小马托福 400-663-1986

破解托福阅读中的最难题型 ---- 小结题 / 图表题 小马过河托福阅读老师白凤娇

小马托福 400-663-1986

Opportunists Competitors

Scholars have wondered about the meaning of the subjects, location, and overpainting of Lascaux cave images.

小马托福 400-663-1986总结题的误区一

有人说：总结题选文章的主要观点， 一定是这样么？

小马托福 400-663-1986

Warm-upThe Long-term Stability of Ecosystems

小马托福 400-663-1986

1Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term “succession” to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes—in plant numbers and the mix of species—are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years. 2 An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year’s time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.

小马托福 400-663-1986

3 At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather to pests.

小马托福 400-663-1986

4 The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what “stability” means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state.

 

小马托福 400-663-1986

5 Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability—just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle. 

小马托福 400-663-1986

6Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.

 

小马托福 400-663-1986

 7 Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness” of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.

小马托福 400-663-1986文章的主要观点：

P1 ：介绍‘ succession’ ‘pioneer community’‘cc’ 定义；P2 ： We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.

P3 ： At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable

小马托福 400-663-1986

4 The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what “stability” means. 5Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity.

小马托福 400-663-1986

6Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. 7 Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness” of the environment

小马托福 400-663-1986

○The changes that occur in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the climax community can be seen in one human generation.

○A high degree of species diversity does not always result in a stable ecosystem.

○The level of resilience in a plant community contributes to its long-term stability.

○Ecologists agree that climax communities are the most stable types of ecosystems.

○Disagreements over the meaning of the term “stability” make it difficult to identify the most stable ecosystems.

○The resilience of climax communities makes them resistant to destruction caused by humans. 

小马托福 400-663-1986

小结：应该看什么？首尾段的首尾句如果段首一句和第二句有因果、转折的关系，都要读。如果段首一句是例子，去段尾找观点

小马托福 400-663-1986总结题的误区二

有人说，总结题不选细节， 可是。。。

小马托福 400-663-1986

Geothermal Energy1. Earth's internal heat, fueled by radioactivity, provides the energy for plate tectonics and continental drift, mountain building, and earthquakes. It can also be harnessed to drive electric generators and heat homes. Geothermal energy becomes available in a practical form when underground heat is transferred by water that is heated as it passes through a subsurface region of hot rocks (a heat reservoir) that may be hundreds or thousands of feet deep. The water is usually naturally occurring groundwater that seeps down along fractures in the rock; less typically, the water is artificially introduced by being pumped down from the surface. The water is brought to the surface, as a liquid or steam, through holes drilled for the purpose.

小马托福 400-663-1986

2. By far the most abundant form of geothermal energy occurs at the relatively low temperatures of 80° to 180° centigrade. Water circulated through heat reservoirs in this temperature range is able to extract enough heat to warm residential, commercial, and industrial spaces. More than 20,000 apartments in France are now heated by warm underground water drawn from a heat reservoir in a geologic structure near Paris called the Paris Basin. Iceland sits on a volcanic structure known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland, is entirely heated by geothermal energy derived from volcanic heat.

小马托福 400-663-1986

3.Geothermal reservoirs with temperatures above 180° centigrade are useful for generating electricity. They occur primarily in regions of recent volcanic activity as hot, dry rock; natural hot water; or natural steam. The latter two sources are limited to those few areas where surface water seeps down through underground faults or fractures to reach deep rocks heated by the recent activity of molten rock material. The world's largest supply of natural steam occurs at The Geysers, 120 kilometers north of San Francisco, California. In the 1990s enough electricity to meet about half the needs of San Francisco was being generated there. This facility was then in its third decade of production and was beginning to show signs of decline, perhaps because of over development. By the late 1990s some 70 geothermal electric-generating plants were in operation in California, Utah, Nevada, and Hawaii, generating enough power to supply about a million people. Eighteen countries now generate electricity using geothermal heat.

小马托福 400-663-1986

4.Extracting heat from very hot, dry rocks presents a more difficult problem: the rocks must be fractured to permit the circulation of water, and the water must be provided artificially. The rocks are fractured by water pumped down at very high pressures. Experiments are under way to develop technologies for exploiting this resource.

小马托福 400-663-1986

5. Like most other energy sources, geothermal energy presents some environmental problems. The surface of the ground can sink if hot groundwater is withdrawn without being replaced. In addition, water heated geothermally can contain salts and toxic materials dissolved from the hot rock. These waters present a disposal problem if they are not returned to the ground from which they were removed.

小马托福 400-663-1986

6. The contribution of geothermal energy to the world's energy future is difficult to estimate. Geothermal energy is in a sense not renewable, because in most cases the heat would be drawn out of a reservoir much more rapidly than it would be replaced by the very slow geological processes by which heat flows through solid rock into a heat reservoir. However, in many places (for example, California, Hawaii, the Philippines, Japan, Mexico, the rift valleys of Africa)the resource is potentially so large that its future will depend on the economics of production. At present, we can make efficient use of only naturally occurring hot water or steam deposits. Although the potential is enormous, it is likely that in the near future geothermal energy can make important local contributions only where the resource is close to the user and the economics are favorable, as they are in California, New Zealand, and Iceland. Geothermal energy probably will not make large-scale contributions to the world energy budget until well into the twenty-first century, if ever.

小马托福 400-663-1986

Heat reservoirs with a temperature from 80° to 180° centigrade can be used, as in France and Iceland, to heat buildings.A number of countries now use geothermal reservoirs that contain water or steam above 180° centigrade to generate electricity.

Most heat reservoirs with a temperature above 180° centigrade cannot be used for energy because they are usually too close to recent volcanic activity.The sinking of land above heat reservoirs and other environmental problems arise when water is pumped into a heat reservoir under high pressure.Experiments are under way to determine if geothermally heated waters could be used as a source of certain minerals that have been dissolved out of hot rocks deep within Earth.A number of issues, including how to extract heat from reservoirs that do not have a natural supply of water, will significantly limit the use of geothermal energy for the foreseeable future.

小马托福 400-663-1986

总结题的奥秘 排除法 细节题 文章结构

小马托福 400-663-1986破解总结题一

排除法 初步排除信息明显错误的选项； 对应选项与原文；

小马托福 400-663-1986破解总结题二

细节题Q2. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is NOT true of climax communities?细节题选项： They remain stable for at least 500 years at a time.

○The changes that occur in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the climax community can be seen in one human generation.

小马托福 400-663-1986

Q6. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true of climax communities?细节题选项： They can be considered both the most and the least stable communities.

○Ecologists agree that climax communities are the most stable types of ecosystems

小马托福 400-663-1986破解总结题三

文章结构总分结构（现象解释型：旧理论 + 新理论）时间发展顺序结构对比结构（多为图表题）

小马托福 400-663-1986 结构特点

Structure Conclusion Topic ( 结构 )

Body Sub topic ( 结构 )+ analysis/evidence

Introduction Background+ Topic( 结构 )

小马托福 400-663-1986

现象解释类 （ The Cambrian Explosion ）

文章结构： P1 ：定义， P2 ：科学家的疑问 P3 ：关于缺少 fossil 的解释，P4: E formation---------P5: T formation--------P6 BS formation

P 7 why rapid?

Little is known about the stages of evolution during the Cambrian period, in part because early animals were soft bodied and could fossilize only under particular conditions.

While animal fossils from before the Cambrian explosion have no modern descendants, many animals that evolved during the Cambrian explosion can be assigned to modern groups. (BS)

Although the reasons for the rapid evolution of animals during the Cambrian period are not known, one proposed explanation is an abundance of niches with a lack of competitors.

小马托福 400-663-1986

现象解释类 （ Infantile Amnesia ）

文章结构： P1 ：定义， P2 ： 3 个旧理论，P3 ：理论一 P4 ：理论二 P5 ：理论三 P6 ：支持理论三

P7 ：三理论的关系 + 结论

Frontal lobe function of the brain may need to develop before memory retrieval can occur. （理论一）The opportunity to hear chronologically narrated stories may help three-year-old children produce long-lasting memories.( 理论二 )

The contrasting ways in which young children and adults process information may determine their relative success in remembering.（理论三）

小马托福 400-663-1986

时间顺序类 （ The Origins of Cetaceans ）

文章结构： P1 末尾结论：直至最近才有过渡性的动物化石，P2 、 3 ： P 化石 ------P4 ：B 化石 ------ P5 ： A 化石

Recent discoveries of fossils have helped to show the link between land mammals and cetaceans. （ A 化石 /1 段）The discovery of Ambulocetus natans provided evidence for a whale that lived both on land and at sea. （ A 化石）Fossils thought to be transitional forms between walking mammals and swimming whales were found.（ A 化石 /1 段）

小马托福 400-663-1986

时间顺序类 （ Early Cinema ）

P1 ：首句：直至 projection 出现，电影才成为大众消费P2 ： K P3 ： projection 的出现 P4 、 5 、 6projection/cinema 的影响

Thomas Edison‘s design of the Kinetoscope inspired the development of large screen projection. （ projection ）The development of projection technology made it possible to project images on a large screen （ projection ）Once film images could be projected, the cinema became form of mass consumption. （ projection ）

小马托福 400-663-1986

时间顺序类 （ Powering the Industrial Revolution ）P1 ：工业革命的重大变革之一即动力；P2 ： Watt 改善蒸汽机P3 ： Watt 蒸汽机的影响：工业及照明P4 ： Watt 蒸汽机对交通的影响

Watt’s steam engine played a leading role in greatly increasing industrial production of all kinds. （对工业的影响）In the mid-1700s James Watt transformed an inefficient steam pump into a fast, flexible, fuel-efficient engine. （ Watt 改善蒸汽机）The availability of steam engines was a major factor in the development of railroads, which solved a major transportation problem. （对交通的影响）

小马托福 400-663-1986总结题 TIPS

看 titleHeadline 常常是 introduction part ，即文章的一二段优先排除带有绝对词的选项，

小马托福 400-663-1986The Long-term Stability of Ecosystems

○The changes that occur in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the climax community can be seen in one human generation.

○A high degree of species diversity does not always result in a stable ecosystem.

○The level of resilience in a plant community contributes to its long-term stability.

○Ecologists agree that climax communities are the most stable types of ecosystems.

○Disagreements over the meaning of the term “stability” make it difficult to identify the most stable ecosystems.

○The resilience of climax communities makes them resistant to destruction caused by humans.

小马托福 400-663-1986The Long-term Stability of Ecosystems

○The changes that occur in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the climax community can be seen in one human generation.

○A high degree of species diversity does not always result in a stable ecosystem.

○The level of resilience in a plant community contributes to its long-term stability.

○Ecologists agree that climax communities are the most stable types of ecosystems.

○Disagreements over the meaning of the term “stability” make it difficult to identify the most stable ecosystems.

○The resilience of climax communities makes them resistant to destruction caused by humans.

小马托福 400-663-1986图表题

Opportunists Competitors

Answer Choices ○Vary frequently the amount of energy they spend in body maintenance ○ Have mechanisms for protecting themselves from predation ○Succeed in locations where other organisms have been removed ○Have relatively short life spans ○Invest energy in the growth of large, strong structures ○Have populations that are unstable in response to climate conditions ○Can rarely find suitable soil for reproduction ○Produce individuals that can withstand changes in the environmental conditions ○Reproduce in large numbers

小马托福 400-663-1986图表题

文章多为对比（ A vs. B ）结构 建议回到原文找到过渡段； 选择正确信息，归类

小马托福 400-663-1986

Opportunists and Competitors

看各段句首，找过渡段全文共 7 段第 7 段段首为 The opposite of an opportunist is a competitor.

小马托福 400-663-1986

Swimming Machines

第八段（过渡段）There are adaptations that increase the amount of forward thrust as well as those that reduce drag.

REDUCING WATER RESISTANCE INCREASING THRUST

●●●

●●

○The absence of scales from most of the body ○The ability to take advantage of eddies ○The ability to feed and reproduce while swimming ○Eyes that do not protrude ○Fins that are stiff, narrow, and smooth ○The habit of swimming with the mouth open ○A high, narrow tail with swept-back tips

小马托福 400-663-1986

Geology and Landscape

第四段（过渡段）There are adaptations that increase the amount of forward thrust as well as those that reduce drag.

CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESSES

DESTRUCTIVE PROCESSSES

 ●●●

●●

 

○Collision of Earth's crustal plates○Separation of continents○Wind-driven sand○Formation of grass roots in soil○Earthquakes○Volcanic activity○Weather processes

小马托福 400-663-1986

信息正确是王道！ 主要信息

小马托福 400-663-1986

TOEFL 必胜！