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Учебное издание

ENGLISH FOR INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Английский язык для слушателей Института

государственной службы

специальности «Международные отношения»

В двух частях

Часть 1

Составитель: Козлова Любовь Константиновна

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УДК 811.111 (078):339.9ББК 81.2 Англ.я 73

Е 56

Рецензенты:канд. филол. наук, доцент, профессор кафедры иностранныхязыков Института подготовки научных кадров НациональнойАкадемии наук Беларуси С. В. Викулова канд. пед. наук, доцент, доцент кафедры лексикологиианглийского языка Минского государственноголингвистического университета Т. В. Кононенко доктор филол. наук, профессор, профессор кафедры

иностранных языков Института государственного управленияАкадемии управления при Президенте Республики Беларусь Л. М. Лещева

English for International Relations. Английский язык дляЕ 56 слушателей ИГС специальности «Международные

отношения»: учеб.-методич. пособие: в 2 ч. Ч. 1. / cост.:Л. К. Козлова. – Мн.: Акад. упр. при Президенте Респ.Беларусь, 2009. – 119 с.

ISBN 978-985-457-899-6

Цель пособия – формирование навыков изучающего иознакомительного чтения, перевода текстов поспециальности «Международные отношения» на роднойязык, развитие навыков критического анализа информациии умений кратко излагать содержание прочитанного в виде

резюме. Пособие направлено на расширение лексическогозапаса по изучаемым темам и может использоваться какдля аудиторной, так и для самостоятельной работыслушателей ИГС Академии управления.

УДК 811.111 (078):339.9

ББК 81.2 Англ.я 73

© Козлова Л.К., составление, 2009ISBN 978-985-457-899-6 (ч. 1) © Академия управленияISBN 978-985-457-911-5 при Президенте Республики

Беларусь, 2009

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CONTENS

Unit 1. The Theory of International Relations 5

I.

Reading1. International Relations 7

2.

The Theory of International Relations 11

3. Concepts in International Relations 15

II.

Reading and Discussion

1. Belarus Will Be Improving National Security System 19

2.

History of Diplomacy 21

Unit 2. International Organisations (1) 24

I. Reading

1.

International Organisations 25

2. The United Nations 29

3.

The UNESCO 33

4. The Republic of Belarus in the United Nations 37

II.


1.

The United Nations General Assembly 412. Bilateral Meetings at UN Session 42

3.

Belarus Supports New Security Architecture in Europe 43

Unit 3. International Organisations (2) 44

I. Reading

1.

The European Union 46

2. Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe 49

3.

NATO 524. Association of Southeast Asian Nations 56

II.


1. Terrorism 59

2.

Terrorism and extremism 61

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Unit 4. Foreign Policy 62

I. Reading

1.

Foreign Policy of the Republic of Belarus 63

2.

Foreign Policy of China 683. Foreign Policy of France 71

II.


1. Multidimensional Foreign Policy of Belarus

in Current International Situation 74

2. Bush Diplomacy Critisized by Obama 76

3.

History of Strained Relations between France

and the United Kingdom 79

Unit 5. Negotiations 80

I.

Reading

1. Approaches to Negotiation 81

2.

Diplomatic Strategy 84

3. Positive and Negative Affects in Negotiation 87

4.

Studies of Emotion in Negotiation 91

II.

Reading and Discussion1.

Salami Tactics 95

2. The Eurasian Economic Community 97

Unit 6. Globalisation 98

I.

Reading

1.

History of Globalisation 99

2.

Effects of Globalisation 102

3. Globalisn and Anti-globalism 108

II.


4. World Bank Figures on Globalisation Outcomes 112

5.

Globalisation Critics’ Arguments 113

6. Anti-globalisation Protests 115

Sources 118

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5

UNIT I

THE THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

S TARTING -U P

International Relations (IR) is a branch of political science. Itrepresents the study of foreign affairs and global issues amongstates within the international system, including the roles of states,inter-governmental organisations (IGOs), non-governmentalorganisations (NGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs). Itis both an academic and public policy field, and can be either

positive or normative as it both seeks to analyse as well as

formulate the foreign policy of particular states.Apart from political science, IR draws upon such diverse

fields as economics, history, law, philosophy, geography,sociology, anthropology, psychology, and cultural studies. Itinvolves a diverse range of issues, from globalisation and itsimpacts on societies and state sovereignty to ecologicalsustainability, nuclear proliferation, nationalism, economicdevelopment, terrorism, organised crime, human security, andhuman rights.

A Classify the aspects of IR given below according to which branch

of science they belong to:

foreign affairs organised crimeculture human rights

public policy globalisationeconomic policy nuclear proliferation

state sovereignty independencehuman security territorial conflictseconomic policy international trade

philosophy marketingecology negotiationsterrorism oil security

B Say which of the aspects mentioned above belong to the

academic discipline you study.

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V OCABULARY F OCUS

Relations between two states are called bilateral relations. Thus,relations between more than two states are multilateral relations.

Negotiations are talks and a treaty is an agreement usuallyarrived at as a result of the talks.

Proliferation suggests some multiplication, causing to increase innumber. Nonproliferation is opposite in meaning and is usuallyassociated with nonproliferation of nuclear weapons.

Sovereignty is a country’s independence. Sovereign statespursue/conduct both internal (home/domestic) policy andexternal (foreign) policy which is usually government concern in foreign affairs (relations).

Use the above words to complete the following sentences:

1.

A state is considered to be ________ if its ________ isrecognized by other states.

2.

The ________ relations between Russia and Belarus areextending.3. In its ________ policy the Republic of Belarus maintains

friendly ________ relations in Europe, Asia and LatinAmerica.

4.

Sensible politicians are concerned about ________ ofnuclear weapons.

5.

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is responsible for theoutcome of ________ with other countries on political

issues.6.

The ________ on nonproliferation of nuclear weapons wassigned by the countries that possessed them.

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READING

1 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

P RE - READING

A Before reading the text make sure you know the meanings ofthe following words:

development sanction diverse equaladvancement ultimate involve entityencourage research impact foundtrace back mobilize notion trainrecognize institute failure alterstimulate superior resort seekestablish channel shame tooldevote to enforce range

B Complete the following sentences with the appropriate form ofthe word from the list above:

1)

Most countries want to have _________ rights in globaldecision making.

2)

They also want to enjoy nuclear security for developmentand _________ of their countries.

3)

For this purposes states establish international institutions _________ in diverse range of activities.

4) A number of organisations define their functions whichinclude _______ research, _______ personnel, _______human contacts etc.

5)

Diplomacy is one of the _________ to resolve issues insteadof resorting to force.

6)

To alter a state’s unfair actions a world organisation canmobilize international _________ .

7) The _________ of international shame can be effective.8) International Relations _________ to analyse and define

foreign policy.

R EADING

Read the text and remember four systemic tools of international

relations mentioned in it.

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International Relations

International Relations is the study of the relations of stateswith each other and with international organisations and certain

subnational entities (e.g. political parties and interest groups). Itstudies the roles of states, inter-governmental organisations, non-governmental organisations, and multinational corporations.International relations involves a diverse range of issues, fromglobalisation and its impacts on societies and state sovereignty toecological problems, nuclear proliferation, economicdevelopment, terrorism, organised crime, human security, andhuman rights.

It seeks both to analyze as well as formulate foreign policy. Itis related to a number of other academic disciplines, including political science, geography, history, economics, law, sociology, psychology, and philosophy.

The history of international relations is often traced back tothe Peace of Westfalia of 1648, where the modern state systemwas developed. Westfalia instituted the notion of sovereignty,which meant that rulers, or sovereigns, would recognize nointernal equals within a defined territory, and no external

superiors. Westfalia encouraged the rise of the nation-state and theinstitution of diplomacy and armies. Later, this European systemwas exported to America, Africa and Asia. The contemporaryinternational system was finally established during the Cold War.

In the 1920s, there came a strong impulse toward thedevelopment of international studies in universities. New centres,institutes, and schools devoted to teaching and research inInternational Relations were founded. Courses were organised and

general textbooks on the subject began to appear. Privateorganisations were formed, and large grants were channeled to theadvancement of citizens in world affairs through special traininginstitutes, conferences, and seminars, and to the stimulation ofuniversity research.

Systemic tools of international relations are:

Diplomacy which is the practice of conducting negotiating between representatives of states. All other tools ofinternational relations can be considered the failure of

diplomacy.

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Sanctions are usually a first resort after the failure ofdiplomacy, and are one of the main tools used to enforcetreaties. They can take the form of diplomatic or economic

sanctions. War, the use of force, is often thought of as the ultimate

tool of international relations. A widely accepted definitionis that “war is the continuation of politics by other means”.

The mobilization of international shame can also bethought of as a tool of international relations. This isattempting to alter states actions through ‘naming andshaming’ at the international level.

P OST -R EADING

Give the Russian equivalents for the following:

tools of international relations; practice of conductingnegotiations; the failure of diplomacy; a first resort; to alterstates actions; to name and shame states at international level;economic sanctions; a widely accepted definition; the use offorce; representatives of states; schools devoted to teaching andresearch; a strong impulse toward the development; thecontemporary international system; to encourage the rise ofdiplomacy; to institute the notion of sovereignty; to trace backto; to seek to analyse foreign policy; to be related to a number ofother academic disciplines; a diverse range of issues.

A Find the synonyms among verbs given below + policycombinations:

conduct policy, form policy, consider policy, pursue policy,

analyse policy, decide policy, make policy.

B There is a set of words in the table related to the word‘policy’. Explain their meanings.

cy

tics

tical ly

Poli+

tician

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C Put the right word in the blanks in these sentences:

1) Mr. Blair and Mr. Brown are two famous _______ . 2) Those people are studying the science of _______ . 3) We sometimes

call a person’s work his ________ activity. 4) People should be ________ educated. 5) The ________ regime of a democraticcountry is usually called democracy. 6) The government pursuesa reasonable economic ________ .

D Translate into English:

1) Политическая обстановка очень напряженная.2) Экономическая политика правительства часто

подвергается справедливой критике.3)

Она много занимается политикой.4) Она политически хорошо подкована.5) Политика является составной частью международных

отношений.6)

Страна проводит миролюбивую политику.

E Answer the following questions:

1)

What does International Relations as an academic disciplinestudy?2) What other academic subjects is it related to?3) What historic event is the establishment of international

relations traced back to?4)

When was the contemporary international system actuallyestablished?

5)

What is the first resort in settling issues in internationalrelations?

6)

What is the tool usually resorted to in case of the failure ofdiplomacy?

7) What definition would you give to ‘war’?8)

Is naming and shaming states at international level aneffective means of international relations?

F Make a summary of the text.

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2 THE THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

V OCABULARY F OCUS

Positivism is a philosophic system which considers that truth can be verified only by facts. A positivist is an adherent of positivism.

A positivist theory/ approach is the one that supports the ideas of positivism.

A norm means a standard, an average. Thus, normal is,something conforming to a standard, and normative is somethingestablishing a norm. So, normative approach is the one based on

personal values or judgements.

Explicitly means clearly and openly stated, while implicitly hasthe meaning of being understood though not stated.

P RE -R EADING


on the grounds distinguish security power

phenomenon dedicated survival rejectconvergence facilitate distinct argueexpectation replicate oppose citeexperience focus on degree aimvindication promote ignore

B Find among the above words synonyms for the following:

devoted to, to seek, extent, to make distinction, on the basis,

particular, goal, to deny, to oppose, to enhance, to concentrateon, confirmation, to dispute, authority.

R EADING

Read the text containing some of the theories on IR and then dothe tasks that follow.

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The Theory of International Relations

What is explicitly recognized as International Relations theorywas not developed until after World War I. IR theory, however,

has a long tradition of drawing on the work of other socialsciences. The use of capitalizations of the ‘I’ and ‘R’ inInternational Relations aims to distinguish the academic disciplineof International Relations from the phenomena of internationalrelations.

Initially, International Relations as a distinct field of studywas almost entirely British-centered. In 1919, the Chair inInternational Politics was established at the University of Wales,

in the early 1920s, the London School of Economics‘ departmentof International Relations was founded on the advice of NobelPeace Prize winner Philip Noel-Baker. In 1927 the first universityinstitution entirely dedicated to the study of IR, was founded – theGraduate Institute of International Studies –, and offered one ofthe first Ph.D. degrees in international relations in the country.

IR theories can be roughly divided into one of two camps:“positivist” and “post-positivist”. Positivist theories aim toreplicate the methods of the natural sciences by analysing the

impact of material forces. They typically focus on features ofinternational relations such as state interactions, size of militaryforces, balance of powers etc. Post-positivism rejects the idea thatthe social world can be studied in an objective and value-free way.It rejects the central ideas of neo-realism/liberalism, such asRational Choice theory, on the grounds that the scientific methodcannot be applied to the social world and that a ‘science’ of IR isimpossible.

A key difference between the two positions is that while

positivist theories, such as neo-realism, offer causal explanations(such as why and how power is exercised) post-positivist theoriesfocus instead on constitutive questions, for instance, what is meant

by ‘power’; what makes it up, how it is experienced and how it isreproduced. Often, post-positivist theories explicitly promote anormative approach to IR by considering ethics. This is somethingwhich has often been ignored under ‘traditional’ IR as positivisttheories make a distinction between ‘facts’ and normative

judgements or ‘values’.

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Realism focuses on state security and power above all else.Early realists argued that states are self-interested, power-seekingrational actors, who try to maximize their security and chances of

survival. Any cooperation between states is explained asfunctional in order to maximize each individual state’s security (as

opposed to more idealistic reasons). Many realists saw WorldWar II as the vindication of their theory. It should be noted thatclassical writers such as Thucydides, Machiavelli, and Hobbes are often cited as the “founding fathers” of realism.

Regime theory is derived from the liberal tradition thatargues that international institutions or regimes affect the

behaviour of states (or other international actors). It assumes thatcooperation is possible in the anarchic system of states. Indeed,regimes are, by definition, instances of international cooperation.

While realism predicts that conflict should be the norm ininternational relations, regime theorists say that there iscooperation and they cite cooperation in trade, human rights andcollective security among other issues. These instances ofcooperation are regimes. The most commonly cited definition of

regimes comes from Stephen Krasner who defines regimes as

“institutions possessing norms, decision rules, and procedureswhich facilitate a convergence of expectations.”

International Society theory, also called the English School,focuses on the shared norms and values of states and how theyregulate international relations. Examples of such norms include

diplomacy, order, and international law.

P OST - READING

A

Translate the following word-combinations into Russian:

to be explicitly recognized; a distinct field of study; to be entirelydedicated to; Ph.D. degree; to be roughly divided into two camps;to replicate the methods; to focus on the features; stateinteractions: balance of powers; to reject the idea; to study in avalue-free way; Rational Choice theory; on the grounds that; toapply a method to; to offer causal explanations; to exercise

power; to promote an approach; normative judgements or values;

above all else; to argue that; power-seeking actors; chances of

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survival; the vindication of the theory; it should be noted; to beoften cited; the founding fathers; to be derived from; to affect

behaviour; instances of; collective security; to facilitate a

convergence of expectations; the shared norms and values.

B Complete the following sentences:

1)

International Relations theory was not developed until after _________.

2)

The use of capitalizations of the ‘I’ and ‘R’ in InternationalRelations aims to distinguish the academic discipline ofInternational Relations _________.

3) Initially, International Relations as a distinct field of studywas almost entirely _________.

4) In 1927 the first university institution entirely dedicated tothe study of IR _________.

5)

IR theories can be roughly divided into one of two camps: _________.

6)

Positivist theories typically focus on features ofinternational relations such as _________.

7) Post-positivism rejects the idea that the social world can be

studied in an objective and value-free way and considersthat a ‘science’ of IR _________.8) Positivist theories make a distinction between ‘facts’ and

normative _________.9) Realism focuses on state security and _________.10)

Regime theory argues that international institutions orregimes affect the _________.

11)

International Society theory focuses on the shared normsand values of states and how they _________.

C Answer the following questions:

1)

Why are the words ‘International Relations’ capitalized?2)

Where was the theoretical study of international relationsinitially established?

3) What camps can IR theories be divided into?4)

What is the difference between positivist and post-positivisttheories?

5)

What does realism focus on?

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6)

What is the essence of Regime theory?7) What does International Society theory focus on?

D Make a summary of the text.

3 CONCEPTS IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

V OCABULARY F OCUS

Concept is a general notion or an idea of something.

Cold war is a state of diplomatic tension between East and Westdeliberately maintained for the winning of advantages withoutfighting. Balance of power means parity between rival nations

preserved by the system of military and economic alliances.Polarity is an arrangement of power in the world. Unipolaritysuggests the international system where power belongs to a singlestate, bipolarity – the international system where power is shared

between two states and multi-polarity – the international systemwhere power is shared among more than two states. Hegemonymeans leadership exercised by one state. Status quo is the existingstate of affairs.

P RE -R EADING

Before reading the text make sure you know the meanings of the following words:

gain prominence superpower prevalent affairsinterdependence hard power highlight defineretrospectively soft power coercive revise

preponderance draw upon prior to shape

disadvantage periphery version viewenvironment reinforce exploit sole

R EADING

Read the text containing some of the concepts in IR and answerthe following questions after reading:

1)

How can the concept of ‘power’ in international relations bedescribed?

2)

What does ‘hard power’ mean?

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3)

What does ‘soft power’ mean?4) What does the concept of ‘polarity’ refer to?5)

What did the concept of ‘polarity’ arise from?

6)

How can the international system be described prior to1945?

7)

When did ‘unipolarity’ arise?8)

When did the theory of ‘the balance of power’ gain prominence?

9) What does the concept of ‘hegemony’ suggest?10) Is ‘unipolarity’ a stable configuration?11)

What is the current international system consistent with?

12)

What is the essence of Dependency theory?13)

What is the ‘status quo’?

Concepts in International Relations

International relations are often viewed in terms of levels ofanalysis. The systemic level concepts are those broad conceptsthat define and shape an international environment.

The concept of ‘power’ in international relations can be

described as the degree of resources, capabilities, and influence ininternational affairs. It is often divided up into the concepts of‘hard power‘ and ‘soft power‘, hard power relating primarily tocoercive power, such as the use of force, and soft powercommonly covering economics, diplomacy and cultural influence.However, there is no clear dividing.

Polarity in international relations refers to the arrangement of power within the international system. The concept arose from bipolarity during the Cold War, with the international systemdominated by the conflict between two superpowers, and has beenapplied retrospectively. Consequently, the international system

prior to 1945 can be described as multi-polar, with power beingshared among great powers. The collapse of the Soviet Union in1991 led to what some would call ‘unipolarity’, with the UnitedStates as a sole superpower.

Several theories of international relations draw upon the idea of‘polarity‘. The balance of power was a concept prevalent in Europe

prior to the First World War, the thought being that by balancing

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power blocs it would create stability and prevent war. Theories of‘the balance of power’ gained prominence again during the ColdWar, being a central mechanism of Kenneth Waltz’s neorealism.

Hegemonic stability theory (developed by Robert Gilpin) alsodraws upon the idea of polarity, specifically the state ofunipolarity. Hegemony is the preponderance of power at one polein the international system, and the theory argues this is a stableconfiguration because of mutual gains by both the dominant powerand others in the international system. This is contrary to manyneorealist arguments, particularly made by Kenneth Waltz, statingthat the end of the Cold War and the state of unipolarity is anunstable configuration that will inevitably change.

Many advocate that the current international system ischaracterized by growing interdependence, the mutualresponsibility and dependency on others. The role of internationalinstitutions and widespread acceptance of a number of operating

principles in the international system reinforces ideas that relationsare characterized by interdependence.

Dependency theory is a theory most commonly associated withMarxism, stating that a set of core states exploit a set of weaker

periphery states for their prosperity. Various versions of the theorysuggest that this is either an inevitability (standard dependencytheory), or use of the theory to highlight the necessity for change.

States can be classified by whether they accept theinternational status quo, or are revisionist, i.e. want change.Revisionist states seek to fundamentally change the rules and

practices of international relations, feeling disadvantaged by thestatus quo. They see the international system as a largely westerncreation which serves to reinforce current realities. Japan is an

example of a state that has gone from being a revisionist state toone that is satisfied with the status quo, because the status quo isnow beneficial to it.

P OST - READING

A Translate the following word-combinations into Russian:

broad concepts; to define and shape an international environment;the degree of resources; capabilities, and influence in international

affairs; hard power; to relate to coercive power; the use of force;

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soft power; to cover economics; cultural influence; there is noclear dividing; the arrangement of power within the internationalsystem; to draw upon the idea of polarity; the preponderance of

power at one pole; mutual gains; both the dominant power andothers; a largely western creation.

B Translate the following sentences into Russian:

The concept of ‘power’ is often divided up into the conceptsof hard power and soft power, hard power relating primarily tocoercive power, such as the use of force, and soft powercommonly covering economics, diplomacy and cultural influence.

The concept arose from bipolarity during the Cold War, withthe international system dominated by the conflict between twosuperpowers.

The international system prior to 1945 can be described asmulti-polar, with power being shared among Great powers.

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 had led to whatsome would call ‘unipolarity’, with the United States as a solesuperpower.

‘The balance of power‘ was a concept prevalent in Europe prior to the First World War, the thought being that by balancing power blocs it would create stability and prevent war.

Theories of ‘the balance of power’ gained prominence againduring the Cold War, being a central mechanism of KennethWaltz’s neorealism.

Revisionist states seek to fundamentally change the rules and practices of international relations, feeling disadvantaged by thestatus quo.

Japan is an example of a state that has gone from being arevisionist state to one that is satisfied with the status quo, becausethe status quo is now beneficial to it.

C Find derivatives of the following words:

to revise, to depend, to relate, to exploit, to view, to preponderate, to dominate, to divide, polar, advantage, prior, toinfluence, to create, to define, real.

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D Complete the following sentences:

1)

States can be classified by whether they accept theinternational status quo, or are _________ , i.e. want

revision. 2)

Many advocate that the current international system ischaracterized by growing _________, the mutual responsibilityand dependency on others.

3) A number of operating principles in the international systemreinforce ideas that _________ are characterized byinterdependence.

4)

Sometimes there is no clear _________ between soft power

and hard power.5)

The concept of ‘polarity’ arose from _________ when theinternational system was dominated by two superpowers.

6) Neorealists argue that the end of the Cold War and the stateof _________ is an unstable configuration that willinevitably change.

7) Theories of ‘the balance of power’ gained _________ againduring the Cold War.

E

Make a summary of the text.

R EADING AND D ISCUSSION

Read the speech of the President of the Republic of Belarus at the

Independence Day military parade and then do the tasks that

follow.

Belarus Will Be Improving National Security System

Belarus will be constantly improving the national and, aboveall, military security system promptly responding to new trends inthe international situation.

Strengthening the Armed Forces and the military organizationof the country has always been one of the top-priority goals of theBelarusian state policy. We will continue working on improvingthe organizational structure and qualitative parameters of thetechnical supply of the troops, polishing the government system,

enhancing the efficiency of military personnel training.

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The Belarusian people learnt the lessons of the past war. It isnot by accident that the Belarusians have a heightened sense ofresponsibility for the security of their Fatherland. The history

teaches and warns that wars and armed conflicts do not happen bythemselves, they are unleashed by those whose ambitions prevailover the interests of countries and whole continents.

Today the mankind faces such dangerous challenges andthreats as local armed conflicts, international terrorism, religious,national and political extremism, human trafficking, illicit drugs,famine and shortage of energy resources.

Today we have seen the attempts prodded by some politicians

to rewrite the history and to destroy the post-war system ofinternational relations. The prospects of NATO expansion intoformer Soviet Union countries appear more feasible. NATOremains the most powerful military bloc. Its infrastructure hasapproached Belarus closely. The process of deploying theAmerican anti-missile system at the Belarusian border is acquiringan irreversible nature. The Treaty on Conventional Armed Forcesin Europe has, in fact, ceased to be one of the pillars of theEuropean security.

The unilateral declaration of Kosovo independence attests tothe existence of double standards and poses a threat to boundaryrevisions, repartition of the European political map. Encouragingseparatism is an unwise and dangerous policy.

P OST - READING

A Say if the following statements are true or false. Correct theones which you consider false.

1)

Nowadays international situation is favourable.2) There are no conflicts in the world which make Belarus be

concerned about its security.3) World War II taught us many lessons.4) The mankind faces a lot of dangerous threats.5) NATO doesn’t plan to expand into former Soviet Union

countries.

6)

NATO remains the most powerful military bloc.

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7)

The Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europeensures security in Europe.

8)

There are no double standards in international politics.

B Complete the following sentences using the correct form of theverb in brackets:

1)

New trends in international situation make Belarus _________ national security. (improve)

2)

One of the top priorities of the state has always been _________ the Armed Forces. ( strengthen)

3)

Wars are unleashed by the states that _________ their

ambitious interests. ( pursue)4) The mankind faces dangerous challenges and tries

_________ local armed conflicts. ( stop)5) Some politicians attempt _________ the post-war system of

international relations. (destroy)6) The process of deploying the NATO anti-missile system

near our borders _________ a threat to the security of theRepublic of Belarus. ( pose)

7)

Some western politicians use double standards _________the borders and the European political map. (revise)

C Discuss the following:

The current political situation in the world.

Changes in international relations and their causes.

The necessity to react to the new challenges and threats.

Double standards used in international relations.

D Read the text and say what stages in the history of diplomacyare significant.

History of Diplomacy

The ability to practise diplomacy is one of the definingelements of a state, and diplomacy has been practised since thefirst city-states were formed millennia ago.

Modern diplomacy’s origins are often traced to the states of

Northern Italy in the early Renaissance, with the first embassies

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being established in the thirteenth century. Milan played a leadingrole, especially under Francesco Sforza who established

permanent embassies to the other city states of Northern Italy. It

was in Italy that many of the traditions of modern diplomacy began, such as the presentation of ambassadors’ credentials to thehead of state.

From Italy the practice was spread to the other European powers. As foreign powers such as France and Spain becameincreasingly involved in Italian politics the need to acceptemissaries was recognized. Soon the major European powers wereexchanging representatives. By the late 16th century, permanentmissions became customary.

During that period the rules of modern diplomacy were furtherdeveloped. The top rank of representatives was an ambassador. Atthat time an ambassador was a nobleman, the rank of the nobleassigned varying with the prestige of the country he was delegatedto. Strict standards developed for ambassadors, requiring theyhave large residences, host parties, and play an important role inthe court life of their host nation.

Ambassadors, nobles with little foreign experience and noexpectation of a career in diplomacy, needed to be supported by

large embassy staff. These professionals would be sent on longerassignments and would be far more knowledgeable than thehigher-ranking officials about the host country. The need forskilled individuals to staff embassies was met by the graduates ofuniversities, and this led to a great increase in the study ofinternational law, modern languages, and history at universitiesthroughout Europe. At the same time, permanent foreignministries began to be established in almost all European states to

coordinate embassies and their staffs.The elements of modern diplomacy slowly spread to EasternEurope and Russia, arriving by the early eighteenth century. Afterthe fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 establishedan international system of diplomatic rank. After World War II therank of ambassador became the norm.

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P OST -R EADING

A Translate the following sentences into Russian:

1)

It was in Italy that many of the traditions of moderndiplomacy began, such as the presentation of ambassadors’credentials to the head of state.

2)

It is this practice that has been employed since theconception of the first city-states within the internationalspectrum.

3)

Diplomats in Asia were originally sent only for the purposeof negotiation. Milan was the first to send a representative to

the court of France in 1455.4)

Embassy staff would include a wide range of employees,including some dedicated to espionage.

5)

Modern diplomacy’s origins are often traced to the states of Northern Italy in the early Renaissance, with the firstembassies being established in the thirteenth century.

B Review the following questions for discussion:

1) Since when has diplomacy been practised?2)

What were the usual activities of diplomats during earlytime diplomacy?

3)

Who were diplomats at that time?4) When and where did modern diplomacy originate?5) Where was the practice spread to?6) What led to a great increase in the study of international

law, modern languages, and history at universitiesthroughout Europe?

7)

What institutions began to be established in almost allEuropean states to coordinate embassies and their staffs?8) When did modern diplomacy spread to Eastern Europe and

Russia?

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UNIT 2

INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS (1)

S TARTING -U P

International institutions form a vital part of contemporaryinternational relations. Much interaction at the system level isgoverned by them, and they outlaw some traditional institutionsand practices of international relations.

As humanity enters the planetary phase of civilization, somescientists and political theorists see a global hierarchy ofinstitutions replacing the existing system of sovereign nation-

states as the primary political community. They argue that nationsare an imagined community that cannot resolve modern challengessuch as the legal and political status of stateless people andrefugees, and the need to address worldwide concerns like climatechange and pandemics.

The United Nations (UN) is an international organization thatdescribes itself as a “global association of governments facilitatingco-operation in international law, international security, economic

development, and social equity”. It is the most prominentinternational institution. Many of the legal institutions follow thesame organisational structure as the UN.

V OCABULARY F OCUS

Hierarchy is any arrangement of principles or things or peoplewithin an organisation with graded importance or authority. Anew, more legitimate (i.e. being in accord with accepted rules or

laws) form of global politics is based on ‘constrained pluralism’.Pluralism is the doctrine that there is more than one universal

principle. This doctrine guides the formation of institutions basedon three characteristics: irreducibility, where some issues must bedecided at the global level; subsidiarity, which limits the scope ofglobal authority to truly global issues while smaller-scope issuesare regulated at lower levels; and heterogeneity, which allows fordiverse forms of local and regional institutions as long as theymeet global obligations.

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Use the above words or their derivatives to complete the following sentences:

1.

Companies with functional structure are also called ______.

2.

The ________ form of the noun ‘phenomenon’ is‘phenomena’.

3. The daughter company may also be called that company’s _________.

4. The people of the country fight for their _________ rights.5.

The prices may be _________ at the end of the season.6.

The information is so _________ that it can’t be possiblysummed up.

READING

1 INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS

P RE - READING


membership criterion resolve scope

comply with carry on charter meregrouping approve refer to pureassembly provide debate signenter into rely on ad hoc

B Answer the following questions:

1) Is membership in international organisations obligatory?2)

If you are a member of some organisation, must you complywith its charter and rules?

3)

What criteria should be taken into consideration before you join an organisation?

4) Are international assemblies and debates able to resolveworld problems or are they merely an arena to carry oninterests of superior nations?

R EADING

Read the text and then do the tasks that follow.

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International Organisations

International organisation is, by definition, any organisationwith international membership, scope, or presence. However, in

common usage, the term is usually reserved for intergovernmentalorganisations (IGO) such as the UN, the European Union, theCouncil of Europe, or the World Trade Organization, withsovereign states or other IGOs as members. Their scope and aimsare most usually in the public interest but may also have beencreated with a specific purpose.

While many non-governmental organisations (NGOs) though privately created with international scope have international presence and aims.

Legally speaking, an international organisation may beestablished by a constituent document such as a charter, a treaty or aconvention, which when signed by the founding members, providesthe IGO with legal recognition. International organisations soestablished are subjects of international law, capable of entering intoagreements among themselves or with states. Thus internationalorganisations in a legal sense are distinguished from mere groupingsof states, such as the G-8 and the G-77, neither of which have been

founded by a constituent document and exist only as task groups,though in non-legal contexts these are sometimes referrederroneously as international organisations.

International organisations must also be distinguished fromtreaties. Many treaties (e.g., the North American Free TradeAgreement (NAFTA) or, in the 1947-1995 period, the GeneralAgreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)) do not establish aninternational organisation and rely purely on the parties for theiradministration becoming legally recognised as an ad hoc

commission.International organisations differ in function, membership and

membership criteria. Membership of some organisations (globalorganisations) is open to all the nations of the world as far as theycomply with membership criteria and after approval by a generalassembly or similar body. This category includes the United

Nations and its specialised agencies and the World TradeOrganization. Other organisations are only open to members froma particular region or continent of the world, like European Union,

African Union, ASEAN and other regional organisations. Finally,

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some organisations base their membership on other criteria:cultural or historical links (the Commonwealth of Nations, LaFrancophonie, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries,

the Latin Union), level of economic development or type ofeconomy (Organisation for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (OECD), Organisation of Petroleum-ExportingCountries (OPEC), or religion (Organisation of the IslamicConference).

International organisations developed mainly from the need ofnations and governments to have a neutral forum where to debateand consider matters of importance to more than one particularnation. However, some IOs also developed from the need of an

either executive or enforcement body which could carry onmultinational interests in a unified form.

International organisations describe and define their purposein their charter or other document of creation. Internationalorganisations exist with diverse aims: to increase internationalrelations, promote education, health care, economic development,environmental protection, human rights, humanitarian efforts,inter-cultural approach and conflict resolution.

P OST -R EADING

A Complete the following sentences using the appropriate word:

1)

International organisation is, by definition, any organisationwith international _________.

2)

In common usage, the term IO is usually reserved for _________ organisations.

3)

Many non-governmental organisations are privately createdwith international _________ and have international

presence and aims.4) An international organisation may be established by a

constituent document such as _________ a treaty or aconvention.

5)

A constituent document when signed by the foundingmembers, _________ the IGO with legal recognition.International organisations so established are subjects ofinternational law, capable of _________ into agreements

among themselves or with states.

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6) International organisations in a legal sense are distinguishedfrom mere _________ of states which exist only as taskgroups.

7)

International organisations must be distinguished fromtreaties which rely purely on the parties for theiradministration and are legally recognized as _________commission.

8) International organisations differ in function, membershipand membership _________.

9) Membership of some global organisations is open to all thenations of the world as far as they_________ membershipcriteria.

10)

International organisations developed mainly from the needof nations and governments to have a neutral forum where

_________ matters of importance to more than one particular nation.

11) International organisations exist with diverse aims,including to promote education, health care, economicdevelopment, environmental protection, cultural approachand conflict _________.

B

Use the appropriate preposition.

1) The scope and aims of IO are most usually _________ the public interest but may also have been created _________ aspecific purpose.

2) Legally speaking, an international organisation may beestablished _________ a constituent document such as acharter, a treaty or a convention which when signed by thefounding members, provides the IGO _________ legalrecognition.

3)

International organisations must be distinguished _________ treaties.

4) Many treaties do not establish an international organisationand rely purely _________ the parties _________ theiradministration becoming legally recognized as an ad hoccommission.

5) International organisations differ _________ function,

membership and membership criteria.

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6)

Membership of some organisations is open _________ allthe nations of the world as far as they comply _________membership criteria.

7)

Some IOs also developed _________ the need of an eitherexecutive or enforcement body which could carry

_________ multinational interests in a unified form.

C Look at the outline of the text given below and correct the succession of the items.

1) The definitions of intergovernmental and non-governmentalorganisations;

2) Legal establishment of IGOs;3)

The difference between international organisations and stategroupings;

4)

The difference between international organisations andtreaties;

5)

The purposes of international organisations;6) The cause of creation of international organisations;7)

The difference between international organisations due tofunction, membership and membership criteria.

D Discuss in detail each item of the outline.

2 THE UNITED NATIONS

P RE - READING


headquarters endeavour facilitate agencydeliberative signatory draw up budgetsubstantive guideline judicial set outencompass deal with replace statecome into existence sign Secretary-General

B Replace the underlined word in the following sentences withthe appropriate new word from the list above:

1) One of the aims of the UN is to promote cooperation in

different fields.

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2)

The United Nations Charter was composed in 1945.3)

The Charter declares the rights and obligations of the UNmember-states.

4)

The organisation started its work on 24 October 1945.5) The UN central governing office is located in New York.6) Within the UN there are a lot of specialized organisations.7)

Actually, it includes 15 agencies and several programmesand bodies.

8) Central bodies of governance are not enough to handle allspheres of this vast organisation.

9) Every programme has its own course of activities.10)

The staff exert their efforts in attempts to reach people in

every corner of the world.11)

The agencies make decisions on particular and generalissues of their policy.

R EADING

Read the text and remember the aims and activities of the United Nations.

The United Nations

The United Nations (UN) is an international organisationwhose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in international law,international security, economic development, social progress andhuman rights issues. The UN was founded in 1945 to replace theLeague of Nations, to stop wars between nations and to provide a

platform for dialogue.In 1945, representatives of 50 countries met in San Francisco

at the United Nations Conference on international organisation to

draw up the United Nations Charter. The organisation officiallycame into existence on 24 October 1945, when the Charter wasratified by China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom,the United States and a majority of other signatories. It has sixofficial languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, andSpanish. United Nations Day is celebrated on 24 October.

The Charter is the constituting instrument of the United Nations, setting out the rights and obligations of Member States,and establishing the organisation’s organs and procedures. The

purposes of the United Nations, as set forth in the Charter, are to

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maintain international peace and security; to develop friendlyrelations among nations; to cooperate in solving internationaleconomic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems and in

promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms;and to be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations inattaining these ends.

There are now 192 member states, including almost everyrecognized independent state. From its headquarters oninternational territory within New York City, the UN and itsspecialized agencies decide on substantive and administrativeissues in regular meetings held throughout the year. The UN’smost visible public figure is the Secretary-General, currently Ban

Ki-moon of South Korea.The organisation is divided into administrative bodies,

primarily: The General Assembly (the main deliberativeassembly), The Security Council (decides certain resolutions for

peace and security), The Economic and Social Council (assists in promoting international economic and social cooperation anddevelopment), The Secretariat (provides studies, information, andfacilities needed by the UN) and The International Court of

Justice (the primary judicial organ).The United Nations family, however, is much larger,encompassing 15 agencies and several programmes and bodies.Additional bodies deal with the governance of all other UN systemagencies, such as the World Health Organization (WHO) andUnited Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). The United Nationsfamily of organisations is made up of the United NationsSecretariat, the UN Development Programme (UNDP) and thespecialized agencies. The programmes, funds and agencies have

their own governing bodies and budgets, and set their ownstandards and guidelines. Together, they provide technicalassistance and other forms of practical help in virtually all areas ofeconomic and social endeavour. Economic institutions are asfollows: World Trade Organization, World Bank, InternationalMonetary Fund, Asian Development Bank. International legal

bodies include: International Court of Justice, European Court ofJustice, African Court of Justice, International Tribunal for theLaw of the Sea.

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The UN is financed from assessed and voluntary contributionsfrom member states which are assessed on a scale approved by theGeneral Assembly. The fundamental criterion on which the scale

of assessments is based is the capacity of countries to pay. This isdetermined by considering their relative shares of total grossnational product, adjusted to take into account a number of factors,including their per capita incomes. In addition, countries areassessed, in accordance with a modified version of the basic scale,for the costs of peacekeeping operations.

P OST -R EADING

A Say if the following statements are true or false. Correct the

ones you consider false.

1) The UN was founded in 1955 to replace the League of Nations, to stop wars between nations and provide a platform for dialogue.

2) Representatives of 50 countries met in New York at theUnited Nations Conference to draw up the United NationsCharter.

3) The Charter is the constituting instrument of the United

Nations, setting out the rights and obligations of memberstates, and establishing the organisation’s organs and procedures.

4) The purposes of the United Nations are to maintaininternational peace and security; to develop friendlyrelations among nations; to cooperate in solvinginternational economic, social, cultural and humanitarian

problems.5)

There are now 200 member states, including almost every

recognized independent state.6) The UN doesn’t have any administrative bodies.7)

The United Nations family is large, encompassing 50agencies and several programmes and bodies.

8)

The programmes, funds and agencies have their owngoverning bodies and budgets, and set their own standardsand guidelines.

9)

The UN doesn’t have any economic or legal institutions.10)

All member states pay equal contributions into the budget of

the UN.

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B Say which of the verbs are synonyms:

facilitate, assist, promote, provide, modify ,comply with, assess,accord, approve, endeavour, include, govern, comprise,

maintain, divide, decide, create, resolve, establish, replace,found, administrate, ratify, set out, set forth, set up, adapt, solve,develop, keep, evaluate, exchange, conform to, agree with,follow, change, adjust.

C Answer the following questions:

1) When and where was the United Nations organisationestablished?

2)

What legal document was drawn up for the UN to come intoexistence?

3) What does the Charter set out?4)

What are the purposes of the United Nations?5)

Are there regular meetings at the UN to decide onsubstantive and administrative issues?

6)

What administrative bodies is the UN divided into?7) What are the activities of agencies and programmes within

the UN?

8)

In what way is the UN financed?

D Make a resume of the text.

3 THE UNESCO

P RE - READING

A Before reading the text make sure you know the meanings of

the following words: policy-making strengthen science fosteradministration education culture adoptgovernance discharge access offerencourage executive refuteimplement activities day-to-day running

B Complete the following sentences with the appropriate word

or its derivative using the list above:

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1)

Three main bodies of the UNESCO _________ its policy.2)

The _________ of its activities is vital for the spheres ofeducation, science, culture and information.

3)

The UNESCO provides _________ opportunities for peoplein all corners of the world.4) The _________ of its decisions is ensured by the Executive

Board.5)

The UNESCO encourages free _________ to information.6) The organisation’s goal is to educate public and _________

the notion of the evil human nature.7) It _________ partnerships to gain common benefits.

R EADING

Read the text and remember the main activities of the UNESCO.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganisation

The UNESCO has 193 member states and 6 associatemembers. The UNESCO headquarters are in Paris, France. Three

bodies are responsible for policy-making, governance, and day-to-

day administration at the UNESCO: The General Conference, TheExecutive Board and The Secretariat.

The General Conference is a gathering of the organisation’smember states and associate members, in which each state has onevote. Meeting every two years, it sets general policies and defines

programme lines for the organisation.The Executive Board’s 58 members are elected by the General

Conference for four-year terms. The Executive Board prepares the

sessions of the General Conference and ensures that itsinstructions are carried out. It also discharges other specificmandates assigned to it by the General Conference.

The Secretariat consists of the Director-General and his staffand is responsible for the day-to-day running of the organisation.

The UNESCO implements its activities through the 5 programme areas: education, natural sciences, social and humansciences, culture, and communication and information.

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The UNESCO is providing international leadership in creatinglearning societies with educational opportunities for all; it supportsresearch in comparative education and provides expertise and

fosters partnerships to strengthen national educational leadershipand the capacity of countries to offer quality education for all.This includes: the International Institute for Educational Planning(IIEP) which is a centre for training and research to strengthen thecapacity of countries to plan and manage their education systems,and Environmental Conservation organisation.

The UNESCO also issues public ‘statements’ to educate the public: ‘Seville Statement on Violence‘ is a statement adopted bythe UNESCO in 1989 to refute the notion that humans are

biologically predisposed to organised violence.The organisation is concerned with numerous diverse projects

including: projects and places of cultural and scientific significance,such as: international network of geoparks; exploring biospherereserves through the programme on ‘Man and the Biosphere‘ since1971; ‘City of Literature‘ (in 2007, the first city to be given this titlewas Edinburgh, the site of Scotland’s first circulating library);endangered languages and linguistic diversity projects; masterpieces

of the oral and intangible heritage of humanity, and many others.The UNESCO encourages the free flow of ideas by images

and words, promotes freedom of expression, press freedom andaccess to information through the International Programme for theDevelopment of Communication and the Communication andInformation Programme. It promotes universal access to ICTthrough the Information for All Programme (IFAP), pluralism andcultural diversity in the media and such events as InternationalLiteracy Day.

P OST -R EADING

A Complete the following sentences:

1)

The General Conference sets general policies and defines programme lines for the organization. It is responsible for _________ in the fields of education, science and culture.

2) The Executive Board prepares the sessions of the General

Conference and ensures that its instructions are _________ .

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3)

The Secretariat is responsible for the _________ running ofthe organization.

4) The organisation supports research and _________

partnerships to _________ national education.5) It supports the capacity of countries to _________ quality

education for all.6)

Seville Statement on Violence was adopted by the UNESCOin 1989 to _________ the notion that humans are

biologically predisposed to organised violence.7)

UNESCO _________ the free flow of ideas and promotesuniversal _________ to ICTs through the Information forAll Programme.

B Which of these verbs are synonyms?

provide, encourage, govern, support, take part in, run, participate, set up, foster, strengthen, implement, facilitate,establish, carry out, administrate.

C Match the following parts of sentences:

1).

The UNESCO isconcerned

a)

universal access to ICT.

2).

It issues publicstatements

b)

with numerous diverse projects.

3).

It promotes c)

learning societies witheducational opportunities.

4). It encourages d) to educate the public.

5).

It creates e)

for policy-making,governance, and day-to-day administration.

6).

Its bodies areresponsible

f)

through the five programme areas.

7). It implements itsactivities

g) access to information.

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D Make an outline of the text.

E Speak in short on the items of your outline.

4 THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUSIN THE UNITED NATIONS

P RE - READING


disastercollective security disarmament maternity priority

render assistance undermine elaborate appointnon-proliferation advocacy objective upholdfounding state milestone refugee elect

B Complete the following sentences with the appropriate wordor its derivative using the above list:

1)

Belarus has been an active UN member since its ________.2) Belarus has always _________ the principles and policies of

the UN.3) Its representatives have been _________ members of the

chief committees and councils.4) The Millennium Summit of the UN was a _________ event.5)

Belarus contributes to the processes of nuclear _________and non-_________.

6) It elaborates new approaches to the issues of internationalcollective _________ on a local, regional and global scale.

R EADING

Read the text and list the main activities of the Republic of Belarusin the United Nations.

The Republic of Belarus in the United Nations

Being a founding state of the United Nations, Belarus has been upholding objectives and principles of the organisation,aiming at strengthening UN positions in solving complicated

world problems in most active way.

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Belarus was elected a member of the UN Security Council(1974-1975), of the UN Economic and Social Council and some ofits functional commissions. Many times Belarusian representatives

were appointed as vice-presidents of the General Assembly,worked as chairpersons, vice-chairpersons and speakers for thechief committees of the General Assembly.

The key aspect of the UN and Belarus cooperation is the participation of official missions of Belarus in the work of annualand special sessions of the UN General Assembly and other bodiesof the Organization, the UN specialized institutions and in theactivity of different UN international forums. The MillenniumSummit was an important event of 2000 for the UN system.

Belarusian delegation took part in that milestone event.Belarus is a member of more than 50 UN specialized

institutions and other intergovernmental organisations cooperatingwith the UN on the basis of special agreements. Among them arethe United Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganisation (UNESCO), International Labour Organisation(ILO), World Health Organisation (WHO), UN IndustrialDevelopment Organisation (UNIDO), the International AtomicEnergy Agency (IAEA) and many others.

In 1993 a UN/UNDP representative office was opened inMinsk with the aim of rendering consultative and technicalassistance in the field of market transformations. Division of the UNInternational Children’s Fund with the appropriate financial backingfor implementing the programme of maternity and childhood

protection was opened in Minsk. UN also actively supports thecountry’s efforts in dealing with issues of refugees and migration.

The key areas of Belarus cooperation with UN are as follows:

involving countries in commercial, economic, scientific, technical,environmental, social and humanitarian spheres of the UNactivity; use of resources and experience of intergovernmentalorganisations of the UN system aimed at full integration into thesystem of world economic relations; contribution of the UN toconsolidation of international cooperation in dealing with theimpact of the Chernobyl disaster.

Today the main objectives of Belarus within the UN systemare the following: further support of initiatives featuring Belarusian

priorities in the sphere of domestic and foreign policy and their

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embodiment in the final documents and UN General Assemblyresolutions; advocacy of the proposals on reforming andstrengthening the UN that meet interests of Belarus; further

development of the country’s contribution to the processes ofnuclear disarmament and non-proliferation agreements;elaboration of new approaches to the issues of internationalcollective security on a local, regional and global scale; creation ofnecessary conditions for applying the legally obligatory characterto the existing de-facto nuclear-free Central and Eastern Europeregion; elaboration of an open, nondiscriminatory and transparentsystem of world trade with World Trade Organisation at its core.

Belarus is firmly committed to the key role of the Security

Council in maintaining international peace and security. Actionsthat bypass the authority given to the Security Council by theCharter of the United Nations undermine the legal basis of theestablished system of international relations and threaten the veryfoundations of the international legal order.

Belarus supports the process of reforming Security Council,taking into account the major changes in the international arenaand the significant increase in the number of UN member states.Effective reform of the Security Council can be achieved only by

consensus among all the participants in this process.Belarus pays great importance to the efforts to ensure

transparency, democracy and accountability in the workingmethods and procedures of the Security Council, includingdecision-making process. Belarus fully supports the measuresaimed at improving the flow of information regarding theCouncil’s activities, increasing its cooperation with the GeneralAssembly and further rationalizing the preparation and submission

of its annual reports to the General Assembly.There is a need for increased transparency in the Council’swork, first and foremost by providing adequate information on theoutcome of the closed consultations of the members of the Counciland on the activities of the sanctions committees and by increasingthe number of briefings for states that are not members of theCouncil. Belarus has consistently advocated the Council’sadoption of the practice of holding orientation discussions at thelevel of Ministers for Foreign Affairs on the most important issues

on the international agenda.

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P OST -R EADING

A Give the Russian equivalents for the following word-combinations:

a founding state; to uphold objectives and principles; to beaimed at strengthening positions; to be appointed; to be elected;annual and special sessions; the milestone event; with the aim ofrendering assistance; issues of refugees and migration; theimpact of Chernobyl disaster; to feature Belarusian priorities;nuclear disarmament; non-proliferation agreements; approachesto issues of collective security; non-discriminatory andtransparent policy; to be firmly committed to; to undermine the

legal basis; actions that bypass the authority; to improve theflow of information; submission of annual reports; the outcomeof closed consultations; briefings for states; adoption of the

practice.

B Answer the following questions:

1)

When did the Republic of Belarus become a member of theUN?

2)

What objectives and principles does Belarus uphold?3)

Is Belarus an active member of the UN? Prove it.4) Does Belarus participate in the work of specialized UN

institutions?5) When was a UN representative office opened in Minsk?

What are its functions?6)

What are the key areas of Belarus cooperation with the UN?7) What are the main objectives Belarus upholds within the

UN?

8)

Why does Belarus support the process of reforming theSecurity Council? 9)

Which functions of the Security Council activities should beimproved?

C Discuss the following:

The activities of Belarus within the UN;

The proposals to reform the Security Council.

D

Make a written résumé of the text.

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R EADING AND D ISCUSSION

Read the short report about the opening day of the United NationsGeneral Assembly and then do the tasks that follow.

The United Nations General Assembly

More than 120 world leaders met in New York for theopening of the United Nations General Assembly. UN SecretaryGeneral Ban Ki-Moon was the first of many to address thegrowing financial crisis.

US President Bush said the country was taking decisive actionto address the financial meltdown, and tried to assure world

leaders the crisis would be diffused. But that was later in hisspeech. He used much of his 22 minutes to push for multilateralcooperation on his Administration’s so-called War on Terror.

This was Bush’s last speech at the UN, and he encouraged UNmembers to enforce sanctions on Iran and North Korea, while alsoattacking Iran and Syria as state sponsors of terrorism.

Also speaking was Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, President of Liberia,noting that in spite of the country’s progress towards economicstability, they still have a long way to go towards eradicating

poverty.

P OST -R EADING

A Answer the following questions:

1)

Why did UN Secretary General devote his speech to thefinancial crisis?

2)

What did President Bush focus on in his last speech at the

Assembly?3) What is another vital problem for the states like Liberia to be solved?

B Enlarge on:

The world financial crisis;

Terrorism;

Poverty.

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Read the interview of Russian deputy foreign minister and do thetasks that follow.

Bilateral Meetings at UN Session

MOSCOW, (RIA Novosti) – Russian Foreign Minister SergeiLavrov held some 50 bilateral meetings during the annual UNGeneral Assembly session, a deputy foreign minister said.

In an interview with the Rossiiskaya Gazeta the high-rankingdiplomat said that besides regular sessions, the UN GeneralAssembly is important from the point of view of bilateralmeetings. Russia drew attention to three of its draft resolutions itconsidered to be important with regard to security and the

establishment of stable intergovernmental relations.The first draft resolution, he said, concerns measures of

transparency and trust in activities in outer space. The secondrelates to the spheres of information and telecommunications inthe context of international security, and the third to measuresagainst the escalation of racism, ethnic discrimination, xenophobiaand related intolerance.

P OST -R EADING

Answer the following questions:

1)

Why is the existence of the UN vital for the world?2)

What activities besides regular sessions are held by foreignministers during the work of the General Assembly?

3)

To what draft resolutions did Russian Foreign Minister drawattention of the General Assembly?

Agree or disagree with the following statements and give your pros and cons. Choose phrases of agreement/disagreement from the list to begin:

I must agree totally with . . . . . I’d like to begin by agreeing with . . . . . I support the opinion that . . . . . By the way, I don’t agree with . . . . . I can’t agree with . . . . .

I can’t share the view that . . . . .

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Bilateral meetings are very important due to the existing political and financial crises.

There are more important problems for the world to resolve

than outer space exploration or information andtelecommunication security.

Terrorism is the threat for the whole mankind. Poverty can be done away with without the assistance of the UN.

Read the report of BelTA and then do the tasks that follow.

Belarus Supports New Security Architecture in Europe

Within the framework of the United Nations Organisation

Belarus backed Russia’s proposal to create new securityarchitecture in Europe and expressed readiness to take an active

part in the effort, BelTA learnt from the Permanent RepresentativeOffice of the Republic of Belarus in the UN.

The statement was made by Deputy Foreign Minister ofBelarus. The Belarusian diplomat called upon the USA and Russiato develop a new agreement instead of the Strategic OffensiveReductions Treaty as a tangible practical contribution to thefulfillment of the Nuclear Weapons Non-Proliferation Treaty(NPT). Ratification of existing treaties, first of all, theComprehensive Test Ban Treaty, could be a positive signal insupport of the NPT.

As far as non-proliferation and disarmament are concerned, itwas stressed that every member-state has an inalienable right to

peaceful nuclear activities and that existing mechanisms of theinternational community should contribute to ensuring equal non-discriminating access of all interested countries to the nuclear

energy production.Attention was drawn to Belarus’ resolution on banning thedevelopment and production of new kinds of weapons of massdestruction. The draft resolution has an element of politicalcommitments of the member-states and suggests a mechanism ofresponse via the Conference on Disarmament.

The representative of Belarus also reminded, in line withOttawa Convention obligations Belarus still faces a difficult taskof utilising over three million antipersonnel mines, a task difficult

to accomplish without international aid.

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The Deputy Foreign Minister of Belarus said that Belaruswould continue supporting and promoting measures of trust andtransparency in control over arms and exports through regularly

submitting data to the UN register of conventional arms and participation in UN standardized military expenses accounting.

P OST -R EADING

A Answer the following questions:

1)

What Russian proposal did Belarus back?2)

Why is it necessary to develop a new agreement instead ofthe Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty?

3)

Do the existing mechanisms of the international communitycontribute to ensuring equal non-discriminating access to thenuclear energy production?

4) What is the aim of Belarus’ draft resolution on banning thedevelopment and production of new kinds of weapons ofmass destruction?

5)

Which commitment did Belarus confirm?

B Discuss the following:

The initiatives Belarus put forward; The challenges to International security;

The international situation background which makes statesworry about their insecurity.

UNIT 3

INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS (2)

S TARTING -U P

The European Union (EU) is a political and economiccommunity of twenty-seven member states, located primarily inEurope.

The Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe(OSCE) is an international organisation which serves as a forumfor political dialogue. Its stated aim is to secure stability in theregion, based on democratic practices and improved governance.

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The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) is a militaryalliance of West European and newly joined East Europeancountries and the United States which constitutes a system of

collective defense in response to an attack by any external party.The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) aims

to accelerate economic growth, social progress and culturaldevelopment in the region and to promote regional peace andstability through the rule of law and adherence to the principles ofthe United Nations Charter.

V OCABULARY F OCUS

Early warning means forestalling some event or process.Conflict prevention deals with averting conflict while crisismanagement suggests crisis control. Post-conflictrehabilitation includes measures to remove the consequences ofthe conflict.

Collaboration means cooperation, mutual activities.Contribution is an act of providing material or moral help by

paying to or supporting some fund or organisation.

Hemisphere is half of the globe.

Use the above words or their derivatives to complete the following sentences:

The best means to avoid fires is to establish mechanisms oftheir _________ .

The ________ of many influential international organisations

is needed to eradicate poverty.There some crises that are difficult _________ .There are two _________ : Southern and Northern.It would have been better to _________ the conflict. But it

took place and the only thing to do is to _________ it.Russia launched the first sputnik and so _________ to the

world space exploration.

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READING

1 THE EUROPEAN UNION

P RE - READING

Before reading the text make sure you know the meaning of the following words:

community accession confirm update precedence nominate summit hybridsuccessive carry out appoint affectlegislature generate trace to enactstem from combine initiate apply

represent estimate amend adoptgross domestic product share abolish pillar

R EADING

Read the text and do the tasks that follow.

The European Union

The European Union (EU) is a political and economic

community of twenty-seven member states, located primarily inEurope. It was established in 1993 by the Maastricht Treaty,adding new areas of policy to the existing European Community.With almost 500 million citizens, the EU combined generates anestimated 30% share of the world’s nominal gross domestic

product.The EU has developed a single market through a standardized

system of laws which apply in all member states, guaranteeing the

freedom of movement of people, goods, services and capital. Itmaintains a common trade policy, agricultural and fisheries policies, and a regional development policy. Fifteen member stateshave adopted a common currency, the euro. It has developed a rolein foreign policy, representing its members in the World TradeOrganization, at G8 summits and at the United Nations. Twenty-one EU countries are members of NATO. It has developed a rolein justice and home affairs, including the abolition of passportcontrol between many member states under the Schengen

Agreement.

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EU operation is a hybrid of intergovernmentalism andsupranationalism. In certain areas it depends upon agreement

between the member states. However, it also has supranational

bodies, able to make decisions without the agreement of members.Important institutions and bodies of the EU include the EuropeanCommission, the European Parliament, the Council of theEuropean Union, the European Council, the European Court ofJustice and the European Central Bank. EU citizens elect theParliament every five years.

The EU traces its origins to the European Coal and SteelCommunity formed among six countries in 1951 and the Treaty ofRome in 1957. Since then the EU has grown in size through the

accession of new member states and has increased its powers bythe addition of new policy areas. The Treaty of Lisbon, signed inDecember 2007 and intended to be ratified by the end of 2008, is

planned to amend the existing treaties to update the political andlegal structure of the union.

The EU is based on a series of treaties which have built up thecurrent structure by successive additions and amendments. Thetreaties define the broad policy goals of the organisation andestablish institutions with the necessary legal powers to implementthose goals, including the ability to enact legislation which candirectly affect all member states and their inhabitants (the

principle of ‘direct effect‘). National courts enforce the EU treatiesand the laws enacted under them, as one of the conditions ofmembership. In case of a conflict when a law stemming from EUlegislation conflicts with another national law, the EU law isconsidered to take precedence (the principle of ‘supremacy‘).

The EU is often described as being divided into three areas of

responsibility, called ‘pillars‘. The original European Community policies form the first pillar, while the second and the third consistof Common Foreign and Security Policy.

The European Commission acts as the EU executive arm andis responsible for initiating legislation and the day-to-day runningof the EU. It is intended to act solely in the interest of the EU as awhole. The President of the Commission and all the othercommissioners are nominated by the Council. Appointment of theCommission President, and the Commission has to be confirmed

by Parliament.

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The European Parliament forms one half of the EUlegislature. The 785 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs)are directly elected by EU citizens every five years. Although

MEPs are elected on a national basis, they sit according to political groups rather than their nationality. Each country has aset number of seats. The Parliament and the Council form and passlegislation jointly, using co-decision, in certain areas of policy.The

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