Managing Rural Development in the Mountain State ofSikkim, India

Authors: Tambe, Sandeep, Arrawatia, M. L., and Ganeriwala, Anil K.

Source: Mountain Research and Development, 32(2) : 242-252

Published By: International Mountain Society

URL: https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-12-00005.1

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Managing Rural Development in the MountainState of Sikkim, IndiaExperiences, Innovative Approaches, and Key Issues

Sandeep Tambe1*, M. L. Arrawatia2, and Anil K. Ganeriwala1

*Corresponding author: sandeep_tambe@yahoo.com1Department of Rural Management and Development, Government of Sikkim, Gram Vikas Bhawan, Gangtok-737101, Sikkim, India2 Sikkim Public Service Commission, Gangtok-737101, Sikkim, India

Open access article: please credit the authors and the full source.

Rural development is a vast sector thatencompasses infrastructure creation,sustainable livelihoods, and decentralizedgovernance. Mountain landscapes, with theirinherent constraints of remoteness, sensitiveecosystem, and marginality, pose uniquechallenges to rural development. Weundertook an assessment of the evolution ofdevelopment themes and rural developmentprogress made in the mountain state ofSikkim over the past decade. We found that arapidly growing national economy hasfacilitated a 4-fold rise in investment in keyrural development subsectors in Sikkim overthe past 5 years. This significantenhancement in financial investment, coupledwith good governance and innovative policies,has ensured that human developmentindicators, along with social infrastructurecreation, have shown impressive progress.Setting up village cluster-level support officesto strengthen governance, transformingregular programs to mission mode with greatpolitical determination by adopting asaturation approach, financing improvedearthquake-resistant housing for poorhouseholds, and promoting climate changeadaption measures to enhance rural watersecurity are some of the innovativeapproaches that have the potential to betransferred to other mountain areas. Wepropose a further expansion of capacities andeconomic opportunities in rural areas byprioritizing the self-employment sector, byexpanding the nonfarm rural economy, youthtraining and placement, and continuingcommitment to strengthening democraticinstitutions and procedures to ensure morerapid and inclusive growth of the ruraleconomy.

Keywords: Development planning;

five-year plans; mountain perspective;

poverty alleviation; rural nonfarm

economy; India.

Reviewed by the Editors:March 2012

Accepted: April 2012

Introduction

The Himalayan state of Sikkim is theyoungest state in the Indian union,having joined in 1975. Before that,Sikkim was a kingdom ruled by theNamgyal dynasty for over 4 centuries(Lama 2001). It is located in theeastern Himalaya and ischaracterized by steep mountainsand deep valleys (Tambe and Rawat2009). A prominent aspect of thisregion is its enormous altitudinalrange. From a lowly 300 m, theterrain soars to the lofty heights ofthe mighty Mt Khangchendzonga at8598 m, which results in climaticzones from the tropical to the tundra(Tambe et al 2011). The state isrenowned for its natural wealth,verdant forests, floral wealth, richbiodiversity, vibrant culture,hospitable people, good governance,and calm and peaceful environs.

The rural population of Sikkim islocated in the 4 districts and 165 grampanchayats (villages). The averagenumber of households per grampanchayat is 550, with a population of2750. According to the Census ofIndia (2011), the total population ofthe state is 0.61 million, of which, therural population accounts for 0.46million and the urban populationaccounts for 0.15 million. Thepopulation grew by 12.36% for the

decade 2001–2011, during which therural population declined by 5.20%and the urban population shot up by153.43%. The Census of India (2011)revealed that the rural populationdeclined from 89% to 75% over thepast decade (Table 1). This decline isattributed to the fact that new urbanareas were carved out and existingones were enlarged from semi-urbanrural areas. This transformation ofrural areas to urban ones has beenfacilitated by the creation ofresidential complexes, educationhubs, and industrial estates.

Need and objectives

The developmental planning processin India is based largely on 5-yearplans. The 11th five-year plan (2007–2008 to 2011–2012) is nearingcompletion and planning for the12th five-year plan (2012–2013 to2016–2017) is currently underway.The present study was necessitatedwhile preparing for the 12th five-yearplan, which required a detailedassessment of performance duringthe 11th plan period. Ruraldevelopment is a vast sector thatinvolves multifarious activitiesrelated to rural infrastructure,institutions of governance, andlivelihood opportunities. The keysubsectors are water supply,sanitation, housing, roads, wageemployment, self-employment, anddecentralization.

The objectives of the presentarticle are to assess the evolvingthemes in rural development, analyzesubsectoral progress made especiallyover the past decade, and

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recommend the way forward for moreinclusive and rapid growth of the ruraleconomy. Information pertaining tophysical achievements and financialinvestments made was obtained fromthe Rural Management andDevelopment Department,Government of Sikkim. Variousreliable data sets (Census of India 1991,2001, 2011; Planning Commission ofIndia 2005, 2011; DESME 2006; NSS2010; ASER Rural 2011; FSI 2011;MOSPI 2011; RM&DD 2011; SRS 2011)and assessment reports (IIM Shillong2009; IRMA 2010) were analyzed toquantify progress. Developmentconstraints and priorities wereassessed by organizing 3-day villageconsultations in all the 165 grampanchayats to prepare the 165 VillageDevelopment Action Plans in aparticipatory manner (VDAP 2011).Important issues that merit attentionare discussed here, and developmentpriorities for the future are detailed inthe concluding section. Othermountain states can thus identify ideasand lessons learned that have apotential to be transferred to theirlocal context.

Rural development:

development constraints,

evolving themes, and progress

Developmental constraints and risks

The unique geography, geology, andclimate of Sikkim pose unusual

developmental challenges thatinvolve mountain-specificconstraints that need to be taken intoaccount in planning ruraldevelopment (Jodha et al 2004):

N It is the third highest landscapeglobally, which harbors MtKhangchendzonga, with analtitude of 8598 m.

N It is among the steepest landscapesglobally, as the width of theHimalaya across its 3000 kmlength is narrowest (80 km) inSikkim (Schaller 1977).

N It is remotely located in thenortheastern part of the country,with no air or rail connectivitywithin a radius of 100 km from thestate capital. During the mon-soons, fragile roadways often closedown due to landslides.

N There is an acute scarcity of landfor development, because 82% ofthe geographical area is classified asforestland (FSI 2011), diversion ofwhich for nonforestry purposes isrestricted under federal legislation.

N It is located in seismic zone IV ofthe earthquake hazard map ofIndia, which is a high damage riskzone. It was hit by a devastating 6.9magnitude earthquake on 18 Sep-tember 2011, which resulted inwidespread damage to public andprivate property.

N Fragile terrain, weak geology, andheavy rainfall make the state proneto frequent natural calamities and

prevent intensive exploitation ofnatural resources. This heavy rain-fall is concentrated in 5 months,which leads to a compressedworking season of 5 to 6 months.

Evolving themes in rural development

Sikkim merged with the IndianUnion in 1975, and, during the initialphase of development, the focus wason essential infrastructure, such asroads, electrification, and watersupply (Figure 1). Interventions inagricultural expansion, mineralextraction, and forest clearing alsowere initiated, which affect thelandscape and the environment. Thecomplexity of the mountain terrainwas not adequately considered, anddevelopment not suited to the localenvironment was undertaken (Karan1987). Open grazing in the forestswas not regulated, and this led tofragmentation of wildlife habitats.The development of sustainableincome-generating industries such astourism was not given adequateemphasis and consequently internalrevenue generation suffered. Most ofthe planning was top down, andempowerment of the people throughstrengthening of Panchayati Rajinstitutions was not pursuedvigorously. The lack of strong pro-people and pro-environment policiesresulted in poverty levels of 40%coupled with degradation of theenvironment (Bhasin et al 1984;Karan 1987). However, over the pastdecade, the state has adopted aunique developmental model with apro-environment and pro-peopleperspective. It is the stated policy ofthe government to develop ruralareas on a par with towns and citiesby providing all basic amenities andemployment opportunities, with avision to develop an ecocity state(RM&DD 2011).

Progress in rural development

Thanks to a rapidly growing nationaleconomy, the Indian Governmentnow has substantial financialresources at its disposal. Total

TABLE 1 Trends for indicators of rural development and the rural economy.

Indicator 1991 2001 2011

Rural population as

percentage of total

population, %

89 89 75

Rural literacy, % 54 67 80

Infant mortality rate (per

1000 live births)

60 49 30

Percentage of population

dependent on primary

sector, %

Not available Not available 65

Contribution of primary

sector (% of GSDPa)), %

47 21 17

a)GSDP 5 gross state domestic product.

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investment in the 6 key subsectors ofrural connectivity, rural watersecurity, decentralization, wageemployment, self-employment, andhousing has been rising, and prioritieshave also been evolving. In Sikkim,over the past 5 years (11th planperiod), there has been a 4-fold rise ininvestment in key areas of ruraldevelopment (Table 2). Totalinvestment in these subsectors rosefrom INR 385 crore (US$ 72.73million) during the 10th planningperiod (2002–2003 to 2006–2007) tonearly INR 1546 crore (US$ 291.68million) during the 11th planningperiod (2007–2008 to 2011–2012)

(Table 2). During the 10th planningperiod, decentralization and housingwere emphasized, whereas, in the 11thplanning period rural connectivityand wage employment emerged as thepriority subsectors. The self-employment sector has receivedlimited funding over the last decade(RM&DD 2011). Progress made in thekey subsectors is outlined below.

Rapidly declining rural poverty: ThePlanning Commission of theGovernment of India defined thefamily-based rural poverty line in2009–2010 as living on less than INR3364 per month (US$ 63). By this

measure, in rural areas, 33.8% of therural population in the country and13.1% (0.08 million individuals) of therural population in Sikkim live inpoverty. In Sikkim, the percentage ofpoor people (below poverty line)decreased from 41.4% in 1994 to30.9% in 2005, with a rapid decline to13.1% in 2010 (Planning Commissionof India 2012). This 17.8% rate ofpoverty reduction in Sikkim Statefrom 2005 to 2010 was the second bestin the country. The groups that arevulnerable to poverty are the landlessand near landless (owning less thanhalf an acre of land), whose mainsource of income is wage labor,

FIGURE 1 Evolution of rural development priorities in Sikkim.

TABLE 2 Investment trends in key subsectors of the rural development sector during the 10th and 11th five-year periods in million US$.

Five-year

plan

Sector

Total of

key

subsectors

Roads

and

bridges

Water

supply and

sanitation

Decentral-

ization

Wage

employ-

ment

Self

employ-

ment Housing

10th Plan

(2002–03 to

2006–07)

5.87 15.03 24.77 2.13 0.64 24.29 72.73

11th Plan

(2007–08 to

2011–12)

111.51 35.36 48.48 59.39 3.66 33.28 291.68

Percentage

increase

1800 135 96 2686 470 37 301

Conversion rate: 1 US$ 5 INR 53; Million US$.

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agricultural labor (khetala), and sharecropping (adhiadar, kutiadar) (VDAP2011). Other causes include socialvulnerability, such as families headedby single mothers, families headed bythe elderly, and persons withdisabilities that limit their ability towork (VDAP 2011).

Extensive rural connectivity

program underway: Roads in mountainterrain have a high cost perbeneficiary due to the low number ofthe population served, highconstruction costs due to the difficultterrain, and low volume of use perday. However, they offer significantsocial benefits in terms of access tohealth and education services byproviding market linkages andimproving access to governmentprograms (Lobo and Schelling 2001).Rural connectivity has received toppriority, with funding support underthe Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana(Prime Minister’s Village RoadProgramme) national flagshipprogram (www.pmgsy.nic.in). In thepast 5 years, investment hasincreased from INR 31 (US$ 5.85million) crore to INR 591 (US$ 111.51million) crore (Table 2). With theconstruction of 1000 km of newroads, the number of unconnectedsettlements has now come down from410 to 244 over the past 5 years. Theplan is to connect all settlements with

a population of more than 500 withall-weather paved roads over the nextfew years. Road construction onfragile mountain terrain needs to useenvironmentally friendly roadconstruction techniques, such asminimizing cutting into mountainslopes, doing away with traditionalcut-and-throw methods, reusingexcavated material, andtransportation for suitable disposal(EFRC-SP 2005). This will also ensureenvironmental stability andsafeguard against landslides.

Ensuring rural water security and

universalizing sanitation: Micro watersupply schemes are designed to caterto the geographically dispersedhouseholds in mountain terrain bytapping local springs and streams tosupply drinking water to a cluster of40–50 households. Under theNational Rural Drinking WaterProgram (www.ddws.nic.in/NRDWP),of the total 2498 settlements inSikkim, 1833 are fully covered, 665partially covered, and there are nouncovered settlements. Although thestate receives 2500 mm of annualrainfall, the natural ground waterrecharge is low due to the steepmountain terrain, and most of therainfall is lost as surface runoff.

With the impacts of climatechange and other factors withanthropogenic causes, the problem

of dying water sources is palpableand visible across the Himalaya(Sharma et al 2009; Chaudhary andBawa 2011; Chaudhary et al 2011;Tambe et al 2011). Hence, to ensuresustainability, water storagestructures at the household,community, and village level arebeing created (Figure 2). Thesestructures help to store unusedflowing spring water at nighttimeand improve daytime wateravailability. Also, an integratedprogram with the title Dhara Vikas or‘‘Springshed Development’’ has beenlaunched to recharge the aquifersand thus revive springs, streams, andhill-top lakes by developing theircatchment by using rainwaterharvesting, watershed, andspringshed approaches. Sanitationwas universalized with 100%coverage of household toilets bytransforming an ongoing routinedevelopment program into missionmode by adopting a saturationapproach with time-bound targets.

Furthering decentralization by

intensively managing development:

Decentralization has been firmlyanchored by providing adequatefunds, functions, and functionaries atthe local level. The state has a 2-tiersystem of local governance in ruralareas: the gram panchayat, or electedgovernment at the village level, andthe zilla panchayat, or electedgovernment at the district level. Thevaried development profiles of thevillages, coupled with their diverseneeds and aspirations and remotelocation, make decentralizationimperative for need-baseddevelopment. To meet this objective,Block administrative centers havebeen recently established to provideadministrative, accounting, andtechnical support to a cluster of grampanchayats (Figure 3). These centersfunction as support offices forclusters of 5 to 6 gram panchayats witha population of 15,000. A blockadministrative center is manned byofficers from the administration,accounting, engineering, forestry,

FIGURE 2 Climate change adaptation measures to strengthen the water storage infrastructure athousehold, community, and village levels have helped enhance rural water security and endure frequentwinter droughts. Household level water storage tanks with a capacity of 10,000 L were constructed withfunding support from the MGNREGA wage employment program. (Photo by Sandeep Tambe)

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agriculture, and education sectors tosupport the cluster of gram panchayats.Institutions that facilitatedecentralization, ie the DistrictPlanning Committee, the StateElection Commission, and the StateFinance Commission, have beenmade fully functional. In addition,decentralized planning has beenformalized with the VillageDevelopment Action Plan (VDAP)exercise, in which perspectivemultisectoral plans are underpreparation at the gram panchayatlevel (VDAP 2011).

Earthquake resistant rural housing: Thetraditional house design in ruralareas is a 2-story timber-bamboo(ekra) frame structure with acorrugated galvanized iron sheet roofon load-bearing stone masonry wallsof mud mortar. In the past, under therural housing assistance program,nominal subsidies and corrugatedgalvanized iron sheets were providedextensively. During the devastatingearthquake of 6.9 magnitude on 18September 2011, although half of therural houses in the state had variousdegrees of damage, in these houses,few casualties were registered, whichhighlights their inherent earthquake-safe character. Although theupper story, which consists of a

timber–bamboo (ekra) framestructure with a light iron-sheet roof,was found to be mostly intact, theground story, random stone masonrywalls of mud mortar, fared poorly.

The rural housing program hasnow been improved and integratedunder the Chief Minister’s RuralHousing Mission with the aim ofattaining a ‘‘katcha (temporary) housefree status’’ by 2013. This program willalso ensure that the poor in mountainareas have access to improved andsafe housing. They will also be able touse their life savings for educatingtheir children, for health care, and forstrengthening their livelihood(Figure 4). The innovative elements ofthis program are

N Single-story earthquake-resistantreinforced concrete frame struc-tures with columns and tie beamswith a 605 square-foot plinth areaand construction in owner-drivenmode.

N A saturation approach obtainedby converting existing 6000 katchahouses to pucca (temporary topermanent).

N A generous financial grant of INR4 lakh (US$ 7550) per household tobe released in 4 installments.

N Rigorous beneficiary selection byfollowing a bottom-up approach,

with checks and supervision atvarious levels.

Transforming a wage employment

program into a movement: TheMahatma Gandhi National RuralEmployment Guarantee Act(MGNREGA), a National FlagshipProgram (www.nrega.nic.in), is aguaranteed wage employmentprogram. In 2011 in Sikkim, itprovided 85 days of wage employment(compared with the national averageof 47) for 60% of the ruralhouseholds. This program was able tostrengthen the livelihood sector byinvesting in durable livelihood assetssuch as minor irrigation channels,flood control and anti-erosion works,water source development,horticulture, fodder and forestryplantations, and terracing of barrenland. The scheme has stringenttransparency safeguards, withuniversal coverage by independentand quality social audits.

Although the guidelines permit50% of the implementation to betaken up by line departments, thestate government in Sikkimdevolved 100% of theimplementation to gram panchayats.This helped in making theadministration of this programpeople centered and also ensuredwide outreach. Hence, the schemetook the form of a community-ledsocial movement with broadparticipation. Participation bywomen who may not want toventure far from their homes wasencouraged by starting microworksnearby. The findings of independentimpact assessment studies indicatethat this additional income earnedby mothers is being used to purchasebetter food, clothes, and householditems, for health care, and forquality education of their children(IIM Shillong 2009; IRMA 2010).

Major achievements in

rural development

Sikkim is rapidly catching up withthe best-performing states and has

FIGURE 3 Newly created Block Administrative Centres support a cluster of 5 to 6 gram panchayats and havehelped strengthen governance and last mile program delivery. (Photo by Sandeep Tambe)

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already earned a number ofprestigious awards:

N Sanitation: Sikkim is the first andonly Nirmal Rajya in the country tohave achieved 100% coverage oftoilets in 2008 under the TotalSanitation Campaign, a nationalprogram. Post-Nirmal Rajya, theemphasis is on sustainability andqualitative improvement, with aspecial focus on school sanitationand solid liquid waste management.

N Employment: In 2011, during theMGNREGA Sammelan organized

by the Ministry of Rural Develop-ment, Government of India, thestate received 3 national awards inthe category of best performinggram panchayat, with districtMGNREGA teams and nongov-ernmental organizations havingfound representation among thetop 10 districts and top 11 grampanchayats selected from all overthe country.

N Decentralization: In 2010–2011,Sikkim was ranked third in thecountry by the Ministry of Pan-chayati Raj, Government of India,

in the performance and account-ability of Panchayati Raj Institu-tions. Moreover, the Mellidara grampanchayat received the RashtriyaGaurav Gram Panchayat Award.

N Reviving Himalayan springs: In-novative pilot projects to revivedying Himalayan springs haveshown encouraging results (Tambeet al 2012). Resource mapping ofthe village springs has also beenundertaken and the Village SpringAtlas www.sikkimsprings.org forthe conservation of Himalayansprings and adaptation to climatechange was selected for the ‘‘Spe-cial Jury Mention’’ award for itscommendable work and scaling upin the category ‘‘Environment andTourism’’ under eNorth EastAwards 2011 (www.enortheast.in).

Development report card

Despite the mountain-specificconstraints and risks, the statedevelopment indicators comparefavorably with national achievements(Table 3). As a result of sustainedefforts over the past decade, the statehas been able to attain the followingdevelopment milestones:

N Largely overcome abject povertyand hunger by universalizing ac-cess to basic amenities: food,clothing, and shelter. The statepoverty rate declined to 13.1% in2010 (national average, 33.8%),whereas the per capita incomerose to nearly INR 81,159 (US$1531), which is 48% higher thanIndia’s per capita income of INR54,835 (US$ 1035; MOSPI 2011;Planning Commission of India2012).

N Access to primary education andprimary health care has beenuniversalized. Consequently, only1.9% of children (age 6 to 14 years)are out of school, and literacylevels have risen to 82% (ASERRural 2011; Census of India 2011).The fertility rate of 2.02 has nowdropped to below the replacementfertility rate of 2.1, whereas theinfant mortality rate of 30 is much

FIGURE 4 Conversion of existing temporary houses to permanent housing by providing a generous housinggrant of INR 4 lakh (US$ 7550) per household. (A) old katcha (temporary) house; (B) new pucca (permanent)house. This enables poor rural families to invest their life savings in alternative opportunities related to childeducation, health care, and livelihoods. (Photos by Sandeep Tambe)

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better the national rate of 47.Institutional deliveries have alsorisen to nearly 82% (Census ofIndia 2011; SRS 2011).

N Creation of extensive rural infra-structure in the form of roads,bridges, houses, electrification,water supply, sanitation, schools,hospitals, telecommunication, etc.

N Industrialization received a fillipwith the setting up of hydel power

projects, pharmaceutical units,and promotion of ecotourism.

N Amidst this rapid development,forest and tree cover increasedfrom 44.09% in 1997 to 47.59% in2011, which is nearly double thenational forest cover of 23.81%(FSI 2011). This was despite vastalpine and snow-bound areasabove the tree line, which do notsupport tree growth. Moreover, the

protected area coverage undersanctuary and national parks hasrisen to 31%, which is highest inthe country and far above thenational coverage of 5% (FSI 2011).

Key issues in rural development

The following issues in the ruraldevelopment sector require urgentattention.

TABLE 3 Development progress in Sikkim according to selected indicators, compared with national achievements.

Sector Indicator

Achievement during 11th plan (2007–2012)

Data sourceSikkim National

Education Literacy 82% 74% Census of India2011

Children (age 6–14 y)out of school

1.9% 3.5% ASER Rural 2011

Health Crude birth rate (per1000 people)

18.1 20.97 SRS 2011

Infant mortality rate(per 1000 live births)

30 47 SRS 2011

Total fertility rate 2.02 2.6 Census of India2011

Institutional delivery 81.4% 73% Census of India2011

Environment Forest cover 47.59% 23.81% FSI 2011

Protected areacoverage

31% 5% FSI 2011

Houses with toilets 100% 62% PlanningCommission of India2011

Poverty Poverty rate 13.1% 33.8% PlanningCommission of India2012

Rural housing Katcha (temporary)houses

7.7% 12.6% NSS 2010

Rural connectivity Unconnectedsettlements withpopulation . 500

244 Not available Pradhan Mantri GramSadak Yojana(PMGSY) Cell,Government of Sikkim

Economy Per capita income(US$)

1531 1035 MOSPI 2011

Growth rate 8.51% 8.2% PlanningCommission of India2011

Gender Child sex ratio 944 914 Census of India2011

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Agriculture-led poverty reduction

Most poor households are farmers oflimited land holdings, with the percapita land holding declining from0.3 ha in 1977 to 0.1 ha in 2010(Table 1). These constraints of land,water, technology, and market linkageshave resulted in a decline in thecontribution of the agriculture sector(17%) to the gross state domestic

product (GSDP), which is an area ofconcern, because 65% of the state’spopulation is still dependent onagriculture and related activities(Table 1). There are several reasons forthis, such as lack of access to irrigation,decline in production and productivityof cash crops (ginger, orange, and largecardamom), fragmentation oflandholdings, the declining nutrient

status of soils, increasing impacts ofclimate change, weak marketinglinkages, rising input costs, andshortage of cheap labor (RM&DD 2011;Tambe et al 2011; VDAP 2011).

Potential of rural nonfarm economy

With enabling infrastructure such asbetter roads, telecommunicationfacilities, access to formal banking

FIGURE 5 Map showing the diversity of rural development status of the gram panchayats of Sikkim. (Source of data: DESME 2006; map by Sandeep Tambe)

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services, and more urbanized centers,this sector has enormous potential tofuel the rural economy. In the future,rural incomes will increasingly becomemultioccupational andmultilocational. Remittances from theyoung work force geographicallylocated outside the village will also playa significant part (Ashley and Maxell2001; Ellis and Biggs 2001). Transportand construction are 2 sectors, alongwith MGNREGA, that contributesignificantly to off-farm rural incomes.Nearly 60% of the rural householdsare participating in the MGNREGAprogram in rural areas, earningadditional annual off-season incomesof nearly INR 10,000 (US% 189) perhousehold.

Poverty pathways in a rural economy

Poverty is inherently dynamic and isthe net result of escapes from anddescents of households into poverty(Krishna 2006). Poverty eradicationrequires actively accelerating escapesand blocking descents. Analyzing thereasons for escape and descent help inpolicy planning, because the escapepathways can then be broadened andthe pathways for descent narrowed(Krishna 2006). In Sikkim, bettereducation has helped the youngworkforce to secure government jobs.Also, new farming practices such asfloriculture in green houses, vegetablefarming, dairy farming, tomatofarming, backyard poultry, andemployent opportunties in the

transportation and constructionsectors have helped householdsescape from poverty. Well-off andmiddle class households fell intopoverty largely as a result of thebreadwinner being afflicted by poorhealth (tuberculosis, cancer, heartailment, diabetes, high bloodpressure, etc) and alcoholism, whichresulted in high health care costsduring treatment in private clinics,usually outside the state (VDAP 2011).

Inherent diversity in the development

status of rural areas

Rural areas are highly heterogeneous,whether in terms of physical features,climate, dependence on agriculturaleconomy, distance from urban areas, orthe level of human developmentindicators such as literacy, health, etc.However, it is possible in particular todistinguish peri-urban, middle, andremote areas (Ashley and Maxell 2001).The various parameters used and theirindicators, along with sources of infor-mation, are shown in Table 4. Spatiallydisaggretated maps that highlight thisdiversity are provided in Figure 5.

Comparison betweendevelopment progress in the remotevillage of Karzi-Mangnam in WestSikkim with Rawatey-Rumtek at theoutskirts of the state capital of Gantokreveals this stricking contrast. Karzi-Mangnam was found to have a largeaverage family size (7), rainfedfarming was the sole source oflivelihood, the educational level was

low (1% have gone beyond the tenthclass), the poverty rate was high (82%),and road connectivity was poor.Comparatively, Rawatey-Rumtek, asemiurban village, was found to have asmaller average family size (5),diversified livelihood opportunities,good irrigation facilities, and alsogood connectivity to the Gangtokurban center. The populationdependent on farming (61%) wasmuch lower here, the poverty rate alsowas much lower (8%), and the level ofeducation (25% beyond the tenthclass) was much higher (Census ofIndia 2001; DESME 2006).

Applicability of centralized criteria

Concerns have been raised about the‘‘invisibility’’ of mountain states innational policy, possibly because theyare considered too sparsely populatedto be of political importance (Browneet al 2004). Most of the nationalprograms have uniform centralizedguidelines that sometimes do not fitperfectly in the local context of Sikkim.Concentration of scheduled caste andscheduled tribal populations iscommonly used as a surrogate indicatorto measure economicunderdevelopment in India (PlanningCommission of India 2005). Theconcentration of scheduled castes andtribes is highest at 85% for the Northdistrict, whereas it is 51% for Westdistrict, 41% for the East district, and37% for the South district (DESME2006). Consequently, the North district

TABLE 4 Parameters used, their proxy indicators, and sources.

Parameter Proxy indicatorsa) Data source

Mean annual rainfall Mean annual rainfall NBSSLUP 2000

Elevation Elevation in meters by using SRTM DEM Jarvis et al 2006

Slope Slope in degrees by using SRTM DEM Jarvis et al 2006

Livelihood progression % Farming population Census of India 2001

Livelihood progression % of households employed in NFRE DESME 2006

Human health Family size DESME 2006

Economic capacity % of below poverty line households DESME 2006

Human capacity % of population beyond 10th class DESME 2006

Physical connectivity Rural connectivity Census of India 2001

a)SRTM DEM 5 Shutter Radar Topography Mission - Digital Elevation Model; NFRE 5 Non Farm Rural Economy.

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is often given higher priority indevelopmental planning comparedwith the other districts. In 2006, theNorth district was chosen as the firstphase district to launch theMGNREGA (http://nrega.nic.in/). In2007, the North district wasidentified as the mostunderdeveloped district of the state,in which the national programBackward Regions Grant Fund(http://brgf.gov.in/) was to beimplemented. This program isspecially designed to redress regionalimbalances in development.According to DESME (2006), in termsof poverty levels, the South and Westdistricts form one cluster, with 24%and 26% of the households beingbelow the poverty line. The Northand East districts form the othercluster, with a 17% and 16% povertylevel, respectively. The poverty rateof the 3 main caste groups in the statedid not vary greatly; it was 23.98% forother backward castes (OBC), 23.58%for scheduled castes (SC), and 20.81%for scheduled tribes (ST) (DESME2006). Hence, although this proxyindicator may generally hold true forother states, in Sikkim this proxyindicator was not found to beappropriate (Tambe et al 2010).

Accurate identification of

poor households

Accurate identification of poorhouseholds, and providing thesehouseholds with identity cards,enables them to access varioustargeted entitlements in nationalprograms, such as housing (http://iay.nic.in/), health insurance (http://rsby.gov.in/), food transfer (http://fcamin.nic.in/dfpd_html/aay.htm), self-employment (http://sgsy.gov.in/), etc.The national Socio-Economic andCaste Census 2011 (http://rural.nic.in/sites/BPL-census-2011.asp) iscurrently underway, with theobjective of identifying these poorhouseholds objectively. Aftersuccessful completion of thisexercise, the targeting of poorhouseholds in various developmental

programs in the state will bestrengthened.

Democratic division of schemes

Often schemes are divided equallyamong all the elected representativesgeographically, which results in anumber of micro-developmentalschemes, thereby limiting theopportunity to initiate larger need-based interventions with more visibleoutcomes.

Impact assessment and sustainability

Rapid economic developmentsometimes results in uniquesocioeconomic and environmentalproblems. There is a need to undertakeimpact assessment studies, especially inrural areas to ascertain such impacts.Also, this fast-track development hasbeen largely funded by federalschemes. Hence, sustainability of thisdevelopment model is dependent onsustained financial support from thefederal government. Although anumber of capacity building programsare underway, to strengthen the self-sustainability of this growth, greaterand more focused emphasis is neededon entrepreneurship, skilldevelopment and capacity building forself-sustaining income generationactivities.

Conclusions

Rural development has been centralto developmental thinking in thestate. Over the past decade, the statehas made significant achievements inattaining human development andcreating extensive ruralinfrastructure. Now, as detailedabove, there is a need to prioritizerural livelihoods and the ruraleconomy to accelerate economicdevelopment in rural areas(Figure 1). We propose furtherexpansion of capacities andeconomic opportunities in ruralareas by expanding the nonfarmrural economy, skill developmentand placement for youth,strengthening self-employment, andcontinued commitment to fostering

democracy for more rapid and moreinclusive growth of the ruraleconomy.

Over the past decade, despiteformidable mountain-specificconstraints, the state has been able totransform its rural areas. Sizeableenhancement in financialinvestment, good governance, andinnovative policies have resulted inthis significant improvement inhuman development and near-universal access to basic amenities,such as roads, bridges, electricity,toilets, housing, and sanitation. Thesegood governance and innovativeapproaches have the potential to betransferred to other mountain areaswith local customization, which canoccur, first, by furtheringdecentralization by intensivelymanaging development madepossible by establishing grampanchayat cluster-level support officesto strengthen governance and lastmile delivery. Second, the saturationapproach adopted to achieveuniversal coverage of sanitation andrecently permanent housing hashelped to transform ongoing routinedevelopment programs into missionmode, with time-bound targets andhas garnered political will as well.Third, financing earthquake-resistant, improved houses for thepoor households can be provided.Fourth, the climate changeadaptation measures initiated torevive springs, streams, and lakes,and strengthen the water storageinfrastructure at household,community, and village level havehelped enhance rural water security.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We gratefully acknowledge the support receivedfrom the Rural Management and DevelopmentDepartment, Government of Sikkim. Mr AmitangshuAcharya and the editors helped to improve thequality of the manuscript significantly.

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