Chapter 2 Nerve Cells and Nerve Impulses. Neurons and How They Work: Link to video Link to video.
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Transcript of © Prentice Hall, 1999. Sensation – An early stage of perception in which neurons in a receptor...
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Sensation – An early stage of perception in which neurons in a receptor create an internal pattern of nerve impulses that represent the conditions that stimulated it – either inside or outside the body
Perception –A process that makes sensory patterns meaningful and more elaborate
Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006
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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006
The brain senses the world indirectly because the sense organs convert
stimulation into the language of the nervous system: neural impulses
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Absolute threshold – Amount of stimulation necessary for a stimulus to be detected
Difference threshold – Smallest amount by which a stimulus can be changed and the difference be detected (also called just noticeable difference – JND)
Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006
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The principle that the jnd for any given sense is a constant fraction or proportion of the stimulation being judged.
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Weber’s law – The JND is always large when the stimulus intensity is high, and small when the stimulus intensity is low
Fechner’s law – S = k log R• S = sensation• R = stimulus• k = constant that differs for each
sensory modality
Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006
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Vision: a candle flame seen from 30 miles on a clear, dark night
Hearing: the tick of a watch from 20 feet in very quiet conditions
Smell: 1 drop of perfume diffused throughout a three-room apartment
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Taste: .0356 ounce of table salt in 529 quarts of water
Touch: a bee wing falling on your cheek from a height of 1 centimeter
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Transduction – Transformation of one form of energy into another – especially the transformation of stimulus information into nerve impulses
Receptors –Specialized neurons that are activated by stimulation and transduce (convert) it into a nerve impulse
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Sensory pathway – Bundles of neurons that carry information from the sense organs to the brain
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definition: below threshold We can process some
information from stimuli too weak to recognize.
effect of subliminal stimulation: a subtle, fleeting effect on thinking
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No. The goal of using subliminal advertising is to increase the likelihood that you will buy a particular product.
Research has repeatedly demonstrated that subliminal advertising cannot change an individual’s behavior.
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Sensory adaptation – Loss of responsiveness in receptor cells after stimulation has remained unchanged for a while
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Signal detection theory – Perceptual judgment as combination of sensation and decision-making processes
Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006
Stimulus eventStimulus event
Neural activityNeural activity
Comparison with Comparison with personal standardpersonal standard
Action (or no action)Action (or no action)
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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006
The senses all operate in much the same way, but each extracts different information
and sends it to its own specialized processing
region in the brain
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wavelength
amplitude
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RRooddss CC
RReecceptors:eptors: rodsrods and and ccoonneess
• 120 million120 million
• peripheryperiphery
• sensitivitysensitivity
• night visionnight vision
• 8 million8 million
• ccentralentral
• cclaritylarity
• ccolor visionolor vision
oonneess
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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006
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lightlight
photo-photo-receptorsreceptors
bipolar bipolar cellscells
ganglion ganglion cellscells
LGNLGNvisual visual cortexcortex
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dark adaptation: increased sensitivity of rods and cones in darknesse.g., entering a darkened room
light adaptation: decreased sensitivity of rods and cones in bright light e.g., waking up at night and turning on a bright light
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hue: subjective experience of “color”
saturation (purity): vividness or richness of a hue
brightness: intensity of the light
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additive color mixing: mixing lights of differing wavelengths
subtractive color mixing: mixing pigments
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Trichromatic theory Opponent-process theory
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There are three types of cones: red, green, and blue.
The colors we see are the result of a combination of the differing amount of light absorbed by the three types of cones.
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This theory only explains the way the cones transduct color.
The trichromatic theory provides an explanation for some types of colorblindness.
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monochromats: people who are totally colorblind
dichromats: people who are blind to either red-green or yellow-blue
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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006
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color-sensitive ganglion cells are arranged in opposing cells: red-green, yellow-blue, blackblack-white (brightness)
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The activation of one cone (at retinal level) inhibits another cone.
This theory explains color vision at the level of the ganglion cells.
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Opponent-process theory may explain color afterimages:
continual viewing of red weakens the ability to inhibit green;
remove red and you see green
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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006
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frequency: the number of cycles per second in a wave— primary determinant of pitch
amplitude: the magnitude (height) of a wave — primary determinant of loudness
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pitch: the frequency of sound vibrations, resulting in a higher/lower tone
overtones: tones that result from sound waves that are multiples of the basic tone
timbre: the “texture” of sound
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hertz (Hz): cycles per second; used to measure pitch
decibel: unit of measurement for the loudness of sounds
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eardrumeardrummiddle middle
earearoval oval
windowwindow
cochlearcochlearorgan of organ of
CortiCorti
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organ of organ of CortiCorti
cochlear cochlear nervenerve
medullamedulla
inferior inferior colliculuscolliculus
medial medial geniculate geniculate
nucleusnucleus
auditory auditory cortexcortex
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place theory frequency theory
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vibration of the basilar membrane (B.M.) at different places results in different pitches/frequencies
near the oval window (where B.M. is thinner)--higher frequencies; lower frequencies occur farther from oval window
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The speed of vibration determines pitch:
The faster the vibration, the higher the pitch.
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auditory neurons fire in sequence: first one, then another, then perhaps a third, and finally the first one is able to fire again
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conductive hearing loss: vibrations are not transmitted effectively from the eardrum to the oval window due to a stiffening of the connections between the middle ear bones
tinnitus: constantly hearing a steady, high-pitched hum
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Odorant binding protein (OBP) makes the detection of odors possible.
A nasal gland coats airborne molecules with OBP to facilitate detection by the receptors in the olfactory epithelium.
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receptor receptor cellscells
olfactory olfactory bulbbulb
amygdalaamygdala
thalamusthalamushypo-hypo-
thalamusthalamustemporal temporal
lobelobe
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90C
orre
ct id
enti
fica
tion
(%
)
Scent to be identified
coffeeleatherbubble gummustardbologna
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Women have a better sense of smell than men.
The ability to smell diminishes with age. Smell acuity is greatest during early adulthood (ages 20-40).
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Pheromones are chemicals produced by an animal that affects the behavior of another animal through scent.
Receptors in the vomeronasal organ detect pheromones.
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Yes, humans can detect pheromones, but detection typically does not alter behavior.
Menstrual synchronicity may be the one exception.
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Taste buds are the structures on the tongue that contain taste receptor cells.
An adult has about 10,000 taste buds.
Taste receptors die and are replaced every 7 days.
The number of taste buds decrease with age.
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taste taste budsbuds medullamedulla thalamusthalamus
primary primary somatosensory somatosensory
cortexcortex
anterior-anterior-insular insular cortexcortex
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provides specific information about muscle movement, changes in posture, and strain on muscles and joints
receptors: stretch receptors and Golgi tendon organs (provide information about stretching and contraction of individual muscles)
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The sense of equilibrium and awareness of body position in space.
2 types of vestibular senses: — body rotation — gravitation and movement
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relays messages about the speed and direction of body rotation
stimulus: movement of the head receptors: hair cells in the
semicircular canals
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provides information about gravitation and movement forward and backward, up and down
stimulus: movement of body and/or gravity
receptors: hair cells in the vestibular sacs
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Receptors in the skin provide information about:
— touch — temperature — pain
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A chemical sense in which certain chemicals are released when injury (tissue damage) occurs.
These chemicals activate pain receptors.
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A “gate” in the spinal cord either opens to permit pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers to reach the brain or closes to prevent their passage.
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Fovea – Area of sharpest vision in the retina
Retina – Light-sensitive layer at the back of the eyeball
Photoreceptors – Light-sensitive cells in the retina that convert light energy to neural impulses
Rods – Sensitive to dimlight but not colors
Cones – Sensitive tocolors but not dim light
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Optic nerve – Bundle of neurons that carries visual information from the retina to the brain
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Blind spot – Point where the optic nerve exits the eye and where there are no photoreceptors
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Visual cortex –Part of the brain – the occipital cortex – where visual sensations are processed
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Color –Psychological sensation derived from the wavelength of visible light – color, itself, is not a property of the external world
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Electromagnetic spectrum – Entire range of electromagnetic energy, including radio waves, X-rays, microwaves, and visible light
Visible spectrum – Tiny part of the electromagnetic spectrum to which our eyes are sensitive
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Color blindness – Vision disorder that prevents an individual from discriminating certain colors
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Brightness – Sensation caused by the intensity of light waves
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WavelengthWavelength
ColorColor
Intensity Intensity (amplitude)(amplitude)
BrightnessBrightness
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The Physics of Sound• Frequency –
Number of cycles completed by a wave in a given amount of time
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Low Frequency High Frequency
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The Physics of Sound
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High Amplitude Low Amplitude
Amplitude – Physical strength of a wave
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Tympanic membrane –The eardrum
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Cochlea –Where sound waves are transduced
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Basilar membrane –Thin strip of tissue sensitive to vibrations
Cochlea
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Auditory nerve –Neural pathway connecting the ear and the brain
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Auditory cortex – Portion of the temporal lobe that processes sounds
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Pitch – Sensory characteristic of sound produced by the frequency of the sound wave
Loudness – Sensory characteristic of sound produced by the amplitude (intensity) of the sound wave
Timbre – Quality of a sound wave that derives from the wave’s complexity
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Conduction deafness –An inability to hear resulting from damage to structures of the middle or inner ear
Nerve deafness –An inability to hear, linked to a deficit in the body’s ability to transmit impulses from the cochlea to the brain, usually involving the auditory nerve or higher auditory processing centers
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Vestibular sense –Sense of body orientation with respect to gravity
Kinesthetic sense –Sense of body position and movement of body parts relative to each other
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Olfaction –Sense of smell
Olfactory bulbs –Brain sites of olfactory processing
Pheromones –Chemical signals released by organisms to communicate with other members of the species
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Gustation – The sense of taste
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Taste buds –Receptors for taste (primarily on the upper side of the tongue)
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Touch Warmth Cold
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Placebos –Substances that appear to be drugs but are not
Placebo effect –A response to a placebo caused by subjects’ belief that they are taking real drugs
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Perception brings meaning to sensation, so perception
produces an interpretation of the external world, not a
perfect representation of it
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Percept – Meaningful product of a perception
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Feature detectors – Cells in the cortex that specialize in extracting certain features of a stimulus
Binding problem – A major unsolved mystery in cognitive psychology, concerning the physical processes used by the brain to combine many aspects of sensation to a single percept
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Bottom-up processing – Analysis that emphasizes characteristics of the stimulus, rather than internal concepts
Top-down processing – Emphasizes perceiver's expectations, memories, and other cognitive factors
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Perceptual constancy – Ability to recognize the same object under different conditions, such as changes in illumination, distance, or location
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shape constancy: a tendency to see an object as the same shape no matter what angle it is viewed from.
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figure: entity perceived to stand apart from the background
ground: background against which a figure appears
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Monocular distance cue in which one object, by partially blocking another, is perceived as being closer.
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The higher on the horizontal plane an object is, the farther away it appears.
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Two parallel lines appear to converge at the horizon.
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Objects seen at greater distances appear to be smoother and less textured.
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Shadows often appear on the parts of objects that are more distant.
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Illusions – Demonstrably incorrect experience of a stimulus pattern, shared by others in the same perceptual environment
Ambiguous figures – Images that are capable of more than one interpretation
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Do you see or ?
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The Herman Grid
Do you see small gray squares between the black squares?
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Learning-based inference –View that perception is primarily shaped by learning, rather than innate factors
Perceptual set –Readiness to detect a particular stimulus in a given context
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B
A
Which box is bigger, A or B?
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Gestalt psychology – View that much of perception is shaped by innate factors built into the brain
Figure – Part of a pattern that commands attention
Ground – Part of a pattern that does not command attention; the background
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Subjective contours – Boundaries that are perceived but do not appear in the stimulus pattern
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Closure – Tendency to fill in gaps in figures and see incomplete figures as complete
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SimilaritySimilarity
ProximityProximity
ContinuityContinuity
Common fateCommon fate
PrägnanzPrägnanz
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ABIRD
IN THETHE HAND
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