Stevia rebaudiana (Asteraceae or Compositae).

Native to Paraguay & neighboring Brazilian border.

Leaves contain the glycoside stevioside, which tastes 300 times sweeter than sucrose.

Commercial production -in Paraguay, Brazil, Indonesia, Japan, China and Thailand.

Thailand exports 50-80 tons of dried

Stevia leaves /month.

Stevia is used as a weight loss aid;

for treating diabetes, 

for lowering uric acid levels,

high blood pressure and heartburn,

for preventing pregnancy,

for increasing the+ strength of the

muscle contractions that pump blood 

from the heart.

• Stevia rebaudiana 

Thaumatococcus - monotypic genus of tropical

flowering plant. Marantaceae

1 species Thaumatococcus danielli, -a natural source

of thaumatin, intensely sweet protein used in the

development of sweeteners (1973-Turkish Journal of Biology).

Large, rhizomatous, flowering herb native to the

rainforests of  Ghana & surrounding African nations.

A gene from Thaumatococcus daniellii has been inserted into a

cucumber plant to increase its perceived sweetness in human

eaters by the Warsaw University of Life Sciences.

Fruit in a fleshy red aril, contains thaumatin.

Leaves & seeds have number of traditional

medicinal uses.

Interest in this natural sweetner (no carbohydrate)

has reawakened; as many synthetic sweeteners,

especially cyclamates are carcinogenic.

Alarming increase of diabetic people ,

special emphasis and importance needed by

botanists, pharmaceutical botanists &

agronomists for mass scale cultivation.

• Myrtle (Myrtus communis –Murt, Hambalis)(Myrtaceae) evergreen, Mediterranean, grows spontaneously in many countries.

• In Summer white flowers, and blue berries - all very fragrant. Berries edible.

• Traditionally used as an antiseptic, disinfectant drug and hypoglycaemic (kan şeker düşüklüğü) agent .

Leaves, berries and twigs used in the flavouring of food, leaves as tea (Diabetes).

Leaves used in the making of colognes or skin tonics.

Aromatic water distilled from leaves & flowers (France) .

Oil plants As food stuffs, oils important in the energy supply of humans.

Plant oils contain phospholipids & sterols in addition to vitamin A, E & provitamin D2, all important for health. From ancient times: Oils have been & are

used in soap making, in painting,

as lubricating materials; as detergents,

softeners etc.

Important oils :

soya, palm oil, sunflower, rapeseed, ground nut, cotton seed,

coconut, olive , linseed, castor maize oil hazelnut

More than 50% of vegetable oil produced in the world comes from soybeans (1/2 USA).

Soybean (US) or Soya Bean (UK)(Glycine max)- legume

native to East Asia (US-35%, Brazil-27%, Argentina

-19%), China -6%) & India-4%). 

Widely grown for its edible beans + soy vegetable oil

with numerous uses.

Produce significantly more protein per ha than most

other uses of land.

Fat-free (defatted) soybean meal a cheap source of

protein for animal feeds + many prepackaged meals.

Traditional nonfermented food of soybeans includes 

soy milk.

Fermented foods - soy sauce, fermented bean paste.

Soybean products like textured or texturized

vegetable protein (TVP) or

TSP  (textured soy protein),

are ingredients in many meat & dairy analogues.

(TVP or TSP (soy meat, or soya chunks)-a defatted 

soy flour product, by-product of extracting

 soybean oil).

First records of olive cultivation are from Create- archaeological evidence dates from 3500 B.C.

Olive oil used by Egyptians & Greeks to anoint bodies + as medicine.

Fruits & oil used in the construction of pyramids.

Longer shelf life -subtle flavor has increased the use.

• A high-fat food (about 80-85% of the calories in olives come from fat), almost three-quarters of fat is oleic acid, a monounsaturated fatty acid.

• In traditional herbal medicine olives and olive leaves have often been used in treatment of allergy-related inflammation.

• Olive benefits have been demonstrated for the cardiovascular system, respiratory system, nervous system, musculoskeletal system, immune system, inflammatory system, digestive system, as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory nutrient.

• High monounsaturated fat content of olives has been associated with reduced risk of cardiovascular disease.

• Anti-Cancer Benefits Hydroxytyrosol, an olive phytonutrient - long linked to cancer prevention, now regarded as having the potential to help us prevent bone loss as well, decreases risk of osteoporosis.

• Olive extracts have now been shown to function as anti-histamines at a cellular level by blocking special histamine receptors (called H1 receptors), unique components in olive extracts may help to lessen a cell's histamine response.

• Oleic acid found in olives—once absorbed up into the body and transported to our cells—can change signaling patterns at a cell membrane level (specifically, altering G-protein associated cascades).

• These changes at a cell membrane level result in decreased blood pressure.

Olea europaea widely distributed • Olea europaea ssp. europaea (Mediterranean Basin)

• Olea europaea ssp. cuspidata (from South Africa throughout East Africa, Arabia to South West China)

• Olea europaea ssp. guanchica (Canaries)

• Olea europaea ssp. cerasiformis (Madeira)

• Olea europaea ssp. maroccana (Morocco)

• Olea europaea ssp. laperrinei (Algeria, Sudan, Niger)

Human use of oil palms dates back to 5,000 years-

discovered in a tomb at Abydos dating back

to 3,000 BCE.

Palm oil -high level of saturation.

An edible vegetable oil derived from the fruit of

primarily the African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis),   to a lesser extent from the American oil palm 

Elaeis oleifera and the maripa palm Attalea maripa.

Palm oil became a highly sought-after commodity

by British traders, for use as an industrial lubricant

for machinery during Britain's Industrial Revolution.

Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as 

Lever Brothers‘ (now Unilever)"Sunlight"soap, and the

American Palmolive brand.

By around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export

of some West African countries such

as Ghana and Nigeria although

this was overtaken by cocoa in the 1880s.

Indonesia produces more palm oil, but in 2012, Malaysia was world's 2nd largest producer with 18.79 million tonnes of crude palm oil on ± 5,000,000 ha of land & exported 18 million tonnes.

China, Pakistan, the European Union, India and US  primary importers of Malaysian palm oil products.

As of 2012, the annual revenue received by Indonesia +Malaysia together, top producers, -  40 billion US $.

Used to produce biodiesel, known as palm oil methyl ester, through transesterification (exchanging of an ester with an alcohol)

World's largest palm oil biodiesel plant opened in Singapore in 2011.

Organic waste matter converted into pellets -used as a biofuel.

• Palm oil is obtained from the fruit of the oil palm tree.

• Palm oil is used for preventing vitamin A deficiency, cancer, brain disease, aging; and treating malaria, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and cyanide poisoning.

• Palm oil is used for weight loss and increasing the body’s metabolism. 

• As food, palm oil is used for frying.  

• Industrially, palm oil is used for manufacturing cosmetics, soaps, toothpaste, waxes, lubricants, and ink. 

 • Palm oil, made from the fruit of the oil palm tree

(Elaeis guineensis), is one of the most widely produced edible fats in the world.

• The oil palm yields two types of oil: One is extracted from the flesh of the fruit (palm oil), and the other from the seed, or kernel (palm kernel oil). 

• Palm oil, palm kernel oil, and coconut oil — the so-called tropical oils are high in saturated fat- long been linked to heart disease. Saturated fat boosts “bad” LDL cholesterol and triglycerides, both of which are risk factors for heart disease.

• Palm oil is 50% saturated, has a more favorable fatty acid composition than palm kernel oil and coconut oil, which are more than 85% saturated.

• Coconut oil, according to recent reports, is the latest food cure-all.

The remaining distribution of the Sumatran orangutan in Indonesia.

In  Borneo , Indonesia, the forest (F), is being replaced by oil palm plantations (G). These changes are irreversible for all practical purposes (H).

A map of world palm oil output, 2006.

Plant Diversity in the Muslim World.Country Native Vascular Plants Endemics % Endemics

Algeria 3.164 250 7,9Egypt 7.076 70 3,4Libya 1.825 134 7,3

Mauritania 1.150 - -Morocco 3.675 625 17,0Nigeria 4.715 205 4,3Somalia 3.028 500 16,5Sudan >3.132 50 1,6Tunisia 2.196 - -

Bangladesh 5.000 100 1,8Pakistan 5.100 400 7,8Borneo 20.000-25.300 6.000-7.000 30,0Brunei 6.000 - -

Indonesia 22.600 >1.430 >15,0Malaysia 19.000 2.700-4.500 30,0-50,0

Afghanistan 4.000 800 20,0Bahrain 248 - -

Iran 8.000 1.400 17,5Iraq 3.000 190 6,3

Jordan 2.100 145 7,3Kuwait 282 0 0

Lebanon 2.600 311 12,0Oman 1.200 73 6,1Qatar 306 0 0

Saudi Arabia 2.028 34 1,7Syria 3.100 395 13,0

Turkey 10.000 3300 33UAE 340 0 0

Yemen 3645 >365 >38,2

RECREATIONAL SERVICES, AESTHETIC BEAUTY,

INTELLECTUAL & SPIRITUAL STIMULATION

(Cocos nucifera).

Coconut oil - highly saturated, used in South India, Sri Lanka & Asean countries.

Edible oil extracted from the kernel or meat of matured coconuts. Many health organizations advise against the consumption of high amounts of coconut oil.

Various applications in food, medicine and industry.

• Claims abound that coconut oil is a health food that can cure everything from poor immune function,thyroid disease, and heart disease, to obesity, cancer, and HIV.

• Pure virgin coconut oil, containing no hydrogenation (the process of adding hydrogen to make a liquid fat hard), contains 92% saturated fat -- the highest amount of saturated fat of any fat.

• "Coconut oil is better than butter and trans fats but not as good as liquid vegetable oils.

Corylus has 14–18 species. 

Corylus avellana-Common hazel, Europe and western

Asia Corylus colurna—

• Turkish hazel, southeastern Europe ,  Asia Minor

•Tradition of use for Corylus avellana 

•Chronic bronchitis, Sclerosis.

•Used mainly as a complementary remedy

as it improves & reinforces the effectiveness

of other remedies.

•Has a gentle action on all metabolisms,

except for glucosides.

Through its anti-sclerotic action, it can also be

effective in cases of necrosis of the extremities,

certain cases of arthritis and in cases of

neurovegetative imbalance.

This remedy is indicated for conditions such as

headaches, anemia, neurosis, emphysema,

pulmonary fibrosis, asthma with emphysema,

chronic bronchitis, dyspepsia, cirrhosis, hepatic

deficiencies, sclerosis, smoker's cough with

blood in the sputum.

GEMMOTHERAPY a therapeutic method, inspired by the principles of homeopathic drainage, using extracts of fresh buds, shoots, roots or stems derived from the developing or maturing plants:

• Acute Asthma, Asthma, Bronchitis, Cigarette Coughs, Cirrhosis, Coughs, Emphysema, Hepatic Dysfunction, Mental Illness, Pulmonary Fibrosis, Respiratory Tract Disturbances, Sclerosis, Support for Symptoms Due to Smoking, Bone Fractures, Calcium Deficiency Syndrome,Calcium Deposits, Decalcification, Dental Irritations Healing of Bones, Intellectual/ Mental Exhaustion, Osteomalacia, Parathyroid Function Support, Porous Bones, Rhinopharyngitis, Rickets, Support for Bone Growth, Tonsillitis

• Gums: Cyamopsis tetragonolobus; part used:

endosperm; in hyper-lipidemia, obesity, diabetes

mellitus.Known as guar gum, guar flour, gucran, Indian

cluster bean or  jaguar gum.

A white to yellowish powder

-soluble in hot H2O, partially in cold H2O.

Has polysaccharides, mainly

galactomannans, of high molecular weight.

Approved as food additive.

Caesalpinia spinosa-shrub or tree (Leguminosae). (Tara tree).

Tara gum or Peruvian carob, -a natural additive,

obtained by grinding the endosperm of the seeds.

Fruit a reddish pod with 4-7 large round black seeds having endosperm (22% by wt.), germ (40%) and hull (38%).

Native to the Peru and Bolivia-trees at 3,000 meters asl- tolerate dry climates, poor soils - harvested by hand and typically sun dried.

Caesalpinia spinosa-shrub

Caesalpinia spinosa

An unusual elastic latex put to an entirely different use is chicle, harvested from Mamilkana zapota (Sapotaceae)

Base for chewing gum. Chicozapote important fruit tree

in India, Mexico,other tropics.

Over 23 000 ha of land in India is

devoted to production of the

fruit, a 10-fold increase in 20 years.

• Pistacia lentiscus  Mastic Gum Against Helicobacter pylori

• Pistacia lentiscus, -family Anacardiaceae, with strong characteristic aroma and green leaves-in many Mediterranean countries.

Helicobacter pylori

Ripe carob pods contain a large amount of condensed tannins (16-20% of dry weight).

Feeding trials showed that carob pulp contains only1-2% digestible protein and is relatively low in metabolizable energy.

In food value, carob pods are similar to most cereal grains.

Yet another source is the Carob seed.

The protein has a low digestibility because it is bound with tannins and fibre.

Condensed tannins account for growth-depressing effects on animals fed with a diet high in carob meal.

Some believe that this effect is due to its low energy content for which animals can compensate by increasing consumption.

Constituents of the seed are (by weight): coat (30-33%), endosperm (42-46%) & embryo or germ (23-25%).

• Seed coat contains antioxidants.

• Endosperm is the galactomannan (carob bean gum -CBG)---polysaccharide molecule composed of mannose & galactose sugar units rather similar to guar gum & tara gum.

Average composition of the carob pulp

Constituent %

Total sugars 48-56 Sucrose 32-38 Glucose 05-06 Fructose 05-07 Pinitol 05-07 Condensed tannins 18-20

Non-starch polysaccharides 18 Ash 02-03

Fat 0.2-0.6

Contains about 18% cellulose & hemicellulose.

Mineral composition (in mg/100 g of pulp) is: K=1100, Ca=307, Mg=42, Na=13, Cu=0.23, Fe=104, Mn=0.4, Zn=0.59.

5 amino acids in pod extracts (alanine, glycine, leucine,proline and valine) and also reported tyrosine and phenylalanine.

Germ meal-from the cotyledons has a 50% protein content, suitable for human and animal nutrition.

Trees Of The Bible

Acacia in Jordan

Almond (Prunus amygdalus, syn. Prunus dulcis, Amygdalus communis, Amygdalus dulcis)

Cedar Cedrus libani

Fig Ficus carica (Moraceae)

Myrtle Myrtus communis

Punica granatum (Punicaceae –Lythraceae)

Pistacia terebinthus (urushiol)Anacardiaceae

ALGAE & FUNGI important medicines in their own right, but many have provided blueprints for synthetic or partially synthetic drugs.

They are a source of antibiotics with a major role in medicine. Fungi (Penicillin - 1941).

• a cyanobacterium, Class:Cyanophyceae,

Genus:Spirulina 50 species. • consumed by humans – animals, made primarily

from 2 species:• Arthrospira platensis and Arthrospira maxima.

A blue-green - fresh water, brine and brackish water, 60-70 % protein in dry weight, with 18 types of amino acids, several vitamins minerals, fatty acids necessary to the body.

Supplements contain predominantly pseudovitamin B12, which is biologically inactive in humans (B 12 controversy) .

Complete protein containing all essential amino acids, with reduced amounts of methionine,  cysteine  and lysine when compared to the proteins of meat, eggs and milk. Superior to typical plant protein-from legumes.

Major Functions:

reduces the risk of cancer, prevents damage caused by toxins affecting the heart,

liver, kidneys, neurons, eyes, ovaries, DNA, and testicles. 

supports heart & reduces cholesterol,helps improve the digestive system, helps in the detoxification process, increases the antioxidant capacity.feed supplement in aquaculture, aquarium &

 poultry industries, enhances immunity or immune response.

• Class: Rhodophyceae• Porphyra amethystea, P. leucosticta, P. linearis, P. miniata P. purpurea ,

P. umbilicalis • China and Japan, 7 main species used in commercial cultivation.• Porphyra yezoensis, P. tenera, P. haitanensis, P. pseudolinearis, P.kunideai,

P. arasaki, P. seriata

• Nori

• Consumption dates back to 533-544 AD in China.

• Presented annually to the emperor of China (960-1279 AD) as a gift from the Fuijan province.

• Lacks cellulose in the cell wall, so easy to eat and digest. 

• Contains significant amounts of protein, vitamins and minerals.

• Vitamin C greater than raw oranges.

• Vitamin A like spinach, + fairly high amounts of vitamin B.

• Free and proteinaceous amino acids roughly like vegetables. 

• High amount of arginine-generally found in animal protein.

• Large amounts of alanine, glutamic acid and glycine.

• Abundant taurine -effective for liver activity, especially in preventing the occurence of gallstone disease and for controlling blood cholesterol levels.

• High essential trace elements, zinc, which is essential for certain enzyme functions.

• Manganese, copper & selenium present-essential for the metabolic processes.

• Cultivation 300 years ago, by Japanese.

• Contains a sulfated polysaccharide-porphyran, a complex galactan.

• May inhibit the growth of certain tumors.

• Also, when nori powder was mixed with a basic diet at 2% concentration and fed to rats, it preventd a purposely induced carcinogenesis.

• Porphyosin isolated from Porphyra exhibit anti-ulcer activity in shay ulcers, ineffective against stress ulcers.

• Laminaria 31 species of brown algae (Phaeophyceae) "kelp".

• Economically important genus.

• North Atlantic  & Northern Pacific Oceans - depths from 8 to 30 m (exceptionally 120 m in the warm waters of the Mediterranean Sea  and off  Brazil).

• Laminaria stick refers to its use to dilate the cervix when induction of pregnancy is necessary.

• Absorbs moisture, expands, subsequently expanding the cervix.

• Commercial cultivation for algin, iodine, mannitol-used in a range of industrial applications.

• Largest producer - China.

• A seaweed native to Japan.

• Contains iodine, an element needed to make thyroid hormones.

• Rich source of iron and potassium.

• Used for weight loss, high blood pressure, as a bulk laxative for constipation, and for treating radiation sickness.

• Prevention of cancer.

• Sometimes to expand the cervix, layer of Laminaria placed inside the cervix called a “tent” to enlarge the cervix for removal of medical device; diagnostic procedures; placement of radium for cancer treatment; and other gynecological procedures.

• Laminaria tents are also used to cause abortions during the first 3 months of pregnancy.

• Undaria is a genus of kelp.

• Undaria pinnatifida, Wakame sea vegetable

or edible seaweed.

• Often served in soups and salads.

• Wakame grown in Japan from the Nara period.

• Among 100 of the world's worst invasive species. 

• Hokkaido University have found fucoxanthin

 (a caroteniod-brown algae)can help burn fatty tissue. 

• Used in topical beauty treatments.

• Rich source of an omega-3 fatty acid.

• Has high levels of  calcium,iodine, thiamine  & niacin.

• Oriental medicine-used for blood purification,

intestinal strength, skin, hair, reproductive organs and menstrual regularity.

• In Korea, the wakame soup popularly

consumed by women after birth as it has high content of calcium and iodine-important for nursing new mothers.

• Many women consume it during the pregnancy as well.

• Traditionally eaten on birthdays for this

reason, a reminder of the first food that the mother has eaten and passed on to her newborn through her milk, thus bringing good fortune for the rest of the year.

World War I,II:

Researchers decided to tap into the

unexploited sea resources.

Organisms containing green photosynthetic

pigments chlorophyll a & b.

Consumed as a health supplement in USA

and Canada, as a food supplement in Japan.

Chlorella

A microscopic (of 2-10 µm diameter) single celled green micro

algae-has existed on earth for over 2.5 billion years. 

Having survived in exactly the same form since the pre-

Cambrian, this micro algae owes its extraordinary survival to

2 highly unusual features: unique cell wall & its astonishing

capacity of reproduction.

Many people believed Chlorella could serve as a potential

source of food and energy because its photosynthetic

efficiency can reach 8% (theory), comparable with efficient

crops like  sugar cane.

• Russians(1965)  determined that 8 m2 of exposed Chlorella

could remove CO2 and replace O2 within the sealed

environment for a single human, when grown in vats

underneath artificial light.

• Used to make nutritional supplements and medicine, made

into tablets and liquid extracts with chlorella growth factor.

• Dried preparation of chlorella can contain from 7 - 88%

protein, 6-38% carbohydrate, 7 - 75% fat.

• No other algae has generated as much scientific and medical interest as Chlorella!!

• applied to the skin for treating skin ulcers, rashes caused

by radiation treatment,

• stimulating the immune system, improving response

to flu vaccine,

• increasing white blood cell counts (especially in people

with HIV infection or cancer),

Chlorella - a genus  of unicellular  green algae.German  Biochemist  & Cell Physiologist 

Otto Heinrich Warburg, got Nobel Prize

in 1931 for his research

on cell respiration,

studied photosynthesis

in Chlorella.

Chlorella - a genus  of unicellular  green algae.

Melvin Calvin - California University- Nobel

Prize

in Chemistry (1961) research on the

pathways of  

CO2 assimilation in plants  using  Chlorella.

• preventing colds, protecting the body against toxic metals such as Cd,

Pb, Hg.

• Used to increase “good” bacteria in the intestine in order to improve

digestion; and to help treat ulcers,

•  colitis refers to an inflammation of the colon and is often used to describe an inflammation of the large

intestine

• Crohn's disease or Crohn syndrome and regional enteritis, is a type of inflammatory bowel disease that may affect any part of the

gastrointestinal system

• Diverticulosis or "diverticular disease", is the condition of having diverticula in the colon, which are

outpocketings of the colonic mucosa

• Chlorella could convert 20 percent of solar energy into a plant that, when

dried, contains 50 percent protein. 

• treatment of  constipation, bad breath,

• hypertension, as an antioxidant,

• reduces cholesterol, increases energy,

• reduces  asthma attacks, • • in  fibromyalgia, "muscle and connective tissue pain".

• disease like  trichomoniasis

• nourishing super food,

• powerful defense against cancer,

• protects and detoxifies your liver and the body,

• source of  Mg to promote  mental health,

• for the  prevention of stress-related ulcers,

• relieve  premenstrual syndrome (PMS),

•Reduces Body Fat, Total Cholesterol, Blood Glucose Levels

•Superfood Fights Body Fat & Diabetes

•Relieves Arthritis and Joint Pain

•Japanese Chlorella studies on longer life expectancy

has shown in animals fed with chlorella an average

extension of almost 2 years compared to the average

animal life span!

•Japan largest consumer of Chlorella, as a medicinal

whole food, with an estimated 10 million users. 

• During ± the 1st billion years of earth's existence, deadly gases like NH3, CH4 , CO2 made its atmosphere heavy.

• Chlorella had the role to filter out these gases, to change the earth's environment to one capable of supporting flora and fauna.

• Contains the highest known source of chlorophyll.

Chlorella pyrenoidosa

•Medical research in USA, Japan, USSR, Germany, France, UK.

Rockefeller Foundation, the Carnegie Institute,

the Pasteur Institute.

NASA:Use by astronauts traveling into space.

NASA researchers have investigated that Chlorella is so complete, that one could survive with it for long periods of time. Wonder food-has high protein - chlorophyll content, with astonishing range of nutrients, multi vitamins, amino acids, minerals, nucleic acids, enzymes, and dietary fiber  essential for optimal nutrition.

Anabaena azollae

• Marriage Between A Fern & Cyanobacterium -plants, bacteria

and algae have formed intimate symbiotic associations or

"marriages" with each other (root nodulr bacteria, lichens).

• Divorce is practically nonexistent in these marriages, and

separations may result in the death of one or both partners.

• Complete genome of Anabaena is 7.2 million base pairs long.

•Sequencing of the Anabaena genome has the potential to aid

researchers in the study of the genetics and physiology of

cellular differentiation and nitrogen fixation.

•Out of the 5,368 possible genes, only 2 genes that control

the initiation of heterocyst formation and the frequency

of cell differentiation have been identified.

•Azolla grows in tropical and temperate climates

in calm bodies of water.

Anabaena azollae Maintains a mutually beneficial symbiotic

relationship with the water fern Azolla (Salviniaceae).

Fern provides the cyanobacteria with a safe environment in exchange for nitrogen 6 Species.

Also called "duckweed fern" and commonly grows with 1 or more species of duckweeds (Lemnaceae), including Lemna, Spirodela, Wolffia and Wolffiella.

•

• Although Anabaena azollae is not classified as a pathogen, Azolla is known to produce “toxic blooms” in their environment (Salvinia)

A. azollae is able to fix nitrogen so efficiently that populations of Azolla have been known to double their biomass every 2-3 days.

Products dangerous to animals & humans due to various cyanotoxins -released.

For centuries the symbiotic relationship between

A. azollae & Azolla has benefited farmers across the world.

Because of the “in house” nitrogen source provided by A. azollae, Azolla has been used as "green manure" in China and other countries to fertilize rice paddies and increase rice production.

Azolla is either incorporated as green manure at the beginning of the cropping season or grown as a dual crop along with rice, in the standing water of flooded fields.

Anabaena azollae

The nitrogen fixed by the cyanobacteria is either released upon decay of Azolla or leached into the water from the growing Azolla and is available for uptake by the rice crop.

Azolla can promote aerobic transformations such as methane oxidation through enhanced aeration of the flood water in rice fields.

IT is responsible with providing between 50-75% of the nitrogen required by the rice crop.

Azolla has helped increase rice yields as much as 158% per year.

• As fertilizer, in fish food and garden mulch, a natural food for various types of insects.

• Azolla can be used as a water purifier & for the control of weeds, mosquitoes, and the reduction of ammonia volatilization that accompanies the application of chemical nitrogen fertilizers.

• Anabaena is a genus of filamentous cyanobacteria

 that exists as plankton.

Known for its nitrogen fixing abilities, and they form symbiotic relationships with certain plants, such as the mosquito fern.

1-4 genera of cyanobacteria produce neurotoxins, harmful to local wildlife, & farm animals, pets.

Production of these neurotoxins is assumed to be an input into its symbiotic relationships, protecting the plant from grazing pressure.