ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING IIIEnvironmental Engineering IIIEdited byLucjan Pawowski, Marzenna R. Dudzi nska &Artur PawowskiInstitute of Environmental Protection Engineering,Lublin University of Technology, Lublin, PolandCRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UKTypeset by MPS Ltd. (A Macmillan Company), Chennai, IndiaPrinted and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe (A CPI Group Company), Chippenham, WiltshireAll rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be reproduced,stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, byphotocopying, recording or otherwise, without written prior permission from the publisher.Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this publication and the information herein,no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the author for any damage to the property orpersons as a result of operation or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein.Published by: CRC Press/BalkemaP.O. Box 447, 2300 AK Leiden, The Netherlandse-mail: Pub.NL@taylorandfrancis.comwww.crcpress.com www.taylorandfrancis.co.uk www.balkema.nlISBN: 978-0-415-54882-3 (Hardback)ISBN: 978-0-203-84666-7 (eBook)Environmental Engineering III Pawowski, Dudzi nska & Pawowski (eds) 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-54882-3Table of ContentsPreface XIAbout the editors XIIIGeneral problemsEnvironmental engineering as a tool for managing the human environment 3L. Pawowski &A. PawowskiAir pollution controlEvaluation of gas emissions from graphitising of carbon products 9M. Bogacki, R. Oleniacz & M. MazurThe influence of traffic-related air pollution on the ventilation efficiency of persons livingin the proximity of main roads 15A.J. Badyda &A. KraszewskiConstructions and investigation of a wet air deduster 25A. Heim, M. Tomalczyk & Z. BartczakPressure swing absorption of carbon dioxide in physical solvents 31H. Kierzkowska-Pawlak &A. ChacukMass size distribution of total suspended particulates in Zabrze (Poland) 37K. Klejnowski, A. Krasa &W. Rogua-KozowskaMicrowave assisted desorption of volatile organic compounds from activated carbonto a water phase 45A. Kozio & M. AraszkiewiczApplication of activated carbons for the removal of volatile organic compounds in theautomotive sector 51A. MareckaEmission of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) during the production of carbonand graphite electrodes 59M. Mazur, R. Oleniacz, M. Bogacki & P. SzczygowskiMutagenic properties of PM10 and PM2.5 air pollution in Wroclaw (Poland) 67K. PiekarskaConcentration and elemental composition of atmospheric fine aerosol particles inSilesia Province, Poland 75W. Rogua-Kozowska, K. Klejnowski, A. Krasa & S. SzopaModification of the gas flow in electrostatic precipitators and their influence on the ESP efficiency 83B. Sadkowska-Rybka & M. SarnaVA method to quantify light pollution and results from Poland 19942008 89T. Scie zor, M. Kubala, T.Z. Dworak &W. KaszowskiModeling of PM10 and PM2.5 particulate matter air pollution in Poland 97W. Trapp, M. Paciorek, M.K. Paciorek, K. Juda-Rezler, A. Warchaowski & M. ReizerLead and zinc in the street dust of Zielona Gora, Poland 105B. WalczakNOx emission control technologies in sludge pyrolysis and combustion 115X. Yang, X. Wang, Y. Cai & L. WangIndoor air pollution controlApplication of the thermal manikin for ventilation and air-conditioning system assessment 121M. Chludzi nska, B. Mizieli nski &A. BogdanBioaerosolos and carbonyl pollutants in small, naturally ventilated office spaces inLublin Poland a case study 127M.R. Dudzi nska & U. Gaska-JedruchGender differences in odor perception of n-butanol neutralized by ozone 135M.R. Dudzi nska, B. Poednik & M. Skwarczy nskiImpact of systems generating local air movement on thermal environment and occupants 141J. Kaczmarczyk &T. NawratAssessment of perceived air quality for selected flat in the residential building 149A. Raczkowski &A. WywirkaNeutralization of sewage sludge and wastewaterWastewater treatment with zeolites at Dygowo wastewater treatment plant 155A.M. Anielak, K. Piaskowski, M. Wojnicz, M. Grzegorczuk & L. LewandowskaStructure and granulometric composition of suspensions in sewage sludge and activated sludge 161E. Burszta-Adamiak, M. Keszycka & J. omotowskiThe structure of influent time series in wastewater treatment plants 167M. ChuchroPolychlorinated dibenzothiophenes (PCDTs) in leachates from landfills 173J. Czerwi nski, M. Pawowska & B. RutIndustrial installation for integrated bioremediation of wastewater contaminated with ionic mercury 179P. Guszcz, S. Ledakowicz & I. Wagner-DoeblerA laboratory study on toxicity removal from landfill leachate in combined treatment withmunicipal wastewater 185J. Kalka, A. O sli slok, J. Surmacz-Grska, K. Krajewska, D. Marciocha &A. RaszkaApplying the treedendrical scheme failure method to evaluate the reliability of sewagecollection draining reliability evaluation subsystems 191J. Krlikowska &A. KrlikowskiVIThe potential of metal complex dyes removal from wastewater the sorption method ontoorganic matter rich substances 197J. Kyzio-Komosi nska, C. Rosik-Dulewska & M. PajakListeria monocytogenes and chemical pollutants migration with landfill leachates 203A. Kulig, A. Grabi nska-oniewska, E. Pajor & M. Szyak-SzydowskiProcess kinetics and equilibrium in Cu2+ sorption in hydrogel chitosan granules 213Z. Modrzejewska, A. Skwarczy nska & R. ZarzyckiCharacterization of surface active properties of Bacillus strains growing in brewery effluent 221G.A. Paza, K. Gawior, K. Jangid & K.A. WilkNitrogen and phosphorus removal paths in a sequencing batch reactor dependence ona dissolved oxygen profile in aerobic phases 227J. Podedworna & M. Zubrowska-SudoThe possibilities of using waste compost to remove aromatic hydrocarbons from solution 237C. Rosik-Dulewska &T. CiesielczukMembrane bioreactor co-treatment of municipal landfill leachates and synthetic sewage 243A. Swierczy nska, E. Puszczao & J. BohdziewiczQuality of surface run-off from municipal landfill area 249I.A. TaaajExperimental feasibility study on application of a mechanical cavitation inducer fordisintegration of wastewater sludges 257M. Zubrowska-Sudo, J. Podedworna, Z. Heidrich, P. Krawczyk & J. SzczygieNeutralization of solid wastes and sludgesDisintegration of fermented sludge possibilities and potential gas 265M. Cimochowicz-Rybicka, S.M. Rybicki & B. Fryzlewicz-KozakMathematical modeling of wet oxidation of excess sludge in counter current bubble columns 273A. Chacuk & M. ImbierowiczThe effect of disintegration of sewage sludge by hydrodynamic cavitation on organic andinorganic matter relase 279K. Grbel, A. Machnicka & J. SuschkaSpeciation of heavy metals in municipal sewage sludge from different capacity sewagetreatment plants 285J. Gawdzik & J. Latosi nskaCopper and zinc bioleaching from galvanic sludge in mixed microbial cultures 291E. KarwowskaExcess sludge treatment using electro-hydraulic cavitation 299T.A. Marcinkowski & P.J. AulichBone sludge as a raw material in the production of hydroxyapatite for biological applications 307A. Sobczak, E. Byszczak, Z. Kowalski & Z. WzorekVIIReuse of coal mining wastes: environmental benefits and hazards 311S. Stefaniak & I. TwardowskaFeedstock recycling of plastic wastes and scrap rubber via thermal cracking 317M. Stelmachowski & K. Sowi nskiApplication of modern research methods to determine the properties of raw mineralsand waste materials 325D.K. Szponder & K. TrybalskiThe influence of aeration rate on production of leachate and biogas in aerobic landfills 331R. Slezak, L. Krzystek & S. LedakowiczOccurrence and bindings strength of metals in composted bio-waste and sewage sludge 339I. Twardowska, K. Janta-Koszuta, E. Miszczak & S. StefaniakRemediation of polluted sitesMethanotrophs and their role in mitigating methane emissions from landfill sites 351E. Staszewska & M. PawowskaThe application of spent ion-exchange resins as NO3 carriers in soil restoration 365M. Chomczy nska & E. WrblewskaThe increase of total nitrogen content in soilless formations as a criterion of theefficiency of reclamation measures 371T. GodaClassification of reclaimed soils in post industrial areas 375S. Gruszczy nskiImprovements in industrial waste landfilling at the solid waste landfill site inKrakow-Pleszow, Poland, implemented in order to obtain an integrated permit 381K. GrzesikApplication of a 2-D flow model to the analysis of forest stability in the Vistula valley 385T. Kau zaThe content of heavy metals in soils and Populus nigra leaves from the protective zoneof the Gogw copper smelter 391J. KosteckiTreatment of alkaline waste from aluminium waste storage site and method forreclamation of that site 397Z. Kowalski, K. Gorazda &A. SobczakResearch on the mechanical durability and chemical stability of solidified hazardous waste 403T.A. Marcinkowski & K.P. BanaszkiewiczEfficiency of microbiological oxidation of methane in biofilter 409M. PawowskaLeaching of soluble components from fertilizers based on sewage sludge and ashes 417C. Rosik-Dulewska, U. Karwaczy nska &T. CiesielczukVIIIMicrobiological enhancement of CLEANSOIL method of soil remediation 425A. Tabernacka, A. Muszy nski, E. Zborowska, M. ebkowska, E. Lapshina,Y. Korzhov & D. KhoroshevEmissions of trace compounds from selected municipal landfills in Poland 431J. Czerwi nski & M. PawowskaWater quality and supplyA combined 2D-3D seismic survey or fracturing geothermal systems in central Poland 441A.P. BarbackiEffect of the van Genutchen model tortuosity parameter on hydraulic conductivity calculations 447M. Iwanek, I. Krukowski, M. Widomski &W. OlsztaBioindicative studies of pecton in selected facilities of the Hajdw WastewaterTreatment Plant a case study 455G. agd, K. Jaromin, A. Kopertowska, O. Pli zga, A. Lefanowicz & P. Wo sInfluence of valve closure characteristic on pressure increase during water hammer run 463A. KoduraWater need of Energy Crops one of the environmental problems of Poland 473P.J. Kowalik & R. ScalengheModified Ghmire and Barkdoll method of quantitive sensors location in a water distribution system 479D. Kowalski, M. Kwietniewski, B. Kowalska &A. MuszInhibition of the growth of Microcrystis aureginosa by phenolic allelochemicals from aquaticmacrophytes or decomposed barley straw 485B. Macioszek, D. Szczukocki & J. Dziegie cBiofilm sampling for bioindication of municipal wastewater treatment 491A. Montusiewicz, M. Chomczy nska, J. Malicki & G. agdMathematical model of sedimentation and flotation in a septic tank 497M. Pawlak & R. Ba zejewskiChangeable character of both surface and retained water and its impact on the watertreatment process 501A. RakChanges in the environments of water reservoirs in Warsaw resulting from transformations intheir surrounding areas 511T. Sta nczyk & J. JeznachRemoval of microcystin-LR from water by ozonation 517D. Szczukocki, B. Macioszek & J. Dziegie cMethod of identification of operational states of water supply system 521B. Tchrzewska-Cie slak & J. RakWater consumer safety in water distribution system 527B. Tchrzewska-Cie slakIXFormation of biofilm in tap water supply networks 533T.M. Traczewska, M. Sitarska &A. Trusz-ZdybekCalculating usable resources at surface water intakes using low-flow stochastic properties 539B. WiezikTrihalomethanes formation potential in water chlorinated with disinfectant produced inelectrolyzers 543A. Wodyka-Bergier &T. BergierAdvanced oxidation techniques in elimination of endocrine disrupting compounds present in water 549E. Zacharska, H. Zatorska, B. Rut & J. OzonekEstimated changes of pluvio-thermal coefficient in Poland in the light of climatic changes 557A. Ziernicka-Wojtaszek, P. Zawora, T. Sarna &T. ZaworaReliability analysis of water-pipe networks in Cracow, Poland 561I. ZimochEnergy saving and recoveryComparison of heat losses in channel and preinsulated district heating networks 569T. Cholewa &A. Siuta-OlchaAssessment of the combustion of biomass and pulverized coal by combining principalcomponent analysis and image processing techniques 575A. Kotyra, W. Wjcik &T. GolecEnergy demand for space heating of residential buildings in Poland 581A. Siuta-Olcha &T. CholewaCo-combustion of syngas obtained from air biomass gasification with coal in small scale boilers 591R.K. Wilk & P. PlisNarrow-band spectral models for diagnostic of gases produced during the biomass production 597W. Wjcik, S. Cieszyk &T. GolecAuthor index 603XEnvironmental Engineering III Pawowski, Dudzi nska & Pawowski (eds) 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-54882-3PrefaceThe central goals of the book Environmental Engineering III are to summarize research carried out in Poland,and to improve technology transfer and scientific dialogue in this time of economical transformation from aplanned to a free market economy, thereby leading to a better comprehension of solutions to a broad spectrumof environmentally related problems.Poland, like other post-communist countries, is undergoing transformation into a capitalist system. This trans-formation brings many problems economical, social, psychological and also ecological. Ecological problemsare strongly connected with the political, economic and psychological inheritance of the past as well as withchanges in the post-communist society.To understand these problems it is necessary to consider the following issues: The geographic situation of Poland, The political transformations that occurred after World War II forced development of heavy industrycombined with neglect of its effects on the environment, and The economic problemsIts geographical position in the European lowland, with mountains in the south and the Baltic Sea to the north,gives Poland some advantages such as trading and transportation opportunities. On the other hand, Polandsgeography creates excellent conditions for pollution migration. Since 85% of the winds are from the west orsouth-west, about 50% of the sulphur dioxide in Poland comes from former East Germany and Czechoslovakia.Therefore, the western parts of Poland are much more heavily polluted by sulphur than are the eastern ones. Thelargest Polish rivers the 1047-km Vistula (Wisa) and the 845-km Oder (Odra) originate in the mountainsof the highly industrialized southern part of Poland, and flow to the northern lowlands where rural areas andbeautiful lakes prevail. Most of the Polish water supplies in the north are highly affected by contamination ofthe upper rivers.Deposits of coal, cooper, zinc and other metals are found in the southern and southwestern parts of Poland.As a result of these raw materials, heavy industry developed in the region and caused significant degradation ofair, water and soil in that area.After the Second World War, Poland came under communist rule and heavy industrial development was forcedfor political reasons to form a labour class. Most decisions on the localization of new enterprises were basedon purely political reasoning, irrespective of economics or environmental health. The most typical examplesare the steel works near the historical capital of Poland Cracow, a city where the intelligentsia had previouslyhad a strong position. Along with industrialization, a policy of neglecting ecological and psycho-social factorswas developed. The ecological or human costs of living in the degraded environment were never taken intoaccount.Ongoing political and social changes in Poland have caused some environmental improvements, but alsosome new problems, both expected and unpredicted. We have observed ecological fashion. This fashion forenvironmental protection and ecology has resulted in a plethora of information in the media. This situationcauses social pressure on pro-ecological behavior. However, there are also new conflicts, often associated withjob losses that accompany the closing of polluting industries.Money at the local level is nowdistributed by local, democratically elected councils. Because of the ecologicalfashion it is easier to make the decision of spending funds on protection of the environment. Such decisions arepopular among the local populace and this is a positive result of democracy. Democratic mechanisms are lesssatisfactory when considering the possibility of convincing people about the necessity of locating a landfill intheir neighborhood or building a waste incinerator.Increased use of motor vehicles is one of the most serious problems in Poland today. No incentives or economicstimulation for buying pro-ecological cars have yet been introduced.Nevertheless, due to EU pro-ecological programs, a lot of very important environmentally oriented projectsare realized in Poland in which also international companies are participating.The number of multinational consortia with participation of Polish partners is steadily growing.Therefore, a presentation of the scientific findings and technical solutions created by the Polish researchcommunity ought to be of interest not only for Polish institutions, but also for international specialists, seekingsolutions for environmental problems in emerging new democracies, especially those who plan to participate innumerous projects sponsored by the European Union.XIFinally, I would like to express my appreciation to all who have helped to prepare this book. Dr Sandy Williamsof the Scriptoria performed a herculean task working with great patience, aiding many authors to improve thelinguistic side of their papers. Anonymous reviewers who not only evaluated papers, but very often made valu-able suggestion helping authors and editors to improve the scientific standard of this book. And finally, lastbut definitely not least Ms Katarzyna Wjcik Oliveira and Ms Justyna Kujawska for her invaluable help inpreparing a lay out of all papers.Lublin, January 2010Lucjan PawowskiXIIEnvironmental Engineering III Pawowski, Dudzi nska & Pawowski (eds) 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-54882-3About the editorsLucjan Pawowski, was born in Poland, 1946. Dean of Faculty of EnvironmentalEngineering and Director of the Institute of Environmental Protection Engineeringof the Lublin University of Technology, Member of the European Academy ofScience and Arts, honorary professor of China Academy of Science. He got hisPh.D. in 1976, and D.Sc. (habilitation in 1980 both at the Wrocaw University ofTechnology). He started research on the application of ion exchange for water andwastewater treatment. As a result he together with B. Bolto fromCSIROAustralia,has published a book Wastewater Treatment by Ion Exchange in which theysummarized their own results and experience of the ion exchange area. In 1980L. Pawowski was elected President of International Committee Chemistry forProtectionof the Environment. He was Chairmanof the Environmental ChemistryDivision of the Polish Chemical Society from 19801984. In 1994 he was electedthe Deputy President of the Polish Chemical Society and in the same year, theDeputy President of the Presidium Polish Academy of Science Committee Men and Biosphere. In 1999 hewas elected a President of the Committee Environmental Engineering of the Polish Academy of Science. In1991 he was elected the Deputy Reactor of the Lublin University of Technology, and this post he held for twoterms (19911996). He has published 22 books, over 168 papers, and authored 88 patents, and is a member ofthe editorial board of numerous international and national scientific and technical journals.Marzenna R. Dudzi nska received M.Sc. in physical chemistry in 1983from Marie Curie-Skodowska University in Lublin, Poland. She got a Ful-bright Scholarship in 1989, and performed pre-doctoral research at Univer-sity of Houston, USA. She received Ph.D. in environmental chemistry fromMarie Curie-Skodowska University (1992) and D.Sc. (habilitation) in 2004from Warsaw University of Technology in environmental engineering. She isan associate professor at the Institute of Environmental Protection Engineer-ing, Lublin University of Technology, head of Indoor Environment EngineeringDivision. She authored and co-authored 2 books and 85 papers and co-edited8 books in the area of POPs in the environment, VOC and SVOC in indoor air.She is a member of Polish Chemical Society and Committee of EnvironmentalEngineering of Polish Academy of Sciences.Artur Pawowski, Ph.D., D.Sc. (habilitation), was born in 1969 in Poland. In 1993he received M.Sc. of the philosophy of nature and protection of the environmentat the Catholic University of Lublin. Since that time he has been working in theLublin University of Technology in the Faculty of Environmental Protection Engi-neering. In 1999 he defended Ph.D. thesis Humans Responsibility for Naturein the University of Card. Stefan Wyszy nski in Warsaw. Also at this University in2009 he defendend D.Sc. thesis Sustainable Development Idea, Philosophy andPractice. Now he works on problems connected with multidimensional nature ofsustainable development. Member of International Association for EnvironmentalPhilosophy and Lublin Voivodship Board for Protection of Nature. Editor-in-chiefof scientific journal Problems of Sustainable Development. He has published40 articles (in Polish, English and Chinese), 6 books, and has been an editor offurther 13 books.XIIIGeneral problemsEnvironmental Engineering III Pawowski, Dudzi nska & Pawowski (eds) 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-54882-3Environmental engineering as a tool for managing thehuman environmentL. Pawowski &A. PawowskiFaculty of Environmental Engineering, Lublin University of Technology, Lublin, PolandABSTRACT: Taking into account, the current situation in Poland, comprehensive research is needed todevelop: strategies for the management of waste and sewage sludge, strategies for the short- and long-term utilisation of different elements of the environment (energy supply,the role of alternative energy sources, water management, land management, management of resources) a better description of anthropogenic and natural sources of pollutants, as well as their transformations,pathways and dispersion through geo-ecosystems the means to shape and manage socioeconomic relationships through appropriate legal regulation of the useof the environment (i.e. through rationalised consumption of resources and land use and the minimisation ofanthropopressure).It is stressed that environmental engineering may be one of the most important tools in the implementationof a concept for sustainable development in the country.Keywords: Environmental engineering, sustainable development, waste, water and wastewater management.Information bombarding modern man suggests thatthe world is on the way to an ecological catastrophe.While we do not disregard the dangers the worldis now facing, it is necessary to recall that since thebeginning of its existence mankind has been facingnumerous threats of an ecological character. First,there were those caused by natural phenomena hugeforest fires, floods and earthquakes. Then, later on,there were those caused by the development of ourcivilisation. Mankind, which was becoming more andmore powerful in its abilities, started creating new,anthropogenic threats.We may look pessimistically at the developmentof our civilisation, having in mind the catastrophescaused by mans activities, but against that we mustlook at the development of knowledge and the skillsderived from it, which made it possible to eliminatesome of the threats and, at the same time, make peopleslives richer.It is not possible to make an in-depth analysis ofthe phenomena mentioned above in a short openingspeech to Congress. Nevertheless, we would like toshare with you an optimistic reflection.We thinkthat we canobserve twotrends inthe devel-opment of our civilisation good alternating with evil,environmental threats alternating with the hopes fortheir defeat. Events swing from one side to the otherlike the pendulum of a clock.Environmental engineering has a leading role in theelimination of ecological threats. It has an interdis-ciplinary character that can deal with a wide rangeof technical and technological problems. It uses theknowledge of the basic sciences biology, chemistry,biochemistryandphysics toneutralise pollutioninallthe elements of the environment, i.e. the hydrosphere,atmosphere and lithosphere.Moreover, environmental engineering deals withthe design and maintenance of systems of watersupply, sewage disposal, heating, ventilation and air-conditioning in buildings. In brief, it deals with secur-ing, technically, the conditions which create a safeenvironment for mankind to live in.History shows that in every period of its existencemankind has been plagued by phenomena of extremecharacter, for example, the rise of bigger settlementsled to the development of epidemics. In the secondhalf of the 14th century the Black Death epidemicskilled one-third of the European population of thattime. Epidemics, called plagues, haunted whole con-tinents not so long ago. They began in cities, whichdid not have adequate sanitary conditions sufficienthealthy drinking water supplies and suitable sewagedisposal systems. We may, therefore, say that the exist-ing settlements suffered from the underdevelopmentof sanitary engineering, which is an important part ofenvironmental engineering nowadays.3The improvement in the quality of water throughits treatment reaches back into pre-historical times.The first information on the subject, coming from theperiod around 2000 BC, was found in ancient Egypt,India, Palestine, Persia and China. A Sanskrit docu-ment ordered people to boil water, as well as to heatit in the suns rays and filter it through sand, gravel oreven charcoal.The Chinese recommended adding dried leavesfrom bushes in order to improve the taste of water,and in this way they discovered tea.Also in the Bible, in Genesis 15, the march fromthe sea to the mountains of Sinai, we find informationabout Moses activities in the field of environmentalengineering. He led the Jews across the Shur desertand encountered water springs which were undrink-able. Moses cut bush branches and threw them intothe water, which made it drinkable. Contemporaryresearch showed that in that desert there are watersprings containing excessive amounts of calcium andmagnesium salts. Also a bush was found, which con-tains large amounts of oxalic acid in its sap. Theaddition of the oxalic acid fromthe bush branches pre-cipitated calcium and magnesium ions in the form ofoxalates with low-solubility. In light of this informa-tion we can say that Moses was the first person to usethe technology of desalination of salty water. So, wemay find the origin of our discipline in pre-historictimes.The quality of water influences human health ina significant way. Contrary to the common belief, itwas not the development of medicine, but the develop-ment of sanitary engineering, which contributed to thesudden improvement in the health of the human popu-lation, eliminating epidemics caused by (inadequate)bad-quality water in significant areas of the globe. Itdid so through the improvement of the quality of thewater supplied and in sewage disposal. Unfortunately,according to UNandWHOdata reports, three-quartersof the people who live on Earth do not have access towater clean enough to be considered healthy. The samesources say that every year 15 million children underthe age of 5 die because of diseases caused by drinkingbad-quality water. It should be noted that it happensfor political and economic reasons, since modern envi-ronmental engineering provides knowledge of howto effectively purify water. Unfortunately, contami-nated water sources occur most frequently in poorand overpopulated areas. People who live there cannotafford to install proper facilities for water purification.Also in Poland, inhabitants of rural regions often havebad-quality water for their use.The development of science was always affected bythe twin factors of a desire on the part of the learnedto better understand nature, and a need for solutions tobe found for the problems considered important to theongoing progress of civilisation. Bearing in mind thefact that the pursuit of contemporary science requiresever greater resources, attempts are being made toset priority research objectives that reflect a need toforecast directions for the development of civilisation.A turning point as regards approaches to environ-mental matters was the famous U. Thant report of 1969,which spelled out the threats attendant upon environ-mental degradation. There was a long period of timeduring which environmental protection was mainlyunderstood in terms of nature conservation and thisapproach remains the prevalent one in Poland. Mean-while, for all that this approach showed that it sloweddown the further degradation of the natural environ-ment over major areas of the globe, no such successhas been possible where socioeconomic relations areconcerned. For this reason, the concept, hithertounder-stood as the protection of the natural environment,would need to be replaced by the concept of theprotection of the environment for human existence.Environmental protection understood in this way takesin, not only the well-known issues geared primarilytowards nature conservation, but also the whole mat-ter of the management of the earths resources. It isalso imperative that reference be made to the socialcontext, with account being taken of the fact that it issocioeconomic relations that exert such a major influ-ence on the quality of life. Unemployment has just asdestructive an effect upon a human being as does lifein a degraded environment.Environmental protection understood in this wayencourages unavoidable changes on our planet unavoidable since there is no alternative. This allowsfor a somewhat more optimistic look into the future,since the ongoing changes are becoming irrevocablylinked with the need to ensure environmental condi-tions sufficient to allow people to live with at leastminimal human dignity.The overriding aim in protecting the environmentfor human life is to ensure that present and futuregenerations enjoy healthy conditions for their exis-tence. Similar objectives are set for the development oftechniques and technologies. Furthermore, the devel-opment of the latter supplies new tools which, if usedin the right way, may exert a significant influence onimproving the state of the environment. Simplifyingsomewhat, we may say that the techniques and tech-nologies are tools facilitatingthe transformationof rawmaterials into utilisable products as human civilisationoperates. Their abrupt and accelerated development(particularly in the 20th century), resulting froma geo-metric increase in humankinds capacity to producegoods, led to a marked increase in living standardsacross large parts of the world. However, the openquestion arising in this context concerns whether ornot the encroachment upon this of a marketing systemstirring up a constant demand for new goods throughslick advertising is actually raising the quality of lifefurther.This question is made sensible enough by the factthat the growth in output is accompanied by the accel-erated utilisation of resources, itself linked on the onehand with the possibility of these being used up sooneror later, and, on the other, with an undesirable ongoingincrease in the level of pollution of the environment.It is also certain that humankinds future will be very4much dependent upon the way in which the flows ofthe Earths resources within the human environmentare managed.The regulation of the flows in question is deter-mined by adopting the concepts of the socioeconomicfunctioning of civilisation. These concepts should beshaped by knowledge of the Earths resources and theiravailability, as well as of the influence exerted on theenvironment for human existence by the methods usedto convert resources into products. The functioning ofthe entire biosphere and its human component in par-ticular is mainly decided by how the Earth is utilisedas a whole.It was a growing awareness of these issues thatled to the formulation of the sustainable develop-ment concept set out in the 1987 Bruntland Report,officially entitled Our Common Future. According tothis document, sustainable development is that kindof development which guarantees the meeting of thecurrent generations needs, without limiting the possi-bilities for future generations to satisfy their needs.The proper management of the Earth assumes keyimportance in this context, since it is upon the rationalutilisation of resources that the guaranteed meeting offuture generations needs will depend.In going beyond the questions of a purely nature-related character, attention will also need to be paid tomany problems of a general kind, such as, the grow-ing disparities between the rich and poor nations, orthe increase in numbers of people going hungry andlacking access to clean water.In our opinion, there is a need to carry out compre-hensive research in the following areas: on developing a strategy for the management ofwastes and sewage sludge.Waste management exerts a significant influenceon the degradation of the environment on the onehand (through land degradation and the generationof secondary pollutants to the soil-water environmentand the air) and on the functioning of the econ-omy on the other. Too liberal a policy will leadto excessive environmental degradation, while toorestrictive a policy may stand in the way of economicdevelopment.There is a need to better understand the conse-quences of dumping waste. What are the consequencesof abandoning mines, pathways and the quantitiesof pollutants that are generated through dumping?We need to gain greater insight into the mecha-nisms by which these pollutants are transferred fromlandfills to the different components of the envi-ronment, and to determine the effects that migrat-ing pollutants impose upon different elements ofgeo-ecosystems. on devising a strategy for the short- and long-termuse of different elements of the environment (energysupply, the role of alternative energy sources, watermanagement, land management, management ofresources).The objective of this research should be to gain abetter understanding of the environmental condition-ing underpinning Polands development, taking intoaccount our own natural resources. It is a commonbelief that importing primary energy resources, suchas gas, is anecological undertaking. However, noatten-tionis paidtothe fact that the gas canonlybe purchasedif it is paid for by exporting other products whosemanufacture mayconsiderablyincrease environmentaldegradation.Principles for the protection of natural resourcesneed to be set out, with particular attention to under-ground and surface waters. on developing a better description of anthro-pogenic and natural sources of pollutants, as well astheir transformations in pathways and movementsthrough geo-ecosystems.The negative effect of each pollutant is manifestedwhen it passes from the place where it is generatedinto a living organism, wherein it is able to affect lifeprocesses.The development of civilisation is associated withthe mining of raw materials from geo-ecosystems andprocessing them into usable products. Following use,these return to geo-ecosystems in the form of pol-lution. The process is inseparable from the exertionof anthropopressure via pollutants introduced into theenvironment. Some of these are chemical compoundsalready present in nature. However, as chemistry hasdeveloped, a whole array of newchemical compounds,unknown to nature, have appeared, these sometimesdisplaying an exceptionally high level of biologicalactivity. Chemical Abstracts listed in excess of 5 mil-lion chemical compounds, with around 50,000 newones being registered annually.In this situation, it becomes impossible to under-stand precisely the behaviour in the environment ofall known chemical compounds. Hence, there is theneed to better understand the transformations of differ-ent groups of chemical compounds and their pathwaysthrough the environment, as well the influence theseexert most especiallyon the biosphere and via the dif-ferent food chains. Such information is indispensableif remedial actions are to be taken to limit the negativeeffects of chemicals introduced into the environment.To simplify analyses it would be helpful to definethe most important pathways of chemicals in geo-ecosystems. onthe searchfor means toshape andmanage socioe-conomic relationships through appropriate legalregulation leading to a rationalised use of the envi-ronment (i.e. through rationalised consumption ofresources and land use and the minimisation ofanthropopressure).It would seem of importance to obtain a betterunderstanding of the attitudes representative of Pol-ish society, and to look for means by which to shapesuch attitudes in order to favour implementation of theconcept of sustainable development.5The objective of this work should be to betterunderstand the socioeconomic and legal mechanismsshaping relationships between humankind and theenvironment.It can be seen from all this that taking rationalaction to ensure sustainable development depends firstand foremost on knowledge of the functioning ofgeo-ecosystems, as well as the skill to limit the nega-tive effects that civilisation exerts on their functioning.Assuming particular significance in this context is thescientific research being conducted in environmentalengineering on methods indispensable to the protec-tion and appropriate shaping of the environment forhuman life.6Air pollution controlEnvironmental Engineering III Pawowski, Dudzi nska & Pawowski (eds) 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-54882-3Evaluation of gas emissions from graphitising of carbon productsM. Bogacki, R. Oleniacz & M. MazurAGH University of Science and Technology (AGH-UST), Faculty of Mining Surveying and EnvironmentalEngineering, Department of Management and Protection of Environment, Krakow, PolandABSTRACT: Graphitising of carbon products emits many gaseous substances into the air, with the followinghaving the highest emissions: CO, CO2, SO2, H2S, and CS2; aliphatic hydrocarbons (CH4, C2H4, C2H6 andC3H8); and benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX). These emissions are of a time-variable natureand depend on technological parameters, e.g. weight and assortment of charge, furnace heating curve, type andamount of insulation packing, and efficiency of air pollution control devices. Presented are concentrations ofselected gaseous substances emitted from Castner graphitising furnaces (equipped with installations of catalyticafterburning and flue-gas desulphurisation), and corresponding mass flow rates and emission factors related tocarbon charge weight.Keywords: Carbon products, graphite production, gastner furnace, gaseous pollutants, emission factors.1 INTRODUCTIONGraphitising is a high-temperature heat treatment ofamorphous carbon materials where there is rearrange-ment and reconstruction of the apparently amorphousstructure of the carbon charge into the crystallinegraphite structure. The process is gradual heating ofthe charge to 25002800C. As a result of physicaland chemical changes in the carbon material duringthe graphitisation cycle, gases are carried away andtheir composition changes dynamically with processduration. In the first stage (up to 1500C), hydrogenand sulphur are removed. In the second stage (15001800C) the majority of semi-products made frompetroleum coke and pitch binder increase in volume(swelling) by0.20.6%. Inthe thirdstage (>2000C)the gradual graphitisation of carbon material and dis-tilling of ash components begins (Lebiedziejewski1984).Graphitising of carbon products is usually carriedout in electric-resistance Acheson or Castner furnaces(EC2001, 2009). The Castner graphitisation method ismore advanced and promising. It is based on supplyingpower to the graphitised preforms by direct passage ofelectric current, so energetic efficiency is higher thanthat of the Acheson method, and the time required tocomplete the graphitisation process is shorter (1025 hin Castner vs. 4580 h in Acheson furnaces). Thus thespecific consumption of electric power in the Castnermethod can be decreased by 1525% compared withthe Acheson method (Kuznetsov 2000, Kuznetsov &Korobov 2001).During the process, post-graphitising gases form,and are emitted into the air. The compositionof the emitted gases depends on, among otherthings, chemical composition of the carbon mixture(semi-products), assortment of products, type of insu-lation packing, graphitising furnace heating-curve,and pollutant-reduction efficiency of air pollutioncontrol devices.There are few scientific reports that examine com-positions of post-graphitising gases, both those carriedaway from the furnace and those emitted into the air,despite thembeing highly noxious to the environment.The reasons for this may be, on one hand, the nichenature of the graphite industry in the world and, on theother hand, the high difficulty in sampling and chem-ical analysis of these gases due to high variability oftheir concentrations versus duration of the graphitisa-tion process, and a high content of organic compoundsin the gases. Most research in this field, coveringthe manufacturing process in Acheson or Castner fur-naces, is found in Mazur (1995) and Mazur et al.(1990, 2004, 2005, 2006a, b). These studies generallyshowed the changeability of air pollutant concentra-tions in post-graphitising gases and hourly emissionvalues without emission factors. The emission factorswere determined in Mazur et al. (2006b), but wereonly concerned with the graphitising of small carbonproducts in an Acheson furnace. In European Com-mission IPPC reference documents (EC 2001, 2009)there is no information about gaseous emission fromthe graphitisation process, except for the range of totalhydrocarbon concentrations.The present work presents measurements ofselected gaseous substance emissions fromsix length-wise graphitisation (LWG) Castner furnaces equippedwith catalytic afterburning and flue-gas desulphurisa-tion installations. The main purpose of the researchwas to assess concentrations of the following9Table 1. Technological parameters for the Castner (LWGtype) graphitising furnace.Parameter Unit ValueFeedstock capacity t 100Insulation packing t 220270Furnace long m 3 25Cross-section furnace area m24.8Maximum voltage V 280Maximum current intensity* kA 35Maximum transformer power MW 6* one transformer.substances emitted into the air during the graphitis-ing cycle (when furnaces were current-operated): CO,SO2, H2S, CS2, CH4, C2H4, C2H6, C3H8 and BTEX(i.e. total sum of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene andxylenes). An additional aim was to determine the gasvolume flowfor eachgraphitisingfurnace andenumer-ate the emission factors of analysed substances relatedto the carbon charge weight.2 MATERIALS AND METHODSThe research covered the graphitisation of carbonproducts (electrodes and shapes) using six Castnerelectric resistance furnaces (LWG type) operated inthe Graphitising Plant of SGL Carbon Polska S.A. inNowy Sacz, Poland (Table 1).The gases generated during graphitising werecleaned in two installations: catalytic afterburner, comprisedof four Swingtherm-Kormoran 30.0 reactors with KERATERMceramicfilling and platinum catalyst with increased resis-tance to sulphur compounds (working temperature340425C); flue gas desulphurisation installation (wet scrub-ber) using the double-alkaline method, whichsprays the gases with NaOH solution (Na2CO3batching) and post-absorption solution regenera-tion using Ca(OH)2.As it was necessary to provide bypassing (usedin emergencies and when gases carried away do notrequire a specific cleaning method), each of the instal-lations was equipped with a by-pass. This allows aproportion of the post-graphitising gases to bypass thefirst, second or both stages of gas cleaning, movingdirectly to the stack flue.The presented results of selected air pollutant emis-sions are measurements taken in years 20022008and cover the whole production process of graphi-tising of carbon and graphite products. The exam-inations were conducted for individual graphitisingfurnaces with diverse technological parameters: dif-ferent charge weights, different assortments of graphi-tised electrodes/carbon shapes, different durations ofgraphitising, as well as changing temperature charac-teristics of furnace operation. Samplingwas conductedat the measurement point located within the stack, i.e.influe gases uponcleaninginthe catalytic afterburningand desulphurisation installations.Each measuring series was started upon switchingon the furnace power, when the post-graphitising gaseswere being carried away to the atmosphere in a con-trolled manner through the installed flue-gas hood andfinished 23 h after switching the furnace power off.The times of current operation of furnaces (heatingphase) for individual measuring series were 1623 h.As a part of the measuring series, among otherthings, the concentrations of the following substancesin the post-graphitising gases were measured: furnace 4, measuring series 1 and 2: CO, SO2, NO2,H2S, CS2, CH4, C2H4, C2H6, C3H8 and BTEX; furnaces 16, other measuring series: CO, SO2 andNO2.The concentrations of gaseous substances, CO,SO2, NO2 and H2S within measuring series 1 and 2(furnace 4), were determined several times per hourusing the automatic gas analyser Lancom Series II(Land Combustion). For the other measuring seriesthe CO, SO2 and NO2 concentrations were determinedusing a Horiba gas analyser, type PG-250 with PSS-5gas conditioning set; measurements and records ofconcentrations were continuous (sampling frequencyof 1 s) with averaging interval of 1 h.The concentrations of CH4, C2H4, C2H6 and C3H8inthe post-graphitisinggases were determinedbysam-pling the gas into 0.5-dm3gas pipettes at a 1-h interval.Gases in samples were then identified by gas chro-matography using a HP5890 chromatograph with FIDdetector (2-m steel column with internal diameter of3 mm, containing phenyl isocyanate on Porasil B; col-umn operating temperature: 40C; carrier gas wasargon at 30 cm3/min).The CS2 concentration in the post-graphitisinggases was determined using the manual aspirationmethod by taking at least one gas sample per hour(sampling time 1055 min, depending on expectedconcentration). Gas samples were retained in relevantabsorption solutions and then determined colorimetri-cally using a HACH DR/2000 spectrometer.Gas samples for determination of BTEX contentwere takenat least once anhour. BTEXs were adsorbedon active carbon, extracted with carbon disulphideand determined by gas chromatography in the extractusing a Pye Unicam chromatograph with FID detec-tor (separation on two glass columns: one 2.8 m longwith internal diameter 4 mm, containing 15% of tri-p-cresyl phosphate on W-AW DMCS Chromosorb, andthe second 2.5 m long with internal diameter 4 mm,containing 15% of SE-30 on W-AW DMCS Chro-mosorb; column temperature: 120C; injector temper-ature: 160C; detector temperature: 220C; carrier gaswas argon at 30 cm3/min).All the measurements were made according toapplicable standards and procedures. The concen-tration measurements of gaseous substances weretaken in accordance with PN-ISO 10396: 2001.10Table 2. Selected parameters connected with the measurement runs for graphitising of carbon products.Graphitising Measuring series Carbon charge Average flue-gasFurnace no. Series no. durationa, h durationb, h (feedstock) weight, t flow ratec, m3N/h1 1 25 27 170.8 81,9122 22 24 125.0 75,3232 1 21 23 155.1 77,9832 24 26 171.0 83,5683 1 21 23 130.0 84,3654 1 16 19 110.9 50,4412 16 19 110.9 50,3763 21 23 121.0 75,7865 1 22 24 164.0 81,9942 19 21 148.0 87,9146 1 23 25 168.0 81,919athe furnace heating phase (in power operation).bthe furnace heating and ventilation phases (including 23 h after switching the power off).ccorrected to dry gas and normal conditions (pressure 101.3 kPa and temperature 273 K).Table 3. CO, SO2 and NO2 concentrations in stack flue-gases from graphitising of carbon products.Concentration in dry gas, mg/m3NCO SO2 NO2Furnace no. Series no. Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range1 1 1197 1642864 9.14 047 0.11 01.532 2591 4205987 1.84 018 0.61 03.062 1 2165 4893750 7.13 047 1.79 07.652 1361 392647 13.8 061 16.5 053.13 1 1820 5013414 1.83 015 ND*4 1 94 0177 20.7 058 2.50 08.12 161 0353 22.0 054 1.20 08.13 2417 8904416 5.21 039 2.12 07.655 1 1193 3553174 25.1 055 0.06 01.532 1284 1403034 3.91 038 6.99 035.26 1 920 212584 13.4 040 1.29 018.4Total 1382 630 05987 11.3 7.0 061 3.32 3.37 053.1*ND=Not determined.Simultaneously with the concentration measurements,the volume flowof gases emitted into the air was mea-sured. The whole measuring equipment was calibratedbefore the measurements and checked for correctreadouts using certified standard gases.The summary of technological parameters (graphi-tising time, carbon charge weight and average gas-volume flow), as well as durations of individualmeasuring series, are provided in Table 2. This datashowed that duration of graphitising (heating phase)was positively correlated with carbon charge weight(R2=0.6309).3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe average values and the range of variability in CO,SO2 and NO2 concentrations in the post-graphitisinggases are shown in Table 3. There was a wide rangeof values of measured concentrations, within theindividual measuring series that reflect the emissionvariability during the single graphitising cycle, as wellas high variability in average concentrations calcu-lated for different graphitising cycles in furnaces 16.There were no correlations between the range of mea-sured concentrations and the amount of carbon chargeor LWG furnace number. The mean deviations foraverage concentrations during the measuring serieswere 45.6, 62.2 and 101.5% for CO, SO2 and NO2,respectively, in furnaces 16.Statistical analyses on the measurements showedthat CO concentration in the emitted gases changeddynamically according to duration of graphitisation.At the beginning of the heating phase, the concentra-tions were at their minimum levels, and in a relativelyshort time (12 h) reached their maxima; then, withinanother 23 h, concentrations dropped on averageto 25% of maxima. This level was usually main-tained until the end of the furnace heating phase.11Table 4. CO, SO2 and NO2 mass flow rate for stack flue-gases from graphitising of carbon products.Mass flow rate (emission), kg/hCO SO2 NO2Furnace no. Series no. Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range1 1 98.1 13.4234.6 0.749 03.850 0.009 00.1252 195.2 31.6451.0 0.139 01.356 0.023 00.1152 1 168.8 33.1292.4 0.556 03.665 0.139 00.5972 113.1 3.3221.2 1.150 05.098 1.370 04.4373 1 153.6 42.3288.0 0.155 01.265 ND*4 1 30.0 0.255.2 1.040 02.900 0.126 00.4082 52.1 0.3105.0 1.110 02.530 0.191 00.3823 183.1 67.5334.7 0.448 02.956 0.141 00.5805 1 97.8 29.1260.2 2.057 04.510 0.005 00.1252 112.9 12.3266.7 0.344 03.341 0.614 03.0946 1 75.4 1.7211.7 1.100 03.277 0.106 01.504Total 116.4 42.8 0.2451 0.805 0.443 05.10 0.272 0.288 04.44*ND=Not determined.The maximum concentration occurrence time (afterthe graphitising furnace was started) differed for indi-vidual measuring series and on average were 4 h forfurnace 4 (series 1 and 2); 10 h for furnaces 4 (series 3)and 2 (series 1); 14 h for furnaces 5 (series 1 and 2) and1 (series 2); 17 h for furnace 1 (series 1); and 20 h forfurnaces 3 (series 1), 2 (series 2) and 6 (series 1). Suchlarge differences in the time of occurrence of maxi-mum CO concentrations were weakly correlated withthe carbon charge weight (R2=0.5038). They could besupposed to be more strongly correlated with furnaceheating rate, given the assortment of carbon productsbeing the charge as well as the insulation packing usedin a specific graphitising cycle. However, these tech-nological parameters were very difficult to describeexplicitly and thus were not examined. By the timeof raising the graphitising furnace cover (i.e. furnaceventilation phase) the CO concentration was reduceddrastically, compared with the final furnace heatingphase, as a result of waste gases mixing with the airdrawn in from the production hall.The SO2 concentration in stack flue-gases changedwith graphitising process duration similarly to COconcentration; however, the difference was that SO2concentration was sometimes bimodal or multimodal.The concentration peaks that usually occur after thefirst highest peak already have the absolutely loweramplitude. The additional small SO2 concentrationpeaks in gases emitted into air may be affected byboth the contents of various sulphur compounds (withdifferent decomposition times) in the charge materialand periodic instability of operation of the flue-gasdesulphurisation installation. Large variability in theSO2 concentration of post-graphitising gases fromdifferent graphitising cycles (i.e. different measuringseries) may also indicate influences of the assortmentof graphitised products (different chemical compo-sitions of the charge material used for preparationof products), as well as of the type and amount ofinsulation packing used.NO2 had the highest recorded variability in con-centrations, both versus duration of graphitising ofcarbon products and depending on the measuringseries. Elevated NO2 concentrations in flue gases usu-ally occurred in the first few hours of the furnaceheating phase, upon switching the furnace power off,and the transition from heating to ventilation phases.The furnace unsealing due to the raising of the coverthen took place; the exposure of the kindled graphi-tised products to air resulted in oxidation of nitrogencontained in the air and produced nitrogen oxides(mainly NO) in flue gases.Large variability in average concentrations of anal-ysed substances in different measuring series, as wellas the lack of strong correlations between these con-centrations and the recorded technological parameters(carbon charge weight and duration of graphitis-ing), indicates the need for further research. Thiswould determine the factors affecting concentrationsof analysed substances in the post-graphitising gases.In addition to the concentration of the analysed sub-stances, the values of hourly emissions (Table 4) andemission factors (Table 5) were determined for eachmeasuring series. To determine these values, the aver-age flowof gases emitted into the air and the feedstockweight for all the analysed series was used (Table 2).The summary for each of Tables 4 and 5 includesthe average emission values, the emission factor andthe mean deviation value calculated for all measuringseries. The deviations from the average of determinedemissions and emission factors were correlated withthe deviations of average concentrations in the stackflue-gases determined for the same substances.The concentrations, hourly emission values, andaverage emission factors of H2S, CS2, CH4, C2H6,C2H4, C3H8 and BTEXare presented inTable 6. Thesesubstances were only determined during two measur-ing series for furnace 4 (series 1 and 2) characterisedby similar processing conditions (i.e. the same car-bon charge assortment and weight, the same weight12Table 5. CO, SO2 and NO2 emission factors for graphitising of carbonproducts.Emission factor, kg/t-feedstockFurnace no. Series no. CO SO2 NO21 1 15.5 0.118 0.00142 37.5 0.027 0.00442 1 25.0 0.082 0.02062 17.2 0.175 0.20833 1 27.2 0.027 ND*4 1 5.1 0.178 0.02162 8.9 0.190 0.03273 34.8 0.085 0.02695 1 14.3 0.301 0.00072 16.0 0.049 0.08716 1 11.2 0.164 0.0158Total Mean 19.3 8.6 0.127 0.068 0.038 0.040Range 5.137.5 0.0270.301 00.208*ND=Not determined.Table 6. H2S, CS2, aliphatic hydrocarbons and BTEX emission rate from graphitising of carbon products (furnace 4,measuring series 1 and 2).Series 1 Series 2Parameter Substance Mean Range Mean Range Average valueConcentration H2S 3.80 09.6 3.90 011.3 3.85 0.05in dry gas, CS2 7.10 2.114.3 1.60 03.8 4.35 2.75mg/m3N CH4 47.60 1.7495 49.10 1.6377 48.35 0.75C2H6 0.59 0.152.14 0.50 01.12 0.545 0.045C2H4 0.41 0.101.62 0.11 00.46 0.26 0.15C3H8 0.74 0.152.66 0.33 00.98 0.535 0.205Benzene 0.32 0.101.01 0.19 0.080.62 0.255 0.065Toluene +Ethylbenzene 0.27 00.42 0.17 0.120.29 0.22 0.05Xylenes 0.26 00.41 0.13 00.17 0.195 0.065Mass flow rate H2S 0.191 00.484 0.193 00.532 0.192 0.001(emission), CS2 0.356 0.10.724 0.084 00.206 0.22 0.14kg/h CH4 2.31 0.0823.8 2.35 0.0819.0 2.33 0.02C2H6 0.0293 0.00780.109 0.0253 00.0526 0.0273 0.0020C2H4 0.0205 0.00520.0824 0.0053 00.0216 0.0129 0.0020C3H8 0.0366 0.00780.128 0.0162 00.0460 0.0264 0.0102Benzene 0.0155 0.00530.0483 0.0092 0.00420.0293 0.0124 0.0032Toluene +Ethylbenzene 0.0134 00.0202 0.0084 0.00590.0134 0.0109 0.0025Xylenes 0.0130 00.0198 0.0066 00.0085 0.0098 0.0032Emission factor, H2S 32.7 33.1 32.9 0.2g/t- feedstock CS2 61.0 14.4 37.7 23.3CH4 395.8 402.6 399.2 3.4C2H6 5.02 4.33 4.68 0.34C2H4 3.51 0.91 2.21 1.30C3H8 6.27 2.78 4.52 1.75Benzene 2.66 1.58 2.12 0.54Toluene +Ethylbenzene 2.30 1.44 1.87 0.43Xylenes 2.23 1.13 1.68 0.55of insulating packing, and the same furnace opera-tion time). The only difference was new insulationpacking during series 2. In both cases, the insula-tion packing (270 t) was a mixture of metallurgiccoke and brown coal coke in a 2:3 ratio. Carrying outtwo measuring series under similar process conditionsresulted in significantly lower deviations fromaverageconcentrations for both series.Of the aliphatic hydrocarbons, CH4 was predom-inant in gases emitted into the air and, in addition,13only C2H6, C2H4 and C3H8 were also identified withinthe range of determinability of the applied analyticalmethods (Table 6). The high concentrations of sub-stances such as CH4 and H2S most often occurredafter 34 h of the furnace heating phase, reaching amaximum up from nearly zero very quickly, i.e. 1 h.After their maximum concentration in waste gaseswas reached there was a decrease, in the beginningvery quick and then progressively more slowly (withslight variations). There was an opposite situation forCS2; the maximum concentrations were in the laterphase of the process (1015 h of the cycle), with lowconcentrations in the initial phase.The concentrations of such aliphatic hydrocarbonsas C2H6, C2H4 and C3H8 were belowthe determinabil-ity limit until 2 h of the heating phase, while in thelater part of the process they fluctuated at a not veryhigh level, i.e. 2.7 mg/m3N. There were much lowerconcentrations of BTEX emitted for the whole dura-tion of graphitisation, with maximum concentrationsin the initial phase of the process.The measured rates of all analysed substances,as hourly emission values and emission factors, areshown in Table 6.4 CONCLUSIONSThe research revealed that, of the gaseous substancesintroduced into the air as a result of graphitising, thesubstance with the highest share of emissions was CO,followed in descending order by CH4, SO2, NO2, CS2and H2S (average emissions 116, 2.3, 0.8, 0.27,0.22 and 0.19 kg/h, respectively). The other gaseoussubstances were emitted in small amounts.The characteristic feature of the emissionof gaseoussubstances was their high variability depending onthe process duration, conditioned mainly by chemi-cal composition of the carbon raw materials and theinsulation packing, as well as the technological regimeused in graphitising (i.e. heating curve). Moreover,the examinations confirmed that the concentration ofgaseous substances emitted was also affected by theweight and assortment of the graphitised products.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe work was completed within the scope ofAGH-UST statutory research for the Departmentof Management and Protection of Environment No.11.11.150.008 and the contract No. 5.5.150.611. Theauthors would like to thank Jerzy Gada for kindassistance in the experimental tests on the full-scaleplant.REFERENCESEC (European Commission) 2001. 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Krakw: AGH-UST.14Environmental Engineering III Pawowski, Dudzi nska & Pawowski (eds) 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-54882-3The influence of traffic-related air pollution on the ventilationefficiency of persons living in the proximity of main roadsA.J. Badyda &A. KraszewskiDepartment of Informatics and Environmental Quality Research, Warsaw University of Technology,Warsaw, PolandABSTRACT: The influence of traffic-related air pollutants on inhabitants of Warsaw living in the vicinity ofbusy roads has been investigated. Residents of a rural area were taken as a control group. Pulmonary functiontests were carried out on local residents to assess the risk of obstruction to their airways. The results showthat, forWarsawinhabitants, the most important spirometric parameters are significantly lower compared to the rural areagroup. Logistic regression models demonstrate that living in the proximity of a main road in Warsaw increasesthe risk of pulmonary obstruction among non-smokers more than fourfold compared with persons residing inthe country.Keywords: Traffic-related air pollutants, influence of traffic on municipal environment, influence of airpollution on health.1 INTRODUCTIONWithin urbanized areas the direct proximity of busymain roads is characterized by higher levels of air pol-lutants compared to areas remote from busy roads,and particularly to rural areas. As a result inhabi-tants living close to the busiest traffic arteries arelikely to be more exposed to the harmful influenceof traffic than those living in other areas. Generally,as shown by MacNee & Donaldson (2000), air pol-lutants have been recognized as factors of chronicobstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) for over 50years. This recognition led to the implementation ofair quality standards, which, in turn, resulted in sig-nificant decrease in the levels of air pollutants fromfossil fuel combustion, in particular dust and sulphurdioxide. However, dynamic rise of road traffic has ledto increased levels of other pollutants, such as ozone,particulate matter with diameters