
timerest exercise recovery rest
oxygen debt (氧債 )
120
In alcohol fermentation• NADH is oxidized to NAD+ while converting
pyruvate to CO2 and ethanol
NAD NADH NADH NAD2 2 2 2
GLYCOLYSIS
2 ADP 2 P ATP
Glucose 2 Pyruvate
releasedCO2
2 Ethanol
22
Figure 6.13B
Figure 6.13C
121
2 Formation of ethanol and carbon dioxide in yeast
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
glucose (6-C)2 ADP + 2 P
2 ATP
2 pyruvate (3-C)
2 NAD
2 NADH
glycolysis
122
2 Formation of ethanol and carbon dioxide in yeast
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
2 pyruvate (3-C)
2 ethanol (2-C)
2 NADH
2 NAD2 CO2
123
2 Formation of ethanol and carbon dioxide in yeast
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
• the formation of ethanol by anaerobic respiration is called alcoholic fermentation (酒精發酵 )
• overall equation:
2 ethanolglucose energy (2 ATP)
2 CO2
124
Brewing of wine involves alcoholic fermnetation
125
How to Measure the rate of respiration of a small animal ?
126
A respirometer
How about plants?
127
Applications of anaerobic respiration
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
• the brewing of beer makes use of the alcohol formed when yeast ferments the sugar in barley (大麥 )
128
Applications of anaerobic respiration• the brewing of wine
makes use of the alcohol formed when yeast ferments the sugar in grape juice
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
129
Applications of anaerobic respiration• CO2 formed by alcoholic
fermentation in yeast helps raise dough in bread-making
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
130
Applications of anaerobic respiration• yoghurt contains lactic
acid formed by anaerobic respiration in bacteria
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
131
Applications of anaerobic respiration• lactic acid formed by
anaerobic respiration in bacteria helps coagulate milk to form cheese
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
132
Applications of anaerobic respiration• ethanol formed by the
fermentation of sugar in crops can be used as a fuel to power vehicles
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
133
1 Anaerobic respiration in skeletal muscles:
Pyruvate is reduced to by .
Glucose undergoes and is oxidized to . NADH and ATP are formed in the process.
glycolysispyruvate
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
lactic acidNADH
134
2 Anaerobic respiration in provides additional energy in a very short time for .
muscles
muscle contraction
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
135
3 During strenuous exercise, the
lactic acid
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
formed by anaerobic respiration accumulates in muscles and causes .muscle fatigue
136
We keep breathing deeply after exercise to take in extra . It is used to remove all lactic acid by breaking it down to and water or converting it to
3oxygen
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
carbon dioxide
.glycogen
137
4 Anaerobic respiration in yeast:
Pyruvate is reduced to by NADH. is released in the process.
Glucose undergoes glycolysis and is oxidized to pyruvate. NADH and ATP are formed in the process.
ethanolCarbon dioxide
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
138
5a
Both release energy from the oxidative breakdown of organicsubstances
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
Similarities of aerobic and anaerobic respiration:
.
139
Similarities of aerobic and anaerobic respiration:
Both transfer energy to the energy carrier , and some energy is lost as
ATPheat
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
5a
.
140
Similarities of aerobic and anaerobic respiration:
Both consist of a number of reactions controlled by .
enzymes
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
5a
141
5b
Aerobic respiration occurs in cytoplasm and while anaerobic respiration occurs only in
mitochondria
cytoplasm
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration:
.
142
but anaerobic respiration does not.
Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration:
Aerobic respiration requiresoxygen
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
5b
143
Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration:
In aerobic respiration, organic substances are completely broken down into andcarbon dioxide
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
5b
water .
144
Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration:
But in anaerobic respiration, organic substances are partly broken down to form or and carbon dioxide.
lactic acid
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
5b
ethanol
145
Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration:
In aerobic respiration, ATP per glucose molecule is formed (a larger amount of energy is released).
38
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
5b
146
Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration:
In anaerobic respiration, ATP per glucose molecule is formed (a much smaller amount of energy is released).
2
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
5b
147
6 in yeast is used in brewing beer and , raising dough in bread-making and producing as a biofuel.
Alcoholic fermentationwine
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
ethanol
148
in bacteria is used in making yoghurt and cheese.
22.4 Anaerobic respiration
6 Lactic acid fermentation
149
Connection between molecular breakdown and synthesis
• Cells use many kinds of organic molecules as fuel for cellular respiration
150
– Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins can all fuel cellular respiration
• When they are converted to molecules that enter glycolysis or the citric acid cycle
OXIDATIVEPHOSPHORYLATION(Electron Transportand Chemiosmosis)
Food, such aspeanuts
Carbohydrates Fats Proteins
Sugars Glycerol Fatty acids Amino acids
Aminogroups
Glucose G3P Pyruvate AcetylCoA
CITRICACID
CYCLE
ATP
GLYCOLYSIS
Figure 6.14
151
Energy metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
152
• Proteins must first be digested to individual a____ acids.
• Amino acids that will be catabolized must have their amino groups removed via deamination.
• The carbon skeletons are modified by enzymes and enter as intermediaries into glycolysis or the citric acid cycle, depending on their structure.
153
154
Intermediates from glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are used as raw materials for making complex organic
Substances
-The biosynthesis of
organic substances
ATP needed to drive biosynthesis
ATP
CITRIC
ACID
CYCLE
GLUCOSE SYNTHESISAcetyl
CoAPyruvate G3P Glucose
Amino
groups
Amino acidsFatty
acidsGlycerol Sugars
CarbohydratesFatsProteins
Cells, tissues, organisms
155
The fuel for respiration ultimately comes from photosynthesis
– All organisms
• Can harvest energy from organic molecules
– Plants
• make these molecules from inorganic sources by the process of photosynthesis
Figure 6.16
156
22.5 Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
• exchange of molecules between respiration and photosynthesis
bridges the flow of energy from the environment to organisms
157
Exchange of molecules22.5 Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
photochemical reactions
oxidative phosphorylation
H2O H2O
O2O2
chloroplast mitochondrion
light
158
Exchange of molecules22.5 Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
Calvin cycle
Krebs cycle
CO2 CO2
glucose
glycolysis
pyruvate
159
Flow of energy22.5 Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
photosynthesis
respirationwaterCO2
oxygen
glucose
energy
160
In energy transformation22.5 Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
• ATP acts as the energy carrier
light energy
ADP + P
ATP energy stored in organic
compounds
ADP + P
ATP
energy for cellular
metabolism
161
In energy transformation22.5 Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
• ATP acts as the energy carrier
ADP + P
ATP energy stored in organic
compounds
ADP + P
ATP
energy for cellular
metabolism
light energy
photosynthesis
respiration
162
Respiration occurs in all cells while photosynthesis occurs in cells
1 Site of occurrence:
Differences between respiration and photosynthesis:
living
chloroplast-containing
22.5 Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
163
In respiration, occurs. Organic food is broken down by
to release energy
2 Type of metabolism:
Differences between respiration and photosynthesis:
catabolism
oxidation
22.5 Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
164
In photosynthesis, occurs. Organic food is built up by
to store energy
Type of metabolism:
Differences between respiration and photosynthesis:
anabolism
reduction
22.5 Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
2
165
In respiration, chemical energy in food is converted to and
3 Energy change:
Differences between respiration and photosynthesis:
ATP heat
22.5 Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
166
In photosynthesis, light energy from the sun is converted toenergy in food
Energy change:
Differences between respiration and photosynthesis:
chemical
22.5 Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
3
167
is removed from the substrate and , and FADH are formed
In Krebs cycle of respiration, 4 Cyclic reactions:
Differences between respiration and photosynthesis:
carbon dioxideNADH
22.5 Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
ATP
168
carbon dioxide is fixed into the cycle by a and NADPHand are used
In Calvin cycle of photosynthesis, 4 Cyclic reactions:
Differences between respiration and photosynthesis:
5-C compoundATP
22.5 Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
169
In respiration, ATP is formed in glycolysis, Krebs cycle and
5 Formation of ATP:
Differences between respiration and photosynthesis:
22.5 Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
oxidative phosphorylation
170
In photosynthesis, ATP is formed in5 Formation of ATP:
Differences between respiration and photosynthesis:
photophosphorylation
22.5 Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
171
In respiration, and are the hydrogen donors while in photosynthesis, is the hydrogen donor
6 Hydrogen donor:
Differences between respiration and photosynthesis:
NADH
22.5 Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
FADH
water
172
In respiration, is the final hydrogen acceptor while in photosynthesis, a in Calvin cycle is the final hydrogen acceptor
7 Final hydrogen acceptor:
Differences between respiration and photosynthesis:
oxygen
22.5 Relationship between respiration and photosynthesis
3-C compound
173
How does our body obtain energy1from the food we eat?Our body releases energy stored in food by respiration. The energy is used to form ATP which drives all cellular activities.
174
How is alcohol produced from corn2by fermentation?Sugar in corn is converted to ethanol by alcoholic fermentation in yeast.
175
The sugar in corn is made by3photosynthesis. What is the relationship between respiration and photosynthesis?Respiration and photosynthesis together allow the flow of energy in the ecosystem.
176
Respiration
is
requires oxygen
does not require oxygen
oxidative breakdown of food
aerobic respiration
anaerobic respiration
177
releases
chemical energy
oxidative breakdown of food
mostly as
heat ATP
some stored in
178
aerobic respiration
anaerobic respiration
glycolysis
cytoplasm
both involve
occurs in
179
glycolysis
if aerobic, then followed by
Kerbs cycle
oxidative phosphorylation
mitochondriaoccur in
180
glycolysis
if anaerobic, then followed by
formation of lactic acid
formation of ethanol and carbon dioxide
cytoplasmoccur in