SLOPE FAILURE SCENARIOS IN MAJOR LANDSLIDE ...

© 2019 JETIR April 2019, Volume 6, Issue 4 www.jetir.org (ISSN-2349-5162)

JETIR1904992 Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research (JETIR) www.jetir.org 616

SLOPE FAILURE SCENARIOS IN MAJOR

LANDSLIDE LOCATIONS IN KODAGU

DISTRICT, KARNATAKA STATE – CAUSES

AND PREVENTION

Janardhana M. R.

Department of Geology, Yuvaraja’s College,

University of Mysore, Mysuru, India.

Ramu S.

Department of Civil Engineering, KVG Engineering College,

Sullaya, Dakshina Kannada, India

Abstract: Kodagu is a hilly terrain in the southwestern part of Karnataka state which is showing a

tremendous growth in the tourist industry. Landslides in Kodagu are believed to be small incidences of rainy

season and never received much attention from the researchers or media as it never caused constraints either

on general public or government machineries. During the months of June and July, 2018, Kodagu district

received 5894 mm rainfall, a 22.45% departure from normal rainfall. Added to this, in the first three weeks

of August, 2018, the district received a total rainfall of 1,675 mm and in a single day on August, 17 the

district received 300 mm rainfall causing landslides in more than 80 locations resulting in the death of 20

persons, rendering about 2200 homeless and the government estimated a total loss of about Rs. 1400 crore.

The present work analyses the causes which is essential for prevention of damages in future and promotion

of mitigation measures. Jodpal, Monnamgeri, Madikeri town and Makkandur in Mercara taluk and Iggodlu

in Somawarpet taluk are the worst affected areas in the forms of economic loss and fatalities. Preliminary

studies carried out by the present investigators revealed that the intense weathering and well developed joints

in rocks have rendered them less cohesive and heavy rainfall acted as the triggering factor for the rock fall,

debris slide and flow. Human interventions in the form of modification of slope and obstruction to the

natural drainage are the other factors to trigger the landslides. Salient features on landslide preventive

measures in Kodagu district is also outlined at the end.

Keywords: Debris Flow, Disaster Management, Intense Rainfall, Kodagu, Landslide

1. Introduction

Natural disasters are the complex of detrimental events that occur completely beyond the people's

control, and are often indirectly made worse by human interventions (Alimohammadlouet al., 2013).

Globally, landslides are increasingly causing adverse impacts on people, economy and the environment

(Kirschbaum et al., 2015). These impacts are likely to increase further as people continue to encroach and

settle close to unstable slopes (Tegeje, 2017). Population growth, land-use changes, urbanization, linear

infrastructure development, the effects (anthropogenic) of climatic change is the major factors considered to

increase the probability of landslides (Petley et al, 2007) and cause loss of human life and damage to

property. Yalcin (2011) has discovered that the economic losses and casualties due to landslides are greater

than generally recognized.

Landslides are one of the natural hazards that affect at least 15% of land area of India, including the

geodynamically active domains in Himalaya (Sharda, 2004). Northern and Northeastern India as well as

the stable domains of Western Ghats and Nilgiri Hills of southern India witness frequent landslide events

triggered mainly by rainfall during SW and NE monsoons causing miseries to people (Anbalagan, 1992;

Gupta and Anbalagan, 1995; Bhasin et al., 2002; Kumar and Sanoujam, 2007; Anbalagan et al., 2008;

Avasty and Kumar, 2009; Ganapathy et al., 2010; Mayavan and Sundaram, 2012; Gurugnanam, 2013;

Anabalagan et al., 2014). However the research on landslides in India has always been hampered by the lack

of data (Cees J van Westen et al., 2011).

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Kodagu is the smallest district in Karnataka state. The district is blessed with beautiful natural

landscapes and pleasant climate thus attracts tourists from different parts of the country hence known for

ecotourism and home stays. The district is also known for cultivation of commercial crops such as coeffee,

pepper, etc. It consists of three revenue taluks, namely, Madikeri, Somwarpet and Virajpet. Although

landslides of low magnitude occur in all the three taluks of Kodagu district during monsoon period, in recent

times the high lands of Madikeri and Somawarpet taluks were affected much with isolated incidences in

Virajapet taluk following 25 to 30 % more than average rainfall in the area.

Scientific studies on landslides in Kodagu district are scanty and confined to only a few areas

(Dharmaraju, 2012; Vinutha, 2015; Janardhana et al., 2016). This has hindered the identification of

vulnerable areas and triggering factors for landslides so also their mitigation. Till recently, people

perception on landslides in Karnataka were casual and socio-economic impacts of landslides were not

studied in detail as the events were localized and of low magnitude. During the months of June and July,

2018, Kodagu district received 5894 mm rainfall, a 22.45% departure from normal rainfall. Further, in the

first three weeks of August, 2018, the district received a total rainfall of 1,675 mm and in a single day on

August, 17 the district received 300 mm rainfall causing landslides in more than 80 locations resulting in the

death of 20 persons, rendering about 2200 homeless and loss of about Rs. 1400 crore worth of buildings,

roads and cultivated lands. The sole objective of the present study is to understand the underlying causes for

the occurrence of landslides and identification of the potential triggering factors (i.e., heavy rain or

construction for example) with a stress on mitigation strategies.

1.1 Study Area

Kodagu district covers an area of 4,102 sq.km and is bounded by latitudes 110 56’ – 120 52’ N and

longitudes 720 22’-760 12’E (Fig. 1). It forms a part of Western Ghats and consists of chains of high range

hills and abundance of forest wealth. The topography of the area ranges from gently sloping plains on the

southeastern part to rugged hilly lands, with elevations ranging from about 600 m above msl to 1,702 m

above msl. The hills and valleys of this undulating region are generally aligned in NW-SE direction. The

topography of the region is sensitive and any changes in the land use can cause landslide or slope failures

affecting the population (Janardhana et al., 2016).

Fig. 1 Map showing the locations of major landslide incidence in

Kodagu district, Karnataka State

The terrain forms the transitional zone between the Western Dharwar craton (WDC) and the

Southern Granulite Terrain (SGT) (Swaminath and Ramakrishnan, 1981). The supracrutal rocks of WDC

are composed of garnet-sillimanite schist, amphibolites, kyanite bearing gneisses of Sargur group and

Peninsular Gneissic Complex (PGC). The latter is represented by biotite and hornblende gneisses with quartz

and pegmatite veins. Granulite facies rocks of SGT are represented by pyroxene granulites and

charnockites. The older rocks (metasedimentary rocks of Sargur group and granulites) occur in the form of

parallel and trending in NW-SE direction amidst the vast expanse of Peninsular Gneisses. All the rocks are




intruded by mafic intrusives (dolerite dykes). In Kodagu district, the supracrustal rocks have undergone

deep weathering forming thick soil cover at places. The soils of the district are of a heterogeneous profile

and consist of lateritic debris found in different stages of weathering and laterization.

River Cauvery is the major river of the district and constitutes an inter-state river. Its tributaries in the

district, viz., Hemavathi, Lakshmana Thirtha, Kakkabbe and Harangi or Survanavati, flow in an easterly

direction and rivers Barapole and Payaswini flow towards west. The district has comparatively low

population densities.

The district enjoys tropical monsoon climate. It receives major part of rainfall from South-West

monsoon during the months of June, July and August and a considerable amount from North-East monsoons

during October and November months. From the available meteorological record of more than 30 years,

highest rainfall (Average 3302.46 mm) has occurred in Madikeri taluk and the lowest (Average 2105.22

mm) in Somvarpet taluk. North-east monsoon accounts for about 10 percent of annual rainfall in the study

region. The average annual rainfall for the district during the period from 1984 to 2013 is 2552.54 mm and

the number of rainy days ranges between 85 and 153, with an average of about 118 rainy days in a year

(Vinutha, 2013). The amount of rainfall and the number of rainy days varies considerably within the

different parts of the district. Climate of the region plays a decisive role in causing landslides. Generally,

June, July and August are the months of heavy rainfall and the precipitation in July is incessant and known

for very heavy rainfall. These months are also known for natural hazards such as landslides and floods.

Maximum number of landslide occurs during SW monsoon season and the significant of number of

landslides confine to state highways wherein the steep slope cut made for widening of the road do not have

any support. Travel during monsoon period is a threat to the lives of many travellers as landslides along the

travel route have become very common (Vinutha, 2014).

The maximum and minimum temperatures recorded at Madikeri are 39°C and 8.5°C respectively.

The diurnal variation of temperature during winter season is 7° to 8° C whereas in rainy and summer season

it varies from 120 to 200 C. Diurnal variation plays an important role not only in the mechanical

disintegration of rocks but also in the rate of chemical weathering. Further the study area at places is

crowned by thick weathered mantle and the disintegration of the same due to wetting and drying conditions

induce mass wasting.

2. Methodology

Reports on the recent occurrence of landslide events, mudslide/flows, rock falls, subsidence,

fatalities, house collapse, loss of road links following heavy rains appeared both in visual and print media for

few days from August 9, 2018. Keeping public safety in mind, visitors were barred from entering the places

of damage as the lands were not stabilized and roads were missing. Restoration work by the concerned

authorities immediately after the landslide events was hampered due to rain. Almost three weeks from the

date of incidences, and after restoration work was completed, public were allowed to move freely. Present

investigators, prior to exploratory visit to the affected places collected all the information from the media

about the severity of incidences and chose to visit four places, among the sites of about 150 landslides of

diversified types which have been affected most Viz., (1) Monnageri (near Made) and (2) Jodupal both

located along Madikeri – Sullaya road, (3) Makkunder and (4) Iggodlu near Madapura. During the visit to

the chosen places, the authors interacted with local people and heard their narration about the incidences. In

the field geomorphological studies were carried out and scars were photographed, described and

documented. Studies on the soil profiles at the places of scars were carried out to understand the intensity of

weathering and joint patterns of the exposed rocks.

3. Results

3.1 Monnamgeri Near Made

Landslides in Monnamgeri occurred in the slopes of highlands and along the road cuts. The preliminary

study carried out by the present investigators revealed two major shallow rotational debris slides leaving

behind a concave shaped scar measuring about 6 m deep and 20 m wide. These debris slides were caused by

soil saturated with rain water which increased the pore pressure resulting in the movement of mass for about

300 m down slope to coalesce into one (Fig. 2). Physical examination of the scars showed the presence of

deeply weathered fine grained clay soil developed over the granitic gneisses and underlain by lateritic soil.

The clay soil was permeated by water due to continuous rain and the same facilitated the sudden increase in




the weight and detachment. The debris flows from these debris slides have partially buried the Payaswini

channel (Figs. 3 & 4).

Fig. 2 Plan view of multiple shallow slides coalesced

into the same channel witnessed at Monnamgeri

Fig. 3 Plan view showing the extensive sediment

deposition in Payaswini river near Monnamgeri

Fig. 4 Plan view showing the sedimentation in

Payaswini river near Monnamgeri

Fig. 5 Retaining wall built along the highway to

control subsidence of the road near Monnamgeri

Near Monnamgeri along NH 275 , a retaining wall constructed to strengthen the road was damaged

(collapsed) during the recent landslide event. The 275 road has also witnessed collapse at several nearby

places. The road runs in mid-slope and the gradient of the upslope is around 700. During rainy season water

infiltrated into the soil percolates easily and emerges out in the forms of free flow and seepages. Free

drainage of the water down slope is hindered and at places water flows through the earthen drains. At times

it is made to pass below the road through cross drains. High volume of water during rainy season erodes the

cross drains and also the base of the road leading to the collapse of the road.

3.2 Jodpal

At Jodpal (Fig. 1) huge debris slide and flow along with many shallow failures attracted the attention of

both the authorities and general public as several houses were damaged and one house was swept by the

debris flow (Fig. 6) following incessant rains in the area. The area became inaccessible due to severe

damages to the road. The landslides in Jodpal area was a fatal one killing four people and causing enormous

damage to the road and the property. Due to saturation of the soil along the slope a portion was detached

and brought down. Road passes through valley region of the Payaswini river with slope on either side

measuring more than 400 in the up slope direction. The northern face of the slope covered by coffee

plantation got detached due to water logging in response to heavy rains and resulted in debris slide and

flow. Rain water collected on the earthen drain above the road on the southern face of the slope concentrated

at the cross drain to join Payaswini river. Huge volume of drain water with high velocity flow eroded the

material of the cross drains resulting in the collapse of the road. This kind of caving of the road along the

state highway is becoming a general feature during monsoon days in Kodagu district.




Fig. 6 Toe part of Jodpal Landslide wherein a house had been carried by the

debris flow to the bank of nala.

3.3 Makkunder

In Makkunder (Fig.1) several locations of slope failure could not be inspected as the areas were

inaccessible. From a distance it was observed that the debris flow has left linear tracks straight down the

valley slope (Fig. 7). Lithologically the area around Makkundur is covered by rocks belonging to PGC and

undergone lateritization producing lithomarge clays and lateritic soil regolith. High hydraulic conductivity

of lateritic soil during rainy season appears to have made the soil soft. The lithomarge of the lateritic soil,

owing to continuous wetting during rains, witnessed increase in the plasticity, which facilitated the

downward movement and detachment of a big chunk of high land from the main mass and collapse,

followed by debris slides and flow. Along the road leading to Makkunder, close examination of the slope

showed well developed joints both in granitic gneisses as well as in intrusive dolerite dykes (Fig. 8).

Fig. 7 Deep scar in the valley slope




Fig. 8 Field photo showing three sets of joints in dolerite dyke

3.4 Iggodlu

Debris slides and debris flow triggered due to heavy rain caused havoc to a small settlement on moderate

slope in Iggodlu area. It appears that the debris on moderate slope collapsed due to over saturation and

consequent increase in weight. Continuous rain increased the water content in the mass leading to debris

slide which consequently developed into a debris flow. The debris flow became destructive as it uprooted

the trees and houses along its path and also coffee plantation in more than ten acres land (Fig. 9). Now the

land has become completely barren without any signs of plantation.

At Iggodlu area the supracrustal rocks were subjected to deep weathering and consist of well developed

soil horizons. These soil horizons were witnessing continuous wetting owing to downward percolation of

water stored in manmade ponds located at higher levels which were dug for storing rain water meant for

cultivation of plantation crop during lean periods. These saturated soils of Iggodlu area, as a consequence of

the recent heavy rainfall were subjected to movement along slopes. Heavy rainfall triggered the massive

landslide devastating the coffee estate and built environment by collapse, slide, flow and flooding (Fig. 10).

Fig. 9 Field photo showing the path of debris flow in Iggodlu area.

Note the shallow root system of the trees.




Fig. 10. Field photo showing debris flooded area which was

once a coeffee estate in Iggodlu area

3.4 Rock fall near Madikeri town on NH 275

Rock falls constitute another hazard in numerous steep slopes of highway cuts along the Madikeri –

Sullaya road. These deposits both rounded (core stones) (Janardhana et al., 2016) and angular blocks (Fig.

11) along the highway as well as in the hill slopes may increase the risk in future. Close examination of the

landslide site close to Madikeri town on Sullaya road shows that they are largely of plane failure type. High

levels of groundwater flowing through the well jointed granitic gneisses of PGC might have triggered the

rock fall during the incessant rain fall.

Fig. 11 Field photo showing rock fall along Madikeri-Sullaya road




4. Conclusions

Precipitation during the monsoon months of June and July, 2018 followed by heavy rainfall in the

august month has triggered the landslides all over the district wherein deaths and damage to infrastructure

were caused. Investigations of major landslide events in Kodagu district carried out to decipher the causes of

landslides and to propose the mitigation strategies led to broadly classify the incidences into two major

types: road related and non-road related.

In the entire road related landslides, the angle of the failure slopes based on observation all along the

National Highway is vertical to near vertical. The vertical section at places displays deep in situ weathering

of rocks wherein core stones are formed. Further, highly jointed rocks caused plane failure resulting in rock

fall and at places it resulted in debris flow also. Field studies indicate that rock falls are associated with

those parts wherein their toe portion is either removed or eroded of the slope. In such cases regolith is

effectively unsupported below. The hydraulic conductivities and the rate of infiltration of rainfall of the

thick soil horizons are very high and hence water percolates easily through the thickness of the soil horizons

and the accumulated water emerges out in the form of seepages or small outlets wherein the side drain

conduct water down to the streams. All the damages to the roads may be attributed to their laying in the mid

section of the slope and at places where the seepage and free flow of water above the road from the up slope

region flows through earthen drains and cross the road through cross drains. High volume of water eroded

the cross drains and also the material underlying the road causing the asphalt cover to lose support leading to

the collapse of the roads.

Non-road related landslides have occurred in plantation areas, Madikeri town and sparsely populated

settlements. In all these areas, modification of the slope, obstruction to the natural drainage, development of

small ponds over the deeply weathered mantle resulting in the continuous saturation of the soil profile and

more importantly deep weathering of the rock formations are the main causes for the slope failure as well as

deep debris slides. Although the inland areas are forested or covered with plantations, the roots of the trees

are shallow thus failed to arrest debris slide and uprooting of trees. The natural factors which caused

landslides are intense rainfall which was 30 % more than average leading to the shallow groundwater table

levels. Weathered and decomposed material saturated with water and moderate to high slope gradient

caused the debris to collapse and move down.

To conclude the reconnaissance survey indicates the influence of geology on the occurrence of

landslides in the study area. The most extensive soil development above the various rock types especially on

granitoids has played a major role in the debris and earth flows in the area. Rock fall hazards are most

common in areas of where well jointed gneisses are exposed. These rocks are highly weathered. The soils

when are well drained, higher rainfall has triggered the landslides in the area. Extensive deposition of loose

sediments has taken place along the low slope region and in the Payaswini river channel which is a cause of

worry. Rock falls, debris slides and slumps endangering the movement of people may become more

common along the roads unless acted upon.

5. Prevention

1. Rock fall risk along the roads more importantly Madikeri - Sullaya road is to be evaluated in order to avoid

causalities and traffic interruptions. Drapery mesh/the steel wire mesh which can withstand the pounding

force of fall rocks, are to be installed on the vulnerable areas to contain loose and falling debris.

2. People of the district, especially those residing in the vulnerable areas should be prevented from excavating

and removing the materials from the ground.

3. Any human activities which may lead to the obstruction of the natural drainage should be as far as possible

prohibited.

4. Awareness programs should be held throughout the hilly terrain every year before the monsoon so as to

inform them of the impending dangers and low cost disaster management strategies.

5. Most of the areas in Kodagu district are blanketed by thick soil cover of various types over well jointed

rocks. Thickness of various subsurface layers and their characteristics in vulnerable areas are to be

established with the help of Electrical Resistivity Tomography. This also facilitates monitoring of the

hydrological changes in the subsurface.




6. A map showing areas of potential risk of soil and rock movements to reduce the damage and destruction on a

scale of 1: 5000 should be made available to the local authorities. This facilitates spatial development plans

at the municipal level.

7. Landslide hazard maps for use in city/municipal planning or general public are to be made showing

sufficient information including topography, geotechnical properties of materials and landslide hazard

zonation. This will provide ample information for the excavation and construction of civil structures in

populated areas to minimise the number of fatalities and loss to property.

8. The load bearing capacity of near surface soils has to be evaluated by characterizing the geotechnical,

geophysical and structural properties of the soil. The evaluation is necessary as large part of the district has

thick soil cover on which structures (shelters, roads, etc) were built.

9. Detailed investigations on geological, geomorphological and geotechnical features of the vulnerable areas

are to be carried out which are crucial to understand slope stability, which in turn provide basis for

formulation of remedial measures for each vulnerable location.

10. It is to be remembered that neither landslide phenomena may be predicted, nor one can effectively

counteract them in many cases (Skrzypczak et al, 2017). Hence, preventive steps should include the creation

of an efficient system of information on landslides.

11. General public should be made knowledgeable and aware of the causes of landslides and their impacts. It

allows us to minimize the damage caused by sudden and unpredictable movements of the ground. Those

living in the vulnerable areas in Kodagu district should be made aware of the landslide risk even though they

may be reluctant to relocate to safer areas for many reasons.

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