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CHAPTER – I

INTRODUCTION

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Rain fed agriculture in India’s semi-arid tropics is characterized by low

productivity, degraded natural resources, and widespread poverty. Hundreds

of millions of people living in the Indian semi-arid tropics depend on

agriculture and natural resource management for their livelihood so,

development planners are eager to implement productive, environmentally

sustainable land and water management systems. Watershed development

projects are designed to harmonize the use of water, soil, forest, and pasture

resources in a way that conserves these resources while raising agricultural

productivity, both by conserving moisture in the ground and increasing

irrigation through tank and aquifer-based water harvesting. Watershed

programme has become widespread in rain fed areas in recent years, with a

current annual budget from all sources exceeding US$500 million1.

Water is the main source and substance of life. It is very essential for

realizing the full potential of the agricultural sector and for county’s

development. During the recent years, water has become a mater of important

subject for the national level planning and plan formulation, which led to the

establishment of national water resource council as a national apex body. In a

country like India the best way through which a society can progress is by

increasing the productivity of the economic activities. Raising the

productivity of irrigated and rain fed agriculture combined with soil and

water conservation technique is essential for faster development. India, begin

1 Chopra, K. and Kadekodi, G.K. (1993), “Watershed Development: A Contrast with

NREP/JRY”, Economic and Political Weekly, June 26.

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an agrarian country depends a great deal on natural resource for production

of food and economic development of the rural areas. In several parts of

India, a number of initiatives have been taken by the local communities

regarding water harvesting and watershed development.

Watershed development is an important component of rural

development of many countries and natural resource management strategies.

A watershed is an area that drains to a common point, and watershed

development seeks to manage hydrological relationship within a watershed

to optimize the use of natural resource conservation. Watershed may contain

forests, pastures, agricultural land, surface water and groundwater, all linked

through hydrology. So by their nature they are an excellent setting for the

study of common property.

Many watershed resources are characterized by high exclusion cost

and subtractability, which are the two main attributes of common pool

resources. Even where a land in a watershed is held privately, collective

action among all watershed users is held essential for watershed management

due to hydrological linkages, which do not respect property bounderies2. The

fact that water flows downhill either on the surface or underground means

those natural resources decisions upstream can have strong implications for

resource use opportunities downstream. Benefits accrued upstream may

result in downstream costs, or costs incurred upstream may bring benefits

2 Ravnborg, H.M. and M. Del Pilar Guerrero 1999, “Collective action in watershed

management: Experiences from Andean Hillsides,” Agriculure and Human Values 16(3): 257-266.

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downstream. Watersheds are complex, multiple use commons, which are

characterized by the need to balance interests both within and across diverse

interest groups to generate agreement on regulations about resource access,

allocation and control3. This means that watershed development requires

mechanisms to promote collective action and share costs and benefits.

Typically laws are not specified or not enforceable in such matters and thus

do not offer much help.

Watershed, a natural entity in itself, combines forest management, land

use management and water management. It is a hydrologic and

physiographic unit that offers a very good base for planning and

implementing soil conservation. Water harvesting, afforestation and

environmental protection programmes. Watershed is defined as a natural

hydrological entity that covers a specific area expansion of land surface

within boundaries the entire rainfall-run off ultimately passes through a

specifically defined stream. From the scientific perspective, a watershed is

defined as the drainage areas of a stream. Water development and

management should be based on a participatory approach, involving users,

planners and policy makers at all levels. It means that the decision taken at

the lowest appropriate levels, with full public consultation and involvement

of users in the planning and implementation of water projects.

3 Steins, N. A. and V. M. Edwards 1999 a. “Platrorms for collective action in multiple-use

common-pool resources,” Agriculture and Human Values 16(3): 241-255

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Concept of watershed

The concept of Watershed Development in India has been proposed by

Shri (Late) Y.P. Bali in 1974. When the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of

India has proposed the programme of soil and water conservation adopting

watershed as a planning unit. Watershed is defined as an area enclosed in a

catchment boundary of a river basin. It is enclosed by two ridgelines and it

has a natural outlet. It is also defined as a land area from which the waters

drains to a given point. In other words, the word catchment and drainage

basin were considered as synonymous with watersheds. It can also be viewed

as an Ariel expansion of land from the runoff flows, through a drain, stream

of river.

Further, it is defined as a hydrological entry and an area above a given

drainage point where the total area contributes water flowing into a single

outlet. In other words, watershed is a resource region where the ecosystem is

closely interconnected around a basic resource- ‘water’. Thus, watershed is an

ecosystem or bio-geo-physical unit in which the interdependency of

renewable and non-renewable environment is closeted.

Further, it is also a resource region, soil topography and biomass in its

catchment. The resource usage by the social groups centered on different

locations such as upland and mid-reaches is interdependent because any

short term practices by upstream residents might result in soil erosion causing

flooding and siltation in lower valleys, leading to total disturbances in

production process at downstream areas. Hence, these externalities can be

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internalized by collective action and people’s participation is a must for the

sustainability of the watershed unit. Thus, within watershed physical and

biologic resources are linked by a complex of processes, changes in any of

them can cause serious effects on the other. Hence, systems approach has to

be adopted for an ideal management of the watershed unit for the

development of dry-land agriculture.

The normative watershed consists of agro-eco-systems under five

categories the first ridge portion is suitable for tall forest and silvi-pastoral

systems; the next portion would be below the first region and on the steep

slope and suitable for the silvi-horti-pastoral system; the third region is a

horti-pastoral region with some high value horticultural crops and good

fodder yielding varieties of grasses; the fourth region can be characterized as

the rain-fed region with residual moisture for the second crop; and the basin

of the watershed or the lower reaches are characterized by most fertile and

well drained soils. The private holdings are normally spread over all the five

regions indicated above. Hence watershed development programme involves

treatments on both public and private lands.

The idea of an integrated treatment of all lands on a watershed basis

was actually adopted and implemented in India as early as 1949 by the

Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC), set up on the lines of Tennessee Valley

Authority (TVA) of USA with suitable modifications to suit Indian conditions.

The DVC had set up an inter-disciplinary team, the first of its kind in India

with scientific manpower form various disciplines like soil sciences, agro

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engineering, forestry, social sciences, fisheries, grassland development and

animal sciences etc., But this remained an isolated experiment. However,

since early seventies, the idea of integrated treatment of watershed was

revived.

Need and Importance of Watershed Programme

The Watershed Programme is the basic need for integrated

development and management of the land and water resources which

provide life support for rural communities. Thus the prospects for agriculture

in the dry land areas are severely constrained by the specific feature of their

natural resource endowments and the changed context. In a situation of low

pressure on resources, viability was possible through traditional land

cultivation practices. Watershed Programme ensures supply of water to every

field, removes hunger and poverty from poor areas, provide green cover over

denuded areas, bring in more rains and improve the environment. Watershed

Programme is also described as a programme that holds the key to solve

problems of employment, economy, ecology, export and equity. The

watershed development programme holds significance for individual village

as well as national development. The attention has been focused on this

programme in order to provide impetus to development in the country.

Through the watershed development programme, we can achieve the

following:

� The problem of drinking water can be solved, and to some extent, the

problem of water for irrigation will also be solved.

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� Increase in agricultural production due to watershed development can

create employment within the village and make food available to

them.

� Migration to urban areas can be checked, which will also arrest the

problem of growing cities.

� Due to soil and water conservation, ecological balance can be restored.

� Heavy siltation in dams has given rise to many problems related to

electricity supply, urban water supply. Industries depend on this

water are also facing problems. Soil and water conservation can arrest

the flow of silt into the dams.

Watershed development is a programme that evolved over a period of 50

years and now identifies the integrated interaction between various Naural

Resources belonging to a watershed, which is a natural phenomenon. This

ensures least disturbances in the natural processes of protecting environment.

This increases productivity, health conditions, nutrition and so many other

things besides social development amongst the people living within the

watershed.

Having large tracts of rain-shadow zones, the state suffers drought and

has a long history of droughts. Early efforts were to provide drinking water

and hence the drilling technology was adopted by voluntary organizations.

Identifying the need, a suitable pump was evolved within Action for

Agricultural Renewal in Maharastra (AFARM) and large number of

installations of handpumps were executed. Unbalanced exploitation of

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groundwater enforced the change in attitude towards impounding larger

quantities of water. Thus the progress was from locating water well sites

scientifically, drilling and installation of hand-pumps, conjunctive use of

water to Water Cycle itself. However, such progress always fell short since

other natural resources harmoniously interaction with water.

The Watershed Development Programme evolved out of large number

of experiments carried by Member Organisations to eliminate drought. Today

the programme takes into account the soil, the rocks, the water, the

geography, the biomass living within and above the earth. Thus as many as

6000 impounding structures were constructed during the period of learning

along with bore-wells, lift irrigation schemes etc. today, Action for

Agricultural Renewal in Maharastra (AFARM) proposes participatory

watershed development where people are using their traditional knowledge,

available material, imagination and creativity to plan their watershed and

implement a programme.

Watershed Programme in India

Traditionally, India depends on agriculture and the Indian farmers

themselves maintained the watersheds like ponds, tanks and other irrigation

systems for centuries. As noted activities such as desiltation of water

channels and ponds, protection of vegetative and soil conservation activities

were effected collectively under the guidance of village councils. Increase in

population pressure and erosion of socio-religious and political institutions

degraded the land, water and vegetation.

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The importance of micro Watershed Programme was recognized and is

being practiced in the country since 1973 due to the recommendations of the

Task Force on Integrated Development of Drought Prone Areas. From 1979-

80, the Watershed Programme was transferred to the State Governments as

per the recommendations of the National Development Council. The farmers

and villagers themselves undertook the programme through direct

participation. Watershed Programme in India appears both fantastic and

frightening. After 73rd Constitutional Amendment, Watershed Programe has

been included in the schedule of subjects to be handled by the Panchayats.

This provides opportunities for combining development of grassroots

democracy and natural resources in a systematic manner. Watershed

Management would ensure supply of water to every field and restore

ecological balance.

The Watershed Management was started in India in 1962-63 with the

launching of the government scheme, “Soil conservation works in the

catchments of River Valley Projects.” The chief aim of it was the prevention of

siltation of reservoirs built with huge government funds. The National

Watershed Development Programme for Rain fed Agriculture (NWDPRA)

was started in 1995-96. Watershed community is now being encouraged to

participate in the government/ donor/Non-Governmental Organizations

(NGOs) projects and contribute labour or cash. Watershed Programme

technology should meet the watersheds of the community if the government

has to be accepted and replicated by the people. The priority of water should

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be in the following order – potable water, domestic use, animal drinking,

agriculture, horticulture etc.

The concept of watershed management is as old as the concept of crops

grown under irrigated conditions and this concept led to development of

tanks and reservoirs for increasing the production to meet the demand of ever

growing population-since ages. Different rulers in different regions realized

and executed works based on the availability of funds, needs of the people,

available natural resources in the area, etc., to meet population demands and

requirements of food needs. The beneficiaries were taxed and revenue was

collected from them. Sir Arthur Cotton submitted two reports during 1844

and 1845 to the then British Government after surveying entire area from Papi

Hiils to Sagaram in Godavari river area and this made the construction of a

storage type barrage at Dhawaleswaram in Godavari district of utilizing river

water for agricultural development in the area and planned for utilization of

run-off water to construct dams to Kalirune river water in Tanjavur district of

Tamil Nadu and to Tungabhadra river water near Bellary in addition to

planning Kurnool-Cuddapah (K.C.) Canal with a distance of 306 km for

effective utilization of run-off water for improving productivity and

production of agricultural crops through better utilization of natural

resources. The need to maintain better environment and preserve natural

resources like soil, water and vegetation was realized by early rulers and

managed through different kinds of village institution (eg. Village level

officials, Gram Panchayat, village rulers and administrators) in different

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regions. Punishments were awarded if attempts were made to damage

natural resources.

After India’s Independence, the importance to execute authority at

village level has gradually declined in India due to changes in policies in the

democratic setup and liberalization of spirit of freedom. This led to more

damage to vegetation in rural areas leading to deterioration in environment

through soil degradation. Hence, Government of India and different

provincial Governments took up amelioration measures such as, afforestation

measures, soil conservation measure, run-off water utilization programmes,

etc. However, expected results did not forth come on constant and continuous

basis. Therefore, Government of India launched Watershed Development

Programmes (WDPs) in 1983-84 in a big way to conserve and utilize natural

resources for enhanced productivity and higher socio-economic status. Up-

scaling of watershed development programme was carried out by spending

about Rs.100,000 millions per annum since then till now. Though, it has been

carried out since 1983-84, the impact of watershed programme be evaluated

for evolving better strategies and policies to preserve, conserve and utilize

natural resources for betterment of ever growing population.

Watershed management is an integrated technological approach within

the natural boundaries of a drainage area for optimum development of land,

water and plant resources to meet the basic minimum need of the people in a

sustained manner. According to Social Conservation Society of India,

watershed management means harmonious development of land and water

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resources in the natural boundaries of a watershed so as to promote or

produce, one sustainable basis, abundance of plants and animals and their

products, and still deliver clean and controlled flow of water to down stream.

The development strategies in India have been stressing upon the

optimum utilization of natural resources such as land, water, vegetation etc.

Conservation, regeneration and protection of these natural resources are

essential for the overall development of the people. The failure to do so in the

past resulted in over exploitation of natural resources and caused problems

such as land degradation, denudation of vegetation, depletion of water

resources which in turn resulted in promoting drought, famine and

desertification. Watershed Programme has gained much importance

especially in drought prone areas. The ultimate objective of this programme is

to develop the natural resource base, sustain its productivity, improve the

standard of living of millions of poor farmers and landless labourers and

endeavour for restoration of ecological balance.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Over a period of time watershed projects have generated interesting

results in terms of impact. Some studies are available to understand the

process of watershed development, management and the impact thereof.

Gaps exist in the earlier studies and hence there is need for bridging these

gaps. The following are the important studies completed on watersheds are

reviewed in the following paragraphs in chronological order.

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C.W. Thornthwaite (1947), in his study on climate and moisture

conservation has developed a systematic water-balance approach to estimate

drought conditions. The author opined that drought can never be defined in

terms of rainfall shortage alone, since it does not take in to consideration.

According to this study mere failure of rainfall is not an indication of the

beginning of drought. Agricultural production is strongly geared to the

water-budget which is determined by water supply and demand.

Report of the Indian irrigation commission (1972), analysed and

proposed certain works of irrigation as a means to combat drought. In every

state and in every district, the commission identified the chronically drought

affected areas and suggested suitable crops and economic use of water

balancing as remedial measures.

The concept of Watershed Development in India has been proposed by

Sri (Late) Y.P. Bali in 1974. When the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of

India has proposed the programme of soil and water conservation adopting

watershed as planning unit. All India Soil and Land Use Survey, Government

of India arrived at a codification system upto watershed level using remote

sensing data. The Drought Prone Area Programme adopted watershed

approach in (1987) to focus on non-arable lands and minor drainage systems

for an inset soil and moisture conservation, agroforestry, pasture

development, horticulture and alternative land use practices. The Desert

Development Programme adopted the watershed approach in 1987 to focus

on reforestation to arrest the growth of hot as well as cold deserts. The

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development of wastelands on a watershed basis is adopted in 1989 by

National Waste Land Development Board (NWDB) which combines the

features of the above said programmes with additional dimensions of

improving arable lands through better crop management technologies.

The watershed management is required to control damaging run-off, to

utilize run-off water for useful purposes, to control erosion, to moderate

floods in the down stream area, to enhance ground water storage and

appropriately use land water, forest and fuel resources. The various soil

conservation methods to be adopted for the implementation of watershed

management programmes are stone bonding, contour trenching, staggered

trenches and bench terraces. Stream draining works, afforestation, contour

bonding, check dams, percolation ponds, silt detention tanks agronomy,

orchards, forestry, mixed farming, animal fisheries and poultry development.

Tejwani etal. (1960) described the measures to control gully erosion in the

ravine lands of Gujarat. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1960)

suggested the measures for soil erosion by wind agricultural lands. Ghumare

(1962) has carried out studies on behaviors of contour bunds. Das etal (1967)

has suggested the measures for soil and water management of the Niligiris.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1976) suggested the measures for

soil conservation and management in Developing Countries. Gupta and

Rames Babu (1977) has carried out studies on efficiency of contour farming,

channel terracing and graded furrows to control erosion in the watersheds.

Vijayalakshmi and Vital (1981) has described the importance of rainwater

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harvesting structures and recycling in semi-arid regions. Gajri (1981)

described the significant of rainwater harvesting structures and it’s recycling

for maximization of crops. Patnaik etal. (1982) has carried out studies on

water harvesting structures in farm ponds in deep black soil plaints. Dhruva

Narayan (1983) has suggested the measures for minimum erosion, maximum

benefits of soil conservation.

According to Sarin R and Ryab J.G. (1983) ‘study on watershed’ they

noted that total rainfall in 1980 was only 400 mm, which was below 43.00 per

cent. Though the onset of the monsoon was early, the rains receded early and

crops suffered due to late season and drought. An economic analysis

revealed that though this is comparatively low rainfall year profitability could

still be achieved using the improved technology compared to traditional

technology. The average net profit from the improved watershed plots were

more than triple than those from traditional fields. The improved system was

more superior to the traditional system in terms of yields and profits.

Hanumappa (1985) has identified agro-climatic regions and suggested

strategies for planning watershed development. Food and Agriculture

Organization (FAO) (1985) has published a manual and watershed

development with special reference to soil and water conservation. Dhruva

Narayan (1985) has suggested measurers for soil and water conservation and

watershed development. Pacey and Cullis (1986) has given a good account of

rain water harvesting structures for the collection of rainfall and run-off in

rural areas. Subramaniam etal. (1987) has published a series of articles on soil

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survey and land use planning of watershed management. Bali (1987) has

proposed the steps for priority delineation surveys and priority identification

in watershed management. Krishna Swamy (1987) has suggested the

methods of soil survey and land use planning for watershed management and

studied the soil characteristics and land use planning of micro watershed in

Kundani lower Bhavani river valley project. Gautham (1987) described the

concept and delineation of watershed development. Food and Agriculture

Organization (FAO) (1988) has published a field manual of watershed

management and slope treatment measures and practices.

T.B. Singh, et al; (1988), attempted to analyse the constraints in growing

rabi crops in parunala watershed project in Madhya Pradesh and identified

the adoption gaps.

The Government of India in its report on Drought monitoring

programme (1989), studied the problem of drought form its national natural

resources management point of view. This study followed a scientific chart of

drought identification for its analysis.

All India Soil and Land use Survey (1990) has prepared an Atlas of

watersheds in India on 1:1 million scale. Dhruva Narayan etal. (1990)

described the watershed management practices. Dhruva Narayan Shastry

and Patnaik (1990) has proposed watershed management programmes. Food

and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1990) has given guidelines for

watershed survey, planning and conservation. Jain (1990) has described the

importance of integrated land use and forest management in Asian and

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Pacific. Mishra (1990) has given basic concepts, objectives, problems and

prospects of watershed management. Singh etal. (1990) has proposed the

watershed management practices to be under taken for conservation of land

and water resources of Aravalli Foothills.

“Kshirsagar, K.G. and Ghodake, R.D. (1991)” in their study on

performance of watershed technology at International Crops Research

Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) centre for right agricultural years,

they noted that improved cropping systems yield increased from 3.9 to 4.4

tones per hectare against 0.5 to 0.7 tones with traditional Cropping systems.

On an average, the watershed technology gave about 3 tones per hectare of

cereal output and 1.2 tones of pulses. The average gross returns of the

improved options were 4 to 5.4 times higher than those of the traditional

systems. The additional gross benefits generated by the watershed based

technology were in the range of Rs. 3,300 to Rs. 5,400 per hector. This

amounts to marginal rates of returns of 160 to 300 per cent. In this study it

was found that the watershed technology promises to reduce risk as

compared to the existing cropping system of a single past-rainy season crop.

Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India (1991) has given

the guidelines for watershed development. Das Gupta (1992) has described

strategies for integrated watershed development. Kerr (1992) has described

the measures of watershed management from technology intervention to

social organization. Begachi and Philip (1993) had described the untapped

potential of watershed in India. Govardhan (1993) has published a book on

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remote sensing and water management in common areas. Mysore

Rehabilitation and Development Agency (MYRADA) (1993) has described the

experiences in the emergence and growth of people’s institutions for

sustained and equitable management of micro watersheds.

Asit. K. Biswas in his research work (1993) on “water for sustainable

development in twenty-first century: A global perspective” examined water

crisis in arid and semi-arid countries. Further he also analyzed issues of

water conservation and efficient use of water. In addition, he paid attention

to social and environmental considerations of water resource development

and management.

Anil (1994) has suggested a few measures for the development of

watershed in drought prone areas. National Institute for Agricultural

Management (MANAGE) (1994) has published a technical manual of

watershed management. Detey K.R., Gore V.N., and Joy K.J. (1994) in their

study “A holistic approach to soil and water conservation” viewed that the

success of watershed development depends upon the perspective for an

integrated development of land and water resources should go beyond

subsistence, so that biomass surplus over subsistence would provide the

inputs for a dispersed energy and industrial production system. The

emerging biomass processing techniques have the potential to generate non-

farm income and meet the needs of accelerated infrastructure development

not only of rural area but small towns and urban as well. The local groups

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should be informed of the prospects for raising productivity and creating

opportunities for livelihood.

Swaran Latha Arya, R.C. Kaushal and S.S. Grewal (1994), concluded in

their study that agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry and horticultural

components of the project proved to be economically Justifiable and there was

a decline in the area under wastelands and an increase in the area under

irrigated agriculture, forestry and horticulture.

A study by Rao. N.V.N and Ram Reddy. R (1995) on Minor irrigation

and tribal development found that the incomes of the tribal farmers have

increased substantially after the construction of new irrigation tanks. But the

yield rates were not found to be so high due to their inability to use High

Yielding Varity Seeds (HYVS), fertilizers and pesticides.

In the study of K.P. Singh (1995) the dry land farming system is very

risky and farmers depend on locally available inputs and used to row a

number of crops, which can better withstand the drought situation. With a

lack of suitable security for obtaining loan is difficult and the repaying

capacity of the dry land farmers are very low because they often face the

problem of drought and low yield. K.P. Singh opined that dry land

agriculture is risky because of low rainfall and these areas are constrained by

limiting soil moisture capacity and heavy erosion of topsoil, so he suggested

that, watershed programme is more suitable for the dry land forming.

Purendare and Srivastava (1995) described the challenges in watershed

management.

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The study of T.K. Sarma (1996) on watershed a strategy of

development stressed for community participation with flexibility in project

design reveals that flexibility has to be used to take care of all the persons

living within watershed are benefited, especially the land less labourers, and

groups such as cattle herders, etc., It needs innovation and lot of skills to

organize communities on desired lines. Thus even activities which otherwise

do not qualify to be financed by the project fund, may also be included and

financed by other source of funds. Mahajan (1996) has described the needs

analysis and communication of Jhabua watershed. Rajora Rajesh (1996) has

carried out studies on integrated watershed development of Jhabua

watershed. Tideman (1996) has proposed the guidelines for watershed

management for India conditions.

Rajasekaran, N. (1997) in his paper analyses the need for and

significance of sustainable development programmes of India’s dry regions

and the role of participation in sustaining the development process. The data

shows how to reduce the farm income inequalities and improved

environments have resulted in such areas. Discussions emphasize the point

that socially acceptable living can only be attained by resorting to watershed

development programmes. The empirical results indicate that training contact

farmers from both genders can lead to the formation of groups, possibly

headed by charismatic leaders, to achieve wholesome participation. Local

resource users should be involved in the formulation, implementation,

maintenance and evaluation strategies. As the benefits of the programme are

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not tangible in the short run, participation can only be ensured through

decentralization of decision-making and raising levels of consciousness.

Shah, Amita (1997), Moisture-yield interaction and farmers’

perceptions: lessons from watershed projects in Gujarat. Recent watershed

projects in India have promoted vegetative barriers, which though

technologically sounder and environmentally conducive, might bring only

limited economic gains. The paper examines the yield impact of vegetative

bandings and farmers’ perceptions about moisture yield interactions in

Gujarat. The analysis is based on responses from a sample of 197 farmers from

two watersheds, Vatrak and Narmada, comprising both those who had, and

those who had not adopted the vegetative barrier. The analysis suggests that;

(1) traditional bandings are not only widely prevalent but also considered

very important for higher yields under ‘normal’ rainfall conditions: compared

to this, yield impact of vegetative barriers is low and uncertain; (2) given the

indigenous practice of soil-moisture conservation, fertilizer is the most

important factor for obtaining higher yields; and (3) a strategy to provide

stability in yield would require large scale investments in the form of water

harvesting structures and irrigation. What is needed is to improve net returns,

hence farmers’ paying capacity rather than large-scale subsidies spread over a

large number of watershed projects in the dry-land regions.

Agarwal Anil and Narain, Sunita. (1997) Dying Wisdom: rise, fall and

potential of India’s traditional water harvesting systems. Looks at India’s

traditional water harvesting systems and the millennial tradition that expertly

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met people’s drinking water and irrigation needs. Looks into India’s 15

ecological zones and their localised water harvesting systems and argues for

revival of local water harvesting systems.

In his work “watershed development-planning and strategy”, Das.S.N.

(1998) describes that optimal use of soil and land resources to provide the

needs of ever-growing population in a fundamental issue for the international

community is finite and menace of land degradation due to water wind

erosion is real. In order to ensure sustainability in crop production, the

afforestated, causatives would need to overcome through a scientific data

based development on watershed basis. The paper describes the modalities of

generating a soil and land information system for the entire country.

Fernandez, A.P. (1998) in his study on Self-help groups in watershed

management examines Mysore Rehabilitation and Development Agencies

(MYRADA’s) involvement with watershed management in Gulbarga, India,

and the associated PIDOW-MYRADA project, which was a partnership

between Government, the Swiss Development Cooperation and Mysore

Rehabilitation and Development Agency (MYRADA). Its objective was to

enable the users involved to emerge as a fourth partner and progressively

control watershed resources. Mysore Rehabilitation and Development

Agencies (MYRADA’s) role was to ensure that process of planning and

implementation would help people acquire the skills, confidence and

organizational expertise to manage the resources within their watershed.

Initiative in Gulbarga spread rapidly to other Mysore Rehabilitation and

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Development Agency (MYRADA) watered projects. The paper discusses what

has been learned about the role of Self-Help Credit Management Groups

Pande, V. C et al. (1998) in his study on watershed management in

Semi-Arid Tropics of Gujarat points out that Integrated Watershed

Management programme not only strengthens the resource base but also

brings equity in distribution, sustaining the growth process. The vicious circle

of underdevelopment, which revolves around poor resource base, in the

Semi-Arid Tropics (SAT) can be broken through an integrated watershed

development approach.

Datta SK.; Virgo, K. J. (1998) Towards sustainable watershed

development through people’s participation: Lessons from the lesser

Himalaya, Uttar Pradesh, India. The paper reviews experiences of the Doon

Valley Integrated Watershed Management Project in Uttar Pradesh, India,

with emphasis on the evolution of a participatory ‘process orientated’

approach aimed at developing community capabilities to sustain the

increased natural resource production systems introduced by Project

activities. The focus is on promoting convergent planning and strengthening

the skills and institutional capacities of the rural communities, as well as of

the government agency responsible for implementation. Conclusions are that

human resource development should precede external technical watershed

management activities and under the participatory approach, external

implementers need to be encouraged to merge their technical skills with the

indigenous skills of villagers in order to achieve a convergent approach.

25

The initial focus of watershed management project should be on

communities and the adjacent areas under their influence, rather than on the

physical aspects of watersheds. Women proved to be most receptive and

capable of forming cohesive group to manage natural resources. The project

produced initial improvements in living conditions and in local involvement

by people in managing natural resources. This was supplemented by

physical soil and water conservation measures and community-managed

grass and fodder tree plantations. Reduction in pressure on intervening forest

areas is expected to favour natural eco-regeneration. Increased

environmental awareness and involvement of the villagers in expected to

facilitate protection of afforestation programme beyond the village limits.

According to P.L.Sanjeeva Reddy and K.Prasada Rao (1999), watershed

development programmes are being implemented in India for over two

decades. An integrated approach to the programme as a strategy was

initiated during the period 1973 and 1975. By the Ninth Five-Year Plan a

number of agencies have been involved in initiating and implementing the

programme in almost all the agro-climatic zone in the country. Furthermore

the programme has been receiving high priority from the Union Government,

the state governments, multi-lateral and bilateral agencies and the Non-

Governmental Organizations (NGO’s). Thus, watershed approach has been

identified as a manor route and a promising area for development of

agriculture. Over the last two decades of experience in implementation of this

programme several areas of successes and shortcomings have been identified.

26

However, for sustainable development of agriculture, the authors believe that

unifying the multiplicity of watershed programmes within the framework of

an overreaching national initiative is desirable in national interest.

O.N.Srivastave (1999) “Study on Participatory Planning and

Management of Watershed Projects-Some Considerations”, in India because

of the irrigational use and over exploitation all types of lands (175 million

hectares) in general and agriculture (62 million hectares) and forest (23 million

hectares) lands in particular are suffering degradation. The Government from

time to time has introduced special schemes to conserve and check further

degradation of these lands as well as for restoration of environment and

ecology.

The individuals and other agencies including foreign donors has also

joined development in sustained basis is mostly watershed and the strategy

adopted is people’s participation. The dichotomy in working, decision

making and financial pattern not only confuse the beneficiaries on several

occasions but also creates embarrassing situations to the field workers and

other officials. It was also observed that in the government approach, the

emphasis was laid on the technical aspects while the element of sustainability

and people’s participation was neglected.

Besides, the people are of the impression that the government as in

past will come again and again to help rural people in conservation and

development of natural resources and improvement of socio-economic

conditions. In the case of other organizations and institutions the effective

27

people’s participation was observed with less emphasis on technical aspects.

The large number of experiments with varying financial and institutional

arrangements came to a common conclusion that there is a need for active

people’s participation for successful implementation of watershed project on

sustained basis.

H.P.Singh and P.K.Mishra (1999) “Study on Resource Management in

Watersheds with a Farming Systems Perspective in Semi-Arid India”,

according to an official estimate the population of India would cross 100

billion by the end of this century. By the year 2020 the food demand would

reach to 250 million tons. Hence, the dependence on agriculture in the country

would continue to increase posing a threat particularly to the limited land and

water resources more so in the dry-land areas of semi-arid region.

Besides, there would be manifold increase in the need for fuel, fodder,

fiber etc. All these commodities must from the limited land mass. Soil and

rainwater management constitutes the key to agricultural development on

watershed basis. Appropriate strategy for watershed development with a

Farming Systems (FS) perspective therefore needs to be put in place for the

desired output. Conservation of soil and water not only controls land

degradation but also can lead to sustained productivity. Watershed with a

distinct hydrological boundary is ideal for taking up the hardware and

software conservation measures.

Hinchcliffe, Fiona et al, eds. (1999) Fertile Ground; the impacts of

Participatory Watershed Management. Presents the findings of in-depth

28

research into the impacts of participatory watershed management in a range

of agro-ecological and socio-economic settings in Africa, Asia, Australia and

Latin America. The twenty-three case studies in this publication present a

picture of the problems, achievements and challenges faced by conservation

professionals and farmers around the world. They provide evidence of the

importance of local people’s involvement in natural resource planning and

management. The collection provides and analysis of the biophysical, socio-

economic and institutional impacts of development and management

practices and points to practical and realistic ways forward for both

governments and external support agencies.

Farrington, et al. (1999), observe that successful projects have in fact

reduced rain water run-off, recharged ground and surface water aquifers,

improved drinking water supply, increased the irrigated area, changed

cropping pattern, cropping intensity and agricultural productivity, increased

availability of fuel and fodder, improved soil fertility and changed

composition of livestock. The impact of these projects on poverty alleviation

and the long-term sustainability were however less clear.

Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India (2001) has given

new guidelines for the watershed development in India. In this paper on

“Watershed Management in India’ S.L. Seth (2000) stated that watershed

management would remove hunger and poverty from poor areas and

watershed management would restore ecological balance, provide green

cover over denuded areas, bring in more rains and improve environment. If

29

watershed management has to become a people’s movement, technologies

would have to be simple, low cost and should be based on vegetative

measures which are self regenerative.

Y.V.R.Reddy, G.Sartry, B.Hemalatha, Om Prakash and

Y.S.Ramakrishna (2004) have conducted a survey on 37 watershed locations

under different agro-eco regions in India during 2001. Data were collected

from primary stakeholders pertaining to physical (ground water, soil erosion,

runoff reduction, etc.) biological (afforestation, cropping intensity,

productivity levels of dry land crops) and socio-economic parameters

(additional benefit-cost ratio, additional annuity values, etc. and additional

employment and reduction in out-migration of labour, participation of

farmers in watershed programmes) in watershed programme areas compared

to non-watershed areas. The analysis indicated that there was an increase in

all factors in watershed areas villages compared to non-watershed area

villages. However, there is no significant difference among the project

implementing agencies viz., National Watershed Development Programme

for Rural Rain-fed Agriculture (Ministry of Agriculture), Ministry of Rural

Development, with regard to reduction in soil erosion, etc. It is also

recommended that Non-Governmental Organizations may be encouraged to

take up watershed programme works on their own funds only.

Government of India, Indian Council of Agricultural Research and

Non-Governmental Organizations has succeeded in achieving the results in

watershed development programme. Logic regression equations were fitted

30

to different factors in relation to additional income per hectare, but distance to

market was found to be significant but other factors were no significant.

Finally it is recommended that water harvesting structure may be constructed

at suitable places and it’s essential to establish vegetation for optimal success

for the programme.

In the seminar report on “Water Resource Management in India”

Satyasundaram (2005) explained the role of water management in

development in India. He stated that ground water has played a prominent

role as a primary source of domestic water supplies in rural and urban areas.

Hence, there is a great need for farmer’s participation in irrigation

management and urbanization.

Ramappa et. Al (2008) made a micro-level study on Watershed

Development and its impact in Anantapur district. The authors revealed that

watershed development works alone cannot improve the position of farmers.

They suggested that the efforts must be made to divert water from surplus

basins to drought-prone areas and rain fall must be augmented either by

cloud seeding or by some other method. So that the productivity levels of

different crops grown in drought-prone areas can be enhanced.

A brief review of the above studies touched the aspects of cropping

intensity, cropping pattern, watershed based technology, impact on

agriculture and allied activities, and rural labour markets etc. moreover, the

above studies could not touch the important issues relating to the impact of

watershed programmes on cropping pattern of scheduled caste, scheduled

31

tribes, backward caste land use, change in income, change in employment and

overall impact of watershed programme on the living conditions of farmers in

drought prone district like Kurnool.

Importance of the Present Study

Since the Watershed Programme completed one decade of

implementation, it becomes pertinent to examine its impact on the community

and household level in terms of achievement of its objectives. Not many

studies have been conducted in this sphere, which points to the need for more

number of micro-level studies. The present study is a modest attempt in this

direction.

The above review of literature shows that there is a gap in examining

the various aspects of Watershed Programmes in a drought prone district like

Kurnool. Kurnool is a hot arid district falling under rain-shadow tone. The

district is covered under the Drought Prone Area Programme for three

decades from 1975-2005. The geographical position of the peninsula renders

it the driest part of the sate and hence agricultural conditions are more often

precarious in Kurnool district. Monsoons also evade the district due to its

disadvantageous location. Being far from East Coast, it does not enjoy the full

benefits of North East Monsoon and being cut off by the high Western Ghats,

the South West Monsoons are also prevented from penetrating and quenching

the thirst of these parched soils. It is therefore seen that the district is

deprived of both the monsoons and subjected to droughts due to bad seasons.

32

In view of the above, it is essential to study the impact of Watershed

Development Programme on the Living Conditions of Farmers in Kurnool

district. There are several watershed based programme like the DPAP,

National Watershed Development Programme, Employment Assurance

Scheme, Integrated Wasteland Development Programme, Hariyali, etc.

However, there is no coordination between these programmes; the present

study aims to study the coordination between the different agencies involved

in Watershed Programmes in Kurnool District.

OBJECTIVES

� To understand the impact of watershed programme in a drought prone

district like Kurnnol District.

� To examine the socio-economic conditions of the Scheduled Castes,

Scheduled Tribes, Backward Castes and Other Castes farming community

in the watershed areas of Kurnool District.

� To assess the impact of watershed programme on Scheduled Castes,

Scheduled Tribes, Backward Castes and Other Castes in terms of their

cropping pattern, land use etc., in the selected mandals of Kurnool

District.

� To analyse the income and employment generation of farmers belonging

to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Backward Castes and Other

farming community through watershed programme.

� To identify the problems and to suggest suitable measures for the overall

development of the farming community in kurool district.

33

HYPOTHESIS

� The cropping pattern has been changed.

� Through the watershed programme the socio-economic conditions of the

farmers have been improved.

� Watershed programme has helped to improve employment among the

farmers.

� The size of land use is increased

METHODOLOGY

The present study is based on the data from both primary and

secondary sources. The primary data has been collected from the selected

farmers and the farmers who were provided facility of water under

watershed programme during the years 2005-2010. A well structured

questionnaire has been prepared and administered to the farmers of

watershed programme, personal visits were made to the selected mandals to

make on the spot study of various socio-economic conditions of the farmers.

The secondary data has been collected from Annual Reports, Action

Plans, Reports of various studies and Government publications. The basic

literature relating to rural poverty, status of farmers and various aspects of

rural development programmes and strategies were collected from various

books and journals. Data also collected from various offices like,

Commissionerate Rural Development (CRD) Hyderabad, District Rural

Development Agency Kurnool, Drought Prone Area Programme Kurnool and

District Water Management Agency (DWMA) Kurnool, Mandal level Project

34

Implementation Officers, Village level Watershed Secretaries, Legislatives,

State Government and Research Institutions.

The study is based on “With” and “Without” approach. To assess the

impact of watershed programme on the living conditions of farmers, the

farmers enjoying the benefit from watershed were selected. To arrive at the

conclusion the information regarding the income and employment generated

with the implementation of watershed programme and without the

implementation of the watershed programme was collected through primary

data and compared to get the correct picture.

SAMPLING DESIGN

For the present study, a three-stage sampling method was applied in

selecting the sample farmers. All the mandals in the district are classified into

three categories (a) Developed (b) Medium Developed (c) Less Developed.

From each category one mandal was chosen. These mandals are categorized

based on Economic Indicators (Per capita Income, Percentage of Gross

Irrigated Land), Human Development Indicators (Female Literacy, Proportion

Population of Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribes, Infant Mortality Rates) and

Infrastructure Development Indicators (Total Road Length per 100 kms,

Number of Hospitals Beds per 10,000 populations). To get an objective

picture, the number of farmers covered in these mandals during 2005-2010

was selected. Lot of care was taken in selecting the watershed villages.

In the first stage, from each category, one mandal was selected. In the

second stage, three watershed villages from each mandal were selected where

35

watershed is contributing to agriculture, minor irrigation, animal husbandry

and industry, service and business. In the third stage all the farmers benefited

from watershed who are engaged in the above activities were selected.

Further, for the purpose of arriving at the effectiveness of the watershed

programme, information regarding the income and employment generated

with the watershed programme and without the implementation of the

watershed programme was collected and compared to find out whether the

farmers could improve their income and employment at the district level.

STUDY AREA

The study was undertaken in the Kurnool District of Andhra Pradesh

which is economically the most backward district of Andhra Pradesh. This

region is typically a dry track and has been declared as a famine district in

South India. Recurrent drought and famines have been stalking this district

of the past ten decades. The table 1.1 gives the details about the selected

watershed villages.

Table - 1.1 LIST OF THE SELECTED WATERSHED VILLAGES FROM THE

MANDALS

Name of the Mandal

Category of the Mandal

Name of the selected watershed villages

Bandi Atmakur Developed Ernapadu Watershed Kadamalakalva Watershed G.C.Palam Watershed

Krishnagiri Medium Developed Kambalapadu Watershed T.Gokulapadu Watershed Thogadachedu Watershed

Maddikera Less Developed Maddikara (East) Watershed Yedavali Watershed Maddikara (West) Watershed

36

The distribution of the selected farmers are presented table 1.2

Table – 1.2 DISTRIBUTION OF SELECTED FARMERS

Mandals Category-wise Caste-wise Total

SF MF MdF LF SCs STs BCs OCs

Bandi Atmakur(DM) 44 32 17 12 29 20 37 19 105 Krishnagiri (MdM) 31 36 25 13 33 4 47 21 105 Maddikera (LdM) 32 34 26 13 32 5 50 18 105

Grand Total 315

DM-Developed Mandal, MdM-Medium Developed Mandal, LdM-Less Developed Mandal, SF-Small Farmers, MF-Marginal Farmers, MdF-Medium Farmers, LR-Large Farmers ST-Scheduled Tribe, SC-Scheduled Caste, BC-Backward Caste, OC-Other Caste.

SURVEY

The selected watershed villages were surveyed twice. First, a census

survey was conducted covering all the farmers belonging to Small Farmers,

Marginal Farmers, Medium Farmers and Large Farmers who benefited under

watershed programme.

Secondly, a households survey was conducted to find out the extent of

income and employment generated under watershed programme. This

survey was also conducted to know the inherent problems in agriculture and

to estimate the number of farmers who could increase their income and

employment with a demarcating comparison between Small Farmers,

Marginal Farmers, Medium Farmers and Large Farmers of the watershed

programme.

TOOLS OF ANALYSIS

Based on the objectives of the study, appropriate statistical tool like,

Paired ‘t’ test were applied to know the effectiveness of the programme in the

district.

37

PAIRED ‘t’ test To compare the variation in the generation of income and employment

before the Watershed Programme and after the Watershed Programmme,

Paired ‘t’ test was applied with the following formula.

)1(

1

−=→×

−

= nt

n

s

dt where d = x – y

n

did

Σ= 2

2

)( dn

dis −

Σ=

LIMITATIONS

The present study is district-specific, target specific as well as time-

specific. The secondary data was collected and presented covering 13 years of

period only. The field data pertaining the farmers covered under watershed

programme during the period from 2005-2010 was collected and it forms the

basis for the study. The quality and reliability of the data was ensured by

repeated visits to the farmers and discussions held with the village elders,

banks and the officials. The element of bias and subjectivity was consciously

kept under check to make the study as objective as possible. The conclusions

arrived at and the inferences drawn are applicable to the sample farmers in

the district during the period of operation of the programme. The tools and

techniques applied are the most commonly used statistical measures and the

data does not permit advanced analytical and econometric methods.

CHAPTERISATION

The study is designed in Eight Chapters. The first chapter deals with

the introduction, Review of Literature, Need and Importance of the Study,

38

Objectives, Hypothesis, Methodology, Limitations and chapter design of the

study. The Second chapter explains Watershed Development Programmes in

Andhra Pradesh. The third chapter analyses Watershed Development in

Kurnool District of Rayalaseema Region. The Fourth chapter evaluates the

Impact of Watershed Programme on the Living Conditions of the Farmers in

Developed Mandal (Bandi Atmakur mandal). The Fifth chapter explains the

Impact of Watershed Programme on the Living Conditions of the farmers in

Medium Developed mandal (Krishnagiri mandal). The Sixth chapter deals

with the Impact of Watershed Programme on the Living Conditions of the

farmers in Less Developed mandal (Madekera mandal). The Seventh chapter

is an Impact of Watershed Programme - A Comparative Analysis, Summary,

Conclusions and Suggestions.