© 2013 Cengage Learning

OutlineOutline

The Co-Evolution of Language and Human Culture

Cultural Influences on Verbal Language The Structure of Language Culture and Language Acquisition Language Differences Across Cultures Language And Thought – The Sapir Whorf

Hypothesis

Outline (cont’d.)Outline (cont’d.)

Cultural Influences on Nonverbal Communication Culture and Gesture Culture and Gaze Culture and Voice Culture, Interpersonal Space, and Touch

Outline (cont’d.)Outline (cont’d.)

Intracultural and Intercultural Communication Cultural Influences on Encoding and Decoding Intracultural and Intercultural Communication Improving Intercultural Communication

Bilingualism and Culture Psychological Differences as a Function of Language Perceptions of Bilinguals Monolingualism and Ethnocentrism

Conclusion

THE CO-EVOLUTION OF THE CO-EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE AND

CULTURECULTURE

The Co-Evolution of Language The Co-Evolution of Language and Culture and Culture

Evolution of human cultures associated with evolution of ability for verbal language

Language facilitates creation of shared intentionality

Human cultures exist because of the ability to have language

Language is the universal psychological ability in humans

Each culture creates its own unique language Reflects differences and reinforces cultures

CULTURAL INFLUENCES CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON VERBAL LANGUAGEON VERBAL LANGUAGE

The Structure of LanguageThe Structure of Language

Lexicon: words contained in language Syntax and grammar: system of rules governing

word forms and how words should be strung together to form meaningful utterances

Phonology: system of rules governing how words should sound

Semantics: what words mean Pragmatics: system of rules governing how

language is used and understood in social contexts

Culture and Language AcquisitionCulture and Language Acquisition

All humans have ability to acquire language Infants produce same range of phonemes across

cultures Through interactions with others, infants’ sound

production is shaped and reinforced

Elemental sounds become associated with meanings (morphemes) Gradually combined into words (lexicons) and sentences

Culture provides rules for phonology and how words are put together to form meanings

Language Differences Language Differences Across CulturesAcross Cultures

Culture and lexicons: Culture influences self-other referents (what we call

ourselves and others) American English: simple use of self-other referents Japanese: more complex self-other referents

Culture and pragmatics: Culture influences pragmatics (rules for how language

is used and understood in different social contexts) High-context vs. low-context cultures Honorific speech: denotes status differences

Language and Thought: The Sapir–Language and Thought: The Sapir–Whorf HypothesisWhorf Hypothesis

Sapir–Whorf hypothesis (linguistic relativity): speakers of different languages think differently because of differences in their languages

Challenges to Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Berlin and Kay (1969): 11 basic color terms form a

universal hierarchy Pinker (1995): thought can be formed without words

and language

Fishman (1960): Sapir-Whorf hypothesis ordered by levels of complexity

* Least sophisticated** Most sophisticated

CULTURAL INFLUENCES CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON NONVERBAL ON NONVERBAL COMMUNICATIONCOMMUNICATION

Cultural Influences on Nonverbal Cultural Influences on Nonverbal CommunicationCommunication

Nonverbal behaviors: Facial expressions, nonverbal vocal cues, gestures,

body postures, interpersonal distance, touching behaviors, gaze and visual attention

Bulk of messages conveyed nonverbally: Nonverbal channels more important in understanding

meaning and emotion states Most people consciously attend to verbal language

Culture and Gestures Culture and Gestures

Gestures: hand movements used to illustrate speech and convey verbal meaning

Speech illustrators: movements directly tied to speech; illustrate or highlight what is being said

Cultures differ in both amount and type of various illustrative gestures

Emblems: culture-specific gestures convey meaning without words

Culture and GazeCulture and Gaze

Gaze: powerful nonverbal behavior with evolutionary roots in animal behavior Gaze associated with dominance, power, aggression,

affiliation, and nurturance

Cultures create rules concerning gazing and visual attention

“Contact cultures” vs. “noncontact cultures” Gaze often used as nonverbal sign of respect

Look at person: sign of respect in U.S. Look away: sign of respect in other cultures

Culture and Voice Culture and Voice

Voice contains many characteristics that go beyond speech in communicating messages

Paralinguistic cues: Tone of voice, intonation, pitch, speech rate, use of

silence, and volume

Emotional states universally conveyed through voice include anger, disgust, and sadness

Cultures differ in facilitating voice and verbal style to illustrate and amplify speech Expressive cultures vs. less expressive cultures

Culture, Interpersonal Space, Culture, Interpersonal Space, and Touch and Touch

Proxemics: use of space in interpersonal interactions

Cultures differ in interpersonal spaces they allot to intimate, personal, social, and public situations

Interpersonal distance helps to regulate intimacy by controlling sensory exposures

Haptics: non-verbal behavior involving touch “Contact” culture vs. “noncontact” culture

Violations of space and touch produce aversive consequences

INTRACULTURAL AND INTRACULTURAL AND INTERCULTURAL INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATIONCOMMUNICATION

Intracultural and Intercultural Intracultural and Intercultural CommunicationCommunication

Messages: information and meanings exchanged when people communicate

Encoding: process by which people select, imbed messages, and send signals to others

Signals: observable behaviors carrying messages encoded during communication

Channels: specific sensory modalities by which signals are sent and messages retrieved

Decoding: process of receiving signals and translating signals into meaningful messages

Cultural Influences on Encoding Cultural Influences on Encoding and Decodingand Decoding

Decoding rules develop with encoding rules and are part of development of communication skills

Cultural decoding rules involve: Ethnocentrism, filters, emotions, value judgments,

stereotypes/expectations, and social cognitions

Cultures share encoding and decoding rules People of same culture develop set of expectations

about communication

Decoding rules, with emotions/value judgments, form basis of “filters” used in viewing world

Intracultural and Intercultural Intracultural and Intercultural CommunicationCommunication

Intracultural communication: communication among people of same cultural background

Intercultural communication: communication between people of different cultural backgrounds

Potential obstacles to effective intercultural communication: Assumptions of similarities, language differences,

nonverbal misinterpretations, preconceptions and stereotypes, tendency to evaluate, high anxiety or tension, uncertainty and ambiguity, and conflict

Improving Intercultural Improving Intercultural CommunicationCommunication

Mindfulness: Allows for ethnorelativism

Uncertainty reduction: Allows for focus on content of signals and messages

Face: Important to be mindful of appearances and potential

shame associated with threat to those appearances

Emotion regulation: Controlling negative emotions will allow for more

constructive intercultural process

BILINGUALISM AND BILINGUALISM AND CULTURECULTURE

Psychological Differences as a Psychological Differences as a Function of LanguageFunction of Language

Majority of individuals who speak English also speak at least one other language fluently

Bilinguals have two mental representations of culture encoded in their minds

Bilinguals show different personalities depending on if responses are in first language

Code frame switching: navigating back and forth from one cultural meaning system to the other when accessing one language or another

Perceptions of BilingualsPerceptions of Bilinguals

Perception that bilinguals lack intelligence : Takes time to respond in second language and thus

appearance of having cognitive difficulties

Foreign language processing difficulties: Arise due to lack of fluency in speaking language, and

because of uncertainty or ambiguity about intended meaning of messages

Foreign language effect: Temporary decline in thinking ability of people who

use second language

Monolingualism and EthnocentrismMonolingualism and Ethnocentrism

Americans are notoriously ignorant of languages other than English

Ignorance of other cultures often accompanied by ethnocentric view rejecting need to learn, understand, and appreciate other languages, customs, and cultures

Americans are most monolingual of all peoples of world Thus, language is intimately tied to culture

CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION

ConclusionConclusion

Language plays critical role in transmission, maintenance, and expression of culture

Culture influences language, and language symbolizes what culture deems important

Understanding culture–language relationship is important step for intercultural communicators

Understanding nonverbal behavior important for appreciating cultural communication differences

Emotion regulation and mindfulness enhances intercultural sensitivity