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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

A. ricordii

A. distichus perches onfence posts and othersunny surfaces.

A. insolitus usuallyperches on shadybranches.

A. insolitus

A. alinigerA. distichus

A. cybotes

A. etheridgei

A. christophei

3

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Ocean

Chthamalus

Low tide

Experiment

Low tide

High tide

High tide

Ocean

Balanus

Balanusrealized niche

Chthamalusrealized niche

Chthamalusfundamental niche

Results

4

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Beak depth (mm)

Beakdepth

G. fuliginosa

G. fuliginosa,allopatric

G. fortis,allopatric

G. fortis

Los Hermanos

Daphne

Santa María, San Cristóbal Sympatricpopulations

Pe

rcen

tag

es

of

ind

ivid

ual

s in

eac

h s

ize

cla

ss

6040

20

0

6040

20

0

6040

20

08 10 12 14 16

5

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(a) Crypticcoloration

Canyontree frog

(b) Aposematiccoloration

(c) Batesian mimicry: A harmless species mimicsa harmful one.

(d) Müllerian mimicry: Two unpalatablespecies mimic each other.

Poisondart frog

Nonvenomoushawkmoth larva

Venomous greenparrot snake

Cuckoo bee

Yellow jacket

6

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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

(a) Ants (genus Pseudomyrmex) inacacia tree

(b) Area cleared by ants around anacacia tree

8

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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

(a) Salt marsh with Juncus(foreground)

(b)With

JuncusWithoutJuncus

Nu

mb

er o

f p

lan

t sp

ecie

s

6

4

2

0

8

10

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Community 2B: 5%A: 80% C: 5% D: 10%

Community 1B: 25%A: 25% C: 25% D: 25%

DCBA

11

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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Quaternary consumers:carnivores

Tertiary consumers:carnivores

Secondary consumers:carnivores

Primary consumers:herbivores and zooplankton

Primary producers:plants and phytoplankton

13

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Smallertoothedwhales

Spermwhales

Baleenwhales

Crab-eaterseals

Elephant seals Leopard

seals

Birds

Carnivorousplankton

Humans

Fishes Squids

Krill

Phyto-plankton

Copepods

14

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Experiment

Results

Year

Nu

mb

er o

f sp

ecie

sp

rese

nt

20

15

10

01963’64

Without Pisaster (experimental)

With Pisaster (control)

5

’66’65 ’67 ’69’68 ’70 ’72’71 ’73

15

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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Nu

mb

er o

f ta

xa

20

15

10

30

0.9

Index of disturbance intensity (log scale)

25

1.11.0 1.2 1.41.3 1.5 1.71.6 1.8

35

1.9 2.0

17

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(a) Soon after fire (b) One year after fire

18

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Spruce stage Alder stage

Pioneer stage Dryas stage

Alaska

GlacierBay

Kilometers

19411907

1860

1760

0 5 10 15

1 2

34

19

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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Ver

teb

rate

sp

ecie

s ri

chn

ess

(lo

g s

cale

)

100

50

10

0Potential evapotranspiration (mm/yr)

200

1,000500 1,500 2,000

21

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Nu

mb

er o

f p

lan

t sp

ecie

s (l

og

sca

le)

100

50

10

5

Area of island (hectares) (log scale)

200

103100 104 106105

400

25

10

Results

22

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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 24