Mapped the DNA sequence for all our Mapped the DNA sequence for all our chromosomeschromosomes

QUESTIONS THAT THIS PROJECT WILL QUESTIONS THAT THIS PROJECT WILL SOME DAY ANSWER!SOME DAY ANSWER!

How are genomes organized?How are genomes organized? How is gene expression controlled?How is gene expression controlled? Explain how cellular growth and Explain how cellular growth and

differentiation are under genetic control?differentiation are under genetic control? How does evolution occur?How does evolution occur?

only 2%only 2% of genome code for proteinsof genome code for proteins Genome is made up of 20,000 genes coding Genome is made up of 20,000 genes coding

for proteinsfor proteins RNA is used in gene expressionRNA is used in gene expression Human genes are spliced many ways to Human genes are spliced many ways to

encode for different versions of proteinsencode for different versions of proteins

Use the gene discoveries to cure Use the gene discoveries to cure diseases such as cystic fibrosis, diseases such as cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy and colon cancermuscular dystrophy and colon cancer

Medical treatment and therapiesMedical treatment and therapies

BioinformaticsBioinformatics

-use of knowledge of biology and -use of knowledge of biology and computer science and information computer science and information technologytechnology

-huge data base that stores, analyzes -huge data base that stores, analyzes and integrates genetic infoand integrates genetic info

-compares genes in diff. organisms to -compares genes in diff. organisms to find gene functions, “gene families” find gene functions, “gene families”

Study of an organism’s proteinStudy of an organism’s protein

-structure, function, interactions-structure, function, interactions

Use of gel electrophoresis that separates Use of gel electrophoresis that separates proteins so we can figure out which cells are proteins so we can figure out which cells are diseaseddiseased

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DNA samples from many genes are organized onto DNA samples from many genes are organized onto a microscope slide using a radioactive wash of a microscope slide using a radioactive wash of mRNA mRNA

This identifies active cancer genes ( glow)This identifies active cancer genes ( glow)

Treating a genetic disorder by introducing a gene Treating a genetic disorder by introducing a gene into a cell or by correcting a gene defect in a cell’s into a cell or by correcting a gene defect in a cell’s genomegenome

Good for treating disorder resulting from deficiency Good for treating disorder resulting from deficiency of single enzyme or proteinof single enzyme or protein

Obstacles for inserting genes safely and directly Obstacles for inserting genes safely and directly into eukaryotic chromosomesinto eukaryotic chromosomes

What is gene therapy? Introducing normal

genes into cells to correct certain disorders

Works best for disorders that result from the loss of a single protein or enzyme Hemophilia Cystic fibrosis

How does it work? Isolate the functional gene Insert the healthy gene into a viral vector Introduce the recombinant virus into the patientThe healthy copy of the gene will temporarily

produce the missing protein

What are some of the problems with gene therapy?Short-lived genes ~ requires multiple rounds

of gene therapy Immune response ~ attacks viral particlesProblems with viral particles recovering their

ability to cause diseaseNot effective with multi-gene disordersVery expensive!

1)1) DNA cloning: recombinant DNA using DNA cloning: recombinant DNA using plasmidsplasmids

Been around since 1970’sBeen around since 1970’s Uses: Uses: Insulin ProductionHuman Growth Hormone Insect resistance in plantsBacteria to clean up oil spills

A fermentor used to growrecombinant

bacteria.

generates an animal that has the same generates an animal that has the same DNA as another existing animalDNA as another existing animal

-take DNA out of existing egg and -take DNA out of existing egg and replace with DNA from an adult cellreplace with DNA from an adult cell

1952 – First animal cloned = Northern Leopard Frog

Dolly & her surrogate mother (Born – 1996, Died – 2003)

5 genetically identical cloned pigs in 2000

Prometea - First cloned horse & her DONOR & surrogate mother (2005)

Why Clone?Mass produce animals with special qualities that could help in the production & manufacturing of important medical drugs

Pet replacementRepopulate endangered or extinct animals

These goats contain the human gene for a clot-dissolving protein that is produced in their milk.

Expensive $50,000 (cat) - $150,000 (dog)

Inefficient (>90% attempts fail) 276/277 failed with sheep 840/841 failed with horse (.12%

success rate!)

Cloned animals usually have weakened immune systems, more prone to infections

use of embryos for researchuse of embryos for research

-harvest stem cells to be used in -harvest stem cells to be used in research to treat diseaseresearch to treat disease

EX’sEX’s Modified goats to produce human Modified goats to produce human

blood clotting protein in milkblood clotting protein in milk

Cloned organs from pigs like hearts, Cloned organs from pigs like hearts, livers, and kidneyslivers, and kidneys

Production of human embryos for research NOT for cloning a human

organism Stop growth after 6 days For stem cells that can be used to

study development and treat disease

Controversial – “Clump of cells” vs. “Human”

More to come on Stem Cells….

Cells in the body that do not have a Cells in the body that do not have a specific function until the right chemical specific function until the right chemical signals are given to themsignals are given to them

All 220 types of cells arise from stem cellsAll 220 types of cells arise from stem cells

Divide without limit to repair other cellsDivide without limit to repair other cells

Totipotent-give rise to all the different types of cells (total potential)

Pluripotent-give rise to all cells except for those needed to develop the fetus

Multipotent-give rise to only a small number of different cells

Early embryonic (8 cell stage)

Blastocyst embryonic (7 day)

Fetal

Umbilical cord

Adult

IPS

Totipotent

Pluripotent

Pluripotent

Multipotent

Multipotent

Reverse chemical signals to get embryonic

Umbilical cord-

Valuable because very young and fewer mutations

Used in blood, immune and bone disorders

Adult Stem Cells

Found in infants and children

Found in all ready developed tissue

Found in minute quantities

May not multiply as well

May contain DNA abnormalities

Limb amputation Spinal cord injuries Burns Diabetes Heart disease Neurological disorders

What if you cut off part of your thumb?

How will personal genetic info be used?How will personal genetic info be used?

Make sure genetic engineering is safe and not Make sure genetic engineering is safe and not misusedmisused

Growing GEC that harm the environmentGrowing GEC that harm the environment

Human embryo cloning in future (gene Human embryo cloning in future (gene selection)selection)

Pharmaceutical products Pharmaceutical products - insulin, growth - insulin, growth hormone, interferon, phenylalanie (sweetners)hormone, interferon, phenylalanie (sweetners)

VaccinesVaccines- contain viruses or bacteria that cannot - contain viruses or bacteria that cannot cause disease (physical or chemical alteration), cause disease (physical or chemical alteration), carry identifying protein (rare occasion can cause carry identifying protein (rare occasion can cause disease)disease)

Increasing Agriculture yieldsIncreasing Agriculture yields-genes transferred -genes transferred to produce enzymes that kill hornworms in tomatoesto produce enzymes that kill hornworms in tomatoes

- make plants resistant to disease- make plants resistant to disease- make strawberries resistant to frost damage- make strawberries resistant to frost damage- wheat, cotton, soybeans resistant to herbicides- wheat, cotton, soybeans resistant to herbicides- isolate, clone, transplant genes from N-fixing - isolate, clone, transplant genes from N-fixing

bacteria to grow plants in nitrogen poor soils (no bacteria to grow plants in nitrogen poor soils (no fertilizer)fertilizer)

Genetically Modified Foods (engineered)Genetically Modified Foods (engineered)-could contain toxic proteins or substances -could contain toxic proteins or substances

causing allergiescausing allergies

- FDA requires evidence on thisFDA requires evidence on this- If food contains a new organic cpd., FDA If food contains a new organic cpd., FDA

requires approval before product introducedrequires approval before product introduced- No labels needed if modified product is the No labels needed if modified product is the

same as nontransgenic cropsame as nontransgenic crop- Ex. Changed a gene for an enzyme to ripen Ex. Changed a gene for an enzyme to ripen

tomatoes without becoming softtomatoes without becoming soft

Genetically Modified CropsGenetically Modified Crops- could spread into wild and wipe out native could spread into wild and wipe out native

speciesspecies

- Could spread to other species in neighboring Could spread to other species in neighboring areas (I.e.-rice and lawn grasses exchange areas (I.e.-rice and lawn grasses exchange genes in their pollen with native plants related genes in their pollen with native plants related to them)to them)

- Could cause “superweeds” that could take Could cause “superweeds” that could take over large areas of land (hurt native plants)over large areas of land (hurt native plants)