Del  Neoclásico  al  Realismo.  Goya__________________________________________                 ©  Reme  Serrat  /  Ildefonso  Suárez  

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 ARTE  CONTEMPORÁNEO  I:  DEL  NEOCLÁSICO  AL  REALISMO.  GOYA  

 I.-­‐  ORIENTACIÓN:  LA  ESTÉTICA  EN  LA  CRISIS  DEL  ANTIGUO  RÉGIMEN:  RAZÓN,  ESCEPTICISMO  Y  SENTIMIENTO.  II.-­‐  CARACTERÍSTICAS  GENERALES  DE  LA  ARQUITECTURA  NEOCLÁSICA:  JUAN  DE  VILLANUEVA.  III.-­‐  LA  ESCULTURA.  Antonio  Cánova  IV.-­‐  GOYA,  CLAVE  DE  LA  PINTURA  ACTUAL.  

B.-­‐  ETAPAS  ARTÍSTICAS.  B1.-­‐  Años  de  aprendizaje  y  formación.  B2.-­‐  Pintor  Neoclásico  y  éxito  artístico.  B3.-­‐  Crisis  personal  y  cambio  social.    B4.-­‐  La  Guerra  de  la  Independencia  y  el  desencanto.  De  los  disparates  a  las  pinturas  negras.  B5.-­‐La  estancia  en  Burdeos  y  sus  últimas  pinturas.

C.-­‐  VALORACIÓN  DE  SU  OBRA.  V.-­‐LA  PINTURA  FRANCESA  DEL  NEOCLASICISMO,  ROMANTICISMO  Y  REALISMO:  DAVID,  DELACROIX  Y  COURBET.  

A.-­‐  EL  ARTE  EN  TORNO  A  LA  REVOLUCIÓN  FRANCESA:  DAVID.  B.-­‐  LA  PINTURA  ROMÁNTICA:  DELACROIX.  C.-­‐  LA  PINTURA  REALISTA:  COURBET.  

   I.-­‐  CONTEXTO  HISTÓRICO-­‐CULTURAL:  RAZÓN,  ESCEPTICISMO  Y  SENTIMIENTO.    • El  neoclásico  es  una  tendencia  artística  que  comenzará  a  mediados  del   s.  XVIII   como  reacción  al  aristocrático  

"rococó".  Es  el  producto  del  racionalismo,  del  enciclopedismo,  de  la  ilustración  y  del  nuevo  clasicismo  que  es-­‐tas  tendencias  imponen.  Hay  que  tener  en  cuenta  que  en  1719  se  descubría  Herculano  y  en  1748,  las  ruinas  de  Pompeya,  sepultadas  por  las  cenizas  del  Vesubio.  Diversas  publicaciones  habían  dado  a  conocer  el  resultado  de  las  excavaciones.  

• Entre  finales  del  s.  XVIII  y  principios  del  XIX  se  van  a  producir  cambios  políticos  y  económicos  fundamentales.  Desaparecerán  el  absolutismo  monárquico  sustituido  por  los  nuevos  sistemas  liberales  y  tras  varias  oleadas  de  revoluciones   (entre  ellas,   la   revolución   francesa).  El   Neoclasicismo   se   convertirá   en   el   arte   de   la   Revolución  Burguesa.

 • La  burguesía  asume  el  papel  de  la  aristocracia  destronada.  Será  ella  quien  pague  el  nuevo  arte  para  que  decore  

los  salones  de  su  casa  (muchas  obras  se  “empequeñecen”)  o  las  grandes  estancias  públicas  de  los  nuevos  Ayun-­‐tamientos,  Cortes,  etc  (ej:  cuadros  “históricos”  casi  encargados  por  metros).    

 • Las  Academias,  creadas  en  este  siglo  subrayan  el  valor  estético  de   lo  clásico  y  “las  normas  artísticas”   frente  al  

“mal  gusto”  barroco  y  rococó.    • Este  nuevo  estilo,   se  prolongará  hasta  el  Imperio  Napoleónico.  Pero  después,  la  propia  Revolución  se  verá  en-­‐

vuelta  en  contradicciones.  Frente  al  racionalismo  empezarán  a  surgir  tendencias  idealistas  que  se  caracteriza-­‐rán  por  el  libre  desenvolvimiento  de  la  personalidad  y  proponen  una  visión  espiritualista  y  sentimental  de  la  Na-­‐turaleza,  donde  el  dinero  y  el   cientifismo  no  existan,  y  que  parten  de  algunos   filósofos  como  Rousseau.     Este  nuevo  estilo  apuntaba  a  tendencias  diferentes,  mundo  de  los  sentimientos,  nostalgia  de  la  antigüedad  medieval,  libertad  absoluta  del  artista,  predominio  del  color  sobre  el  dibujo...Todo  ello  desembocará  en  el  ROMANTICISMO  a  partir  de  1815  y  hasta  1860  aproximadamente.  

 • Goya  podemos  considerarlo  producto  de  toda  esta  época,  ya  que  atraviesa  por  un  estilo  Rococó  desenfadado  en  

sus  primeros  tapices,  para  luego  pasar  a  un  estilo  crítico,  individual,  liberado  de  toda  norma;  de  ahí  que  se  pueda  hablar  de  Goya  como  producto  de  una  nueva  sensibilidad  tras  la  guerra  y  el  fracaso  revolucionario  que  supuso  la  restauración  de  Fernando  VII.  

 • Romanticismo   y   Neoclasicismo   convivirán  durante  este  período  hasta  1830,  cuando  el  Romanticismo  se  con-­‐

vierte   en   el   estilo   artísticamente   progresista   y   el   clasicismo   en   el   conservador.   Habrá   entonces   un   enfrenta-­‐miento  entre  el  arte  Neoclásico  y  propagandístico  de  la  Revolución,  representado  por  David  e   Ingres,  y   la  ten-­‐

Del  Neoclásico  al  Realismo.  Goya__________________________________________                 ©  Reme  Serrat  /  Ildefonso  Suárez  

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La Puerta de Alcalá. Madrid

dencia  Romántica   y  menos   académica   representada  por  Delacroix,   tanto  de   cara   al   público   como  a   la   crítica,  creando   la  conocida  polémica   razón-­‐sentimiento.  Esta  polémica  acabará  tras  1830   imponiendo  tendencias  ro-­‐mánticas  que  con  el  tiempo  darán  paso  al  REALISMO,  producto  ya  de  la  Revolución  Industrial  y  de  la  crítica  social  a  la  que  dio  lugar.  Goya  será  producto  de  otra  problemática  nacional,  de  una  sensibilidad  nueva,  que  abrirá  paso  y  será  precursor  de  nuevas  tendencias  posteriores  en  el  arte  del  siglo  XIX  y  XX.    

 • El  autor  acabará  “independizándose”  del  comprador.  Aunque  intente  “vivir”  del  arte,  creará  para  sí  obteniendo  o  no  éxito.  

Al  mismo  tiempo  el  arte  derivará  en  negocio  capitalista.  Surgen  galerías  particulares  y  “marchantes”  de  arte.  Pero  aún  no  hemos  llegado  a  la  completa  “mercantilización”  del  arte  que  se  producirá  ya  en  el  siglo  XX.  

 II.-­‐  CARACTERÍSTICAS  GENERALES  DE  LA  ARQUITECTURA  NEOCLÁSICA:  JUAN  DE  VILLANUEVA.    El  Neoclásico  se  basa  en  el  arte  Romano,  pero  sobre  todo  en  el  Griego.  Veamos  cuáles  serán  sus  principales  caracte-­‐rísticas:  

• Triunfó  el  estilo  dórico  griego,  con  fuste  acanalado.  • El   templo   helénico  es   imitado  no   solo  en   iglesias,   sino  en  

toda  clase  de  monumentos  públicos.  • La  base  de   la  arquitectura  neoclásica  es  la  columna.  Como  

en  los  buenos  tiempos  de  Grecia,  los  frontones  se  rellenan  con  esculturas.  

• La  ciencia  del  espacio  sigue  siendo  romana,  por  ello  no  se  prescindió  de  las  bóvedas  y  cúpulas  romanas.  

• El   Neoclásico   tuvo  una  escasa   capacidad   creadora,  predo-­‐minó  pues  la  imitación  por  encima  de  la  invención,  estando  plenamente  convencidos  los  arquitectos  de  la  superioridad  del  arte  helénico.  El  renacimiento  y  el  barroco  fueron,  al  contrario,  infinitamente  más  fecundos  e  innovado-­‐res.    

• El  Neoclásico  tiene  su  centro  en  Francia,  país  que  sucede  a  Italia  en  el  papel  de  cuna  de  los  movimientos  ar-­‐tísticos.  Al  Rococó  de  Luis  XV  sucede  en  Francia  el  estilo  Luis  XVI,  cuya  decoración  está  compuesta  de  temas  clásicos  y  renacentistas  tratados  con  gran  sobriedad.  Predominan  entre  estos  motivos  los  meandros  y  laure-­‐les,  formando  enmarcaciones  redondas  y  cuadradas,  y  el  orden  gigante.  Bajo  la  égida  de  Napoleón,  el  clasi-­‐cismo  toma  un  sesgo  aún  más  clasicista.  Se  constituye  entonces  el  Estilo   Imperio,  que  extrema  la  finura  de  los   motivos   decorativos,   entre   los   que   figuran   los   egipcios   (lotos,   esfinges,   pirámides...),   además   de   los  pompeyanos  y  los  propios  de  su  imperio  (el  águila).  

• Al  producirse  la  Restauración  bajo  Luis  XVIII,  no  se  interrumpe  el  Estilo  Imperio,  pero  poco  a  poco  va  ganando  puestos  el  arte  gótico,  preferido  por  los  románticos.  

 • En  cuanto  al  Neoclásico  en  España,  pocos  países  opusieron  tanta  resistencia  a  este  estilo,  ya  que  aquí  el  Ba-­‐

rroco  había  encontrado  un  clima  muy  favorable.  Pero  ya  la  entrada  de  artistas  extranjeros,  a  comienzos  del  reinado  de  Felipe  V,  para  trabajar  en  obras  cortesanas,  había  iniciado  una  depuración  de  las  formas  que  al-­‐canza  su  punto  culminante  en  la  segunda  mitad  del  siglo  XVIII.  Circunstancia  decisiva  fue  la  creación  de   las  Academias,  a  imitación  de  las  francesas.    

 • En   la  época  de  Carlos  III,  el  Rey  Arquitecto,  se  emprende  una  labor  extraordinaria  de  mejora  urbana.  Se  re-­‐

tiran  los  pisos  volados  de  las  viviendas  medievales,  imponiéndose  el  corte  a  plomo,  con  lo  cual  las  calles  re-­‐ciben  mejor  aireación  e  iluminación.  Se  crea  el  alumbrado  público  (con  aceite)  y  se  constituye  el  cuerpo  de  serenos.  Hay  mejoras  así  mismo,  en  la  pavimentación,  abastecimiento  y  saneamiento.  Pero,  al  propio  tiem-­‐po,  se  atiende  al  ornato  público.  Se  abren  calles  amplias,  se  colocan  arcos  de  triunfo,  puertas  conmemorati-­‐vas,  fuentes  con  estatuas  y  surtidores  de  agua,  se  concede  gran  importancia  al  árbol,  que  hace  irrupción  en  la  calle,  y  aparece  el  jardín.  La  mejor  transformación  se  aprecia  en  Madrid.  

 

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Del  Neoclásico  al  Realismo.  Goya__________________________________________                 ©  Reme  Serrat  /  Ildefonso  Suárez  

  5

IV.-­‐  GOYA,  CLAVE  DE  LA  PINTURA  ACTUAL.    A.-­‐  CARACTERÍSTICAS  GENERALES.    

• Su  obra  es  una  constante  y  positiva  evolución  paralela  a  la  sufrida  por  la  sociedad  española.  .  Cultivó  todos  los  géneros  pictóricos:  mural  al  fresco,  tapices,   lienzos,  grabados  y   litografías,  dibujos  al  carboncillo,  minia-­‐tura  sobre  marfil.  Pasó  por   todos   los   temas:   religiosos,   retratos,  costumbrismo,  cronista  de  guerra,  etc.   La  crisis  radical  de  la  sociedad  de  su  tiempo  (luchas  entre  el  absolutismo  y  el  liberalismo,  Rev.  Francesa,  Guerra  Independencia,  Fernando  VII..),  se  ve  reflejada  en  su  crisis  personal  a  partir  de  su  sordera  en  1793.  

 • Podemos  dividir  su  obra  en  dos  grandes  etapas:  Pertenece  al  S.XVIII,  racionalista  e  ilustrado,  hasta  1808,  

alegre  y  triunfante,  con  una  fuerte  influencia  de  Velázquez  (perspectiva  aérea,  composición,  reproducción  vida  cotidiana,  paleta  clara  y  brillante)     y  Rembrandt  (preocupación  por  la  luz,  penetración  psicológica  de  los  personajes,  expresividad,  sobriedad  del  color..)  Y  una  segunda  en  la  que  pasa  de  un  liberal  romántico  a  un  descreído  social  y  un  enfermo  cínico  con  su  tiempo.  Pasará  de  la  sensualidad  y  belleza  de  la  Maja  Desnu-­‐da  al  horror  de  las  pinturas  negras,  Goya  representa  el  puente  entre  los  dos  estilos  tan  contrapuestos.  Su  pintura  tiene  influencias  del  Greco  (retorcimiento  figuras,  temas  relacionados  con  la  muerte,  uso  de  blancos  y  negros..)  y  del  Bosco  (surealismo,  fantasías..).    

 • La  pintura  de  Goya  está  en  permanente  autorrevisión.  Es  un  pintor  de  contrastes.  Es  el  autor  de  las  fiestas  

casi  de  estilo  rococó,  pero  también  de  los  fusilamientos;  de  los  niños  que  juegan  despreocupados  y  de  las  brujas  horribles  que  se  reúnen  en  aquelarre.  ¿Es  un  pintor  realista,  o  un  artista  fantástico  que  huye  de  una  realidad  que  no  le  satisface  y  crea  su  propio  mundo  visionario?.  Las  dos  facetas  pueden  aplicársele,  aunque  probablemente,  domine  en  el  fondo  siempre  el  realismo,  y  la  fantasía  sea  una  especie  de  realismo  al  revés,  un  grito  con  el  que  pretende  cambiar  la  realidad  que  tan  bien  distingue.  

 B.-­‐  ETAPAS  ARTÍSTICAS.    

B1.-­‐  Años  de  aprendizaje  y  formación.  (1756-­‐1775)    Goya   nació  en  1746  en  el  pueblo  aragonés  de  Fuendetodos.  Sus  primeros  años  transcurrieron  en  Zaragoza,  en  el  taller  del  pintor  José  Lujan.  Después  pasó  a  Parma  donde  pintó  Aníbal  pasando  los  Alpes,  El  Sacrificio  de  Vesta  y  Visitación.  A  su  regreso  a  Zaragoza  se  le  encargó  el  fresco  de  la  bóveda  del  coreto  del  Pilar,  La  gloria  del  nombre  de  Dios,  todavía  con  rasgos  del  Barroco.  En  1774  se  traslada  a  Madrid,  donde  la  sociedad  corte-­‐sana  ofrecía  incentivos  para  el  pintor.  Allí  contrae  matrimonio  con  Josefa  Bayeu,  hermana  de  un  pintor  im-­‐portante  de  la  capital.      B2.-­‐  Pintor  Neoclásico  y  éxito  artístico.    A  través  de  su  cuñado  Bayeu,  recibió  el  encargo  de  pintar  cartones  para  la  Real  Manufactura  de  Tapices,  in-­‐dustria  fomentada  por  el  reformismo  borbónico.  Los  cartones  fueron  los  que  formaron  a  Goya  como  pintor  ya  que  lo  introdujeron  en  el  camino  de  la  libertad  formal  que  en  la  pintura  religiosa  hubiera  sido  imposible  recorrer.  Estos   tapices   representan  el  gusto  aristocrático  del  momento,   casi   rococó.  Se   tiende  a   los   temas  populares,   y   los   nobles   ,   a   los   que   les   gusta   vivir   y   retratarse   como  plebeyos,   aparecen   representados   en  verbenas,  romerías  y  todo  tipo  de  fiestas  populares,  toros  y  teatros.  En   estos   tapices   recoge   la   línea  que  había   iniciado   la  pintura   ligada  a   la  Academia,  y  abandona  definitiva-­‐mente  la  retórica  barroca.  En  1785  es  nombrado  subdirector  de  la  Academia  de  San  Fernando,  y  su  pintura  sigue  los  gustos  neoclásicos,   lo  que  se  aprecia  en  la  forma  de  componer  los  cuadros  y  en  el  uso  de  colores  vivos.  Los  temas  son  costumbristas,  pero  ya  empieza  a  parecer  la  preocupación  social,  y  la  crítica  sarcástica  a  la  sociedad  del  momento.  Destacan  El  albañil  herido,  La  boda,  El  ciego  de  la  guitarra..  .También  realiza  mu-­‐chos  más  temas,   la  mayoría  para  cartones  de  tapices,  como  El   cacharrero,   Las   cuatro  estaciones,   serie  de  cuatro  cuadros  en  el  que  destaca  La  vendimia,  La  gallina  ciega# ,  La  caza  del  jabalí,  Niños  con  mastines,  La  pradera  de  San  Isidro.#  

 

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Del  Neoclásico  al  Realismo.  Goya__________________________________________                 ©  Reme  Serrat  /  Ildefonso  Suárez  

  11

el  precursor  del  Romanticismo,  por  el  análisis  sentimental  de   los  personajes  y  el  tratamiento  de   las  masas  como  protagonistas;  del  Impresionismo,  por  el  tratamiento  de  la  luz,  del  color  y  por  sus  pinceladas  sueltas;  del  Expresionismo,  porque  sacrifica  la  forma,  el  detalle,  en  aras  de  resaltar  la  expresión,  simplificando  las  fi-­‐guras;  del  Surrealismo,  porque  refleja  el  mundo  del  subconsciente,  de  los  sueños,  como  El  Bosco  lo  había  ya  hecho.  Podemos  decir  que  Goya  rompe  con  la  tradición,  con  el  hecho  de  pintar  siempre  lo  que  se  ve,  y  crea  un  mundo  propio,  donde  la  fantasía  y  la  crítica  juegan  un  papel  más  importante  que  la  realidad  visual.  Todos  los  movimientos   pictóricos   posteriores   a  Goya,   beben  de   su   obra,   no   es   por   tanto   exagerado   llamarle   "el  primer  pintor  moderno".  

     

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Del  Neoclásico  al  Realismo.  Goya__________________________________________                 ©  Reme  Serrat  /  Ildefonso  Suárez  

  17

hombre  "sin  ideal  y  sin  religión".  Su  arte  pues,  lleva  una  profunda  carga  patética,  pero  a  la  vez  delicada.  • Su   preocupación  por  la  materia  le  llevará  a  una  perfección  en  el  dibujo  que  luego  recogerá,  tras  una  etapa  

impresionista,  la  pintura  de  Cézanne.  La  grandiosidad  de  sus  figuras  influirá  también  en  pintores  posteriores  como  Van  Gogh.  Su  pintura  es  un  manifiesto  personal  que  se  concentra  en  lo  visible  y  lo  actual,  con  lo  que  se  abre  un  campo  inmenso  a  la  pintura,  que  intentará  lograr  la  esencia  o  la  totalidad  de  un  fenómeno.  Cuando  represente  a  la  naturaleza,  muestra  la  fuerza  de  la  misma,  como  en  su  cuadro  Ola.  Pero  la  crudeza  realista  de  la  que  se  le  ha  acusado  constantemente,  no  es  tal,  ya  que  en  sus  cuadros  se  descubren  inéditos  sentimientos  de  belleza  a  pesar,  de  que  en  Jóvenes  en  el  borde  del  Sena  escandalice  por  la  manera  tan  antiacadémica  con  que  se  extienden  sus  cuerpos  por  el  suelo.