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3 2 K E º A § A I O 1 : E I ™ A ° ø ° H

1.4 #!›!Â‰· ¯ÚËÛÙÒÓ

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3 31 . 4 !¶ #¶ ! ¢ " Ã ƒ' ™ &ø ¡

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1.4.4 XÚ‹ÛÙÂ˜ Î·ÙÒÙÂÚË˜ ‰È·‚¿ıÌÈÛË˜

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3 5B A ™ E I ™ ¢ E ¢ O M E N ø N

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3 6 K E º A § A I O 1 : E I ™ A ° ø ° H


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1.6

BÈ‚ÏÈÔÁÚ·Ê›· ÁÈ· !ÂÚ·ÈÙ¤Úˆ ÌÂÏ¤ÙË

[1] Elmasri R. & Navathe S. B.,Fundamentals of Database Systems,Addison–Wesley, 1994

4( T$TDL( MK!>@#$ BA$ "# ,DD?*$BF µ#I!E>A"? AKC I$% #B'C"#$% &LAM-D(% "# µ#I!E>A"? 7. :AIVCK(MD(M, 1996. 6I( B#E!DA$( 1 I(M T$TDL-(M GA µK(>)"#I# *A T>#LI# K#>$H>AEF I+* #$"AH+H$BJ* #**($J*. ,KL-"?% MK!>@#$ µ$A K(DS #µK#>$"IAI+µ)*? BA$ #BI#*F% $"I(>$BF A*A'>(-µF I?% #R)D$R?% I+* 6M"I?µ!I+* &$A@#L>$"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+*,B!I$ K(M '#* MK!>@#$ "# AMIC I( #H@#$>L'$( µ#D)I?%.

[2] Ulman J. D., Principles of Database Systems, Computer Science Press,1982.

,L*A$ )*A AKC I( K>JIA BA$ TA"$BCI#>A T$TDLA H$A U!"#$% &#'(µ)-*+*. 6I( B#E!DA$( 1 µ# ILID( Introduction to Database SystemConcepts, µK(>#LI# *A T>#LI# )*A #*ADDABI$BC I>CK( KA>(M"LA"?%I+* #$"AH+H$BJ* #**($J*.

[3] Silberschatz A., Korth H., Sudarshan S, Database System Concepts,

3 7B A ™ E I ™ ¢ E ¢ O M E N ø N

¢Ú·ÛÙËÚÈfiÙËÙ· 1.5U>#LI# µ$A µ$B>F #K$@#L>?"?, BAI! K>(ILµ?"? B!K($( BAI!"I?µA

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!K(QF "A% H$AIL '#* AKA$I#LIA$ ? @>F"? U!"?% &#'(µ)*+*.

A% "?µ#$+G#L CI$ I( K>CTD?µA K#D!I#% – K>(ZC*IA – AK(GFB? #L*A$

)*A K(DS B($*C K>CTD?µA BA$ K#>$H>!E#IA$ "@#'C* "# B!G# T$TDL(

H$A U!"#$% &#'(µ)*+*. &#* V?I!µ# AKC #"!% *A µA% 'J"#I# )*A H#*$-

BC µ(*I)D( K(M GA T>#LI# "# B!K($( T$TDL(, ADD! )*A µ(*I)D( I(M

K>AHµAI$B(S BC"µ(M H$A µLA "MHB#B>$µ)*? BA$ MKA>BIF #K$@#L>?"?.

3 8 K E º A § A I O 1 : E I ™ A ° ø ° H

Third Edition, McGraw–Hill, 1986.

P*A K(DS BADC T$TDL( K(M K>(I#L*(Mµ# "# C"(M% H*+>LV(M* BAD!AHHD$B! BA$ G)D(M* «I( B!I$ KA>AK!*+», *A I( @>?"$µ(K($F"(M* H$Aµ#D)I? KA>!DD?DA µ# I( µ!G?µA. 6I( B#E!DA$( 1 MK!>@(M* #$"AH+-H$B)% )**($#% H$A U!"#$% &#'(µ)*+*.

[4] Abiteboul, Hull and Vianou, Foundations of Databases,Addison–Wesley, 1995.

6IA B#E!DA$A 1 BA$ 2 I(M T$TDL(M AMI(S GA T>#LI# µ$A #$"AH+HF "I(K>CTD?µA I+* U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+*. 4( K>(I#L*(Mµ# "I(M% "K(M'A-"I)% K(M )@(M* BADC µAG?µAI$BC MKCTAG>(, BAGJ% KA>(M"$!V#IA$ µLAµAG?µAI$BF K>(")HH$"? I+* µ(*I)D+* I+* U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+*.

[5] Everest G., Database Management, McGraw–Hill, 1986.

WD( I( IµFµA 0 I(M T$TDL(M, '?DA'F IA B#E!DA$A 1 )+% BA$ 5 A"@(-D(S*IA$ µ# I$% #$"AH+H$B)% )**($#% K(M µ#D#IF"Aµ# "I( B#E!DA$( 1I(M #H@#$>$'L(M AMI(S. 3K#MGS*#IA$ K#>$""CI#>( "# A*AH*J"I#% K(M)@(M* F'? )*A $"@M>C #KLK#'( "I?* 4#@*(D(HLA -(H$"µ$B(S BA$G)D(M* *A #*I!R(M* U!"#$% &#'(µ)*+* "IA KDAL"$A I+* #EA>µ(HJ*I(M%.

[6] Ullman J. D., Widom J., A First Course in Database Systems,Prentice–Hall, 1997.

P*A AKC I( K$( "SH@>(*A T$TDLA "# U!"#$% &#'(µ)*+*. 4( B#E!DA$(1 BADSKI#$ I$% #$"AH+H$B)% )**($#% K(M µ#D#IF"AI#, +"IC"( #$"!H#$BA$ "# )**($#% A*I$B#$µ#*("I>AEJ* U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+* I$% (K(L#%BADSI#>A *A AEF"(Mµ# H$A I( I)D(% I?% µ#D)I?% "A%.

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BÈ‚ÏÈÔÁÚ·Ê›· ÁÈ· !ÂÚ·ÈÙ¤Úˆ ÌÂÏ¤ÙË[1] C.J.Date, An Introduction to Database Systems, Volume I, Fourth

Edition, Addison–Wesley, 1986.

6I( B#E!DA$( 2 AMI(S I(M T$TDL(M GA µK(>)"#I# *A T>#LI# TA"$B(S%(>$"µ(S% H$A I?* A>@$I#BI(*$BF µLA% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+*. ,KL"?% "I(B#E!DA$( 3 MK!>@#$ µ$A K(DS #µK#>$"IAI+µ)*? KA>(M"LA"? I(M EM"$-B(S #K$K)'(M.

[2] Elmasri R. & Navathe S. B., Fundamentals of Database Systems,Addison–Wesley, 1994.

4( T$TDL( MK!>@#$ BA$ "# ,DD?*$BF µ#I!E>A"? AKC I$% #B'C"#$% &LAM-D(% "# µ#I!E>A"? 7. :AIVCK(MD(M, 1996. 6I( B#E!DA$( 4 I(M T$TDL-(M GA µK(>)"#I# *A T>#LI# MD$BC H$A #K$KD)(* µ#D)I? "@#I$B! µ# I(EM"$BC #KLK#'(.

[3] Silberschatz A., Korth H., Sudarshan S, Database System Concepts,Third Edition, McGraw–Hill, 1986.

P*A K(DS BADC T$TDL( K(M K>(I#L*(Mµ# *A I( @>?"$µ(K($F"#I# H$Aµ#D)I? KA>!DD?DA µ# I( µ!G?µA. 6IA B#E!DA$A 10 BA$ 11 BADSKI(-*IA$ IA G)µAIA I?% (>H!*+"?% A>@#L+* "I( EM"$BC #KLK#'( I(M BAIA-B#>µAI$"µ(S BA$ I?% '#$BI('CI?"?% I+* A>@#L+*.

[4] Ulman J. D., Principles of Database Systems, Computer Science Press,1982.

,L*A$ )*A AKC I( K>JIA BA$ TA"$BCI#>A T$TDLA H$A U!"#$% &#'(µ)-*+*. 6I( B#E!DA$( 2 µ# ILID( Physical Data Organization, µK(>#LI#*A T>#LI# )*A A*ADMI$BC I>CK( KA>(M"LA"?% I?% (>H!*+"?% "I( EM"$-

6 1B A ™ E I ™ ¢ E ¢ O M E N ø N


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[5] Papazoglou M. and Valder W., Relational Database Management,Prentice Hall, 1989.

E!* G)D#I#, '$AT!"I# IA B#E!DA$A 5 (File Management) BA$ 6 (ThePhysical Database Implementation). 5!*I+%, #K#$'F I( T$TDL( #L*A$H>Aµµ)*( AKC I?* K>ABI$BF I(M "@#"$AB(S µ(*I)D(M, L"+% #L*A$ BADS-I#>A *A µ?* I( µ#D#IF"#I# IJ>A, ADD! *A I( '$AT!"#I# µ#I! I( #KC-µ#*( B#E!DA$( I(M µAGFµAI(% +% µLA BADF #KA*!D?Q? "I( EM"$BC#KLK#'( AKC I? "B(K$! I(M "@#"$AB(S µ(*I)D(M.

[6] Gio Wiederhold, File Organization for Database Design, Mc–GrawHill, 1987.

P*A T$TDL( AE$#>+µ)*( AK(BD#$"I$B! "I?* (>H!*+"? I+* A>@#L+*U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+* "I( EM"$BC #KLK#'(. 1AI!DD?D( H$A C"(M%G)D(M* K>AHµAI$B! *A #µTAGS*(M* "I( EM"$BC #KLK#'( BA$ "I?* (>H!-*+"? A>@#L+* U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+*.

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&/4, .,#/4/% 3.3.1 '%"()=0AN()µ. /06 J%=01F6 F,,(0.6 $0% /06 (,/#/4-/.6, /% 1%/4$("2µ%/% 1%0 /% 1:.0*0A. &/4, .,#/4/% 3.3.2 %,%:E()µ./06 =9F=.06 %,Aµ.=% =. (,/#/4/.6 1%0 /()6 /E'()6 =9F=.B,. &/4, .,#-/4/% 3.3.3 '."0$"A;()µ. /% *(µ01A =/(09.>% .,#6 *0%$"Aµµ%/(6 =9F-=.B, – (,/(/2/B,, *4:%*2 '+6 =9.*0AN()µ. F,% *0A$"%µµ% =9F=.B,– (,/(/2/B,. 5F:(6 =/4, .,#/4/% 3.3.4 %,%;F"()µ. /4 µF<(*( µ(,/.-:('(>4=46 OA=.B, 8.*(µF,B, 9"4=0µ('(0+,/%6 *0%$"Aµµ%/% =9F=.-B, – (,/(/2/B,.

3.3.1 'ÓÙfiÙËÙÂ˜ Î·È Î·ÙËÁÔÚ‹Ì·Ù·

4A '$AH>!µµAIA "@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+* )@(M* +% TA"$BC "I($@#L( I(M%

I?* (*ICI?IA. . (*ICI?IA #L*A$ ? A*AKA>!"IA"? µ$A% AMIC*(µ?% SKA>-

R?% I(M K>AHµAI$B(S BC"µ(M (µ# MD$BF MKC"IA"?) F µ$A "MµTAI$BF

SKA>R? (µ# G#+>?I$BF MKC"IA"?). &?DA'F (*ICI?IA #L*A$ )*A% E($I?-

IF% ('?DA'F )*A% !*G>+K(% µ# C*(µA, #KJ*Mµ(, @A>ABI?>$"I$B! BID),

ADD! BA$ )*A µ!G?µA K(M '$'!"B#IA$ "# µLA "@(DF ('?DA'F B!I$ !MD(,

ADD! µ# "MµTAI$BF MKC"IA"? K(M )@#$ "I($@#LA, CK+% J>#% '$'A"BA-

DLA%, A*I$B#Lµ#*( BID). PI"$ K>(BSKI#$ ( 'LKDA (>$"µC%. !

4A '#'(µ)*A IA (K(LA GA AK(G?B#MI(S* "I$% (*ICI?I#% I(M '$AH>!µ-

µAI(% "@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+* A*I$"I($@(S* "# #HH>AE)% "I( EM"$BC

#KLK#'( I?% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+*. PI"$, µLA (*ICI?IA )@#$ )*A C*(µA K(M

I? @A>ABI?>LV#$ BA$ B!K($A @A>ABI?>$"I$B! K(M I?* K#>$H>!E(M*. 4A

@A>ABI?>$"I$B! AMI! (*(µ!V(*IA$ BAI?H(>FµAIA I?% (*ICI?IA%.

&LKDA, ( (>$"µC%. !

4A BAI?H(>FµAIA K#>$H>!E(M* I?* B!G# (*ICI?IA. X>A, A*ADS(*IA%

AMIC K(M #LKAµ# DLH( K>$*, IA '#'(µ)*A IA (K(LA GA AK(G?B#MI(S*

"I$% (*ICI?I#% I(M '$AH>!µµAI(% "@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+* A*I$"I($@(S*

! K,(?(0(1 "I( '$!H>AµµA

"@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+* #L*A$

F,% =/(09.>( /() '"%$µ%/01(E

'."0JA::(,/(6 µ. %)/#,(µ4

'"%$µ%/012 2 <.B"4/012

)'#=/%=4.

! L1(03#=%µ1(1 µLA%(*ICI?IA% I(M '$AH>!µµAI(%

"@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+* #L*A$ IA

=/(09.>% '() 1%<(">N(), /%

9%"%1/4"0=/01A /46 =)$1.1"0-

µF,46 (,/#/4/%6.

"# #HH>AE)% "I( EM"$BC #KLK#'( I?% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+* BA$ #$'$BCI#-

>A IA BAI?H(>FµAIA H$A B!G# (*ICI?IA A*I$"I($@(S* µ# I$% I$µ)% H$A

IA K#'LA B!G# #HH>AEF%. 3% '(Sµ# I( KA>!'#$HµA K(M AB(D(MG#L.

7 33 . 3 ¢ # " ° ƒ"ª ª "&" ™ Ã ! ™ !ø ¡ – O ¡ & $ & ' &ø ¡

¶·Ú¿‰ÂÈÁÌ· 3.1

6I( KA>!'#$HµA AMIC #R#I!V(Mµ# )*A K>+I!GD?µA BADAG("EAL>$-

"?% (µK!"B#I). 4( K>+I!GD?µA AK(I#D#LIA$ AKC (µ!'#% "I$% (K(L-

#% "Mµµ#I)@(M* KALBI#%. ;$A I$% A*!HB#% I(M K>+IAGDFµAI(% HL*(-

*IA$ AHJ*#% A*!µ#"A "# (µ!'#% BA$ B!G# AHJ*A% I#D#$J*#$ µ#

B!K($( "MHB#B>$µ)*( AK(I)D#"µA. ;$A DCH(M% AKDCI?IA% G#+>(S-

µ# CI$ IA "I($@#LA K(M @A>ABI?>LV(M* B!G# (µ!'A #L*A$ ? (*(µA"LA

I?%, I( C*(µA I(M $'$(BIFI? I?%, I( C*(µA I(M @(>?H(S I?%, I( )I(%

K(M $'>SG?B# BA$ ? KCD? "I?* (K(LA #'>#S#$. ,KL"?% B!G# KALBI?%

@A>ABI?>LV#IA$ AKC I( C*(µ! I(M, I( #KJ*MµC I(M, I( KAI>J*MµC

I(M, I(* A>$GµC µ?I>J(M I(M "I?* (µ("K(*'LA BADAG("EAL>$"?%,

I( SQ(% I(M, I?* ?µ#>(µ?*LA H)**?"?% I(M BA$ I?* KCD? BAIAH+HF%

I(M. 4)D(%, K!D$ H$A DCH(M% AKDCI?IA% )*A% AHJ*A% @A>ABI?>LV#IA$

µC*( AKC I$% (µ!'#% K(M "Mµµ#I#L@A*, I( HFK#'( "I( (K(L( )H$*#,

I?* ?µ#>(µ?*LA '$#RAH+HF% I(M BA$ I( I#D$BC "B(>.

7# C"A H*+>LV#I# µ)@>$ IJ>A H$A IA '$AH>!µµAIA "@)"#+* – (*I(IF-

I+* GA µK(>(S"AI# *A #*I(KL"#I# I>#$% (*ICI?I#% "I( KA>!'#$HµA 3.1:

• 2µ!'A

• 5ALBI?%

• 3HJ*A%

4A BAI?H(>FµAIA H$A B!G# (*ICI?IA #L*A$ IA #RF%:

• ;$A I?* (*ICI?IA «2µ!'A»: (*(µA"LA, C*(µA $'$(BIFI?, C*(µA

"KC*"(>A, )I(% L'>M"?%, )'>A.

• ;$A I?* (*ICI?IA «5ALBI?%»: C*(µA, #KJ*Mµ(, KAI>J*Mµ(, A>$G-

µC% µ?I>J(M, SQ(%, ?µ#>(µ?*LA H)**?"?%, BAIAH+HF.

• ;$A I?* (*ICI?IA «3HJ*A%»: H?K#'(S@(% (µ!'A, E$D(R#*(Sµ#*?

(µ!'A, HFK#'( '$#RAH+HF%, ?µ#>(µ?*LA, "B(> H?K#'(S@(M, "B(>

E$D(R#*(Sµ#*?%.

7# I(* KA>AK!*+ I>CK( )@(Mµ# K#>$H>!Q#$ I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* K(M

7 4 K E º A § A I O 3 : ª$¡ & ! §$¶$ # ' ™' % " # £ !ª "&" ™ Ã ! ¢ # " ™' ™

GA @>?"$µ(K($F"(Mµ# H$A *A "MHB#*I>J"(Mµ# IA '#'(µ)*A I(M KA>A-

'#LHµAI(% 3.1, @>?"$µ(K($J*IA% )*A MQ?DCI#>( #KLK#'( AEAL>#"?%.

1!G# (*ICI?IA K#>$H>!E#$ µLA "MHB#B>$µ)*? BAI?H(>LA #HH>AEJ* I$%

(K(L#% µK(>(Sµ# *A I$% (µA'(K($F"(Mµ#. PI"$, CIA* GA A*AE#>CµA-

"I# "# #HH>AE)% K(M #*I!""(*IA$ "I?* (*ICI?IA «2µ!'A» GA H*+>L-

V(Mµ# CI$ K>)K#$ *A )@(M* K#'LA K(M A*I$"I($@(S* "IA BAI?H(>FµAIA

K(M K#>$H>!QAµ# KA>AK!*+. 5A>A'#LHµAIA I#""!>+* #HH>AEJ* (µ!-

'+* #L*A$ IA ABCD(MGA:

1. («3I>Cµ?I(%», «/$B(D!(M», «^?I(K+D#L( ? N>ALA 5!I>A»,

«1918», «5!I>A»)

2. («3*LB?I(%», «UA"$D#L(M», «1D#$'A>!% ( 7FI"(%», «1934», «3@AH$!»)

3. («1#>AM*C% 1!I+ 5DAH$!%», «:AIV?H$!**?%», «2MV#>L ( 7#V)%»,

«1964», «1!I+ 5DAH$!»)

4. («1#>AM*C% X*+ 5DAH$!%», «/$B(DA_'?%», « », «1971», « X*+ 5DAH$!»)

5>(")RI# I? '$AE(>! A*!µ#"A "I?* (*ICI?IA I(M '$AH>!µµAI(% "@)-

"#+* – (*I(IFI+* BA$ "I?* #HH>AEF "I( EM"$BC #KLK#'(. . (*ICI?-

IA #L*A$ µLA AE?>?µ)*? (MQ?D(S #K$K)'(M) A*AKA>!"IA"? I?% )**($-

A% «(µ!'A», #*J #HH>AE)% AKC (µ!'#% #L*A$ '#'(µ)*A (µ!'+* AKC I(

K#>$T!DD(* I(M K>AHµAI$B(S BC"µ(M.

2>L"Aµ# IA BAI?H(>FµAIA K(M K#>$H>!E(M* IA @A>ABI?>$"I$B! B!G#

(*ICI?IA%. ;$A *A µK(>(Sµ# Cµ+% *A B!*(Mµ# A*AE(>)% "# #HH>AE)%

K(M A*I$"I($@(S* "# (*ICI?I#% K>)K#$ *A MK!>@#$ )*A% I>CK(% *A #*I(-

KLV(Mµ# µLA #HH>AEF A*!µ#"A "I$% !DD#% (*A I? '$AB>L*(Mµ# '?DA'F

AKC I$% !DD#%). 3% '(Sµ# I( KA>!'#$HµA I+* KA$BIJ*. ,!* K(Sµ# (

KALBI?% «/$B(D!(M» #L*A$ #KA>B)% H$A *A BAIAD!T(Mµ# H$A K($(* KAL-

BI? A*AE#>CµA"I#; OA µK(>(S"# *A #L*A$, ADD! BAI! BA*C*A #L*A$

K(DS K$GA*C *A MK!>@(M* 'S( KALBI#% µ# I( L'$( #KJ*Mµ( "I( K>+-

I!GD?µA. 3*ILG#IA, ( A>$GµC% µ?I>J(M BADAG("EA$>$"IF #L*A$ µ(*A-

'$BC% H$A B!G# BADAG("EA$>$"IF (H$AIL )I"$ #K$T!DD#$ ? (µ("K(*'LA

BADAG("EAL>$"?%). 7K(>(Sµ# D($KC* *A K(Sµ# CI$ I( BAI?HC>?µA

«A>$GµC% µ?I>J(M BADAG("EA$>$"IF» #L*A$ µ(*A'$BC H$A B!G# BADA-

G("EA$>$"IF. 3MIC I( BAI?HC>?µA µK(>#L *A AK(I#D)"#$ I( BD#$'L H$A

I?* (*ICI?IA «KALBI?%». 3B(D(MG#L ( (>$"µC%. !

WK+% EAL*#IA$ BA$ AKC I(* (>$"µC, BD#$'L µK(>#L *A #L*A$ BA$ )*A "S*(-

! L$'):4 H$A µLA (*ICI?IA

I(M '$AH>!µµAI(% "@)"#+* –

(*I(IFI+* #L*A$ /( =E,(:(

/B, 1%/4$("4µA/B, /46 (,/#-

/4/%6 /% ('(>% .>,%0 µ(,%*01A

$0% 1A<. .$$"%;2 1%0 /4 *0%-

1">,(), ':2"B6 %'# /06 A::.6.

D( AKC BAI?H(>FµAIA A*IL H$A )*A µC*( BAI?HC>?µA. 3% MK(G)"(Mµ#

CI$ "I( KA>!'#$HµA 3.1 µK(>(S"A* *A MK!>@(M* (µ!'#% µ# I( L'$(

C*(µA, ADD! C@$ BA$ AKC I?* L'$A KCD?. PI"$ I( C*(µA I?% (µ!'A% BA$ ?

KCD? GA µK(>(S"A* *A AK(I#D(S* I( BD#$'L H$A I?* (*ICI?IA «2µ!'A».

O#+>?I$B! µK(>(S* *A MK!>@(M* K(DD! "S*(DA K(M #L*A$ 'M*AIC*

*A AK(I#D)"(M* I( BD#$'L H$A µLA (*ICI?IA. ;$A KA>!'#$HµA, "I?*

(*ICI?IA «5ALBI?%» BD#$'L GA µK(>(S"# *A #L*A$ ( «A>$GµC% µ?I>J-

(M BADAG("EA$>$"IF», ADD! GA µK(>(S"# BA$ *A #L*A$ I( "S*(D( I+*

BAI?H(>?µ!I+* («W*(µA», «,KJ*Mµ(», «5AI>J*Mµ(», «.µ#>(µ?-

*LA ;)**?"?%»). 4( "S*(D( AMIC Cµ+% )@#$ 'S( µ#$(*#BIFµAIA: A)

5>([K(G)I#$ CI$ '#* GA MK!>@(M* 'S( KALBI#% µ# I( L'$( AB>$TJ%

C*(µA, #KJ*Mµ( BA$ C*(µA KAI)>A K(M *A )@(M* H#**?G#L I?* L'$A

?µ)>A BA$ T) @>?"$µ(K($#L I)""#>A BAI?H(>FµAIA A*IL H$A )*A. .

K>JI? MKCG#"? #L*A$ AKCDMIA D(H$BF, A* BA$ GA µK(>(S"# *A "MµT#L

(!"@#IA µ# I( KC"( AKLGA*? #L*A$). 5A>CDA AMI! +% BD#$'L H$A µLA

(*ICI?IA #L*A$ BADSI#>( *A @>?"$µ(K($#LIA$ I( AKD(S"I#>( 'M*AIC

"S*(D( BAI?H(>?µ!I+*. PI"$ ? #K$D(HF I(M BAI?H(>FµAI(% «A>$G-

µC% µ?I>J(M BADAG("EA$>$"IF» #L*A$ ? BADSI#>? #K$D(HF.

7 53 . 3 ¢ # " ° ƒ"ª ª "&" ™ Ã ! ™ !ø ¡ – O ¡ & $ & ' &ø ¡


&L*(*IA$ ($ KA>AB!I+ K>(I!"#$%. 6MµKD?>J"I# IA B#*! #K$D)H(*IA%

AKC I$% D)R#$% K(M 'L'(*IA$ "I( I)D(% B!G# K>CIA"?%.

2*ICI?IA "I( '$!H>AµµA "@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+* #L*A$ )*A ………

………… I(M K>AHµAI$B(S …………………. µ# ………………..

K>AHµAI$BF F G#+>?I$BF ……………………..

(*.*(µF,(, =/(09.>(, =E,(:(, =),#:(), '."0JA::(,/(6, µ(,%*012, %)/#-

,(µ4, =),(:012, (,/#/4/%, )'#=/%=4, .G()=>%).

1AI?H(>FµAIA µLA% ……………………. I(M '$AH>!µµAI(% "@)"#-

+* – (*I(IFI+* #L*A$ IA "I($@#LA K(M BAG(>LV(M* IA ……………….

I?% "MHB#B>$µ)*?% ………………….

(E'%"G4, (,/#/4/%, '."0$"%;2, 9%"%1/4"0=/01A, *.*(µF,%, =E,(:%,

E'%"G46, (,/#/4/%6, '."0$"%;26).

1D#$'L H$A µLA …………………. I(M '$AH>!µµAI(% "@)"#+* – (*I(-

IFI+* #L*A$ I( "S*(D( I+* ………………… I?% ……………….. IA

(K(LA #L*A$ µ(*A'$B! H$A B!G# …………………. BA$ I? '$AB>L*(M*

7 6 K E º A § A I O 3 : ª$¡ & ! §$¶$ # ' ™' % " # £ !ª "&" ™ Ã ! ¢ # " ™' ™

3.3.2 ™¯¤ÛÂÈ˜ ÔÓÙÔÙ‹ÙˆÓ

6I?* K>(?H(Sµ#*? #*CI?IA µ$DF"Aµ# H$A (*ICI?I#% "# )*A '$!H>Aµ-

µA "@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+*. WK+% (>LV#$ BA$ I( C*(µ! I(M, I( '$!H>Aµ-

µA "@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+* K#>$H>!E#$ "@)"#$% A*!µ#"A "# (*ICI?I#%.

OMµ?G#LI# I( KA>!'#$HµA 3.1. ,B#L µ$DF"Aµ# H$A I>#$% (*ICI?I#%

(2µ!'A, 5ALBI?%, 3HJ*A%). O#+>?I$B! AMIC I( "@FµA GA µK(>(S"#

*A #L*A$ )*A "+"IC '$!H>AµµA "@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+*, ADD! L"+% C@$

I( BADSI#>( 'M*AIC. 2 AHJ*A% #L*A$ "I?* K>AHµAI$BCI?IA µLA "@)"?

A*!µ#"A "# 'S( (µ!'#%. 3DD! A% AEF"(Mµ# K>(% I( KA>C* I(* AHJ*A

BA$ A% '(Sµ# I(M% KALBI#% BA$ I$% (µ!'#%.

,L*A$ EA*#>C CI$ MK!>@#$ µLA "@)"? A*!µ#"A "# (µ!'#% BA$ KALBI#%.

1!G# (µ!'A AK(I#D#LIA$ AKC B!K($(M% KALBI#% I?%. X>A ($ (*ICI?I#%

µK(>(S* *A )@(M* "@)"#$% µ#IARS I(M%, "@)"#$% K(M #L*A$ (M"$A"I$B)%

H$A I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+*. ;$A KA>!'#$HµA ? #>JI?"? «"# K($A (µ!'A

KALV#$ ( 4!'# KALBI?%;» #L*A$ µ$A K(DS EM"$(D(H$BF #>JI?"? "I? U!"?

&#'(µ)*+* I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 3.1. . #>JI?"? AMIF '#* AE(>! B!K($A

"MHB#B>$µ)*? (*ICI?IA, ADD! I? "@)"? 'S( (*I(IFI+* (I?% (*ICI?IA%

KALBI?% µ# I?* (*ICI?IA (µ!'A). 3B(D(MG#L ( (>$"µC%. !

5>(")RI# CI$ "I(* (>$"µC '#* A*AE)>Aµ# "@)"? A*!µ#"A "# 'S(

(*ICI?I#%, ADD! A*!µ#"A "# (*ICI?I#%. 6# µLA "@)"? D($KC* µK(>(S*

*A "Mµµ#I)@(M* K#>$""CI#>#% I+* 'S( (*I(IFI+*. !

,KL"?% µLA "@)"? µK(>#L *A )@#$ BAI?H(>FµAIA K(M K>("'$(>LV(M*

I? "@)"?, AB>$TJ% CK+% )@(M* BA$ ($ (*ICI?I#%.

KDF>+% AKC I$% !DD#%.

((,/#/4/%6, 1%/4$(">%6, '.">'/B=46, *.*(µF,B,, .$$"%;+,, 1%/4$(-

"4µA/B,, (,/#/4/%6, 1%/4$(">%6, '.">'/B=46, .$$"%;2, (,/#/4/%,

=9F=4).

,*I(KL"I# I$% K$GA*)% (*ICI?I#% "I( KA>!'#$HµA 1.1 I(M B#EADAL(M

1 BA$ IA K$GA*! BAI?H(>FµAIA. ,*I(KL"I# I)D(% BA$ IA K$GA*! BD#$-

'$! H$A B!G# (*ICI?IA. 5#>$H>!QI# I(M% K#>$(>$"µ(S% K(M G#+>#L-

I# CI$ $"@S(M* H$A *A #K$D)R#I# AMI! IA BD#$'$!.


! . /";/0 A*!µ#"A "# (*IC-

I?I#% 1%<(">N.0 F,% =E,(:( %'#

=)=9./0=µ(E6 %,Aµ.=% =.

.$$"%;F6 /B, (,/(/2/B, %)/+,.

! A1@µ?5 µ$A% "@)"?% (,(-

µAN./%0 ( %"0<µ#6 /B, (,/(/2-

/B, '() =)µµ./F9(), =/4

=9F=4.

3% #K$"I>)Q(Mµ# "I( KA>!'#$HµA 3.1. 3>@$B! #L@Aµ# µ$DF"#$ H$A I>#$%

(*ICI?I#%. 7FK+% GA µK(>(S"A* *A HL*(M* 'S( (*ICI?I#% BA$ ? (*IC-

I?IA «3HJ*A%» *A G#+>?G#L "@)"?; 8M"$B! BA$ GA µK(>(S"A* BA$

AMIF ? DS"? #L*A$ BADSI#>? "@#'$A"I$B!. 3% µ#D#IF"(Mµ# DLH( I?

"@)"? «3HJ*A%». OA K>)K#$ *A )@#$ BAI?H(>FµAIA IA BAI?H(>FµAIA

K(M K>("'$(>LV(M* I? "@)"?, '?DA'F IA «HFK#'( '$#RAH+HF%», «?µ#-

>(µ?*LA», «"B(> H?K#'(S@(M», «"B(> E$D(R#*(Sµ#*?%». 5A>AI?>F-

"AI# CI$ '#* A*AH>!QAµ# +% BAI?H(>FµAIA IA «H?K#'(S@(% (µ!'A»

BA$ «E$D(R#*(Sµ#*? (µ!'A» K(M #L@Aµ# A*AE)>#$ "I?* (*ICI?IA

«3HJ*A%». 3MIC )H$*#, H$AIL IA "I($@#LA H$A I$% (µ!'#% GA µK(>)"(M*

*A A*ID?G(S* AKC I?* (*ICI?IA «2µ!'A».

5J% Cµ+% GA µ#IAE#>G#L ? "@)"? «3HJ*A%» "I( EM"$BC #KLK#'(;8M"$B! GA #L*A$ K!D$ µLA #HH>AEF K(M GA )@#$ +% K#'LA IA BAI?H(>F-µAIA K(M A*AE)>Aµ# KA>AK!*+. ,K#$'F Cµ+% K>)K#$ *A )@#$ BA$I>CK( *A A*AE)>#IA$ BA$ "I$% (µ!'#% GA @>?"$µ(K($#L #KL"?% +% K#'LAIA BAI?H(>FµAIA K(M @A>ABI?>LV(M* AKCDMIA I$% (µ!'#%, '?DA'F IABD#$'$!.

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3.3.4 ªÔÓÙÂÏÔ!Ô›ËÛË ÌÂ ‰È·ÁÚ¿ÌÌ·Ù· Û¯¤ÛÂˆÓ – ÔÓÙÔÙ‹ÙˆÓ

6# AMIC I( "?µ#L( I?% µ#D)I?% "A% )@#I# AK(BIF"#$ µLA BADF #µK#$-

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I+*. 6I?* #*CI?IA AMIF GA '(Sµ# KJ% GA "@#'$!VAµ# I( '$!H>AµµA

"@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+* H$A )*A K>CTD?µA I(M K>AHµAI$B(S BC"µ(M.

OMµ!"I# I( KA>!'#$HµA 3.1 K(M K#>$H>!QAµ# "I?* #*CI?IA 3.3.1. OA

'J"(Mµ# )*A *)( KA>!'#$HµA TA"$"µ)*( "# AMIC BA$ GA K>("KAGF-

"(Mµ# *A '(Sµ# TFµA K>(% TFµA I$% #*)>H#$#% K(M K>)K#$ *A HL*(M*

µ)@>$ *A "@#'$!"(Mµ# I( '$!H>AµµA "@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+*. 3% '(Sµ#

I( KA>AB!I+ *)( KA>!'#$HµA.

8 4 K E º A § A I O 3 : ª$¡ & ! §$¶$ # ' ™' % " # £ !ª "&" ™ Ã ! ¢ # " ™' ™

¶·Ú¿‰ÂÈÁÌ· 3.2

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K#>$H>!QAµ# "I( K>(?H(Sµ#*( KA>!'#$HµA µ# A>B#I)% Cµ+% K>("GFB#%.

4( K>+I!GD?µA AK(I#D#LIA$ AKC BAI?H(>L#% "I$% (K(L#% "Mµµ#I)@(M*

(µ!'#%. 1!G# BAI?H(>LA )@#$ )*A C*(µA (31, 32, U, ;, & BA$ 4(K$B! K>+-

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ADD!R(M* AKC @>(*$! "# @>(*$!. 7LA (µ!'A µK(>#L *A "Mµµ#I)@#$ µC*(

"# µLA BAI?H(>LA (A*!D(HA µ# I?* #KL'("F I?% I?* K>(?H(Sµ#*? @>(*$!).

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AKC µLA BAI?H(>LA "# !DD? µ$B>CI#>?. . "#$>! I+* BAI?H(>$J* '$AIAH-

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IV#> #L*A$ #D#SG#>($ *A #BK>("+K(S* C"#% (µ!'#% F KALBI#% #K$GMµ(S*.

;$A DCH(M% AKDCI?IA% MK(G)I(Mµ# CI$ IA "I($@#LA K(M µA% #*'$AE)>(M*

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4( V?I(Sµ#*( #L*A$ *A ('?H?G(Sµ# AKC I?* A"AEF K#>$H>AEF I(M

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H>!E#$ I( KA>!'#$HµA.

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IA BD#$'$!.

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#*I(KLV(Mµ# I(* ISK( B!G# "@)"?%.

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"IA BD#$'$!, ADD! µC*( "# "@)"#$% BA$ (*ICI?I#%.

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3% AB(D(MGF"(Mµ# D($KC* IA KA>AK!*+ TFµAIA.

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8 53 . 3 ¢ # " ° ƒ"ª ª "&" ™ Ã ! ™ !ø ¡ – O ¡ & $ & ' &ø ¡

8 6 K E º A § A I O 3 : ª$¡ & ! §$¶$ # ' ™' % " # £ !ª "&" ™ Ã ! ¢ # " ™' ™

KA>AB!I+ (A*I$H>!E(Mµ# AKC I( B#Lµ#*():

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• P*A% KALBI?% @>?"$µ(K($#L µ!*AIV#>.

7# AMI! IA "I($@#LA µK(>(Sµ# *A A>@L"(Mµ# *A #*I(KLV(Mµ# I$% (*IC-

I?I#% BA$ I$% "@)"#$% K(M "M*G)I(M* I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+*.

!¶#§$°' $¡&$&'&ø¡

P@(*IA% #µK#$>LA AKC I( KA>!'#$HµA 3.1 K(M "MV?IF"Aµ# "LH(M>A GA

A*AH*+>L"AI# I$% TA"$B)% (*ICI?I#% I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% K(M #L*A$ ($

#RF%:

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"LA I?% BAI?H(>LA% BA$ I( )I(%. PI"$ ? (31, 1999) #L*A$ µLA µ(*A'$BF

BAI?H(>LA, AE(S GA MK!>R(M* K(DD)% 31 H$A !DD#% @>(*$)% BA$ !DD#%

BAI?H(>L#% H$A I( 1999, ADD! BAµLA (31, 1999).

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[1] C.J.Date, An Introduction to Database Systems, Volume I, FourthEdition, Addison–Wesley, 1986.

6I( B#E!DA$( 22 I(M T$TDL(M GA µK(>)"#I# *A T>#LI# KD?>(E(>L#% H$AI( $#>A>@$BC µ(*I)D( TA"$"µ)*#% "I( "S"I?µA IMS. 3*IL"I($@A "I(B#E!DA$( 23 K#>$H>!E#IA$ I( '$BIMABC µ(*I)D( TA"$"µ)*( "I("S"I?µA IDMS.


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P*A K(DS BADC T$TDL( K(M K>(I#L*(Mµ# *A I( @>?"$µ(K($F"#I# H$Aµ#D)I? KA>!DD?DA µ# I( µ!G?µA. 4( $#>A>@$BC µ(*I)D( BADSKI#IA$#* "M*I(µLA "I( KA>!>I?µA U I(M T$TDL(M BA$ I( '$BIMABC µ(*I)D("I( KA>!>I?µA 3. 4( '$!H>AµµA "@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+* BADSKI#IA$A*ADMI$B! "I( B#E!DA$( 2 I(M T$TDL(M.

[4] Ulman J. D., Principles of Database and Knowledge–base Systems,Computer Science Press, 1988.

6I( B#E!DA$( KA>(M"$!V#IA$ I( '$!H>AµµA "@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+* BA$($ TA"$B)% A>@)% I(M.

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6I$% "@#"$AB)% U!"#$% &#'(µ)*+* ($ #HH>AE)% (>HA*J*(*IA$ "# KL*A-

B#%. P*A% KL*ABA% µK(>#L *A @>?"$µ(K($?G#L IC"( H$A #HH>AE)% K(M

K#>$H>!E(M* (*ICI?I#%, C"( BA$ H$A #HH>AE)% K(M K#>$H>!E(M* "@)-

"#$%. 3B(D(MG#L ( (>$"µC%. !

PI"$, ($ #HH>AE)% KA>(M"$!V(*IA$ "I$% H>Aµµ)% I(M KL*ABA, #*J "#

B!G# "IFD? I(M KL*ABA MK!>@(M* ($ I$µ)% H$A )*A "MHB#B>$µ)*( K#'L(.

6M*FG+%, CIA* H>!E(Mµ# KL*AB#% G#+>(Sµ# CI$ ($ "IFD#% #L*A$ '$A-

IAHµ)*#% BA$ BAI! "SµTA"? A*AE)>(Mµ# K>JI#% I$% "IFD#% K(M A*I$-

"I($@(S* "# BAI?H(>FµAIA BD#$'$!. 3*ILG#IA, ($ H>Aµµ)% I(M KL*ABA

! 2 .4,1*15 "# µLA "@#"$A-

BF U!"? &#'(µ)*+* %'(/.-

:.>/%0 %'# µ>% 2 '."0==#/.".6

=/2:.6 '() %,/0=/(09(E, =.

/0µF6 '.*>B,, 1%0 %'# $"%µµF6

'() %,/0=/(09(E, =. /0µF6 $0%

%)/A /% '.*>%.

"M*FG+% A*AH>!E(*IA$ µ? '$AIAHµ)*#% F '$AIAHµ)*#% µ# T!"? I(

BD#$'L. OMµ?G#LI# I( KA>!'#$HµA 3.2 µ# I( K>+I!GD?µA BADAG(-

"EAL>$"?% K(M K#>$H>!QAµ# "I?* #*CI?IA 3.4. 2 KL*ABA% H$A I?*

(*ICI?IA «2µ!'A» K(M "@#'$!"Aµ# "I( '$!H>AµµA "@)"#+* – (*I(-

IFI+* µ# K)*I# #HH>AE)% GA µK(>(S"# *A #L*A$ ( ABCD(MG(% (IA '#'(-

µ)*A "I(* KL*ABA #L*A$ EA*IA"I$B!:

9 74 . 1 & $ ™ Ã ! ™ # " % $ ª$¡ & ! §$

K,#µ1/41 M:=1 0'$(BIFI?% :(>?HC% PI(% `'>M"?%

2DMµK$ABC% 5#$>A$!% 1CBBAD?% Lacta 1924

3,1 3GF*A 8$DLKK(M 1928

2DMµK$ABC% UCD(% :>?"IL'?% 341, 1967

5A*$J*$(% 3GF*A &Fµ(% /.6. 1922

5#>$"I)>$ 3GF*A ,G*$BF 1977

5A>AI?>F"I# CI$, A* BA$ MK!>@(M* 'S( (µ!'#% µ# I?* L'$A (*(µA"LA

BA$ I>#$% (µ!'#% µ# I?* L'$A )'>A, '#* MK!>@#$ (µ!'A µ# I?* L'$A (*(-

µA"LA BA$ )'>A, H$AIL AMIC GA KA>ATLAV# I?* A>@F I(M BD#$'$(S, CK+%

I( (>L"Aµ# "I?* #*CI?IA 3.3.1. ,KL"?%, KA>AI?>F"I# CI$ B!K($A "I($-

@#LA "I(* KL*ABA #L*A$ B#*! (CK+% ( 0'$(BIFI?% I?% (µ!'A% «5#>$"I)-

>$, 3GF*A»). 3MIC µK(>#L *A HL*#$ G#+>?I$B! H$A IA "I($@#LA H$A CD#%

I$% "IFD#% µLA% #HH>AEF% #BIC% AKC I$% #HH>AE)% BD#$'$!. WIA* )*A

K#'L( '#* )@#$ I$µF "# µLA #HH>AEF ICI# D)µ# CI$ )@#$ «B#*F I$µF», F

CI$ «)@#$ I$µF B#*C». 7LA B#*F I$µF #L*A$ '$AE(>#I$BF AKC 0 F AKC I(*

@A>ABIF>A «SPACE». PI"$ #L*A$ '$AE(>#I$BC "I? "IFD? «PI(% `'>M-

"?%» *A 'J"(Mµ# +% I$µF 0 AKC I( *A 'J"(Mµ# +% I$µF B#*C. ,KL"?%

#L*A$ '$AE(>#I$BC "I?* "IFD? «0'$(BIFI?%» *A 'J"(Mµ# B#*F I$µF AKC

I( *A 'J"(Mµ# +% I$µF )*A* F K#>$""CI#>(M% @A>ABIF>#% «SPACE».

2 A>$GµC% I+* "I?DJ* #*C% KL*ABA "# µLA "@#"$ABF U!"? &#'(µ)-

*+* (*(µ!V#IA$ arity BA$ ( A>$GµC% I+* H>AµµJ* I(M cardinality. PI"$,

)*A% KL*ABA% K(M K#>$H>!E#$ µLA (*ICI?IA µ# 3 BAI?H(>FµAIA GA )@#$

arity 3. 3*IL"I($@A, )*A% KL*ABA% µ# cardinality 500 "?µAL*#$ CI$ )@(M*

#$"A@G#L "# AMIC* 500 #HH>AE)%.

2$ TA"$B)% K>!R#$% K(M µK(>(S* *A HL*(M* "# µLA "@#"$ABF U!"?

&#'(µ)*+* #L*A$ ($ L'$#% µ# AMI)% K(M HL*(*IA$ "# B!G# U!"? &#'(-

µ)*+*, '?DA'F ,K$D(HF, ,$"AH+HF, ,*?µ)>+"? BA$ &$AH>AEF.

9 8 K E º A § A I O 4 : ™ Ã ! ™ # " % ! ™ B " ™ ! # ™ ¢ ! ¢$ª !¡ ø ¡

3'0:($2 "?µAL*#$ A*AVFI?"? µLA% "MHB#B>$µ)*?% #HH>AEF% BA$ ?

A*#S>#"F I?% µ)"A "I(* KL*ABA ('?DA'F ( #*I(K$"µC% I?% H>AµµF%

I(M KL*ABA "I?* (K(LA T>L"B#IA$ ? V?I(Sµ#*? #HH>AEF). 30=%$B$2

"?µAL*#$ ? K>("GFB? µLA% *)A% #HH>AEF% "I(* KL*ABA. . K>("GFB?

µK(>#L *A HL*#$ "I( I)D(% I(M KL*ABA F "# "MHB#B>$µ)*? G)"? I(M

KL*ABA ("I?* K#>LKI+"? K(M )@(Mµ# '$AI!R#$ I(* KL*ABA). 3,4µF"B-

=4 #L*A$ ? µ#IAT(DF B!K($+* I$µJ* H$A µ#>$B! K#'LA µLA% #HH>AEF%

('?DA'F ? ADDAHF I+* '#'(µ)*+* H$A µ#>$B)% "IFD#% "# µLA H>AµµF).

4)D(%, *0%$"%;2 #L*A$ I( "TF"$µ( µLA% H>AµµF% AKC I(* KL*ABA. 6I?*

#KCµ#*? #*CI?IA GA '(Sµ# KJ% #K?>#!V#IA$ ? AB#>A$CI?IA µLA%

U!"?% &#'(µ)*+* AKC B!K($#% K>!R#$% K(M HL*(*IA$ "# AMIF BA$ GA

µ#D#IF"(Mµ# I?* AB#>A$CI?IA I?% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+*.


4.1

7#D#IF"I# I( "@FµA 3.9 I(M K>(?H(Sµ#*(M B#EADAL(M. 6I( "@FµA

AMIC K#>$H>!E#IA$ )*A '$!H>AµµA "@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+* µ# 4 (*IC-

I?I#% BA$ 5 "@)"#$%.

1. <K(D(HL"I# I?* arity K(M GA K>)K#$ *A )@#$ B!G# KL*ABA% "# µLA

"@#"$ABF U!"? &#'(µ)*+* H$A B!G# (*ICI?IA BA$ "@)"? K(M

K#>$H>!E#IA$ "# AMIC I( '$!H>AµµA "@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+*.

2. ,I($µ!"I# I(M% KL*AB#% H$A µLA "@#"$ABF U!"? &#'(µ)*+* H$A

I$% (*ICI?I#% K(M K#>$H>!E(*IA$ "I( '$!H>AµµA "@)"#+* – (*I(-

IFI+*.

3. ,I($µ!"I# I(M% KL*AB#% H$A µLA "@#"$ABF U!"? &#'(µ)*+* H$A

I$% "@)"#$% K(M K#>$H>!E(*IA$ "I( '$!H>AµµA "@)"#+* – (*I(-

IFI+*, K>(")@(*IA% IA BD#$'$! H$A B!G# (*ICI?IA K(M "Mµµ#I)-

@#$ "I? "@)"?.

¢Ú·ÛÙËÚÈfiÙËÙ· 4.1 5#>!"I# IM@ALA '#'(µ)*A "I(M% KL*AB#% K(M #I($µ!"AI# +% AK!-

*I?"? H$A I?* !"B?"? AMI(AR$(DCH?"?% 4.1. 5>(")RI# *A µ?* MK!>-

@#$ K>CTD?µA µ# IA BD#$'$! "I$% (*ICI?I#% BA$ "I$% "@)"#$%. 8>(-

*IL"I# J"I# B!G# KL*ABA% K(M K#>$H>!E#$ "@)"? *A )@#$ cardinality

5 BA$ B!G# KL*ABA% K(M K#>$H>!E#$ (*ICI?IA *A )@#$ cardinality 10.

4.1.2 "ÎÂÚ·ÈfiÙËÙ· ‰Â‰ÔÌ¤ÓˆÓ

6I?* K>(?H(Sµ#*? #*CI?IA µ$DF"Aµ# H$A BD#$'$! "I(M% KL*AB#% BA$

#LKAµ# CI$ '#* µK(>(S* *A #$"A@G(S* B#*)% I$µ)% "# )*A BD#$'L. 3MIC%

#L*A$ )*A% K#>$(>$"µC%. 6# K#>LKI+"? K(M AMIC% ( K#>$(>$"µC% '#*

#L@# I?>?G#L GA #L@Aµ# K>CTD?µA µ# I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+*, AE(S GA

#L@Aµ# I$µ)% @+>L% IA K#'LA K(M I$% @A>ABI?>LV(M*. 3MIC GA "FµA$*#

CI$ GA #L@Aµ# K>CTD?µA AB#>A$CI?IA% "I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* BA$ H$A

AMIC I( DCH( ( K#>$(>$"µC% K(M A*AE)>Aµ# KA>AK!*+ (*(µ!V#IA$

K#>$(>$"µC% AB#>A$CI?IA%.

<K!>@(M* 'S( ISK($ K#>$(>$"µJ* AB#>A$CI?IA%, ($ K#>$(>$"µ(L K(M

K#>$(>LV(*IA$ µC*( "# )*A* KL*ABA BA$ ($ K#>$(>$"µ(L K(M "@#ILV(*IA$

µ# K(DD(S% KL*AB#%. 6I?* K>JI? K#>LKI+"? A*FB(M* ($ K#>$(>$"µ(L

CK+% «)*A BD#$'L '#* µK(>#L *A )@#$ +% I$µF I( B#*C» F CK+% «'#*

µK(>(S* *A MK!>@(M* 'S( #HH>AE)% µ# I( L'$( BD#$'L». 6I? '#SI#>?

K#>LKI+"? A*FB(M* K#>$(>$"µ(L K(M "@#ILV(*IA$ µ# '#'(µ)*A K(M

A*AE)>(*IA$ AKC )*A KL*ABA "# B!K($(* !DD(. ;$A KA>!'#$HµA, '#*

µK(>#L *A MK!>@#$ µLA #HH>AEF "# µLA "@)"? K(M '#* A*I$"I($@#L "#

BAµLA (*ICI?IA BA$ '#* µK(>(S* *A MK!>@(M* 'S( #HH>AE)% "# µLA

"@)"? K(M *A K#>$H>!E(M* I? "@)"? 'S( L'$+* (*I(IFI+* µ# IA L'$A

BAI?H(>FµAIA.

2$ K#>$(>$"µ(L AMI(L #K$T!DD(*IA$ AKC I( L'$( I( "S"I?µA. PI"$, CIA*

'?µ$(M>H#LIA$ µLA U!"? &#'(µ)*+* µ#IAE)>#$ µAVL I?% BA$ )*A "S*(-

D( K#>$(>$"µJ* AB#>A$CI?IA% H$A I?* IF>?"? I+* (K(L+* E>(*ILV#$

I( "S"I?µA. ;$A KA>!'#$HµA, #!* "I?* (*ICI?IA «2µ!'A» K(M K#>$-

H>!QAµ# "I( KA>!'#$HµA 3.2 #L@# #$"A@G#L µLA (µ!'A µ# (*(µA"LA

«3,1» BA$ P'>A «3GF*A», ICI# I( "S"I?µA '#* GA #K)I>#K# I?*

#$"AH+HF BA$ µLA% '#SI#>?% (µ!'A% µ# I( L'$( C*(µA BA$ )'>A, ADD!

GA )'$*# )*A µF*MµA I?% µ(>EF% «<K!>@#$ F'? #HH>AEF µ# I( L'$(

BD#$'L».

,BIC% AKC I(M% 'S( ISK(M% K#>$(>$"µJ* AB#>A$CI?IA% K(M A*AE)>A-

µ# KA>AK!*+ MK!>@#$ BA$ !DD? µLA BAI?H(>LA K#>$(>$"µJ* K(M "@#-

ILV(*IA$ µ# I? H*J"? I?% #EA>µ(HF% BA$ C@$ µ# I? "@#'LA"? I?% U!"?%

&#'(µ)*+*. ;$A KA>!'#$HµA, "I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* K(M K#>$H>!E#IA$

"I( '$!H>AµµA "@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+* I(M "@FµAI(% 3.9 µK(>(Sµ# *A

(>L"(Mµ# K#>$(>$"µ(S% CK+% «1A*)*A% KALBI?% '#* µK(>#L *A )@#$

9 94 . 1 & $ ™ Ã ! ™ # " % $ ª$¡ & ! §$

1 0 0 K E º A § A I O 4 : ™ Ã ! ™ # " % ! ™ B " ™ ! # ™ ¢ ! ¢$ª !¡ ø ¡

H#**?G#L K>$* AKC I?* I>)@(M"A ?µ#>(µ?*LA» F «1AµLA (µ!'A '#*

µK(>#L *A )@#$ $'>MG#L K>$* AKC I( 1911» F «1A*)*A% KALBI?% '#* µK(-

>#L *A )@#$ A>$GµC µ?I>J(M K(M *A µ?* #L*A$ #RAQFE$(% A>$GµC% K(M

*A µ?* A>@LV#$ AKC 0». 3MI(L ($ K#>$(>$"µ(L '#* µK(>(S* EM"$B! *A

K>(TD)K(*IA$ AMICµAIA AKC I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* (AE(S "@#ILV(*IA$

µ# $'$A$I#>CI?I#% I?% #B!"I(I# #EA>µ(HF%), ADD! CDA IA 6M"IFµAIA

&$A@#L>$"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+* 'L*(M* I? 'M*AICI?IA "@#'$A"µ(S

BA$ #KLTD#Q?% I?% IF>?"?% I)I($+* K#>$(>$"µJ*.

3% '(Sµ# KJ% #K?>#!V#IA$ ? AB#>A$CI?IA I+* '#'(µ)*+* "I$% '$!-

E(>#% K>!R#$%:

!¶#§$°'

. #K$D(HF '#'(µ)*+* #L*A$ ? K$( ABL*'M*? K>!R? "# µLA U!"? &#'(-

µ)*+*, AE(S '#* K>([K(G)I#$ µ#IAT(D)% I?% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+* "I(

EM"$BC #KLK#'(. 1AI! "M*)K#$A, '#* #K?>#!V#$ BAGCD(M I?* AB#>A$-

CI?IA I?% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+*.

!#™"°ø°'

1AI! I?* #$"AH+HF '#'(µ)*+* ? AB#>A$CI?IA µK(>#L *A KA>AT$A"I#L

#LI# µ# I?* #$"AH+HF µLA% #HH>AEF% µ# B#*F I$µF "# B!K($( BD#$'L,

#LI# µ# #$"AH+HF I$µF% "# BD#$'L K(M F'? MK!>@#$ "I? U!"? &#'(µ)-

*+*, #LI# µ# #$"AH+HF I$µJ*, H$A B!K($A "IFD? I(M KL*ABA, K(M '#*

A*IAK(B>L*(*IA$ "I(* A*IL"I($@( ISK( '#'(µ)*+* I(M BAI?H(>FµA-

I(% H$A I? "MHB#B>$µ)*? "IFD? (K.@. *A #$"A@G#L ? I$µF «/LB(%» "I(

BAI?HC>?µA )I(% L'>M"?%, I( (K(L( A*Aµ)*#$ )*A* AB)>A$( A>$GµC).

4A "M"IFµAIA U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+* E>(*ILV(M* H$A I?* IF>?"? I+*

KA>AK!*+ K#>$(>$"µJ* #*?µ#>J*(*IA% I(* @>F"I? H$A IA K>(TDF-

µAIA "I?* #$"AH+HF.

¢#"°ƒ"º'

. '$AH>AEF µK(>#L *A ('?HF"#$ "# KA>AT$!"#$% AB#>A$CI?IA% "#

"@)"? µ# !DD(M% KL*AB#%. ;$A KA>!'#$HµA, #!* ? (µ!'A «2DMµK$ABC%,

5#$>A$!%» )@#$ "Mµµ#I!"@#$ "# AHJ*#% BA$ )@#$ KALBI#% K(M AH+*LV(-

*IA$ "# AMIF BA$ I? '$AH>!Q(Mµ#, ICI# ($ AHJ*#% GA A*AE)>(*IA$ "#

µLA (µ!'A K(M '#* MK!>@#$ BA$ ($ KALBI#% GA AH+*LV(*IA$ "# (µ!'A

K(M '#* MK!>@#$ "I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+*. 4A K#>$""CI#>A "M"IFµAIA

U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+* E>(*ILV(M* *A '$AH>!E(M* AMICµAIA CD#% I$%

#HH>AE)% "I$% "@)"#$% K(M "Mµµ#I)@#$ µLA #HH>AEF K(M '$AH>!E#IA$

F KA>)@(M* I? 'M*AICI?IA "I( "@#'$A"IF I?% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+* *A

MD(K($F"#$ I(M% A*IL"I($@(M% µ?@A*$"µ(S%.

!¡'ª!ƒø™'

. #*?µ)>+"? µK(>#L *A K#>$DAµT!*#$ ADDAH)% "# BD#$'L, F C@$. 6I?

'#SI#>? K#>LKI+"?, I( µC*( K>CTD?µA µK(>#L *A K>(BSQ#$ µC*( µ#

µ#IAT(DF I$µJ* H$A B!K($A "IFD? I(M KL*ABA, #K#$'F ($ *)#% I$µ)% '#*

A*IAK(B>L*(*IA$ "I(* A*IL"I($@( ISK( '#'(µ)*+* I(M BAI?H(>FµA-

I(% H$A I? "MHB#B>$µ)*? "IFD?. 4CI# $"@S#$ CI$ A*AE)>Aµ# H$A I?*

#$"AH+HF. 3*ILG#IA "I?* K#>LKI+"? K(M ? #*?µ)>+"? K#>$DAµT!*#$

ADDAH)% "# BD#$'L, ICI# AMIC K(M "MµTAL*#$ A*I$"I($@#L "# A) '$AH>A-

EF I?% #HH>AEF% BA$ T) #$"AH+HF µLA% *)A% #HH>AEF% µ# I( *)( BD#$-

'L. 1AI! "M*)K#$A K>)K#$ *A K>("#@G(S* ($ K#>$(>$"µ(L AB#>A$CI?-

IA% K(M A*AE)>Aµ# IC"( "I? '$AH>AEF, C"( BA$ "I?* #$"AH+HF.

%§!#¢øª"

. U!"? &#'(µ)*+* "M*FG+% '#* K>((>LV#IA$ H$A @>F"? AKC )*A @>F-

"I?, ADD! (CK+% A*AE)>Aµ# "I( B#E!DA$( 1) AKC K(DD(S% @>F"I#%

BA$ µ!D$"IA IAMIC@>(*A. . IAMIC@>(*? K>("K)DA"? I+* '#'(µ)*+*

Cµ+% µK(>#L *A '?µ$(M>HF"#$ K>(TDFµAIA. 3% '(Sµ# I( KA>AB!I+

KA>!'#$HµA.

P@(Mµ# µLA U!"? &#'(µ)*+* "# µLA I>!K#VA BA$ )*A B($*C D(HA>$A-

"µC K(M K#>$H>!E#IA$ "I(* KA>AB!I+ KL*ABA:

1 0 14 . 1 & $ ™ Ã ! ™ # " % $ ª$¡ & ! §$

1+'$BC% -(HA>$A"µ(S 1+'$BC% 1(M 5#D!I? 1+'$BC% 2(M 5#D!I? 5("C

1

1+'$BC% -(HA>$A"µ(S 1+'$BC% 1(M 5#D!I? 1+'$BC% 2(M 5#D!I? 5("C

1992003104 98827654 98826531 500000

3% MK(G)"(Mµ# CI$ "I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* )@#$ #$"A@G#L BA$ ? KA>A-

B!I+ #HH>AEF K(M K#>$H>!E#$ CI$ 'S( K#D!I#% (( K#D!I?% µ# B+'$BC

98827654 BA$ ( K#D!I?% µ# B+'$BC 98826531) )@(M* 500.000 '>A@-

µ)% "# )*A B($*C D(HA>$A"µC:

1 0 2 K E º A § A I O 4 : ™ Ã ! ™ # " % ! ™ B " ™ ! # ™ ¢ ! ¢$ª !¡ ø ¡

<K(G)I(Mµ# IJ>A CI$ I?* L'$A @>(*$BF "I$HµF BA$ ($ 'S( K#D!I#%

K?HAL*(M* "# B!K($( µ?@!*?µA AMICµAI+* "M*ADDAHJ* BA$ #D)H@(M*

I(* D(HA>$A"µC I(M% µ# "B(KC *A B!*(M* A*!D?Q?. 3% MK(G)"(Mµ#

CI$ HL*(*IA$ IA KA>AB!I+ TFµAIA:

2 K#D!I?% 98827654 #R#I!V#$ I( K("C "I( D(HA>$A"µC I(M, TD)K#$

CI$ )@#$ 500.000 '>A@µ)% MKCD($K( BA$ V?I!#$ A*!D?Q? 400.000

'>A@µ)%.

2 K#D!I?% 98826531 #R#I!V#$ #KL"?% I( K("C "I(* B($*C D(HA>$A"µC

K>$* K>AHµAI(K($?G#L ? #*I(DF A*!D?Q?% I(M K#D!I? 9882764 BA$

TD)K#$ BA$ AMIC% CI$ )@#$ 500.000 '>A@µ)% MKCD($K( BA$ V?I!#$ A*!-

D?Q? 300.000 '>A@µ)%.

4$ GA "MµT#L "# AMIF I?* K#>LKI+"?; ,!* ? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* '#* )@#$

B!K($( µ?@A*$"µC *A "IAµAI!#$ B!G# K>C"TA"? "I(* B($*C D(HA>$A-

"µC µ)@>$ *A (D(BD?>+G#L ? K>JI? "M*ADDAHF ICI#, G#+>?I$B!, ($

'S( K#D!I#% GA µK(>(S"A* *A #L@A* B!*#$ A*!D?Q? 700.000 '>A@µ)%

AKC )*A D(HA>$A"µC K(M #L@# MKCD($K( 500.000 '>A@µ)%.

;$A *A µ? K>(BSKI(M* I)I($A K>(TDFµAIA ? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* BD#$-

'J*#$ I$% #HH>AE)% "I$% (K(L#% K>AHµAI(K($(S*IA$ ADDAH)% µ)@>$ *A

(D(BD?>+G#L ? "M*ADDAHF BA$ µ#I! 'L*#$ I? 'M*AICI?IA *A HL*#$ ?

#KCµ#*? "M*ADDAHF.

4( K>CTD?µA I(M BD#$'JµAI(% #L*A$ )*A A>B#I! "(TA>C K>CTD?µA

K(M AKA"@(D#L B!G# T$TDL( K(M K#>$H>!E#$ K>(@+>?µ)*A G)µAIA

U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+*. &#* GA #K#BIAG(Sµ# "# AMIC I( G)µA "I( T$TDL(

K(M '$AT!V#I#, ADD! "A% K>(I#L*(Mµ# *A µ#D#IF"#I# B!K($( AKC IA

K>(I#$*Cµ#*A T$TDLA "I( I)D(% I(M B#EADAL(M. 5$"I#S(Mµ# CI$ GA

T>#LI# K(DS #*'$AE)>(*IA IA G)µAIA @#$>$"µ(S I+* "M*ADDAHJ* BA$

A*I$µ#IJK$"?% K>(TD?µ!I+* K(M µK(>#L *A '?µ$(M>HF"#$ )*A BABC

BD#L'+µA. ;$A KA>!'#$HµA I( A'$)R('( (deadlock) K(M "?µAL*#$ CI$

'S( "M*ADDAH)% )@(M* µ#L*#$ "# "I!"$µ? BAI!"IA"? K#>$µ)*(*IA% ?

µLA I?* !DD? BA$ '#* µK(>(S* *A R#ESH(M* AKC AMIF I?* BAI!"IA"?,

F I( livelock K(M "?µAL*#$ CI$ µLA "M*ADDAHF )@#$ µ#L*#$ "I!"$µ? BA$

KA>CD( K(M I( "S"I?µA D#$I(M>H#L BA*(*$B!, AMIF '#* µK(>#L *A #KA-

*)DG#$ "# D#$I(M>HLA.

1 0 34 . 1 & $ ™ Ã ! ™ # " % $ ª$¡ & ! §$ / 4 . 2 ™ Ã ! ™ # " % ' " § ° ! µ ƒ"


3B(D(MG(S* B!K($#% K>(I!"#$%. 3KA*IF"I# "+"IC F D!G(%, A*!-

D(HA µ# I( I$ K$"I#S#I# H$A B!G# K>CIA"?, #K$D)H(*IA% I( A*IL"I($-

@( I#I>AH+*!B$.

!</(? 69@#5

. #*?µ)>+"? '#* µK(>#L *A '?µ$(M>HF"#$

K>(TDFµAIA AB#>A$CI?IA%. 4A K>(TDFµAIA

'?µ$(M>H(S*IA$ µC*( "I?* #$"AH+HF F

"I? '$AH>AEF. " "

1!G# #$"AH+HF '#'(µ)*+* KA>AT$!V#$ I?*

AB#>A$CI?IA I?% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+*, CIA*

HL*#IA$ #$"AH+HF "# BD#$'L. " "

. #K$D(HF '#* #K?>#!V#$ I?* AB#>A$CI?IA. " "

1D#L'+µA '#'(µ)*+* '#* @>#$!V#IA$ *A HL*#$

BAI! I?* #K$D(HF. " "

WIA* 'S( @>F"I#% B!*(M* #K$D(HF I+* L'$+*

'#'(µ)*+* I?* L'$A @>(*$BF "I$HµF, ? U!"?

&#'(µ)*+* BD#$'J*#$ IA '#'(µ)*A BA$

#K$I>)K#$ µC*( "# )*A @>F"I? B!G# E(>!

*A IA '$AT!V#$. " "

¢Ú·ÛÙËÚÈfiÙËÙ· 4.26I(M% KL*AB#% K(M )@(M* K>(BSQ#$ +% AK!*I?"? "I? '>A"I?>$CI?IA

4.1 K>AHµAI(K($F"I# K>!R#$% #$"AH+HF%, '$AH>AEF% BA$ #*?µ)>+"?%.

<D(K($F"I# I(MD!@$"I(* 5 K>!R#$% H$A B!G# K#>LKI+"? BA$ #D)HRI#

#!* ? K>!R? "A% K>("B>(S#$ "# B!K($(M% K#>$(>$"µ(S% AB#>A$CI?-

IA%. ,*I(KL"I# I$ ADDAH)% GA )K>#K# *A B!*#I# "IA '#'(µ)*A "A% J"I#

*A µ?* MK!>@#$ K>CTD?µA µ# I(M% K#>$(>$"µ(S%.

1 0 4 K E º A § A I O 4 : ™ Ã ! ™ # " % ! ™ B " ™ ! # ™ ¢ ! ¢$ª !¡ ø ¡

4.2 ™¯ÂÛÈ·Î‹ ¿ÏÁÂ‚Ú·

™ÎÔ!fi˜

&1('#6 /46 .,#/4/%6 .>,%0 ,% '%"()=0A=.0 /4 =9.=0%12 A:$.J"% 1%0

.0*01#/."% /06 '"AG.06 /46 =9.=0%126 A:$.J"%6.


M/%, <% F9./. (:(1:4"+=.0 /4 µ.:F/4 %)/26 /46 .,#/4/%6 <% µ'(".>/. ,%:

• '."0$"AI./. /0 .>,%0 4 =9.=0%12 A:$.J"% 1%0 '(E 9"4=0µ('(0.>/%0

• .G4$2=./. 1A<. '"AG4 /46 =9.=0%126 A:$.J"%6 /#=( %'# ':.)"A6 =)µ-

J(:0=µ(E, #=( 1%0 %'# ':.)"A6 .;%"µ($26 1%0 %'(/.:F=µ%/(6

• .1/.:F=./. '"AG.06 =9.=0%126 A:$.J"%6 =. '>,%1.6

• ):('(02=./. ."B/2=.06 µ. /4 J(2<.0% '"AG.B, /46 =9.=0%126 A:$.J"%6


&/4, .,#/4/% %)/2 <% '."0$"AI()µ. /06 J%=01F6 '"AG.06 /46 =9.=0%126

A:$.J"%6. &/4, .,#/4/% 4.2.1 '."0$"A;./%0 4 '"AG4 .'0:($2 (selection),

=/4, .,#/4/% 4.2.2 '."0$"A;./%0 4 '"AG4 '"(J(:2 (projection), =/4, .,#-

/4/% 4.2.3 '."0$"A;./%0 4 '"AG4 =),#:B, F,B=4 (union) 1%0 =/4, 4.2.4

4 '"AG4 =),#:B, /(µ2 (intersection), =/4, .,#/4/% 4.2.5 '."0$"A;./%0 4

'"AG4 *0%;("A (difference) 1%0 =/4, .,#/4/% 4.2.6 '."0$"A;./%0 4 '"AG4

1%"/.=0%,# $0,#µ.,( (cartesian join). 5F:(6, =/4, .,#/4/% 4.2.7 '."0-

$"A;./%0 4 '"AG4 =E,*.=4 (join) 1%0 =/4, .,#/4/% 4.2.8 '."0$"A;./%0 4

'"AG4 ;)=012 =E,*.=4 (natural join)

&/4, .,#/4/% %)/2 *., '."0$"A;()µ. µ."01F6 .G.0*01.)µF,.6 '"AG.06, #'B6

4 '"AG4 *0%>".=4 (quotient), 4 '"AG4 .GB/."0126 =),F,B=46 (outer join),

4 '"AG4 .GB/."012 F,B=4 (outer union) 1%0 A::.6. M:.6 /06 '%"%'A,B '"A-

G.06 µ'(".>/. ,% /06 *0%JA=./. =/4 =9./012 J0J:0($"%;>%.

R =9.=0%12 A:$.J"% (#'B6 1%0 ( =9.=0%1#6 )'(:($0=µ#6 '() '."0$"A-

;./%0 =/4, .'#µ.,4 .,#/4/%) .>,%0 '"#/)'.6 $:+==.6 ."B/2=.B, '()

F9(), <.B"4/012 %G>% 1%0 #90 '"%1/012 .;%"µ($2. X"4=0µ('(0(E,/%0 $0%

/4 µ(,/.:('(>4=4 ."B/2=.B,, *4:%*2 $0% ,% '."0$"AI(), =. %;4"4-

µF,( .'>'.*( /06 ."B/2=.06 '"(6 /4 OA=4 8.*(µF,B, 1%0 *., %,/0=/(0-

9(E, =/( ;)=01# .'>'.*( =. '"%$µ%/012 ):('(>4=4. !%"F9(), F,% =E,(-

:( *),%/(/2/B,, /( ('(>( .'.G4$.> /06 *),%/#/4/.6 /B, $:B==+, ."B-

/2=.B,, %::A .>,%0 =%;F=/%/% )'(=E,(:( /B, *),%/(/2/B, /B, $:B=-

=+, '() <% '."0$"AI()µ. =/% .'#µ.,% *E( 1.;A:%0%.

&/4 *0.<,2 J0J:0($"%;>% 4 =9.=0%12 A:$.J"% %,%;F"./%0 =. =9F=.06

(relations) 1%0 ':.0A*.6 (tuples). &/06 '"AG.06 '() %1(:()<(E, <% 9"4-

=0µ('(0(Eµ. /()6 #"()6 «'>,%1.6» %,/> $0% =9F=.06 (%;(E %,%;."#-

µ%=/. =. '>,%1.6 =9F=.B, 1%0 (,/(/2/B,) 1%0 «.$$"%;F6» %,/> $0%

':.0A*.6, %;(E =. µ>% OA=4 8.*(µF,B, µ>% ':.0A*% *.*(µF,B, %,/0-

=/(09.> =. µ>% .$$"%;2, $0% ,% .>µ%=/. =),.'.>6 µ. /4, ("(:($>% '()

9"4=0µ('(02=%µ. =/% '"(4$(Eµ.,% 1.;A:%0%.

1 0 54 . 2 ™ Ã ! ™ # " % ' " § ° ! µ ƒ"

6IA KA>A'#LHµAIA I?% #*CI?IA% K(M AB(D(MG(S* GA @>?"$µ(K($F-

"(Mµ# I(M% 'S( KL*AB#% K(M 'L*(Mµ# KA>AB!I+ "I( KA>!'#$HµA 4.1

µ# IA '#'(µ)*A K(M A*AH>!E(*IA$.

¶·Ú¿‰ÂÈÁÌ· 4.1

&L*(*IA$ ($ 'S( KL*AB#% «7!*AIV#>» BA$ «1AI?H(>LA» µ# µ#>$B! K#$>AµAI$B! '#'(µ)*A.

6I$% #*CI?I#% K(M AB(D(MG(S* CD#% ($ K>!R#$% GA @>?"$µ(K($(S* AMI! IA KA>A'#LHµAIA.

73/34b,9

N,#µ1 -.+,Bµ# 4?D)E+*(

/LB(% UA"$D#L(M 061-555666

1J"IA% :>F"I(M 061-888999

5)I>(% 0+!**(M 01-8889990

.DLA% .DL(M 01-8889992

7$@!D?% UA"$D#L(M 031-666777

53014.6

H. O0(=. W*(µA ,KJ*Mµ( 5AI>/µ( aQ(% .µ. ;)*. 5CD?

23711 /LB(% 0+!**(M 1J"IA% 1,99 20/11/80 5!I>A

18902 7$@!D?% =A*GC% /LB(% 2,03 17/03/78 3GF*A

82002 5)I>(% .DL(M 7$@!D?% 2,00 03/04/81 5!I>A

90203 /LB(% 7$@AFD 1J"IA% 1,96 11/03/82

88991 /LB(% =A*GC% .DLA% 1,88 -!>$"A

81209 5)I>(% 5)I>(M ;$J>H(% 2,09 18/08/80 3GF*A

1 0 6 K E º A § A I O 4 : ™ Ã ! ™ # " % ! ™ B " ™ ! # ™ ¢ ! ¢$ª !¡ ø ¡

4.2.1 E!ÈÏÔÁ‹

. K>!R? I?% #K$D(HF% 'L*#$ I? 'M*AICI?IA #K$D(HF% B!K($+* #HH>AEJ*

AKC )*A KL*ABA µ# T!"? µLA "M*GFB? #K$D(HF%. &L*#IA$ AKC I(* ISK(:

"3 (3) (4.1)

6?µAL*#$ #K$D(HF CD+* I+* #HH>AEJ* AKC I(* KL*ABA 3, ($ (K(L#%

$BA*(K($(S* I? "M*GFB? 3. . "M*GFB? 3 µK(>#L *A K#>$)@#$ I(M%

A>$Gµ?I$B(S% I#D#"I)% <, >, O, c, 0 BA$ =, BAGJ% BA$ I(M% D(H$B(S%

I#D#"I)% AND, OR, BA$ NOT.

PI"$ ? #*I(DF " W*(µA=/LB(% (5ALBI?%) "I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* I(M KA>A-

'#LHµAI(% 4.1 GA #L@# +% AK(I)D#"µA I(* ABCD(MG( KL*ABA:


23711 /LB(% 0+!**(M 1J"IA% 1,99 20/11/80 5!I>A

90203 /LB(% 7$@AFD 1J"IA% 1,96 11/03/82

88991 /LB(% =A*GC% .DLA% 1,88 -!>$"A


4.3

<K(D(HL"I# IA KA>AB!I+ "I(M% KL*AB#% I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 4.1:

" W*(µA=/LB(% AND aQ(% > 1,96 (5ALBI?%)

" W*(µA=/LB(% (7!*AIV#>)

4.2.2 ¶ÚÔ‚ÔÏ‹

. K>!R? I?% K>(T(DF% 'L*#$ I? 'M*AICI?IA #K$D(HF% B!K($+* "I?DJ*

AKC )*A KL*ABA, F I?* A*A'$!IAR? I+* "I?DJ* I(M KL*ABA. &L*#IA$

AKC I(* ISK(:

' 61, 62, … 6n (3) (4.2)

6?µAL*#$ #K$D(HF µC*( I+* "I?DJ* 61, 62, …, 6n AKC I(* KL*ABA 3

BA$ #µE!*$"F I(M% µ# AMIF I? "#$>!. PI"$, ? #*I(DF K ,KJ*Mµ(, aQ(% (5AL-

BI?%) GA #L@# +% AK(I)D#"µA I(* 'LKDA KL*ABA.

,KJ*Mµ( aQ(%

0+!**(M 1,99

=A*GC% 2,03

.DL(M 2,00

7$@AFD 1,96

=A*GC% 1,88

5)I>(M 2,09

4.2.3 ŒÓˆÛË

. K>!R? I?% )*+"?% A*I$"I($@#L "I? H*+"IF K>!R? I?% )*+"?% AKC

I? G#+>LA "M*CD+* BA$ 'L*#IA$ AKC I(* ISK(:

3 U (4.3)

6?µAL*#$ #K$D(HF I+* H>AµµJ* AKC I(M% KL*AB#% 3, U K(M MK!>@(M*

#LI# "I(* KL*ABA 3, #LI# "I(* KL*ABA U, #LI# BA$ "I(M% 'S( KL*AB#%.

4.2.4 TÔÌ‹

. K>!R? I?% I(µF% A*I$"I($@#L "I? H*+"IF K>!R? I?% I(µF% AKC I?

G#+>LA "M*CD+* BA$ 'L*#IA$ AKC I(* ISK(:

3 U (4.4)


BA$ "I(* KL*ABA 3 BA$ "I(* KL*ABA U.

4.2.5 ¢È·ÊÔÚ¿

. K>!R? I?% '$AE(>!% A*I$"I($@#L "I? H*+"IF K>!R? I?% '$AE(>!%

AKC I? G#+>LA "M*CD+* BA$ 'L*#IA$ AKC I(* ISK(:

3 – U (4.5)


"I(* 3 BA$ '#* MK!>@(M* "I(* U.

1 0 74 . 2 ™ Ã ! ™ # " % ' " § ° ! µ ƒ"


K!*I# I$% KA>AB!I+ K>!R#$% "I(M% KL*AB#% I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 4.1:

K W*(µA, ,KJ*Mµ(, 5CD? (5ALBI?%)

K ,KJ*Mµ( (7!*AIV#>)


<D(K($F"I# I?* #>JI?"? «U>#LI# µC*( I( #KJ*Mµ( BA$ I( SQ(% I+*

KA$BIJ* K(M )@(M* BAIAH+HF AKC I?* KCD? 5!I>A».

¢Ú·ÛÙËÚÈfiÙËÙ· 4.30"@S#$ CI$ 3 U = 3 – (3 – U). :>?"$µ(K($J*IA% K>(T(D)% AKC

I(M% KL*AB#% I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 4.1 '#LRI# KA>A'#LHµAIA I?% KA>A-

K!*+ $"CI?IA%.

1 0 8 K E º A § A I O 4 : ™ Ã ! ™ # " % ! ™ B " ™ ! # ™ ¢ ! ¢$ª !¡ ø ¡

4.2.6 &·ÚÙÂÛÈ·Ófi ÁÈÓfiÌÂÓÔ

. K>!R? I(M BA>I#"$A*(S H$*(µ)*(M 'S( "M*CD+* 3 BA$ U 'L*#IA$

AKC I(* ISK(:

3 U (4.6)

6?µAL*#$ '?µ$(M>HLA #*C% *)(M KL*ABA µ# arity I( !G>($"µA I+* arity

I+* K$*!B+* 3 BA$ U, ( (K(L(% GA )@#$ H>Aµµ)% I(M% "M*'MA"µ(S%

CD+* I+* H>AµµJ* I(M KL*ABA 3 µ# CD#% I$% H>Aµµ)% I(M KL*ABA U.

4.2.7 ™‡Ó‰ÂÛË

. K>!R? I?% "S*'#"?% 'S( "M*CD+* 3 BA$ U 'L*#IA$ AKC I(* ISK(:

(4.7)

. K>!R? I?% "S*'#"?% A*I$"I($@#L "I?* K>!R? " , (3 U) BA$ "?µAL-

*#$ I?* #K$D(HF AKC I( BA>I#"$A*C H$*Cµ#*( 3 U µC*( I+* H>Aµ-

µJ* K(M $BA*(K($(S* I? "M*GFB? ,. . "M*GFB? , µK(>#L *A K#>$)@#$

I(M% A>$Gµ?I$B(S% I#D#"I)% <, >, O, c, 0 BA$ =, BAGJ% BA$ I(M% D(H$-

B(S% I#D#"I)% AND, OR, BA$ NOT.

4.2.8 º˘ÛÈÎ‹ Û‡Ó‰ÂÛË

. K>!R? I?% EM"$BF% "S*'#"?% 'S( "M*CD+* 3 BA$ U 'L*#IA$ AKC I(*

ISK(:

(4.8)

. K>!R? I?% EM"$BF% "S*'#"?% #EA>µCV#IA$ "# KL*AB#% K(M )@(M*

A B><

A B

E><


4.6

K!*I# I$% KA>AB!I+ K>!R#$%:

K W*(µA (5ALBI?%) K W*(µA (7!*AIV#>)

K W*(µA (5ALBI?%) K W*(µA (7!*AIV#>)

K W*(µA (5ALBI?%) – K W*(µA (7!*AIV#>)

¢Ú·ÛÙËÚÈfiÙËÙ· 4.4 <K(D(HL"I# I( BA>I#"$A*C H$*Cµ#*( 5ALBI?% 7!*AIV#>.

"IFD#% µ# B($*! BAI?H(>FµAIA BA$ "?µAL*#$ I?* #K$D(HF AKC I( BA>-

I#"$A*C H$*Cµ#*( 3 U µC*( I+* H>AµµJ* K(M ($ "IFD#% µ# IA B($*!

BAI?H(>FµAIA )@(M* L'$#% I$µ)%. . EM"$BF "S*'#"? )@#$ +% AK(I)D#-

"µA I?* #µE!*$"? #*C% *)(M KL*ABA, K(M K#>$)@#$ µC*( µLA E(>! I$%

B($*)% "IFD#%.

1 0 94 . 2 ™ Ã ! ™ # " % ' " § ° ! µ ƒ" / 4 . 3 ™ Ã ! ™ # " % $ ™ À ¶$ §$ ° # ™ ª$ ™


&L*(*IA$ ($ KA>AB!I+ KL*AB#% 3, U BA$ ; (H$A DCH(M% AKDCI?IA%

)@(Mµ# +% '#'(µ)*A A>$Gµ(S%). <K(D(HL"I# IA #RF%:

1) A !" B;!&

2) ; !" &

3) A !" ;

5L*ABA% 3

H A P

3 1 7

1 3 6

5L*ABA% B

8 E

4 5

7 1

3 8

5L*ABA% ;

B P 8

1 7 4

3 6 6

4.3 ™¯ÂÛÈ·Îfi˜ ˘!ÔÏÔÁÈÛÌfi˜

™ÎÔ!fi˜

&1('#6 /46 .,#/4/%6 .>,%0 ,% '%"()=0A=.0 /( =9.=0%1# )'(:($0=µ# 1%0

'%"%*.>$µ%/% µ./%/"('26 %'# =9.=0%12 A:$.J"% =. =9.=0%1# )'(:($0=µ#.


M/%, <% F9./. (:(1:4"+=.0 /4 µ.:F/4 %)/26 /46 .,#/4/%6 <% µ'(-

".>/. ,%:

• '."0$"AI./. /0 .>,%0 ( =9.=0%1#6 )'(:($0=µ#6 1%0 '(E 9"4=0µ('(0-

.>/%0

• ):('(02=./. ."B/2=.06 µ. /4 J(2<.0% '"AG.B, /() =9.=0%1(E )'(-

:($0=µ(E

• µ./%/"FI./. ."B/2=.06 1%0 '"AG.06 /06 =9.=0%126 A:$.J"%6 =. ."B-

/2=.06 1%0 '"AG.06 /() =9.=0%1(E )'(:($0=µ(E

1 1 0 K E º A § A I O 4 : ™ Ã ! ™ # " % ! ™ B " ™ ! # ™ ¢ ! ¢$ª !¡ ø ¡


&/4, .,#/4/% %)/2 '."0$"A;()µ. =),('/01A /( =9.=0%1# )'(:($0=µ#.

&. '.">'/B=4 '() <F:./. ,% .µJ%<E,./. =/( =9.=0%1# )'(:($0=µ#

µ'(".>/. ,% %,%/"FG./. =/4 J0J:0($"%;>% '"(%0"./0126 %,A$,B=46

'() J">=1./%0 =/( /F:(6 /() 1.;%:%>().

2 "@#"$ABC% MK(D(H$"µC% @>?"$µ(K($#L #BE>!"#$% I?% µ(>EF%:

(4.9)

6I(* ISK( (4.9) I( x A*I$"I($@#L "# µLA #HH>AEF ? (K(LA KD?>(L I$%

K>('$AH>AE)% I?% "@)"?% 3. 4( "SµT(D( « » )@#$ I?* )**($A «I)I($(

J"I#» F «H$A I?* (K(LA $"@S#$» BA$ ($ AHBSD#% MK('?DJ*(M* I( "S*(-

D( I+* x. X>A ? )BE>A"? (4.9) "?µAL*#$ «($ #HH>AE)% x H$A I$% (K(L-

#% $"@S#$ ? "M*GFB? E(x)». ,KL"?% I( «x» µK(>#L *A #L*A$ BA$ IµFµA

µ$A% #HH>AEF% BA$ C@$ (DCBD?>? ? #HH>AEF.

. "M*GFB? "I(* ISK( (4.9) µK(>#L *A @>?"$µ(K($#L µC*( IA KA>AB!-

I+ "SµT(DA:

• I( (K(L( A*I$"I($@#L "I( D(H$BC AND. . "@)"? 3 U "?µAL*#$

«*A #L*A$ AD?G)% BA$ I( 3 BA$ I( U»

• I( (K(L( A*I$"I($@#L "I( D(H$BC OR. . "@)"? 3 U "?µAL*#$

«*A #L*A$ AD?G)% #LI# I( 3, #LI# I( U, #LI# BA$ IA 'S(»

• I( (K(L( A*I$"I($@#L "I( D(H$BC NOT. . "@)"? 3 "?µAL*#$

«*A µ?* #L*A$ AD?G)% I( 3»

• I( (K(L( A*I$"I($@#L "I?* )**($A «H$A B!G#». . "@)"? ( x)

"?µAL*#$ «H$A B!G# x»

• I( (K(L( A*I$"I($@#L "I?* )**($A «MK!>@#$». . "@)"? ( x)

"?µAL*#$ «MK!>@#$ )*A I(MD!@$"I(* x»

• A>$Gµ?I$B(S% I#D#"I)% BA$ "MHB#B>$µ)*A I(M% , , , , BA$

• KA>#*G)"#$% H$A I?* K>(I#>A$CI?IA I+* K>!R#+* "I$% "@)"#$%

:>?"$µ(K($J*IA% IA KA>AK!*+ "SµT(DA µK(>(S* *A K#>$H>AE(S*

#>+IF"#$% K>(% I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* A*IL"I($@#% µ# I$% #>+IF"#$%

K(M K#>$H>!QAµ# H$A I? "@#"$ABF !DH#T>A. ;$A *A 'J"(Mµ# I?*

arity (A>$GµC% "I?DJ*) µLA% #HH>AEF% "M*FG+% A*AE)>(Mµ# µLA

KA>)*G#"? 'LKDA "I?* #HH>AEF, '?DA'F ? )BE>A"? "?µAL*#$ «($

{ ( )}x E x

#HH>AE)% x µ# arity y K(M KD?>(S* I? "@)"? 3».

(4.10)

,KL"?% H$A *A #*I(KL"(Mµ# )*A "MHB#B>$µ)*( K#'L( I?% #HH>AEF% x

@>?"$µ(K($(Sµ# I$% AHBSD#% «[z]». ;$A KA>!'#$HµA ? "@)"? "?µAL*#$

«($ #HH>AE)% x µ# 4 K#'LA, AKC IA (K(LA I( K#'L( C*(µA #L*A$ L"( µ#

/LB(%».

{x (4) | x[C*(µA]=/LB(% } (4.11)

2 #*I(K$"µC% I+* K#'L+* µK(>#L *A HL*#$ BA$ µ# I(* A>$Gµ?I$BC "Mµ-

T(D$"µC I(M K#'L(M, '?DA'F ? "@)"? "?µAL*#$ «($ #HH>AE)% x µ# 4

K#'LA AKC IA (K(LA I( 2( K#'L( #L*A$ L"( µ# /LB(%».

{x (4) | x[2]=/LB(% } (4.12)

3% '(Sµ# !DD( )*A KA>!'#$HµA )BE>A"?% "@#"$AB(S MK(D(H$"µ(S.

&L*#IA$ ? ABCD(MG? "@)"? H$A )*A KL*ABA 3 µ# 'S( BAI?H(>FµAIA:

(4.13)

. "@)"? AMIF #K$"I>)E#$ I(* KL*ABA 3, #!* AMIC% )@#$ K#>$""CI#>#%

I?% µLA% #HH>AEF%, #*J "# A*ILG#I? K#>LKI+"? '#* #K$"I>)E#$ ILK(I#.

5>(")RI# I? "@)"? "I( '#SI#>( µ)>(% I?% )BE>A"?% (4.13). 6?µAL*#$

«*A MK!>@#$ µLA #HH>AEF y I)I($A J"I# BA$ I( x BA$ I( y *A #L*A$ #HH>A-

E)% I(M 3, ADD! #KL"?% *A #L*A$ '$AE(>#I$BC I( x AKC I( y».

{ )( ( ) ( ) ( [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ])( )x Ey A x A y x y x y2 1 1 2 2

{ ( )}( )x E xy

1 1 14 . 3 ™ Ã ! ™ # " % $ ™ À ¶$ §$ ° # ™ ª$ ™


<D(K($F"I# µ# "@#"$ABC MK(D(H$"µC I$% K>!R#$% I$% "@#"$ABF% !DH#-

T>A% K(M AB(D(MG(S*:

" , (3)

K 61, 62 (3)

3 U

3 – U

3 B

,BE>!"I# µ# "@#"$ABC MK(D(H$"µC CD#% I$% K>!R#$% I?% "@#"$ABF%

!DH#T>A% H$A I$% (K(L#% µ$DF"Aµ# "I?* #*CI?IA 4.2.


1 1 2 K E º A § A I O 4 : ™ Ã ! ™ # " % ! ™ B " ™ ! # ™ ¢ ! ¢$ª !¡ ø ¡

™‡ÓÔ„Ë

&/( 1.;A:%0( %)/# '."0$"AI%µ. /06 =9.=0%1F6 OA=.06 8.*(µF,B, 1%0

µ0:2=%µ. $0% /06 J%=01F6 F,,(0.6 1%0 '"AG.06, 1%<+6 1%0 $0% /()6 '."0(-

"0=µ(E6 %1."%0#/4/%6 1%0 /( 1:.>*Bµ%. !."0$"AI%µ. ., =),/(µ>% *E(

J%=01A =9.=0%1A µ(,/F:% ."B/2=.B,: /4 =9.=0%12 A:$.J"% 1%0 /( =9.-

=0%1# )'(:($0=µ#. 8., µ0:2=%µ. $0% #:.6 /06 '"AG.06 /46 =9.=0%126 A:$.-

J"%6, (E/. 1%:EI%µ. %,%:)/01A /( =9.=0%1# )'(:($0=µ# 1%0 $0% %)/# /(

:#$( =%6 '"(/.>,()µ. ,% %,%/"FG./. =/4 J0J:0($"%;>% $0% ,% µ.:./2=.-

/. =. JA<(6 /% *E( %)/A µ(,/F:% ."B/2=.B,.



4( T$TDL( MK!>@#$ BA$ "# ,DD?*$BF µ#I!E>A"? AKC I$% #B'C"#$% &LAM-D(% "# µ#I!E>A"? 7. :AIVCK(MD(M, 1996. 6I( B#E!DA$( 6 I(M T$TDL(MBADSKI(*IA$ IA G)µAIA I+* "@#"$ABJ* U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+*. 4( G)µA I(MBD#$'JµAI(% K#>$H>!E#IA$ "I( B#E!DA$( 18.

[2] Ulman J. D., Principles of Database Systems, Computer Science Press, 1982.

,L*A$ )*A AKC I( K>JIA BA$ TA"$BCI#>A T$TDLA H$A U!"#$% &#'(µ)*+*.4A A*I$B#Lµ#*A K(M "MV?IF"Aµ# "I( B#E!DA$( 4 I(M T$TDL(M AMI(S BADS-KI(*IA$ "IA B#E!DA$A 5 BA$ 7 I(M "MHB#B>$µ)*(M T$TDL(M. 6I$% #*CI?I#%5.2 BA$ 5.3 µK(>#LI# *A T>#LI# µLA K(DS A*ADMI$BF K#>$H>AEF I+* TA"$-BJ* A>@J* I?% "@#"$ABF% !DH#T>A% BA$ I(M "@#"$AB(S MK(D(H$"µ(SA*IL"I($@A.

[3] Silberschatz A., Korth H., Sudarshan S, Database System Concepts, ThirdEdition, McGraw–Hill, 1986.

4( "@#"$ABC µ(*I)D( K#>$H>!E#IA$ "I( B#E!DA$( 3 I(M T$TDL(M. 4( G)µAI(M BD#$'JµAI(% I+* '#'(µ)*+* K#>$H>!E#IA$ A*ADMI$B! "I( B#E!DA$( 14.

[4] C.J.Date, An Introduction to Database Systems, Volume I, Fourth Edition,Addison–Wesley, 1986.

6IA B#E!DA$A 4 )+% BA$ 9 K#>$H>!E#IA$ )*A "@#"$ABC "S"I?µA U!"#+*&#'(µ)*+* (I( DB2). 4A IµFµAIA K(M K#>$H>!QAµ# "I( KA>C* T$TDL(BADSKI(*IA$ BM>L+% "I( B#E!DA$( 5 I(M K>(I#$*Cµ#*(M T$TDL(M.

[5] Papazoglou M. and Valder W., Relational Database Management,Prentice Hall, 1989.

2DCBD?>( I( T$TDL( #L*A$ TA"$"µ)*( "I( "@#"$ABC µ(*I)D(. OA µK(>(S"A-I# *A I( '$AT!"#I# +% µLA BADF #KA*!D?Q? "I( "@#"$ABC µ(*I)D( BA$ µ#"IC@( *A #µTAGS*#I# I$% H*J"#$% "A% "I( µ(*I)D( AMIC.

H °ÏÒÛÛ· EÚˆÙ‹ÛÂˆÓ SQL

™ÎÔ!fi˜

&1('#6 /() 1.;%:%>() .>,%0 ,% '%"()=0%=/.> 4 $:+==% ."B/2=.B,

1%0 %::%$+, SQL 1%0 ,% '."0$"%;.> 4 =E,/%G4 ."B/2=.B, =. SQL.

3'>=46, =1('#6 /() 1.;%:%>() .>,%0 ,% µ.:./4<(E, ."B/2=.06 /#=(

$0% .G%$B$2 *.*(µF,B, %'# /()6 '>,%1.6 µ>%6 =9.=0%126 OA=46 8.*(-

µF,B,, #=( 1%0 ,% '%"()=0%=/.> 4 9"2=4 .,/(:+, SQL $0% /4 *4µ0-

()"$>% '0,A1B,, %::%$2 *.*(µF,B, =/% =/(09.>% .,#6 '>,%1% 1%0 *0%-

$"%;2 *.*(µF,B, %'# F,%, '>,%1%.


M/%, <% F9./. (:(1:4"+=.0 /4 µ.:F/4 %)/(E /() 1.;%:%>() <% µ'(-

".>/. ,%:

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%"901A =. %':2 (;)=012) $:+==% =/4 $:+==% ."B/2=.B, SQL


• 7:+==.6 3"B/2=.B, (Query Languages)

• 7:+==% P"0=µ(E 8.*(µF,B, (Data Definition Language)

• 7:+==% Q.0"0=µ(E 8.*(µF,B, (Data Manipulation Language)

5! " º # § # $ %

1 1 4 K E º A § A I O 5 : H ° § ø ™ ™ " E ƒ ø & ' ™ !ø ¡ S Q L

• &)µJ(:(=.0"A (String)

• S./(,(µ%=>.6 (Aliases)


&/( 1.;A:%0( %)/# '."0$"A;()µ. /4 $:+==% ."B/2=.B, SQL, µ>%

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5.3 '%"()=0AN(,/%0 (0 .,/(:F6 /46 $:+==%6 ."B/2=.B, SQL '() 9"4-

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/2=.B, SQL.

5.1 "Ú¯¤˜ ÙˆÓ ÁÏˆÛÛÒÓ ÂÚˆÙ‹ÛÂˆÓ

™ÎÔ!fi˜

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B, 8.*(µF,B,, 1%<+6 1%0 ,% $>,.0 %,%;("A =/06 *E( $:+==.6 ."B-

/2=.B, '() <% '."0$"AI()µ. =. %)/# /( J0J:>(, /4, SQL 1%0 /4, QBE.


M/%, <% F9./. (:(1:4"+=.0 /4 µ.:F/4 %)/26 /46 .,#/4/%6 <% µ'(".>-

/. ,%:

• .G4$2=./. /0 .>,%0 $:+==% ."B/2=.B,

• '."0$"AI./. /4 9"2=4 /B, $:B==+, ."B/2=.B, 1%0 /( /0 '%"F9(),

=/( 9"2=/4 µ>%6 OA=46 8.*(µF,B,

• %,%;F"./. /():A90=/(, *E( $:+==.6 )'(J(:26 ."B/2=.B,

6I( K>(?H(Sµ#*( B#E!DA$( K#>$H>!QAµ# I? "@#"$ABF !DH#T>A BA$ I(

"@#"$ABC D(H$"µC. 4C"( ? "@#"$ABF !DH#T>A, C"( BA$ ( "@#"$ABC%

D(H$"µC% G#+>(S*IA$ AKC I$% K>JI#% G#+>?I$B)% HDJ""#% #>+IF"#-

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BI$BF A*!HB? I(M @>F"I? µLA% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+*. 5>)K#$ *A I(M

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AKC G)µAIA K(M "@#ILV(*IA$ µ# I( EM"$BC #KLK#'( F µ# I?* AKC'("?


I?% #BI)D#"?% I?% #>JI?"?%, #L*A$ TA"$BF K>('$AH>AEF BA$ #KLI#MH-

µA I+* 6M"I?µ!I+* &$A@#L>$"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+*. ;$A AMIC I(

DCH(, HDJ""#% CK+% ? "@#"$ABF !DH#T>A F ( "@#"$ABC% D(H$"µC% '#*

@>?"$µ(K($FG?BA* +% HDJ""#% #>+IF"#+*, KA>! µC*( H$A I? G#+-

>?I$BF µ#D)I? I+* HD+""J* AMIJ*. ;$A KA>!'#$HµA, "I? "@#"$ABF

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R#+* K(M CIA* #BI#D#"I(S* GA 'J"(M* I( #K$GMµ?IC AK(I)D#"µA.

3MIC '#* "MµTAL*#$ "# HDJ""#% #>+IF"#+*, CK+% ? SQL, K(M A*A-

DS(Mµ# "# AMIC I( B#E!DA$(, F CK+% ? QBE K(M A*ADS#IA$ "I( B#E!-

DA$( 6. 6# AMI)% I$% HDJ""#% ( @>F"I?% '?DJ*#$ I( #K$GMµ?IC "S*(-

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"I( #K$GMµ?IC AK(I)D#"µA.

6I( B#E!DA$( AMIC GA KA>(M"$A"I#L ? 3$+//1 SQL. 4( AB>+*Sµ$(

SQL K>(BSKI#$ AKC I( Structured Query Language. 3>@$B! ? SQL

(*(µAVCIA* SEQUEL AKC I( Structured English Query Language ("I(

T$TDL( I(M Ullman, “Principles of Database Systems”, K(M #L*A$ )*A

AKC I( K>JIA BA$ TA"$BCI#>A T$TDLA H$A U!"#$% &#'(µ)*+*, GA I?

T>#LI# *A A*AE)>#I# +% SEQUEL). 3>@$B! ? SQL MD(K($FG?B# H$A

I( System R K(M FIA* )*A K#$>AµAI$BC "S"I?µA I?% IBM, ADD! "Fµ#-

>A #R#DL@G?B# BA$ IMK(K($FG?B# )I"$ J"I# *A AK(I#D#L K>CIMK( HDJ"-

"A% #>+IF"#+*. P@(M* MK!>R#$ +% K>CIMKA ($ SQL1, SQL2 BA$ SQL3

"# "M*#>HA"LA ANSI BA$ ISO.

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E(>! I?% µ# I?* SQL #L*A$ CI$ ( @>F"I?% '#* @>#$!V#IA$ *A K#>$H>!-

Q#$ µLA BAG(>$"µ)*? #>JI?"?, ADD! "MµKD?>J*#$ KL*AB#% µ# "I($-

@#LA, '?DA'F )*A KA>!'#$HµA, µ# T!"? I( (K(L( #K$D)H(*IA$ IA "I($-

@#LA. QBE "?µAL*#$ Query by Example, AB>$TJ% H$A *A #BE>!"#$

AMIF I? "@#'LA"? I+* #>+IF"#+* µ# T!"? )*A KA>!'#$HµA AKC )*A*

KL*ABA. . QBE MD(K($FG?B# AKC I?* IBM.

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;>!QI# I$ "?µAL*(M* ($ KA>AB!I+ "M*I(µ(H>AEL#%:

1) SQL ………………………………………………………………………………

2) SEQUEL ………………………………………………………………………………

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7#I! AKC I? µ#D)I? "A% 'J"I# )*A BAI!D(H( µ# IA 6M"IFµAIA K(M

T>FBAI# BA$ K($A AKC AMI! MK("I?>LV(M* I? HDJ""A #>+IF"#+*

SQL BA$ K($A I? HDJ""A QBE. 5($A "M"IFµAIA MK("I?>LV(M* BA$

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IF"#+* "I?* K#>LKI+"? K(M MK("I?>LV(M* BA$ I$% 'S(.)

5.2 "Ó·˙‹ÙËÛË ‰Â‰ÔÌ¤ÓˆÓ ÛÙËÓ SQL

™ÎÔ!fi˜

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µF,B,, *4:%*2 <% *.>G()µ. '+6 ."B/2=.06 '() <F:%µ. ,% µ'("(Eµ. ,%

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I(M #KCµ#*(M B#EADAL(M 6 "I?* QBE.

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47.73

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KAOH;HTH6

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7$@AFD UA>'F% /$BCDA(% -)BI(>A% 03-01-1947

7$@!D?% =A*GC% /$BCDA(% -)BI(>A% 20-08-1968

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. '$!IAR? µK(>#L *A #L*A$ #LI# ASR(M"A #LI# EGL*(M"A. ;$A ASR(M"A

'$!IAR? T!V(Mµ# µ#I! AKC I( C*(µA I(M K#'L(M I( «ASC», #*J H$A

EGL*(M"A I( «DESC». WIA* '#* I(K(G#I#LIA$ B!I$ AKC IA 'S(, ICI#

#**(#LIA$ CI$ ? '$!IAR? K>)K#$ *A #L*A$ ASR(M"A. PI"$, A* "I?* KA>A-

K!*+ #*I(DF G)DAµ# *A KA>(M"$!"(Mµ# IA AK(I#D)"µAIA BAI! EGL-

*(M"A '$!IAR? I+* #K+*Sµ+* I+* E($I?IJ* BA$ BAI! ASR(M"A '$!-

IAR? I+* (*(µ!I+* I+* E($I?IJ*, ICI# ? A*IL"I($@? #*I(DF "# SQL

GA FIA*:

SELECT º%&!"!"™.%¡%ª#, º%&!"!"™.(¶ø¡Àª%,

$#£"°"!"™.%¡%ª#, $#£"°"!"™.(¶ø¡Àª%

FROM º%&!"!"™, $#£"°"!"™


(º%&!"!"™.#ª<19100)

ORDER BY º%&!"!"™.(¶ø¡Àª% DESC, º%&!"!"™.%¡%ª#;

1 2 75 . 2 "¡ " ( ' & ' ™' ¢ ! ¢$ª !¡ ø ¡ ™ & '¡ S Q L


=A*AH>!QI# I$% #>+IF"#$% SQL I+* A"BF"#+* AMI(AR$(DCH?"?% 2,

3 BA$ 4 I(M B#EADAL(M 5. 4J>A Cµ+% '$AI!RI# (1) IA (*CµAIA I+*

µAG?µ!I+* I?% !"B?"?% 2 BAI! ASR(M"A "#$>!, (2) I(M% BAG?H?I)%

I?% !"B?"?% 3 BAI! EGL*(M"A "#$>! I+* #K+*Sµ+* BA$ I+* µ$B>J*

(*(µ!I+* BA$ (3) IA (*CµAIA I+* µAG?µ!I+* I?% !"B?"?% 4 BAI!

EGL*(M"A "#$>! BA$ IA (*CµAIA I+* Iµ?µ!I+* BAI! ASR(M"A "#$>!.

&J"I# I$% #>+IF"#$% "# SQL BA$ I(M% KL*AB#% µ# IA A*Aµ#*Cµ#*A

AK(I#D)"µAIA H$A B!G# K#>LKI+"?.


MD(K($J*IA% I$% KA>AK!*+ #*I(D)% "# SQL BA$ #D)H@(*IA% I?*

(>GCI?IA I+* AK(I#D#"µ!I+* "A%. ,KL"?% K#$>AµAI$"I#LI# µ# KA>C-

µ($#% #*I(D)% BA$ T#TA$+G#LI# CI$ H*+>LV#I# A>B#I! BAD! I( A*I$-

B#Lµ#*( AMIF% I?% #*CI?IA%, K>$* K>(@+>F"#I# "I?* #KCµ#*?.

5.2.3 §ÔÈ!¤˜ ÂÓÙÔÏ¤˜ ÛÙË Û˘Óı‹ÎË

6I?* #*CI?IA 5.2.1 µ$DF"Aµ# H$A I? "M*GFB? K(M AB(D(MG#L I(

WHERE BA$ #LKAµ# H$A I(M% I#D#"I)% K(M @>?"$µ(K($#L. 6# AMIF I?*

#*CI?IA GA µ$DF"(Mµ# H$A I(M% I#D#"I)% «LIKE» BA$ «NULL», K(M ?

SQL #K$I>)K#$ *A @>?"$µ(K($(S*IA$ "I? "M*GFB?.

2 I#D#"IF% «LIKE» #K$I>)K#$ I? "SHB>$"? strings ("MµT(D("#$>J*).

:>?"$µ(K($#L I( «%» K(M "?µAL*#$ «(K($A'FK(I# "#$>! @A>ABIF>+*»

BA$ I( «–» K(M "?µAL*#$ «)*A% (K($("'FK(I# @A>ABIF>A%». PI"$, ?

#*I(DF

LIKE ‘%Ë˜%’

"?µAL*#$ (K($('FK(I# B#Lµ#*( K(M )@#$ µ)"A I(M I(M% @A>ABIF>#%

(substring) «?%». ,*J ? #*I(DF


LIKE ‘ª–ÓÔ˜’

"?µAL*#$ CD#% I$% D)R#$% K(M )@(M* «7» +% K>JI( H>!µµA, (K($('F-

K(I# @A>ABIF>A H$A '#SI#>( H>!µµA BA$ µ#I! I( #KLG#µA «*(%». X>A,

GA µK(>(S"A* *A HL*(M* '#BI)% ($ D)R#$% «7!*(%», «7L*(%»,

«7C*(%», BID. 3% '(Sµ# IJ>A KJ% GA µK(>(S"Aµ# *A T>(Sµ# µ# I?

@>F"? I(M LIKE IA (*CµAIA BA$ IA #KJ*MµA I+* E($I?IJ* K(M I(

#KJ*MµC I(M% A>@LV#$ AKC I( H>!µµA «U». . #>JI?"? "# SQL BA$ (

A*IL"I($@(% KL*ABA% AB(D(MG(S*:

SELECT %¡%ª#, (¶ø¡Àª%,

FROM º%&!"!"™

WHERE (¶ø¡Àª% LIKE ‘µ%’;

P*A% !DD(% @>F"$µ(% I#D#"IF% K(M @>?"$µ(K($#LIA$ "I? "M*GFB?

#L*A$ ( I#D#"IF% «NULL» K(M @>?"$µ(K($#LIA$ H$A *A #D)HR(Mµ# #!*

)*A K#'L( #L*A$ B#*C F C@$. 2 I#D#"IF% AMIC% "M*FG+% "M*I!""#IA$

µ# «IS NULL» K(M "?µAL*#$ «#L*A$ B#*C», F µ# «IS NOT NULL» K(M

"?µAL*#$ «'#* #L*A$ B#*C». PI"$, ? KA>AB!I+ #>JI?"? "# SQL "?µAL-

*#$ «T>#% IA (*CµAIA BA$ IA #KJ*MµA I+* E($I?IJ* K(M I( KAI>J*M-

µC I(M% )@#$ B!K($A I$µF ('?DA'F '#* #L*A$ B#*C)»:

SELECT %¡%ª#, (¶ø¡Àª%,

FROM º%&!"!"™

WHERE ¶#!ƒø¡Àª% IS NOT NULL;

5>("(@F, )*A K(DS "M@*C µK)>'#µA K(M HL*#IA$ #L*A$ *A "MH@)(Mµ#

I?* B#*F I$µF µ# I?* I$µF 0 F µ# I(* @A>ABIF>A «B#*C». . I$µF 0 #L*A$

µLA I$µF, CK+% I$µF #L*A$ BA$ ( @A>ABIF>A% «B#*C». 3*ILG#IA B#*C

«NULL» "?µAL*#$ )DD#$Q? I$µF%, '?DA'F BAGCD(M I$µF "# AMIC I(

K#'L(. . KA>AK!*+ #*I(DF "# SQL GA #L@# AK(I)D#"µA I?* #BISK+-

"? I+* (*(µAI#K+*Sµ+* CD+* I+* E($I?IJ*, AE(S '#* )@(Mµ# #$"!-

H#$ B!K($(* µ# B#*C KAI>J*Mµ(.

ONOMA E5NNYMO

/$BCDA(% UA"$D#L(M

ED)*? :>F"I(M

N$BCDA(% BA>'F%

5.2.4 ªÂÙÔÓÔÌ·Û›· !ÈÓ¿ÎˆÓ

7)@>$ IJ>A µ$DF"Aµ# H$A AKD)% #*I(D)% "# SQL, @+>L% *A "MV?IF-

"(Mµ# H$A µ#I(*(µA"LA K$*!B+*. 6# AMIF I?* #*CI?IA GA µ$DF"(Mµ#

H$A K$( K(DSKD(B#% #>+IF"#$% "# SQL. 3>B#I)% E(>)% "# µ#>$B)%

#>+IF"#$% )@(Mµ# K(DD(S% KL*AB#% BA$ ICI# #L*A$ K>ABI$BC *A µ#I(-

*(µ!V(Mµ# B!K($(M% KL*AB#% H$A µ#HADSI#>? #MB(DLA "I? "MHH>AEF

I+* #>+IF"#+* "# SQL. 3% '(Sµ# RA*! I( KA>!'#$HµA I?% #*CI?IA%

5.2.2 )@(*IA% µ#I(*(µ!"#$ I(M% KL*AB#%:

SELECT º.%¡%ª#, º.(¶ø¡Àª%,

$.%¡%ª#, $.(¶ø¡Àª%

FROM º%&!"!"™ º.$#£"°"!"™ $

WHERE ($.µ#£ª&¢# ="$·ıËÁËÙ‹˜") AND

(º.#ª<19100)

ORDER BY º.(¶ø¡Àª%, º.%¡%ª#;

5A>AI?>F"I# CI$ µ#I(*(µ!"Aµ# I(* KL*ABA 8204.4.6 "# 8 BA$ I(*

KL*ABA 13O.;.4.6 "# 1 BA$ @>?"$µ(K($F"Aµ# IA "S*I(µA (*C-

µAIA H$A µ#HADSI#>? #MB(DLA "I? "MHH>AEF I?% #>JI?"?%.

1 2 95 . 2 "¡ " ( ' & ' ™' ¢ ! ¢$ª !¡ ø ¡ ™ & '¡ S Q L


P"I+ CI$ G)D(Mµ# *A T>(Sµ# I( C*(µA BA$ I( #KJ*Mµ( I+* BAG?-

H?IJ* K(M I( µ$B>C I(M% C*(µA A>@LV#$ AKC ‘7$@’ "I? U!"? &#'(-

µ)*+* I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 5.1 µ# IA '#'(µ)*A I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(%

5.2. &J"I# I?* #>JI?"? "# SQL BA$ I(* KL*ABA µ# I( A*Aµ#*Cµ#*(

AK(I)D#"µA.


P"I+ CI$ G)D(Mµ# *A T>(Sµ# IA (*CµAIA I+* Iµ?µ!I+* K(M )@(M*

B#*C )I(% L'>M"?% "I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 5.1 µ#

IA '#'(µ)*A I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 5.2. &J"I# I?* #>JI?"? "# SQL

BA$ I(* KL*ABA µ# I( A*Aµ#*Cµ#*( AK(I)D#"µA.

¢Ú·ÛÙËÚÈfiÙËÙ· 5.5,KA*AD!TAI# CD#% I$% #>+IF"#$% K(M )@#I# H>!Q#$ "# SQL, ($ (K(L#%

)@(M* K#>$""CI#>(M% AKC )*A KL*ABA, µ#I(*(µ!V(*IA% I(M% KL*AB#%.


5.2.5 #ÓÙÔÏ¤˜ Û˘ÓfiÏˆÓ

6# AMIF I?* #*CI?IA GA µ$DF"(Mµ# H$A #>+IF"#$% SQL K(M #L*A$ "#

K(DD! #KLK#'A BA$ H#*$B! H$A I( KJ% #*I(D)% AKC I? G#+>LA "M*CD+*

µK(>(S* *A @>?"$µ(K($?G(S* "I$% #>+IF"#$% SQL. 3% A>@L"(Mµ#

Cµ+% µ# I(* I#D#"IF «DISTINCT», ( (K(L(% GA µA% EA*#L @>F"$µ(%

"I? "M*)@#$A. 3% '(Sµ# I?* KA>AB!I+ #>JI?"? "# SQL:

SELECT ¶#!ƒø¡Àª%

FROM $#£"°"!"™

ORDER BY ¶#!ƒø¡Àª%;

3MIF ? #*I(DF GA µA% 'J"#$ )*A* KL*ABA µ# CDA IA KAI>J*MµA I+*

BAG?H?IJ* K(M MK!>@(M* "I? U!"? '#'(µ)*+*, CK+% EAL*#IA$ 'LKDA.

3* Cµ+% H$A #µ!% '#* )@#$ ARLA *A #µEA*$"I#L I( L'$( KAI>J*Mµ(

K#>$""CI#>#% AKC µLA E(>)%, ICI# ? #*I(DF GA µK(>(S"# *A HL*#$

SELECT DISTINCT ¶#!ƒø¡Àª%

FROM $#£"°"!"™

ORDER BY ¶#!ƒø¡Àª%;

7# AMIC* I( I>CK( #RA"EADLV(Mµ# CI$ B!G# KAI>J*Mµ( GA #µEA*$-

"I#L µC*( µLA E(>! BA$ IA AK(I#D)"µAIA 'L*(*IA$ "I(* KL*ABA 'LKDA.

2 I#D#"IF% «DISTINCT» #L*A$ K(DS @>F"$µ(% "I$% #*I(D)% "M*CD+*

K(M GA A*ADS"(Mµ# AB(D(SG+%. OA µ$DF"(Mµ# H$A I? @>F"? I+*

«IN», «ALL», «ANY», «EXISTS», «NOT EXISTS» BA$ «UNIQUE»

"I$% #>+IF"#$% µ# SQL. ,KL"?%, GA KA>(M"$!"(Mµ# #* "M*I(µLA I$%

K>!R#$% "M*CD+* «UNION», «INTERESECT», «CONTAINS» BA$

«EXCEPT». 3% A>@L"(Mµ# µ# )*A KA>!'#$HµA:

ONOMA

UA"LD#$(%

7$@AFD

/$BCDA(%

/$BCDA(%

/$BCDA(%

ONOMA

UA"LD#$(%

7$@AFD

/$BCDA(%

SELECT DISTINCT ONOMA

FROM º%&!"!"™

WHERE ONOMA IN (SELECT DISTINCT ONOMA

FROM $#£"°"!"™)

OR

%¡%ª# IN (SELECT DISTINCT ¶#!ƒø¡Àª%

FROM $#£"°"!"™);

6I( KA>!'#$HµA AMIC V?I!µ# IA (*CµAIA I+* E($I?IJ* K(M )@(M*C*(µA I)I($( K(M *A I( )@#$ BA$ )*A% I(MD!@$"I( BAG?H?IF% F ( KAI)->A% I(M. 3MIF ? #>JI?"? #L*A$ '(µ?µ)*? "# 'S( #KLK#'A: )*A #R+I#-

>$BC #KLK#'( (I( SELECT DISTINCT 2/273 FROM 8204.4.6)BA$ )*A #"+I#>$BC µ# IA !DDA 'S( SELECT AKC I(* KL*ABA 13O.-;.4.6. O#+>F"I# CI$ ? AK!*I?"? "I?* #>JI?"? A>@LV#$ AKC IA#"+I#>$B! #KLK#'A K>(% IA #R+I#>$B!. PI"$, A>@$B! G#+>(Sµ# CI$ GAAKA*I?G#L ? #>JI?"? «SELECT DISTINCT 2/273 FROM13O.;.4.6». 3MIF ? #>JI?"? GA 'J"#$ )*A "S*(D( AKA*IF"#+*BA$ #$'$BCI#>A IA (,$>F*?, 1+*"IA*IL*(%, 7$@AFD, 7$@!D?%, :>F-"I(%). ,KL"?%, ? #>JI?"? «SELECT DISTINCT 5349N/<72FROM 13O.;.4.6» GA 'J"#$ )*A "S*(D( AKA*IF"#+* BA$ #$'$-BCI#>A IA (7$@AFD, /$BCDA(%, UA"LD#$(%). 2 I#D#"IF% «0/» #D)H@#$,#!* B!K($( "I($@#L( K(M #L*A$ AK(I)D#"µA I?% #>JI?"?% I(M K>JI(M#K$K)'(M «SELECT DISTINCT ONOMA FROM FOITHTHS» A*F-B#$ "# )*A AKC IA 'S( "S*(DA ("# )*A AKC IA 'S( DCH+ I(M I#D#"IF«OR»). PI"$, ($ I$µ)% K(M K>(BSKI(M* AKC I?* #>JI?"? I(M #R+I#->$B(S #K$K)'(M (/$BCDA(%, ,D)*?, :>F"I(%, 7A>L*A) GA #D#@G(S* #!*1,%*#B, "IA "S*(DA AKA*IF"#+* I+* #>+IF"#+* I+* #"+I#>$BJ*#K$K)'+*. . AK!*I?"? "I? "MHB#B>$µ)*? #>JI?"? GA #L*A$ EM"$B! ('LKDA KL*ABA%.

7# KA>Cµ($( I>CK( "M*I!""#IA$ BA$ ? «ANY» K(M K>)K#$ *A AB(-

D(MG#L B!K($(* AKC I(M% I#D#"I)% «», «», «», «», «» BA$

«<>». PI"$, ? #*I(DF K(M AB(D(MG#L "?µAL*#$ «T>#% I( (*(µAI#KJ-

*Mµ( #*C% E($I?IF K(M ? ?µ#>(µ?*LA H)**?"F% I(M *A #L*A$ L'$A µ#

µLA I(MD!@$"I(* ?µ#>(µ?*LA H)**?"?% #*C% BAG?H?IF»:

SELECT ONOMA, (¶ø¡Àª%

FROM º%&!"!"™

WHERE "ª_°(¡ = ANY (SELECT HM_°(ª

FROM $#£"°"!"™);

WK+% "M*I!""#IA$ ? «3/<» "M*I!""#IA$ BA$ ? «ALL» K(M "?µAL-

*#$ «µ# CDA». PI"$, ? KA>AB!I+ #>JI?"? "?µAL*#$ «T>#% I( (*(µA-

I#KJ*Mµ( #*C% E($I?IF K(M *A #L*A$ µ#HADSI#>(% "# ?D$BLA AKC CD(M%

I(M% BAG?H?I)%».


FROM º%&!"!"™

WHERE "ª_°(¡ < ALL (SELECT HM_°(ª

FROM $#£"°"!"™);

3% K>(@+>F"(Mµ# IJ>A µ# I?* #*I(DF «EXISTS (,)». . #*I(DF AMIF

1 3 15 . 2 "¡ " ( ' & ' ™' ¢ ! ¢$ª !¡ ø ¡ ™ & '¡ S Q L

ONOMA

/$BCDA(%

X>F"I(%


#D)H@#$ A* MK!>@#$ )"I+ BA$ µLA AK!*I?"? "I?* #>JI?"? «,». ,!*

MK!>@#$, ICI# #K$"I>)E#$ «AD?G)%» "I? "M*GFB?. 3*ILG#IA ? #*I(DF

«NOT EXISTS (E)» #K$"I>)E#$ «AD?G)%» "I? "M*GFB? µC*( #!* '#*

MK!>@#$ BAµLA AK!*I?"? "I?* #>JI?"? «,».

. #*I(DF «UNIQUE (E)» #R#I!V#$ I?* #>JI?"? «,» BA$ #K$"I>)E#$

«AD?G)%» "I? "M*!>I?"? µC*( #!* '#* MK!>@(M* '$KD)% #HH>AE)% "I(

AK(I)D#"µA I?% #>JI?"?% «,».

. SQL MK("I?>LV#$ BA$ I$% #*I(D)% "M*CD+* «UNION»,

«INTERESECT», «CONTAINS» BA$ «EXCEPT». . #*I(DF

«UNION» K#>$H>!E#$ I?* )*+"? 'S( "M*CD+*. 3% '(Sµ# )*A KA>!-

'#$HµA:

(SELECT ONOMA, (¶ø¡Àª%

(FROM º%&!"!"™

(WHERE "ª_°(¡ LIKE ‘– – – 07– – – – – ’)

UNION

(SELECT ONOMA, (¶ø¡Àª%

(FROM $#£"°"!"™

(WHERE "ª_°(¡ LIKE ‘– – – 07– – – – – ’);

. K>(?H(Sµ#*? #>JI?"? "# SQL 'L*#$ "A* AK!*I?"? IA (*(µAI#KJ-

*MµA I+* E($I?IJ* BA$ I+* BAG?H?IJ* K(M )@(M* H#**?G#L I(* 7(

µF*A. 5>(")RI# CI$ )@(Mµ# +% AK!*I?"? IA 'S( "S*(DA I+* (*(µA-

I#K+*Sµ+* BA$ @>?"$µ(K($(Sµ# I?* #*I(DF «UNION» H$A *A B!*(M-

µ# I?* )*+"? I+* "M*CD+*.

3*IL"I($@? @>F"? )@#$ BA$ ? #*I(DF «INTERSECT» K(M 'L*#$ I?*

I(µF 'S( "M*CD+* BA$ ? #*I(DF «EXEPT» K(M 'L*#$ I? '$AE(>! 'S(

"M*CD+*. 4)D(%, ? #*I(DF «CONTAINS» "MHB>L*#$ 'S( "S*(DA BA$

#K$"I>)E#$ «AD?G)%» "I? "M*GFB?, #!* I( K>JI( #L*A$ MK("S*(D( I(M

'#MI)>(M.


5.8

&J"I# I?* #>JI?"? "# SQL K(M *A T>L"B#$ IA '$AE(>#I$B! #KJ*M-

µA I+* E($I?IJ* I?% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+* I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 5.1 µ#

IA '#'(µ)*A I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 5.2. &J"I# I(* KL*ABA µ# I( A*A-

µ#*Cµ#*( AK(I)D#"µA, µ# I?* AK!*I?"? '$AIAHµ)*? BAI! EGL*(M"A

"#$>!.

5.2.6 ™‡Ó‰ÂÛË !ÈÓ¿ÎˆÓ

6# AMIF I?* #*CI?IA GA µ$DF"(Mµ# H$A I? "S*'#"? K$*!B+*, K(M #L*A$

µLA TA"$BF D#$I(M>HLA, CIA* G)D(Mµ# *A 'J"(Mµ# K(DSKD(B#% #>+-

IF"#$%. . SQL MK("I?>LV#$ I$% "M*')"#$% «INNER JOIN», «LEFT

OUTER JOIN», «RIGHT OUTER JOIN» BA$ «FULL OUTER JOIN».

4( «INNER» BA$ I( «OUTER» BAI! BA*C*A KA>AD#LK(*IA$. PI"$,

CIA* H>!E(Mµ# "# µLA #>JI?"? «JOIN», ICI# #**((Sµ# «INNER

JOIN».

3% '(Sµ# )*A KA>!'#$HµA µ$A% K(DSKD(B?% #>JI?"?%. P"I+ CI$

G)D(Mµ# *A '(Sµ# IA (*(µAI#KJ*MµA I+* E($I?IJ* BA$ I( C*(µA BA$

I( )I(% L'>M"?% I(M IµFµAI(% "I( (K(L( A*FB(M*. 3MIF #L*A$ K(DS

AKDF #>JI?"? H$A B!K($( @>F"I? I?% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+*, ADD! "I?*

K>AHµAI$BCI?IA AKA$I#L I?* !*ID?"? '#'(µ)*+* AKC I>#$% '$AE(>#-

I$B(S% KL*AB#%: OA @>#$A"I#L *A K!>(Mµ# IA (*(µAI#KJ*MµA I+* E($-

I?IJ* AKC I(* KL*ABA 8204.4,6, IA )I? L'>M"?% I+* Iµ?µ!I+* AKC

I(* KL*ABA 47.73, #*J GA @>#$A"I(Sµ# BA$ I(* KL*ABA

1 3 35 . 2 "¡ " ( ' & ' ™' ¢ ! ¢$ª !¡ ø ¡ ™ & '¡ S Q L


&J"I# I?* #>JI?"? "# SQL K(M *A T>L"B#$ IA (*(µAI#KJ*MµA I+*

E($I?IJ* I?% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+* I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 5.1 µ# IA '#'(-

µ)*A I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 5.2, ($ (K(L($ )@(M* ?µ#>(µ?*LA H)**?"?%

L'$A µ# I?* ?µ#>(µ?*LA H)**?"?% #*C% I(MD!@$"I(* BAG?H?IF.

&J"I# I?* #>JI?"? "# SQL µ# 'S( I>CK(M% (1) @>?"$µ(K($J*IA%

I?* «IN» BA$ (2) @>?"$µ(K($J*IA% I?* «3/<». T)D(%, 'J"I# I(*

KL*ABA µ# I( A*Aµ#*Cµ#*( AK(I)D#"µA.


&J"I# I?* #>JI?"? "# SQL K(M *A T>L"B#$ I( (*(µAI#KJ*Mµ( I(M

E($I?IF µ# I? µ#HADSI#>? ?D$BLA AKC I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* I(M KA>A-

'#LHµAI(% 5.1 µ# IA '#'(µ)*A I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 5.2. EKL"?% 'J"I#

I(* KL*ABA µ# I( A*Aµ#*Cµ#*( AK(I)D#"µA.

¢Ú·ÛÙËÚÈfiÙËÙ· 5.66I?* #*CI?IA AMIF '#* 'J"Aµ# K(DD! KA>A'#LHµAIA H$A I$% #*I(D)%

K(M KA>(M"$!"Aµ#, H$A *A µK(>)"(Mµ# *A BADSQ(Mµ# CD#% I$% #*I(-

D)%. 5#$>AµAI$"I#LI# µ# I$% #*I(D)% "M*CD+* BA$ #$'$BCI#>A AMI)%

K(M '#* BADSQAµ# µ# I$% A"BF"#$% AMI(AR$(DCH?"?%.


8204_47.73 H$A *A T>(Sµ# I? "@)"? I+* E($I?IJ* µ# B!G#

IµFµA. . #>JI?"? "# SQL #L*A$ ? #RF%:

SELECT º%&!"!"™.%¡%ª#, º%&!"!"™.(¶ø¡Àª%,

!ª"ª#.%¡%ª#, !ª"ª#.(!%™_&¢ƒÀ™"™

FROM (º%&!"!"™ INNER JOIN º%&!_!ª"ª#

ON º%&!"!"™.#ª=º%&!_!ª"ª#.#ª)

INNER JOIN !ª"ª#

%¡ º%&!_!ª"ª#.%¡%ª#=!ª"ª#.%¡%ª#);

5A>AI?>F"I# CI$ )@(Mµ# 'S( "M*')"#$% (joins) A*!µ#"A "# KL*AB#%

H$A *A K#IS@(Mµ# I( #K$'$+BCµ#*( AK(I)D#"µA. 4( AK(I)D#"µA AMIF%

I?% #*I(DF% #L*A$ )*A% KL*ABA% µ# IA KA>AB!I+ AK(I#D)"µAIA:

2/273 8204HTH ,5N/<72 2/273 47.MATO6 ,426_0&9<6.6

/$BCDA(% UA"$D#L(M 7AG?µAI$BC 1961

,D)*? UA"$D#L(M 7AG?µAI$BC 1961

/$BCDA(% UA>'F% 8M"$BC 1968

:>F"I(% :>F"I(M 5D?>(E(>$BF% 1994

:>F"I(% :>F"I(M 5D?>(E(>$BF% 1994

7A>L*A :AIVF 8M"$BC 1968

5>(")RI# CI$ "I(* KA>AK!*+ KL*ABA '#* )@#$ HL*#$ D!G(% µ# I?* '$KDF

#µE!*$"? I(M «:>F"I(% :>F"I(M», AKD! MKF>@A* 'S( E($I?I)% µ#

L'$( (*(µAI#KJ*Mµ(, ADD! '$AE(>#I$BC KAI>J*Mµ( "I? U!"? &#'(-

µ)*+* I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(%.

3% '(Sµ# !DD( )*A KA>!'#$HµA µ# "S*'#"?. P"I+ CI$ G)D(Mµ# *A

AKA*IF"(Mµ# "I?* AKCDMIA D(H$BF #>JI?"? «T>#LI# I(* BAI!D(H(

I+* µAG?µ!I+* BA$ K($(% BAG?H?IF% '$'!"B#$ B!G# µ!G?µA». 3MIC

AKA$I#L I? "S*'#"? µC*( 'S( K$*!B+*: 4(M KL*ABA 73O.73 µ# I(*

KL*ABA 13O_73O. 5A>AI?>F"I# CI$ '#* AKA$I#LIA$ ? @>F"? BA$ I(M

KL*ABA 13O.;.4.6, AE(S ? KD?>(E(>LA K(M @>#$AVCµA"I# (C*(µA

BA$ #KJ*Mµ( BAG?H?IF) #L*A$ #KL"?% AK(G?B#Mµ)*? "I(* KL*ABA

13O_73O. . #>JI?"? D($KC* "# SQL GA #L*A$

1 3 55 . 2 "¡ " ( ' & ' ™' ¢ ! ¢$ª !¡ ø ¡ ™ & '¡ S Q L

SELECT ª#£"ª#.%¡%ª#,

$#£_ª#£.%¡%ª#, $#£_ª#£.(¶ø¡Àª%

FROM $#£_ª#£ INNER JOIN ª#£"ª#

ON $#£_ª#£.$ø¢&$%™=ª#£"ª#.$ø¢&$%™;

. AK!*I?"? "# AMIF I?* #>JI?"? GA #L*A$ ( #KCµ#*(% KL*ABA%. 5A>A-

I?>F"I# CI$ V?IF"Aµ# *A #µEA*LV(*IA$ K>JIA IA µAGFµAIA:

2/273 73O 2/273 13O ,5N/<72 13O

8M"$BF 7$@AFD UA>'F%

7AG?µAI$B! ,$>F*? /$B(DA_'?

-(H$BC% 6@#'$A"µC% :>F"I(% :>F"I(M

;>Aµµ$BF XDH#T>A ,$>F*? /$B(DA_'?

U!"#$% &#'(µ)*+* 7$@AFD =A*GC%

&(µ)% &#'(µ)*+* 0 1+*"IA*IL*(% 7AB>S%

&(µ)% &#'(µ)*+* 00 1+*"IA*IL*(% 7AB>S%

5($CI?IA -(H$"µ$B(S :>F"I(% :>F"I(M

Marketing 1+*"IA*IL*(% 7AB>S%


&J"I# I?* #>JI?"? "# SQL K(M *A T>L"B#$ I( #KJ*Mµ(, C*(µA BA$

KAI>J*Mµ( B!G# E($I?IF K(M )@#$ K!>#$ µAGFµAIA BA$ IA µAGFµA-

IA K(M )@#$ K!>#$ AKC I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 5.1

µ# IA '#'(µ)*A I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 5.2. &J"I# #KL"?% I(* KL*ABA µ#

I( A*Aµ#*Cµ#*( AK(I)D#"µA.


&J"I# I?* #>JI?"? "# SQL K(M *A T>L"B#$ I( #KJ*Mµ( BA$ I(*

A>$GµC µ?I>J(M B!G# E($I?IF K(M )@#$ K!>#$ µAGFµAIA, I(* B+'$-

BC B!G# µAGFµAI(% K(M )@#$ K!>#$ BA$ I( (*(µAI#KJ*Mµ( B!G#

BAG?H?IF K(M '$'!"B#$ I( "MHB#B>$µ)*( µ!G?µA AKC I? U!"? &#'(-


5.2. &J"I# #KL"?% I(* KL*ABA µ# I( A*Aµ#*Cµ#*( AK(I)D#"µA.

¢Ú·ÛÙËÚÈfiÙËÙ· 5.75#$>AµAI$"I#LI# µ# I$% #*I(D)% "S*'#"?% BA$ #$'$BCI#>A µ# I$% #*I(-

D)% #R+I#>$BF% "S*'#"?%, K(M '#* BADSQAµ# "# AMIF I?* #*CI?IA.


5.2.7 "Ú›ıÌËÛË, Ì¤ÁÈÛÙ· – ÂÏ¿¯ÈÛÙ· Î·È ÔÌ·‰Ô!Ô›ËÛË

6I?* #*CI?IA AMIF GA µ$DF"(Mµ# H$A I$% #*I(D)% I?% SQL «SUM»,

«MIN», «MAX», «AVG», «COUNT», «GROUP BY» BA$

«HAVING». &#* GA #K#BIAG(Sµ# K(DS "# AMI)% I$% #*I(D)% H$A *A µ?

µ#HADJ"#$ K(DS I( B#E!DA$(. P@(*IA% K$A AK(BIF"#$ #µK#$>LA "I?

@>F"? I?% SQL, "A% BAD(Sµ# *A K#$>AµAI$"I#LI# µC*($ "A% H$A I?*

BADSI#>? #Bµ!G?"F I(M%. 3% '(Sµ# )*A KA>!'#$HµA H$A I? @>F"? I?%

#*I(DF% «MIN»:

SELECT MIN (HM_°(¡)

FROM º%&!"!"™;

4( AK(I)D#"µA I?% #BI)D#"?% AMIF% I?% #*I(DF% GA #L*A$ ( 'LKDA

KL*ABA%.

UD)K(Mµ# K+% KF>Aµ# +% AK!*I?"? I? µ$B>CI#>? ?µ#>(µ?*LA H)*-

*?"?% K(M )@#$ H#**?G#L B!K($(% E($I?IF%. 3*IL"I($@A "M*I!""#IA$

BA$ ? #*I(DF «73:» K(M 'L*#$ I( µ)H$"I(, BAGJ% BA$ ? #*I(DF

«SUM» K(M 'L*#$ I( !G>($"µA I+* I$µJ* µ$A% "IFD?% BA$ K(M )@#$

*C?µA BM>L+% "# "IFD#% K(M µ#I>(S* K("!. . #*I(DF «AVG» MK(-

D(HLV#$ I(* µ)"( C>( µLA% I$µF% µLA% "IFD?%.

. #*I(DF «COUNT» @>?"$µ(K($#LIA$ H$A *A µ#I>F"#$ I( KDFG(% I+*

"I($@#L+* #*C% KL*ABA, F µLA% "IFD?% #*C% KL*ABA. ;$A KA>!'#$HµA,

#!* G)DAµ# *A '(Sµ# H$A KC"(M% BAG?H?I)% )@#$ #$"A@G#L ? ?µ#>(µ?-

*LA H)**?"?% GA 'L*Aµ# I?* #*I(DF

SELECT COUNT ("ª_°(¡)

FROM $#£"°"!"™;

. #*I(DF «COUNT (*)» "?µAL*#$ «µ)I>?"# CD#% I$% H>Aµµ)% I(M KL*A-

BA», "# A*ILG#"? µ# I?* K>(?H(Sµ#*? K#>LKI+"? "I?* (K(LA µ#I>(S-

µ# µC*( IA K#'LA µLA "IFD?% H$A IA (K(LA )@(Mµ# 'J"#$ B!K($A I$µF.

. #*I(DF «GROUP BY» @>?"$µ(K($#LIA$ H$A *A (µA'(K($F"#$ IA AK(-

I#D)"µAIA, #*J F #*I(DF «HAVING» AB(D(MG#L K>(A$>#I$B! I?*

«GROUP BY» 'L*(*IA% )*A K>("'$(>$"µC "I?* (µA'(K(L?"?. 3%

'(Sµ# )*A KA>!'#$HµA:

SELECT #ª, COUNT (*)

FROM º%&!_ª#£

GROUP BY #ª

HAVING COUNT (*) > 2;

.7_;,/

19-07-1978

. #*I(DF AMIF "?µAL*#$ «T>#% I(M% B+'$B(S% I+* E($I?IJ* K(M )@(M*

K!>#$ K#>$""CI#>A AKC 'S( µAGFµAIA BA$ #µE!*$"# I(* B+'$BC I(M%

BA$ I( KDFG(% I+* µAG?µ!I+* K(M )@(M* K!>#$». 4( AK(I)D#"µA I?%

#>JI?"?% EAL*#IA$ "I( 'LKDA KL*ABA.

UD)K(Mµ# CI$ ($ E($I?I)% µ# B+'$BC «19344» BA$ «19345» )@(M* K!>#$

BA$ ($ 'S( AKC 3 µAGFµAIA.

1 3 75 . 2 "¡ " ( ' & ' ™' ¢ ! ¢$ª !¡ ø ¡ ™ & '¡ S Q L

37 COUNT

19344 3

19345 3


&J"I# I?* #>JI?"? "# SQL K(M *A T>L"B#$ IA IµFµAIA "IA (K(LA

E($I(S* )*A% F BA*)*A% E($I?IF% BAGJ% BA$ KC"($ E($I?I)% E($I(S*

#B#L AKC I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 5.1 µ# IA '#'(µ)-

*A I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 5.2. &J"I# #KL"?% I(* KL*ABA µ# I( A*Aµ#-

*Cµ#*( AK(I)D#"µA.


&J"I# I?* #>JI?"? "# SQL K(M *A T>L"B#$ I(M% BAG?H?I)% K(M

'$'!"B(M* K#>$""CI#>A AKC 'S( µAGFµAIA BAGJ% BA$ KC"A '$'!-

"B(M* AKC I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 5.1 µ# IA '#'(-

µ)*A I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 5.2. &J"I# #KL"?% I(* KL*ABA µ# I( A*A-

µ#*Cµ#*( AK(I)D#"µA.

¢Ú·ÛÙËÚÈfiÙËÙ· 5.85#$>AµAI$"I#LI# µ# I$% #*I(D)% K(M K#>$H>!QAµ# "# AMIF I?* #*C-

I?IA J"I# *A AK(BIF"#I# #R($B#L+"?.

5.2.8 °ÂÓÈÎ‹ ÌÔÚÊ‹ ÂÓÙÔÏ‹˜ ·Ó·˙‹ÙËÛË˜

7)@>$ IJ>A #L'Aµ# I$% '$!E(>#% #*I(D)% K(M AKA>ILV(M* µLA #>JI?-

"? "# HDJ""A SQL. /A "M*(QL"(Mµ#, A*AE)>(*IA% CI$ µLA #*I(DF

A*AVFI?"?% "# SQL µK(>#L *A #L*A$ I?% µ(>EF%

SELECT 'Â‰›·

FROM '›Ó·ÎÂ˜

WHERE Û˘Óı‹ÎË

GROUP BY 'Â‰›·

HAVING Û˘Óı‹ÎË ÛÂ Û¯¤ÛË ÌÂ ÙÔ GROUP BY

ORDER BY 'Â‰›·


3KC I$% K>(?H(Sµ#*#% #*I(D)% ($ I)""#>$% I#D#MIAL#% H>Aµµ)% #L*A$

K>(A$>#I$B)%. <K(@>#+I$B! K>)K#$ *A MK!>@(M* µC*( I( «SELECT»

BA$ I( «FROM».

5.3 OÚÈÛÌfi˜, ‰È·¯Â›ÚÈÛË Î·È !·ÚÔ˘Û›·ÛË ‰Â‰ÔÌ¤ÓˆÓ ÛÙËÓSQL

™ÎÔ!fi˜

&1('#6 /46 .,#/4/%6 .>,%0 ,% '%"()=0%=/.> 4 SQL B6 $:+==% ("0-

=µ(E *.*(µF,B,. -% *.>G()µ. '(:E =E,/(µ% /4 9"2=4 /46 SQL 1%<%-

"A $0% *4µ0()"$>% '0,A1B,, .0=%$B$2 1%0 *0%$"%;2 *.*(µF,B, 1%0

*4µ0()"$>% #I.B,.


M/%, <% F9./. (:(1:4"+=.0 /4 µ.:F/4 %)/26 /46 .,#/4/%6 <% µ'(".>-

/. ,%:

• 9"4=0µ('(02=./. /06 .,/(:F6 /06 SQL $0% ,% *4µ0()"$2=./. '>,%1.6

• 9"4=0µ('(02=./. /06 .,/(:F6 /06 SQL $0% ,% .0=A$./. *.*(µF,% =.

'>,%1.6, ,% µ./%JA::./. /06 /0µF6 1A'(0B, *.*(µF,B,, 2 $0% ,% *0%-

$"AI./. 1A'(0% *.*(µF,%

• 9"4=0µ('(02=./. /06 .,/(:F6 /06 SQL $0% ,% *4µ0()"$2=./. #I.06 =.

'>,%1.6


&/4, .,#/4/% %)/2 '%"()=0AN(,/%0 (0 J%=01F6 .,/(:F6 /46 $:+==%6

."B/2=.B, SQL, (0 ('(>.6 9"4=0µ('(0(E,/%0 $0% *0%9.>"0=4 *.*(µF-

,B, =. µ>% OA=4 8.*(µF,B,. &/4, .,#/4/% 5.3.1 '%"()=0AN./%0 4

*4µ0()"$>% '0,A1B, =. SQL 1%0 4 %::%$2 /46 µ(";26 '0,A1B,. &/4,

.,#/4/% 5.3.2 '%"()=0AN./%0 4 .0=%$B$2, *0%$"%;2 1%0 %::%$2 *.*(-

µF,B, =. '>,%1.6 µ. /4 9"2=4 /46 SQL. 5F:(6, =/4, .,#/4/% 5.3.3

'%"()=0AN(,/%0 (0 #I.06 =. SQL.

5.3.1 Create table Î·È alter table

6I?* #*CI?IA AMIF GA µ$DF"(Mµ# H$A I? '?µ$(M>HLA BA$ ADDAHF K$*!-

B+* µ# I? @>F"? I?% SQL. H SQL KA>)@#$ 'M*AICI?IA '?µ$(M>HLA%

#*C% KL*ABA µ# I? @>F"? I?% #*I(DF% «CREATE TABLE». . #*I(DF

AMIF 'L*#$ I? 'M*AICI?IA *A K#>$H>AE(S* ($ ISK($ '#'(µ)*+* BA$ ($

K#>$(>$"µ(L H$A B!G# K#'L( I(M KL*ABA, BAGJ% BA$ *A (>$"G(S* IA

BD#$'$! BA$ I( A* GA #K$I>)K(*IA$ B#*)% I$µ)% H$A B!K($( K#'L(.

6Fµ#>A IA K#>$""CI#>A 6M"IFµAIA &$A@#L>$"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+*

'L*(M* K$( #SB(D(M% I>CK(M% H$A I? '?µ$(M>HLA K$*!B+* AKC I? @>F"?

#*I(DJ* "# SQL. 5A>CDA AMI! ($ #*I(D)% SQL µK(>(S* *A @>?"$-

µ(K($?G(S* BA$ µ)"A "# BJ'$BA H$A I? '?µ$(M>HLA K>("+>$*J* K$*!-

B+*. 3% '(Sµ# )*A KA>!'#$HµA @>F"?% I?% #*I(DF% «CREATE

TABLE» H$A I? '?µ$(M>HLA I(M K>JI(M KL*ABA I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(%

5.1 I(M B#EADAL(M 5.

CREATE TABLE !ª"ª#

(%¡%ª# VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,

(!%™_&¢ƒÀ™"™ &¡!,

PRIMARY KEY (ONOMA));

7# I?* #*I(DF AMIF (>L"Aµ# I(* KL*ABA «47.73» µ# 'S( "IFD#%.

. K>JI? "IFD?, K(M #L*A$ BA$ I( TA"$BC BD#$'L, #L*A$ ? «2/273»

BA$ AK(I#D#LIA$ AKC "MµT(D("#$>)% µ#IATD?I(S µFB(M% K(M '#* µK(-

>(S* *A R#K#>*(S* I(M% 30 @A>ABIF>#%. . '#SI#>? "IFD? #L*A$ ?

«,426_0&9<6.6» BA$ )@#$ I$µ)% AB)>A$(M%. ,KL"?%, (>L"Aµ# CI$ ?

K>JI? "IFD? '#* µK(>#L *A )@#$ B#*)% H>Aµµ)%, #*J ? '#SI#>? µK(-

>#L *A )@#$ BA$ B#*)% H>Aµµ)%.

3% '(Sµ# IJ>A BA$ I?* #*I(DF «ALTER TABLE» K(M @>?"$µ(K($#LIA$

H$A I? µ#IAT(DF "I($@#L+* #*C% KL*ABA. ;$A KA>!'#$HµA, #!* G)DAµ# *A

K>("G)"(Mµ# BA$ !DD? µLA "IFD? "I(* KL*ABA «47.73» K(M GA (*(-

µAVCIA* «592,&926» GA 'L*Aµ# I?* KA>AB!I+ #*I(DF I?% SQL:

ALTER TABLE !ª"ª#

ADD ¶ƒ%(¢ƒ%™ VARCHAR(30);

7# I?* K>(?H(Sµ#*? #*I(DF K>("G)"Aµ# µLA ABCµA "IFD? "MµT(-

D("#$>! µ# µ)H$"I( µFB(% 30 @A>ABIF>#%, K(M I?* (*(µ!"Aµ# «592-

,&926».

1 3 95 . 3 O ƒ # ™ ª$ ™ , ¢ # " Ã ! # ƒ # ™' % " # ¶ " ƒ$ À ™ # " ™' ¢ ! ¢$ª !¡ ø ¡ ™ & '¡ S Q L

¢Ú·ÛÙËÚÈfiÙËÙ· 5.96I( 6S"I?µA &$A@#L>$"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+* K(M @>?"$µ(K($#LI#,

MD(K($F"I# CD(M% I(M% KL*AB#% I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 5.1 µ# I? @>F"?

#*I(DJ* SQL.


5.3.2 Insert, delete, update

. #*I(DF I?% SQL «INSERT» @>?"$µ(K($#LIA$ H$A I?* #$"AH+HF

I$µJ* "# )*A KL*ABA. . "S*IARF I?% #L*A$ CK+% "I( KA>!'#$HµA K(M

AB(D(MG#L

INSERT INTO !ª"ª#

VALUES (‘æ˘¯ÔÏÔÁ›·˜’, 1988);

. #*I(DF AMIF #$"!H#$ )*A *)( IµFµA. . #*I(DF INSERT GA µK(>(S-

"# *A "M*'MA"I#L µ# µLA #*I(DF A*AVFI?"?% BA$ *A #$"!H#$ '#'(µ)*A

"# )*A* KL*ABA, IA (K(LA GA A*IDF"#$ AKC B!K($(* !DD( KL*ABA. &#LI#

I( KA>!'#$HµA K(M AB(D(MG#L

INSERT INTO !ª"ª#

VALUES SELECT ONOMA, ET%™_&¢ƒÀ™"™

FROM ¶#§#&#_!ª"ª#!#

WHERE (!%™_&¢ƒÀ™"™ > 1990;

. #*I(DF AMIF #$"!H#$ '#'(µ)*A IA (K(LA A*ID#L AKC )*A* KL*ABA

«53-303_47.7343».

3% '(Sµ# IJ>A I?* ADDAHF '#'(µ)*+* "# B!K($( KL*ABA. &#LI# I(

KA>!'#$HµA K(M AB(D(MG#L

DELETE FROM !ª"ª#

WHERE (!%™_&¢ƒÀ™"™ > 2000;

7# I?* #*I(DF AMIF "TF*(Mµ# AKC I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* C"A IµFµA-

IA )@(M* #$"A@G#L µ# )I(% L'>M"?% µ#HADSI#>( I(M 2000. . #*I(DF

DELETE µK(>#L *A "M*')#IA$ BA$ AMIF µ# B!K($A #*I(DF A*AVFI?-

"?% I?% SQL, CK+% KA>(M"$!V#$ I( #KCµ#*( KA>!'#$HµA

DELETE FROM !ª"ª#

WHERE (!%™_&¢ƒÀ™"™ > ALL

(SELECT (!%™_&¢ƒÀ™"™

FROM ¶#§#&%_!ª"ª#);

4)D(%, A% '(Sµ# BA$ )*A KA>!'#$HµA ADDAHJ* "# '#'(µ)*A. &#LI# I(

KA>!'#$HµA K(M AB(D(MG#L

UPDATE TMHMA

SET (!%™_&¢ƒÀ™"™=1963

WHERE ONOMA= ‘º˘ÛÈÎfi’;

. #*I(DF AMIF ADD!V#$ I( )I(% L'>M"?% "I( 8M"$BC 4µFµA. . #*I(-

DF «UPDATE» µK(>#L BA$ AMIF *A "M*I!""#IA$ µ# B!K($A #*I(DF

A*AVFI?"?% I?% SQL.

1 4 15 . 3 O ƒ # ™ ª$ ™ , ¢ # " Ã ! # ƒ # ™' % " # ¶ " ƒ$ À ™ # " ™' ¢ ! ¢$ª !¡ ø ¡ ™ & '¡ S Q L


&$AH>!QI# AKC I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 5.1 µ# IA

'#'(µ)*A I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 5.2 CD(M% I(M E($I?I)% K(M )@(M* H#*-

*?G#L "I$% 20 3MH(S"I(M 1978. &J"I# I?* A*IL"I($@? #*I(DF "#

SQL BA$ I(* *)( KL*ABA '#'(µ)*+* K(M GA K>(BSQ#$ µ#I! I?* #BI)-

D#"? I?% #*I(DF%.

¢Ú·ÛÙËÚÈfiÙËÙ· 5.106I( 6S"I?µA &$A@#L>$"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+* K(M @>?"$µ(K($#LI#,

#$"!H#I# CDA IA '#'(µ)*A I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 5.2 µ# I? @>F"? #*I(-

DJ* SQL.

5.3.3 Ÿ„ÂÈ˜

2$ CQ#$% "I?* SQL #L*A$ KL*AB#% K(M '?µ$(M>H(S*IA$ AKC !DD(M%

KL*AB#% µ# "B(KC *A 'J"(M* '$AE(>#I$B)% AK#$B(*L"#$% ("M*FG+% "#

'$AE(>#I$B)% (µ!'#% @>?"IJ*). 6I( KA>!'#$HµA K(M AB(D(MG#L EAL-

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CREATE VIEW %æ"_1

AS SELECT ONOMA, (¶ø¡Àª%, ¶#!ƒø¡Àª%

FROM º%&!"!"™

WHERE AM > 19000;

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-3"')=4:)1 !B/(%µ1(#5. . BADSI#>? T$TD$(H>AELA K(M µK(>(Sµ# *A "A%K>(I#L*(Mµ# H$A *A µ!G#I# SQL #L*A$ IA #H@#$>L'$A I(M "M"IFµAI(% K(M@>?"$µ(K($#LI#. 1AI! BA*C*A, #L*A$ KDF>? BA$, I( BM>$CI#>(, A*AE)>(-*IA$ AB>$TJ% "I( 6S"I?µA &$A@#L>$"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+* µ# I( (K(L(#>H!V#"I#. 5A>CDA AMI!, AB>$TJ% H$AIL ? SQL #L*A$ K>CIMK? HDJ""A,µK(>#LI# *A T>#LI# BA$ *A '$AT!"#I# H$A SQL "@#'C* "# B!G# T$TDL( K(MK>AHµAI#S#IA$ I( G)µA I+* U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+*.

[1] Ullman J. D., Principles of Database Systems, Computer SciencePress, 1982.

,L*A$ )*A AKC I( K>JIA BA$ TA"$BCI#>A T$TDLA H$A U!"#$% &#'(µ)-*+*. . HDJ""A #>+IF"#+* SQL K#>$H>!E#IA$ "I( B#E!DA$( 6.

[2] Silberschatz A., Korth H., Sudarshan S, Database System ConceptsThird Edition, McGraw–Hill, 1986.

. HDJ""A #>+IF"#+* SQL K#>$H>!E#IA$ A*ADMI$B! "I( B#E!DA$( 4I(M T$TDL(M.


4( T$TDL( MK!>@#$ BA$ "# #DD?*$BF µ#I!E>A"? AKC I$% #B'C"#$% &LAM-D(% "# µ#I!E>A"? 7. :AIVCK(MD(M, 1996. 5$"I#S(Mµ# K+% #L*A$ )*ABADC T$TDL( H$A *A TA"L"#I# I? µ#D)I? "A% "# K#>LKI+"? K(M G)D#I#*A #µTAGS*#I# "I$% HDJ""#% #>+IF"#+*.


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6# A*ILG#"? µ# I?* SQL, K(M "I? "S*IARF I?% GMµLV#$ K#>$""CI#>(

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6I?* QBE @>?"$µ(K($(Sµ# KL*AB#% #>+IF"#+* H$A *A MK(T!DD(Mµ#

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KL*ABA #>JI?"?% I?% µ(>EF%

4( "S"I?µA, D($KC*, E>(*ILV#$ *A 'J"#$ "I( @>F"I? KD?>(E(>LA CK+%

IA (*CµAIA B!G# "IFD?% BA$ )I"$ ( @>F"I?% '#* @>#$!V#IA$ *A IA

GMµ!IA$ CK+% "I?* SQL. P"I+ D($KC* CI$ G)D(Mµ# *A '(Sµ# IA (*(-

µAI#KJ*MµA BA$ IA KAI>J*MµA CD+* I+* E($I?IJ*. . #*I(DF "# QBE

#L*A$ ( KL*ABA% #>JI?"?% K(M AB(D(MG#L

6# AMIC* I(* KL*ABA @>F"I?% )@#$ 'J"#$ )*A KA>!'#$HµA µ$A% AK!-

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B#% #>+IF"#+* BA$ *A K>("'$(>LV#$ K($#% "IFD#% GA #µEA*$"I(S* BA$

K($#% C@$. 6M*FG+%, AMIC HL*#IA$ µ# #K$D(HF B!K($(M K#'L(M K(M BAG(-

>LV#$ I?* AK#$BC*$"? F C@$ µ# I? @>F"? B!K($(M check box.


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µ# IA '#'(µ)*A I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(% 5.2. EKL"?% 'J"I# I(* KL*ABA

AK(I#D)"µAI(%.


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6.2 ™˘Óı‹ÎÂ˜

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µ# B!K($(M% K#>$(>$"µ(S% "I?* #BISK+"? I+* AK(I#D#"µ!I+*, KJ%

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G#LI# I( IµFµA «WHERE» "I?* SQL. ,B#L 'L*Aµ# µLA "M*GFB? K(M

AB(D(MG(S"# I( «WHERE» BA$ K>("'$C>$V# K($#% #HH>AE)% G)D(Mµ#

*A #µEA*$"G(S*. 6I?* QBE ($ "M*GFB#% (>LV(*IA$ µ# KA>Cµ($( I>CK(,

µC*( K(M CDA HL*(*IA$ µ# KA>!'#$HµA "I(* KL*ABA #>JI?"?%.

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KA>AK!*+ KA>!'#$HµA #L*A$ EM"$B! ( #KCµ#*(%:

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AKC I( "S"I?µA "A* µLA µ#H!D? "M*GFB? K(M )@#$ «AND» A*!µ#"A

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IJ* K(M )@(M* H#**?G#L µ#I! I?* 1? 0A*(MA>L(M 1978 F K(M )@(M* #KJ*M-

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P. P. >1-1-1978

9. LIKE ‘B%’

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BA$ I( C*(µA BA$ I( )I(% L'>M"?% I(M IµFµAI(% "I( (K(L( A*FB(M*.

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I$B(S% KL*AB#%: OA @>#$A"I#L *A K!>(Mµ# IA (*(µAI#KJ*MµA I+* E($-

I?IJ* AKC I(* KL*ABA 8204.4,6, IA )I? L'>M"?% I+* Iµ?µ!I+* AKC

I(* KL*ABA 47.73, #*J GA @>#$A"I(Sµ# BA$ I(* KL*ABA

820447.73 H$A *A T>(Sµ# I? "@)"? I+* E($I?IJ* µ# B!G#

IµFµA. 2$ KL*AB#% #>JI?"?% "# QBE #L*A$ ($ #RF%:

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K#IS@(Mµ# I( #K$'$+BCµ#*( AK(I)D#"µA. 2$ "M*')"#$% AMI)% HL*(*IA$

µ# I? @>F"? B($*J* KA>A'#$Hµ!I+* µ# µ#IATD?I)%. PI"$, ? "S*'#"?

I(M KL*ABA 8204.4.6 µ# I(* KL*ABA 820447.73 HL*#IA$ µ# I?*

B($*F µ#IATD?IF «_37» K(M "M*')#$ I(M% 'S( KL*AB#% µ# I(* A>$G-

µC µ?I>J(M. . "S*'#"? I(M KL*ABA 47.73 µ# I(* KL*ABA

820447.73 HL*#IA$ µ# I?* B($*F µ#IATD?IF «_2/4» K(M "M*-

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µ(K($(Sµ# )*A* K>(BAG(>$"µ)*( KL*ABA I(M "M"IFµAI(% K(M (*(µ!-

V#IA$ AK!*I?"?. 3MIC% ( KL*ABA% #L*A$ @>F"$µ(% H$A I? '$!>G>+"?

I+* AK(I#D#"µ!I+* #$'$B! "# K#>$KIJ"#$% CK(M IA AK(I#D)"µAIA

)@(M* "I($@#LA AKC K#>$""CI#>(M% AKC )*A* KL*AB#%.

4( AK(I)D#"µA AMIF% I?% #*I(DF% #L*A$ )*A% KL*ABA% µ# IA KA>AB!-

I+ AK(I#D)"µAIA:

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5>(")RI# CI$ "I(* KA>AK!*+ KL*ABA '#* )@#$ HL*#$ D!G(% µ# I? '$KDF

#µE!*$"? I(M «:>F"I(% :>F"I(M», AKD! MKF>@A* 'S( E($I?I)% µ#

L'$( (*(µAI#KJ*Mµ(, ADD! '$AE(>#I$BC KAI>J*Mµ( "I? U!"? &#'(-

µ)*+* I(M KA>A'#LHµAI(%.

2/273 8OIT ,5N/<72 ONOMA TMH ETO6_I&PY6H6

/$BCDA(% UA"$D#L(M 7AG?µAI$BC 1961

,D)*? UA"$D#L(M 7AG?µAI$BC 1961

/$BCDA(% UA>'F% 8M"$BC 1968

:>F"I(% :>F"I(M 5D?>(E(>$BF% 1994

:>F"I(% :>F"I(M 5D?>(E(>$BF% 1994

7A>L*A :AIVF 8M"$BC 1968


P"I+ CI$ G)D(Mµ# *A T>(Sµ# IA (*CµAIA BA$ IA #KJ*MµA I+* BAG?-

H?IJ* K(M )@(M* H#**?G#L µ#I! I?* 1? 0A*(MA>L(M 1960, "I? U!"?


I(% 5.2. &J"I# "# QBE IC"( I(* KL*ABA #>JI?"?% C"( BA$ I(* KL*A-

BA µ# I( A*Aµ#*Cµ#*( AK(I)D#"µA.


P"I+ CI$ G)D(Mµ# *A T>(Sµ# I( C*(µA BA$ I( #KJ*Mµ( I+* BAG?-

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5.2. &J"I# "# QBE IC"( I(* KL*ABA #>JI?"?% C"( BA$ I(* KL*ABA

µ# I( A*Aµ#*Cµ#*( AK(I)D#"µA.


6.3 ( QBE ÛÂ Û˘Ó‰˘·ÛÌfi ÌÂ ÁÚ·ÊÈÎfi !ÂÚÈ‚¿ÏÏÔÓ

6IA K#>$""CI#>A 6M"IFµAIA &$A@#L>$"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+* K(M

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QBE. 6# AMIF I?* #*CI?IA GA KA>(M"$!"(Mµ# "S*I(µA KJ% MD(K($-

(S*IA$ #>+IF"#$% "I? HDJ""A QBE "I( "S"I?µA Microsoft Access.

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6.4

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I(* KL*ABA µ# I( A*Aµ#*Cµ#*( AK(I)D#"µA.


6.5

&J"I# "# QBE I(* KL*ABA #>JI?"?% K(M *A V?I! I( #KJ*Mµ( BA$

I(* A>$GµC µ?I>J(M B!G# E($I?IF K(M )@#$ #K$D)R#$ µAGFµAIA, I(*

B+'$BC B!G# µAGFµAI(% K(M )@#$ K!>#$ BA$ I( (*(µAI#KJ*Mµ( B!G#

BAG?H?IF K(M '$'!"B#$ I( "MHB#B>$µ)*( µ!G?µA AKC I? U!"?


I(% 5.2. EKL"?% 'J"I# I(* KL*ABA µ# I( A*Aµ#*Cµ#*( AK(I)D#"µA.

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Field: 2/273 ,5N/<72 2/273 ,426_0&9

Table: 8204.4.6 8204.4.6 47.73 47.73

Sort: Ascending

Show: # # # #

Criteria:

Or:


6.6

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[1] Ullman J. D., Principles of Database Systems, Computer SciencePress, 1982.

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OA=.06 8.*(µF,B,.


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"I>(EF AKC I( D#HCµ#*( '(µ?µ)*( K>(H>AµµAI$"µC (structured

programming) "I(* K>(H>AµµAI$"µC K>("A*AI(D$"µ)*( "IA A*I$-

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PASCAL BA$ K$( K>C"EAIA ? Java (HDJ""A K(M BM>$A>@#L "I?* A*!-

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HDJ""#% K>(H>AµµAI$"µ(S K(M BM>$A>@(S* "IA'$AB! "I?* A*!KIM-

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I(M ISK(M I?% BD!"?%, #LI# )@(M* I$µ)% I(M L'$(M ISK(M. 2$ BD!"#$% #L*A$

(>HA*+µ)*#% $#>A>@$B! BA$ MK!>@#$ BD?>(*(µ$BCI?IA I+* $'$(IFI+*

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«73O.73», ADD! '#* GA #L@# *C?µA *A (µA'(K($F"(Mµ# I(M% E($-

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SELECT º.(¶ø¡Àª%

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%¡%ª# VARCHAR (30),

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RETURNS CHAR(90);

BEGIN

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END;

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[1] Ullman J. D., Widom J., A First Course in Database Systems, Prentice Hall, 1997.

,L*A$ )*A #$"AH+H$BC T$TDL( H$A U!"#$% &#'(µ)*+*, I( (K(L( A*AE)>#$ A>B#I! H$AA*I$B#$µ#*("I>AE#L% U!"#$% &#'(µ)*+*. 6I( B#E!DA$( 1 BA$ #$'$BCI#>A "I( 1.3 (I(µ)DD(* I+* U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+*) KA>(M"$!V#$ I$% TA"$B)% A>@)% I?% A*I$B#$µ#*(-"I>AE(S% E$D("(ELA%, #*J "I( B#E!DA$( 8 µK(>#LI# *A '$AT!"#I# H$A A*I$B#$µ#-*("I>AE#L% HDJ""#% #>+IF"#+* BA$ *A T>#LI# µ$A #BI#*F KA>(M"LA"? I?% HDJ"-"A% ODL. ,KL"?%, "I( B#E!DA$( 2 KA>(M"$!V(*IA$ G)µAIA "@#'LA"?% K>("A*AI(-D$"µ)*A "IA A*I$B#Lµ#*A BA$ H#*$BCI#>A "I? E$D("(ELA I+* A*I$B#$µ#*("I>AEJ*U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+*. ,L*A$ )*A A>B#I! BADC T$TDL( H$A *A A>@L"#I# *A µ#D#I!I# I(G)µA I+* A*I$B#$µ#*("I>AEJ* U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+*.

[2] Silberschatz A., Korth H., Sudarshan S, Database System Concepts, Third Edition,McGraw–Hill, 1986.

4( T$TDL( AMIC AE$#>J*#$ 'S( B#E!DA$A "I$% A*I$B#$µ#*("I>AE#L% U!"#$% &#'(µ)-*+*. ,$'$BCI#>A "I( B#E!DA$( 8 µ# ILID( «Object – Oriented Databases» KA>(M-"$!V(*IA$ ($ A*I$B#$µ#*("I>AE#L% U!"#$% &#'(µ)*+* BA$ IA persistent Ctt "M"IF-µAIA. 6I( B#E!DA$( 9 KA>(M"$!V(*IA$ ($ D#HCµ#*#% Object – Relational Databases.1AI! I?* !K(QF µA% #L*A$ )*A AKC IA K(DS BAD! A*AH*J"µAIA H$A I( G)µA I+*A*I$B#$µ#*("I>AEJ* U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+* BA$, "# K#>LKI+"? K(M G)D#I# *A #µTA-GS*#I# "I( A*I$B#Lµ#*(, "LH(M>A GA )K>#K# *A I( "MµK#>$D!T#I# "I? µ#D)I? "A%.

[3] Elmasri R. & Navathe S. B., Fundamentals of Database Systems, Addison–Wesley,1994.

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6S"I?µA &$A@#L>$"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+*. (6N642)

6+"I!! ,$'$BCI#>A I?* µ#IAE(>! '#'(µ)*+* I?* A*ADAµT!*#$ I( IµFµA I(M 6M"IF-

µAI(% K(M (*(µ!V#IA$ «-(H$"µ$BC 3K(GFB#M"?% BA$ 3*!BD?"?% &#'(µ)*+*» CK+%

EAL*#IA$ "I( "@FµA I?% #*CI?IA% 1.2.2.

6S"I?µA &$A@#L>$"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+* #L*A$ K(DD)% U!"#$% &#'(µ)*+* µAVL. (-3O26)

7# )*A 6S"I?µA &$A@#L>$"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+* µK(>(S* *A MD(K($?G(S* BA$ *A

@#$>LV(*IA$ K(DD)% U!"#$% &#'(µ)*+*, ADD! AMIC '#* "?µAL*#$ K+% K(DD)% U!"#$%

&#'(µ)*+* #L*A$ )*A 6S"I?µA &$A@#L>$"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+*. ,!* AKA*IF"AI#

«6+"IC» BADSI#>A *A RA*Aµ#D#IF"#I# I$% #*CI?I#% 1.2, 1.2.1 BA$ 1.2.2.

4( 6S"I?µA &$A@#L>$"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+* AK(I#D#LIA$ AKC I( -(H$"µ$BC :#$>$"µ(S

,>+IF"#+*, I( -(H$"µ$BC 3K(GFB#M"?% BA$ 3*!BD?"?% &#'(µ)*+* BA$ I( <D$BC 3K(-

GFB#M"?% I+* &#'(µ)*+*. (-3O26)

3MIF FIA* µ$A 'S"B(D? #>JI?"?. ,!* #K$D)RAI# «-!G(%» ICI# µK>!T( "A%. 4( D!G(%

#L*A$ CI$ I( <D$BC 3K(GFB#M"?% I+* &#'(µ)*+* '#* AK(I#D#L IµFµA I(M 6M"IFµAI(%

&$A@#L>$"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+*. ,!* AKA*IF"AI# «6+"IC» '#* K#$>!V#$. OMµ?G#LI#

I(* (>$"µC I(M 6M"IFµAI(% &$A@#L>$"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+*. ,LKAµ# CI$ #L*A$ «…I(

D(H$"µ$BC…» BA$ C@$ I( MD$BC.

1.5

. @>F"? I?% T!"?% &#'(µ)*+* µA% #RA"EADLV#$ CI$ 'S( @>F"I#% '#* GA µK(>)"(M* *A '$A-

T!"(M* IAMIC@>(*A IA L'$A '#'(µ)*A. (-3O26)

T( 6S"I?µA &$A@#L>$"?% K>("IAI#S#$ IA '#'(µ)*A AKC IAMIC@>(*#% ADDAH)% AKC

'S( F K#>$""CI#>(M% @>F"I#%. Wµ+% ? A*!H*+"? I+* '#'(µ)*+* AKC K#>$""CI#-

>(M% AKC )*A @>F"I? I? E(>! #L*A$ KD#(*)BI?µA I?% @>F"?% I?% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+*.

,!* AKA*IF"AI# «-!G(%» µK>!T( "A%, FIA* µ$A #>JI?"? K(M µK(>(S"# *A "A%

µK#>')Q#$. ,!* AKA*IF"AI# «6+"IC» '#* K#$>!V#$, AKD! RA*A'$AT!"I# I?* #*CI?-

IA 1.3.1.

. U!"? &#'(µ)*+* KA>)@#$ )*A µ?@A*$"µC K(M KA>)@#$ IA@SIAIA AKA*IF"#$% "# #>+IF-

"#$% I(M @>F"I?. (6N642)

W*I+% ? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* KA>)@#$ AMIF I? 'M*AICI?IA. ,!* AKA*IF"AI# D!G(% µ?*

AK(H(?I#S#"I#, ADD! BADSI#>A *A B!*#I# µLA #KA*!D?Q? "I$% #*CI?I#% 1.2 BA$ µ#I!

*A RA*A'$AT!"#I# I?* #*CI?IA 1.3.2.

1 7 4 A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 1

. U!"? &#'(µ)*+* '#* #K$I>)K#$ ADDAH)% "I? µ(>EF I+* '#'(µ)*+*. (-3O26)

WK+% '$AT!"AI# "I?* #*CI?IA 1.3.3 ? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* KA>)@#$ #M#D$RLA "# I)I($-

(M #L'(M% ADDAH)%. ,!* AKA*IF"AI# «6+"I!» µ!DD(* µK#>'#MIFBAI#. 7?* AK(-

H(?I#S#"I#.

. K($CI?IA I+* '#'(µ)*+* #L*A$ BADSI#>? #!* @>?"$µ(K($F"(Mµ# A>@#LA A*IL H$A U!"?

&#'(µ)*+*. (-3O26)

WK+% '$AT!"AI# "I?* #*CI?IA 1.3.4 ? K($CI?IA I+* '#'(µ)*+* #L*A$ BADSI#>? µ#

I? @>F"? U!"?% &#'(µ)*+* DCH+ I+* µ?@A*$"µJ* K>("IA"LA% K(M KA>)@#$ AMIF.

,!* AKA*IF"AI# «6+"I!» µ!DD(* µK#>'#MIFBAI#. 7?* AK(H(?I#S#"I#. 1ADSI#>A

*A B!*#I# µ$A #KA*!D?Q? "# CI$ )@#I# µ#D#IF"#$ "# AMIF I?* #*CI?IA.

1.6

5D?>(E(>LA #L*A$ '#'(µ)*A K(M '#* )@(M* AK(G?B#MI#L "# ?D#BI>(*$BC MK(D(H$"IF.

(-3O26)

OMµ?G#LI# I(M% (>$"µ(S% K(M µ#D#IF"AI# "I?* #*CI?IA 1.1.1. . KD?>(E(>LA #R!-

H#IA$ AKC IA '#'(µ)*A, A*#RA>IFI+% AKC K(M T>L"B(*IA$ AMI! AK(G?B#Mµ)*A. ,!*

AKA*IF"AI# «6+"IC» µ!DD(* '#* 'J"AI# K(DS T!>(% "I?* #KA*!D?Q? K(M "A% K>(-

I#L*Aµ#.

6I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* AK(G?B#S(*IA$ '#'(µ)*A, AKC IA (K(LA #R!H(*IA$ KD?>(E(>L#%.

(6N642)

,L*A$ "+"IC. ,R!DD(M AMIC% #L*A$ AB>$TJ% BA$ ( "B(KC% µ$A% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+*.

,!* AKA*IF"AI# «-!G(%» µ!DD(* µK#>'#MIFBAI# µ# I(* (>$"µC I?% U!"?% &#'(-

µ)*+*. &#* K#$>!V#$, ADD! BADSI#>A #KA*AD!T#I# I?* #KA*!D?Q? I(M B#EADAL(M 1.

1!G# "MDD(HF '#'(µ)*+* AK(I#D#L µLA U!"? &#'(µ)*+*. (-3O26)

,LKAµ# K+% U!"? &#'(µ)*+* '#* #L*A$ AKD! µLA "MDD(HF '#'(µ)*+*, ADD! )*A

µ(*I)D( I(M K>AHµAI$B(S BC"µ(M µAVL µ# I(* I>CK( @#$>$"µ(S I+* '#'(µ)*+*. ,!*

AKA*IF"AI# «6+"IC» RA*Aµ#D#IF"I# I(* (>$"µC I?% #*CI?IA% 1.1.2.

U!"? &#'(µ)*+* '#* µK(>#L *A MK!>R#$ @+>L% ?D#BI>(*$BC MK(D(H$"IF. (-3O26)

<K!>@#$ BA$ I( KA>!'#$HµA 1.2 K(M '#* @>?"$µ(K($#L ?D#BI>(*$BC MK(D(H$"IF. ,!*

AKA*IF"AI# «6+"IC» L"+% "A% µK)>'#Q# I( H#H(*C% CI$ #LKAµ# CI$ AMIF ? U!"?

&#'(µ)*+* '#* #L*A$ BAGCD(M >#AD$"I$BF DS"?. Wµ+% '#* KAS#$ *A #L*A$ µLA U!"?

&#'(µ)*+*.

4( 6S"I?µA &$A@#L>$"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+* '$#MB(DS*#$ I? '?µ$(M>HLA BA$ "M*IF>?"?

1 7 5A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 1

U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+*. (6N642)

3B>$TJ% AMIC% #L*A$ ( >CD(% I(M. ,!* AKA*IF"AI# «-!G(%» µ!DD(* µK#>'#MIFBA-

I# µ# I(* (>$"µC I?% #*CI?IA% 1.2. &#* K#$>!V#$, ADD! BADSI#>A #KA*AD!T#I# I?*

#KA*!D?Q? I(M B#EADAL(M 1.

2 &$A@#$>$"IF% #*C% 6M"IFµAI(% &$A@#L>$"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+* µK(>#L *A '?µ$(M>HF-

"#$ U!"#$% &#'(µ)*+* BA$ *A (>L"#$ 0'$(BIFI#% H$A B!G# U!"? &#'(µ)*+*. (6N642)

2 (>$"µC% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+* BA$ A>µ('$(IFI+* @>?"IJ* #L*A$ TA"$BF #>HA"LA

I(M &$A@#$>$"IF 6M"IFµAI(%. ,!* AKA*IF"AI# «-!G(%», BADSI#>A *A 'J"#I# )µEA-

"? "I?* #KA*!D?Q? I?% #*CI?IA% 1.4.

2$ 0'$(BIFI#% µLA% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+* µK(>(S* *A '$AH>!Q(M* F *A (>L"(M* @>F"I#% "#

AMIF I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+*. (6N642)

2 >CD(% I(M $'$(BIFI? #L*A$ BA$ ( (>$"µC% @>?"IJ*, BAGJ% BA$ I+* A>µ('$(IFI+*

B!G# @>F"I? ('?DA'F "# K($( #KLK#'( GA A*FB#$). ,!* AKA*IF"AI# «-!G(%», µ!D-

D(* µK#>')QAI# I$% A>µ('$CI?I#% I(M &$A@#$>$"IF 6M"IFµAI(% µ# AMI)% I(M 0'$(-

BIFI? I?% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+*.

2$ 0'$(BIFI#% µLA% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+* µK(>(S* *A '$AH>!Q(M* F *A (>L"(M* µC*( I(M%

:>F"I#% 1AIJI#>?% &$AT!Gµ$"?% "# AMIF I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+*. (-AOO6)

7K(>(S* *A '$AH>!Q(M*, F *A (>L"(M* @>F"I#% B!G# #K$K)'(M. UD)K# I?* AK!*I?-

"? "I?* K>(?H(Sµ#*? #>JI?"?. T( D!G(% #L*A$ "I( «µC*(».

G=#/#"%: ,!* "I$% #>+IF"#$% AMI)% )@#I# 'J"#$ K#>$""CI#>#% AKC µLA DAG#µ)*#% AKA-

*IF"#$% ICI# K>(I#L*(Mµ# *A µ?* K>(@+>F"#I# µ# I? µ#D)I? I?% #K(µ)*?% #*C-

I?IA%, ADD! *A #KA*AD!T#I# I?* #KA*!D?Q? I(M B#EADAL(M. 5!*I+% µ?* AK(-

H(?I#S#"I#. 7#D#IF"AI# A>B#I)% )**($#% K(M A*I$µ#I+KL"AI# H$A K>JI? E(>!

BA$ #L*A$ D(H$BC *A )@#I# µK#>'#MI#L DLH(.

1 7 6 A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 2

2.1

3B(D(MG(S* ($ "+"I)% AKA*IF"#$%. 7K>!T( "A%, #!* AKA*IF"AI# "+"I!. 6# A*ILG#I?

K#>LKI+"? AE$#>J"I# @>C*( H$A *A B!*#I# µLA #KA*!D?Q? "I?* #*CI?IA 2.1, 'L*(*IA% $'$-

ALI#>? )µEA"? "I(M% (>$"µ(S%. 7?* AK(H(?I#S#"I# #!* '#* AKA*IF"AI# "+"I!, ADD! µ?*

KA>AD#LQ#I# I?* #KA*!D?Q?.

A) N% '$AE!*#$A (>LV#IA$ I( H#H(*C% CI$ ( @>F"I?% '# H*+>LV#$ K(M T>L"B(*IA$ /% *.*(µF-

,% BA$ AKD! TD)K#$ I( AK(I)D#"µA I+* .,/(:+, K(M #BI#D#L "I( .GB/."01# .'>'.*(.

T) N% EM"$BC #KLK#'( I?% %"90/.1/(,0126 µLA% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+* (>LV#IA$ I( #KLK#'( "I(

(K(L( /% *.*(µF,% AK(G?B#S(*IA$ BA$ (>HA*J*(*IA$ K>AHµAI$B! "I? OA=4 8.*(µF,B,.

H) N% #R+I#>$BC .'>'.*( I?% A>@$I#BI(*$BF% µLA% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+* (>LV#IA$ I( #KLK#'(

"I( (K(L( IA *.*(µF,% I?% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+* KA>(M"$!V(*IA$ "I( 9"2=/4.

2.2

2 @>F"I?% K>)K#$ *A K#>$H>!E#$ B!G# #*I(DF K(M 'L*#$ "I( #R+I#>$BC #KLK#'( µ# I?* A*IL-

"I($@? #*I(DF "I( EM"$BC #KLK#'(. (-3O26)

6I?* #*CI?IA 2.1.2 #LKAµ# CI$ ( @>F"I?% TD)K#$ µC*( I$% #*I(D)% "I( #R+I#>$BC #KL-

K#'(. &#LI# #KL"?% BA$ I(* (>$"µC I?% '$AE!*#$A% "I?* #*CI?IA 2.1.3. 6SµE+*A µ#

AMIC* I(* (>$"µC ( @>F"I?% '#* K>)K#$ *A A"@(D#LIA$ µ# I( EM"$BC #KLK#'(. X>A ?

"+"IF AK!*I?"? #L*A$ (-3O26).

4( #KLK#'( A*ILD?Q?% "M*')#$ I( EM"$BC #KLK#'( µ# I( #R+I#>$BC #KLK#'(. (6N642)

,L*A$ "+"IC "SµE+*A µ# C"A K#>$H>!E(*IA$ "I?* #*CI?IA 2.1.4. ,!* AKA*IF"AI#

D!G(%, '$AT!"I# RA*! I(M% (>$"µ(S% "# AMIF I?* #*CI?IA.

2 @>F"I?% TD)K#$ IA '#'(µ)*A "I( #R+I#>$BC #KLK#'(. (6N642)

,L*A$ "+"IC "SµE+*A µ# I(* (>$"µC I?% #*CI?IA% 2.1.2.

&$AE!*#$A "?µAL*#$ CI$ ( @>F"I?% TD)K#$ I? µ(>EF I+* '#'(µ)*+* H$A B!G# #KLK#'(.

(-3O26)

7K>!T( "A%, #!* #K$D)RAI# (-3O26) H$AIL #L*A$ K>AHµAI$B! 'S"B(D? )**($A, AE(S

µK(>#LI# *A µK#>'#MI#LI# µ# I(* #IMµ(D(H$BC (>$"µC I?% D)R?% «'$AE!*#$A». &$A-

T!"I# RA*! I(* (>$"µC I?% #*CI?IA% 2.1.3, #!* AKA*IF"AI# (6N642).

6I( #KLK#'( A*ILD?Q?% '#* #K$I#D(S*IA$ "I?* K>AHµAI$BCI?IA D#$I(M>HL#%, AKD! #L*A$ ;,1

#KLK#'( H$A *A "M*')#$ I( EM"$BC µ# I( #R+I#>$BC #KLK#'(. (-3O26)

U)TA$A #L*A$ D!G(%. &$AT!"I# I?* #*CI?IA 2.1.4 BA$ µ#D#IF"I# RA*! IA "@FµAIA 2.2

BA$ 2.3 #$'$B! "I( "@FµA 2.3 KA>(M"$!V(*IA$ µLA "#$>! AKC D#$I(M>HL#% K(M #K$I#-

D(S*IA$ "I( #KLK#'( A*ILD?Q?%.

2.3

«102», «17/12/1998», «23» (6N642)

,L*A$ )*A BDA"$BC KA>!'#$HµA #HH>AEF%, CK+% I?* (>L"Aµ# "I?* #BEJ*?"? I?%

!"B?"?%. 7K>!T( "A% #!* AKA*IF"AI# (6N642).

«132», «&#* )H$*# µ)I>?"?», «0» (6N642)

7K>!T( "A% #!* AKA*IF"AI# (6N642), H$AIL FIA* #SB(D( *A B!*#I# D!G(%. OMµ?-

G#LI# CI$ +% ?µ#>(µ?*LA (>L"Aµ# «1#Lµ#*( (20)», !>A ? I$µF «&#* )H$*# µ)I>?"?»

#L*A$ AK('#BIF I$µF.

«8786117», «6201345A», «123» (6N642)

7K>!T( "A% #!* AKA*IF"AI# (6N642), H$AIL BA$ #'J FIA* K(DS #SB(D( *A B!*#I#

D!G(%. 2 B+'$BC% '#* K>)K#$ *A )@#$ µFB(% 4 @A>ABIF>#%, ADD! *A #L*A$ 4 Bytes.

3MIC "?µAL*#$ CI$ A>$Gµ(L µ)@>$ BA$ I(* 4.294.967.296 #L*A$ '#BI(L, !>A BA$ (

8.786.117 #L*A$ AK('#BIC%. 7?* AK(H(?I#S#"I#, #!* AKA*IF"AI# D!G(%.

«12», «17/11/1998», «555» (-3O26)

. "+"IF AK!*I?"? #L*A$ (-3O26), C@$ H$AIL ? G#>µ(B>A"LA 555 #L*A$ K(DS MQ?DF,

ADD! H$AIL ( A>$GµC% 555 #L*A$ 2 Bytes BA$ C@$ 1.

«3U», «13/02/1999», «23» (-3O26)

. "+"IF AK!*I?"? #L*A$ (-3O26), H$AIL ? I$µF «3U» '#* A*I$"I($@#L "# AB)>A$(

A>$GµC. 7K>!T( "A% #!* AKA*IF"AI# "+"I! "# CD#% I$% #HH>AE)%. 6# A*ILG#I? K#>L-

KI+"? AE$#>J"I# DLH( @>C*( H$A µLA #KA*!D?Q? "I?* #*CI?IA 2 I(M B#EADAL(M 2.

2.4

1) . "+"IF AK!*I?"? #L*A$ 29 blocks.

2) . "+"IF AK!*I?"? #L*A$ 143 blocks.

3) . "+"IF AK!*I?"? #L*A$ 1 block.

. D(H$BF I+* DS"#+* #L*A$ ? #RF%: 1!G# block )@#$ '$AG)"$µA 200–20=180 Bytes

(#LKAµ# CI$ IA 20 '#"µ#S(*IA$). X>A "# B!G# block @+>!*# 7 #HH>AE)% (180 Bytes

1 7 7A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 2

1 7 8 A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 2

)@#$ I( block BA$ 25 Bytes H$A B!G# #HH>AEF, 180/25=7,2. Wµ+%, '#* µK(>(Sµ# *A

)@(Mµ# 7,2 #HH>AE)% AE(S #LKAµ# CI$ µLA #HH>AEF K>)K#$ *A #L*A$ (DCBD?>? "I( L'$(

block, !>A ? AK!*I?"? #L*A$ 7). ,EC"(* B!G# block @+>!#$ 7 #HH>AE)% H$A I$% 200

#HH>AE)% GA @>#$A"I(Sµ# 200/7=28,57 blocks, '?DA'F H$A I( (1) I( A>@#L( GA K>)-

K#$ *A )@#$ 29 blocks ('#* µK(>#L *A )@#$ 28,57 blocks). 7# I(* L'$( I>CK( ? AK!-

*I?"? "I( (2) K>(BSKI#$ 143 blocks. 4)D(% ? AK!*I?"? "I( (3) #L*A$ 1 block, AE(S

'#* µK(>(Sµ# *A )@(Mµ# D$HCI#>A AKC 1 block A*! A>@#L(.

2.5

1) . AK!*I?"? #L*A$ 5%.

P@(Mµ# 2000 #HH>AE)% BA$ B!G# block )@#$ 20 #HH>AE)%, !>A )@(Mµ# 2000/20=100

blocks. ;$A B!G# block AKA$I#LIA$ µLA *)A #HH>AEF H$A I(* BAI!D(H(, !>A )@(Mµ#

100 *)#% #HH>AE)% K(M @>#$!V(*IA$ 100/20=5 *)A blocks. PI"$ A*IL H$A 100 blocks

@>?"$µ(K($(Sµ# 105 blocks '?DA'F µLA ASR?"? 5%.

2) . AK!*I?"? #L*A$ 11%.

P@(Mµ# 2000 #HH>AE)% BA$ B!G# block )@#$ 10 #HH>AE)%, !>A )@(Mµ# 2000/10=200

blocks. ;$A B!G# block AKA$I#LIA$ µLA *)A #HH>AEF H$A I(* BAI!D(H( I(M K>JI(M

#K$K)'(M, !>A )@(Mµ# 200 *)#% #HH>AE)% K(M @>#$!V(*IA$ 200/10=20 *)A blocks H$A

I( K>JI( #KLK#'(. P@(Mµ# #KL"?% 20 #HH>AE)% H$A I( '#SI#>( #KLK#'(, K(M @>#$!-

V(*IA$ 20/10=2 *)A blocks H$A I( '#SI#>( #KLK#'(. PI"$ A*IL H$A 200 blocks @>?"$-

µ(K($(Sµ# #K$KD)(* 20+2=22, !>A "S*(D( 222 blocks '?DA'F µLA ASR?"? 11%.

3) . DS"? #L*A$ 11,5%.

5>("(@F #L*A$ L'$A µ# I?* K>(?H(Sµ#*? (2) µ)@>$ I( '#SI#>( #KLK#'(, µC*( K(M H$A

*A '#$BI('(IF"(Mµ# IA 'S( blocks I(M '#MI)>(M #K$K)'(M @>?"$µ(K($(Sµ# )*A

ABCµA block "I( I>LI( #KLK#'(. X>A 22+1=23 blocks A*IL H$A 200 F K("("IC ASR?-

"?% 11,5%.

3.1

3B(D(MG(S* ($ "+"I)% AKA*IF"#$%. 7K>!T( "A%, #!* AKA*IF"AI# "+"I!. 6# A*ILG#I?

K#>LKI+"? AE$#>J"I# @>C*( H$A *A B!*#I# µLA #KA*!D?Q? "I?* #*CI?IA 3.1.

i. ,L*A$ ? #HH>AEF µ# B+'$BC 106. . µC*? #HH>AEF K(M '#* )@#$ H(*$C.

ii. ,L*A$ ($ #HH>AE)% µ# B+'$B(S% 11, 13, 17, 621, 21, 24 BA$ 35. 5>(")RI# I(* (>$"µC.

8SDDA #L*A$ ($ #HH>AE)% K(M '#* )@(M* BA*)*A KA$'L. X>A BA$ ? #HH>AEF µ# B+'$BC

621 #L*A$ ESDD(.

iii. P@#$ I$% #HH>AE)% µ# B+'$B(S% 21 BA$ 24. WK+% EAL*#IA$ "I( "@FµA.

iv. ,L*A$ ? #HH>AEF µ# B+'$BC 177. 5>("(@F C@$ ? #HH>AEF K(M T>L"B#IA$ AB>$TJ% K!*+

I?% "I( "@)'$(, ADD! ? #HH>AEF K(M #L*A$ $#>A>@$B! "M*'#'#µ)*? µ# AMIF, '?DA'F (

H(*$C% I?%. . #HH>AEF K(M #L*A$ K!*+ AKC I?* #HH>AEF µ# B+'$BC 17 #L*A$ ? #HH>AEF

13, ADD! '#* MK!>@#$ "S*'#"? AKC I?* #HH>AEF AMIF "I?* #HH>AEF µ# B+'$BC 17.

v. 1AµLA. ,LKAµ# "I( (ii) CI$ ? #HH>AEF 621 #L*A$ ESDD(, !>A '#* )@#$ KA$'$!.

3.2

7K>!T( "A%, #!* AKA*IF"AI# "# CD#% I$% K>(I!"#$% "+"I!. &#* FIA* #SB(D? !"B?"?. 6#

A*ILG#I? K#>LKI+"? '$AT!"I# RA*! I?* #*CI?IA 3.1 BA$ #KA*AD!TAI# I?* !"B?"?.

. #HH>AEF µ# B+'$BC 177 #L*A$ ? >LVA I+* #HH>AEJ* µ# B+'$B(S% 11, 13 BA$ 17. (-3O26)

-!G(%. ,L*A$ ( H(*$C% I+* KA>AK!*+ #HH>AEJ*, ADD! C@$ ? >LVA. 1!G# ')*I>( )@#$

µLA >LVA BA$ I( "MHB#B>$µ)*( )@#$ +% >LVA I?* #HH>AEF µ# B+'$BC 106.

. #HH>AEF µ# B+'$BC 177 #L*A$ KA$'L I?% #HH>AEF% µ# B+'$BC 106. (6N642)

5>(EA*)% AKC I( "@FµA.

. #HH>AEF µ# B+'$BC 411 #L*A$ KA$'L I?% #HH>AEF% µ# B+'$BC 621. (-3O26)

3* BA$ "@?µAI$B! #L*A$ B!I+ AKC I?* #HH>AEF µ# B+'$BC 621, '#* #L*A$ KA$'L I?%,

H$AIL '#* "M*')(*IA$ $#>A>@$B!. . #HH>AEF µ# B+'$BC 621 #L*A$ ESDD(, !>A '#* )@#$

KA$'$!.

. #HH>AEF µ# B+'$BC 621 #L*A$ ESDD(. (6N642)

,L*A$ "+"IC. (UD. I?* K>(?H(Sµ#*? AK!*I?"? BA$ I?* AK!*I?"? ii I?% !"B?"?%

3.1.)

. #HH>AEF µ# B+'$BC 13 #L*A$ H(*$C% I?% #HH>AEF% µ# B+'$BC 17. (-3O26)

-!G(%. ,L*A$ BA$ ($ 'S( KA$'$! I?% #HH>AEF% µ# B+'$BC 177.

1 7 9A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 3

1 8 0 A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 3

3.3


A*ILG#I? K#>LKI+"? '$AT!"I# RA*! I$% #*CI?I#% 3.1 BA$ 3.2 BA$ #KA*AD!TAI# I?* !"B?"?.

1) &#* #L*A$ $#>A>@$BC ')*I>(, H$AIL ($ #HH>AEF 2 '#* )@#$ BA*)*A H(*$C. 7#D#IF"I# I(M%

K#>$(>$"µ(S% I?% #*CI?IA% 3.1 H$A IA $#>A>@$B! ')*I>A.

2) ,L*A$ $#>A>@$BC ')*I>(, AE(S B!G# #HH>AEF )@#$ µC*( )*A H(*)A. . >LVA #L*A$ ? #HH>A-

EF 1 BA$ IA ESDDA ($ #HH>AE)% 6, 7 BA$ 8. . '$A'>(µF I+* "M*')"#+* K(M G)D#$ K>(-

"(@F #L*A$ ? (1,2), (2,5), (5,3), (3,4) BA$ (4,8).

3) ,KL"?% #L*A$ $#>A>@$BC ')*I>(, AE(S B!G# #HH>AEF )@#$ µC*( )*A H(*)A. . >LVA #L*A$

K!D$ ? #HH>AEF 1 BA$ IA ESDDA ($ #HH>AE)% 5, 6, 7 BA$ 8.

3.4

2$ "+"I)% K>(I!"#$% #L*A$ ($ KA>AB!I+. 6# K#>LKI+"? K(M A*I$µ#I+KL"AI# K>CTD?µA

AE$#>J"I# @>C*( H$A #KA*!D?Q? "I?* #*CI?IA 3.3.1.

2*ICI?IA "I( '$!H>AµµA "@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+* #L*A$ )*A =/(09.>( I(M K>AHµAI$B(S '."0-

JA::(,/(6 µ# %)/#,(µ4 K>AHµAI$BF F G#+>?I$BF )'#=/%=4.

1AI?H(>FµAIA H$A µLA (,/#/4/% I(M '$AH>!µµAI(% "@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+* #L*A$ "I($@#LA

K(M BAG(>LV(M* 9%"%1/4"0=/01A I?% "MHB#B>$µ)*?% (,/#/4/%6.

1D#$'L H$A µLA (,/#/4/% I(M '$AH>!µµAI(% "@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+* #L*A$ I( "S*(D( I+* 1%/4-

$("4µA/B, I?% (,/#/4/%6 IA (K(LA #L*A$ µ(*A'$B! H$A B!G# .$$"%;2 BA$ I? '$AB>L*(M* KDF-

>+% AKC I$% !DD#%.

3.5


A*ILG#I? K#>LKI+"? '$AT!"I# RA*! I?* #*CI?IA 3.3 BA$ #$'$BCI#>A I$% #*CI?I#% 3.3.1 BA$

3.3.2 BA$ #KA*AD!TAI# I?* !"B?"?.

2$ "@)"#$% '#* A*AKA>$"IJ*IA$ "I( EM"$BC #KLK#'(. 6I( EM"$BC #KLK#'(, µ# #HH>AE)% A*I$-

"I($@(S* µC*( (*ICI?I#%. (-3O26)

8M"$B! BA$ "I( EM"$BC #KLK#'( A*AKA>$"IJ*IA$ BA$ ($ "@)"#$%. &$AT!"I# A*ADMI$-

B! I?* #*CI?IA 3.3 BA$ #$'$B! I( 3.3.2 BA$ GA T>#LI# I?* #RFH?"? µ#I! I(* (>$"µC

I+* "@)"#+*.

1!G# "@)"? "I?* (K(LA µ#I)@(M* 'S( (*ICI?I#% GA )@#$ TAGµC 2. (6N642)

6SµE+*A µ# I(* (>$"µC I(M TAGµ(S µLA% "@)"?%, AE(S )@#$ 'S( (*ICI?I#% )@#$ BA$

TAGµC 'S(.

1!G# "@)"? ISA #L*A$ BA$ "@)"? 1 K>(% 1. (6N642)

2>L"Aµ# I? "@)"? ISA +% µLA #R#$'LB#M"? I?% "@)"?% 1 K>(% 1. 5>("(@F Cµ+%, I(

A*IL"I>(E( EM"$B! BA$ '#* $"@S#$.

7LA "@)"? #L*A$ L K>(% S, #!* µLA #HH>AEF AKC µLA (*ICI?IA "Mµµ#I)@#$ 'S( F K#>$"-

"CI#>#% E(>)% "I? "@)"?. (-3O26)

OA µK(>(S"# *A #L*A$ 1 K>(% L. 3* D)HAµ# «7LA "@)"? #L*A$ L K>(% S, #!* µLA

#HH>AEF AKC B!G# (*ICI?IA "Mµµ#I)@#$ 'S( F K#>$""CI#>#% E(>)%», ICI# GA $"@S-

#$ ? K>CIA"?.

1!G# "@)"? L K>(% S )@#$ TAGµC L. (-3O26)

7? "MH@)#I# I( TAGµC µLA% "@)"?% µ# I?* BAI?H(>LA "I?* (K(LA AMIF A*FB#$. .

"@)"? L K>(% L K(M A*AE)>(Mµ# "I?* #K#RFH?"? I?% #*CI?IA% 3.3.2 #L*A$ "@)"?

µ# TAGµC 2.

1 8 1A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 4

1 8 2 A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 4

4.1

3B(D(MG(S* ($ AKA*IF"#$% H$A IA #>+IFµAIA I?% !"B?"?%:

1. ;$A B!G# (*ICI?IA )@(Mµ# IA #RF%:

2µ!'A: 5

1AI?H(>LA: 2

5ALBI?%: 7

7!*AIV#>: 3

3*IL"I($@A H$A B!G# "@)"? )@(Mµ# +% arity I( !G>($"µA I+* BD#$'$J* B!G# (*ICI?IA% K(M

"Mµµ#I)@#$ "I? "@)"?, "M* IA #K$KD)(* BAI?H(>FµAIA AMIF% I?% "@)"?%. PI"$ K>(BSKI(M*

IA #RF%:

:>?"$µ(K($#L: 4

6Mµµ#I)@#$: 4

5ALV#$: 3

6M*#>H!V#IA$: 3

3HJ*A%: 5

2. 2$ KL*AB#% H$A I$% (*ICI?I#% #L*A$ ($ ABCD(MG($ (µ# )*I(*A H>!µµAIA #L*A$ IA K#'LA K(M

AK(I#D(S* I( BD#$'L H$A B!G# KL*ABA):

273&3

K,#µ1/41 M:=1 0'$(BIFI?% :(>?HC% PI(% `'>M"?%

53014.6

H. O0(=. W*(µA ,KJ*Mµ( 5AI>/µ( aQ(% .µ. ;)*. 5CD?%

M3/34b,9

N,#µ1 -.+,Bµ# T?D)E+*(

K34.;2903

K,#µ1/41 X=#,)9

3. 2$ KL*AB#% H$A I$% "@)"#$% #L*A$:

1 8 3A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 4

:9.6072520,0

W*(µA 7A*. ,KJ*Mµ( 7A*. 2*(µA"LA 2µ. P'>A 2µ.

6<77,4,:,0

O*(µA"LA K. X>(*$! K. 2*(µA"LA 2µ. P'>A 2µ.

530b,0

3.7. 5A$B. 2*(µA"LA 2µ. P'>A 2µ.

6</,9;3b,430

W*(µA 7A*. ,KJ*Mµ( 7A*. 3.7. 5A$B.

A;N/36

2*(µA"LA 2 1 2*(µA"LA 2 1 ;FK#'( .µ#>(µ?*LA 6B(>

5A>AI?>F"I# CI$ "I$% "@)"#$% A*AE)>(Mµ#, 'LKDA "I( C*(µA B!G# BD#$'$(S BA$ I( C*(µA

I?% (*ICI?IA% "I?* (K(LA #L*A$ BD#$'L (IA A>@$B! I?% (*ICI?IA%), J"I# *A HL*#IA$ ? '$!-

B>$"? A*!µ#"A "# BAI?H(>FµAIA µ# L'$A (*(µA"LA.

7K>!T( "A%, #!* AKA*IF"AI# "+"I! "# CDA IA #>+IFµAIA AMIF% I?% !"B?"?%. 3MIC '#L-

@*#$ CI$ )@#I# BAIA*(F"#$ I$% )**($#% K(M µ#D#IF"AI#. 6# A*ILG#I? K#>LKI+"?, AE$#>J"I#

DLH( @>C*( H$A µLA BADF #KA*!D?Q? "# CD#% I$% )**($#% K(M K#>$H>!E(*IA$ "I?* #*CI?IA

4.1 BA$ L"+% BA$ "IA '$AH>!µµAIA "@)"#+* – (*I(IFI+* K(M K#>$H>!QAµ# "I?* #*CI?IA

3.3 BA$ 3.4.

4.2

. #*?µ)>+"? '#* µK(>#L *A '?µ$(M>HF"#$ K>(TDFµAIA AB#>A$CI?IA%. 4A K>(TDFµAIA

'?µ$(M>H(S*IA$ µC*( "I?* #$"AH+HF F "I? '$AH>AEF. (-3O26)

1 8 4 A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 4

7K>!T( "A%, #!* AKA*IF"AI# «D!G(%». ,LKAµ# CI$ ? #*?µ)>+"? A*I$"I($@#L "# '$A-

H>AEF BA$ #$"AH+HF CIA* HL*(*IA$ ADDAH)% "# BD#$'$!, ADD! C@$ CI$ ? #*?µ)>+"?

'#* '?µ$(M>H#L K>(TDFµAIA.

1!G# #$"AH+HF '#'(µ)*+* KA>AT$!V#$ I?* AB#>A$CI?IA I?% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+*, CIA* HL*#-

IA$ #$"AH+HF "# BD#$'L. (-3O26)

7#H!D( D!G(%! 1!G# #$"AH+HF '#'(µ)*+* GA )@#$ +% AK(I)D#"µA *A HL*#$ #$"AH+-

HF "# BD#$'L, AE(S '#* µK(>#L *A MK!>R#$ KL*ABA% @+>L% BD#$'L. X>A AMIC K(M D)#$

? K>CIA"? #L*A$ CI$ B!G# #$"AH+HF '#'(µ)*+* KA>AT$!V#$ I?* AB#>A$CI?IA, B!I$

K(M EM"$B! '#* µK(>#L *A $"@S#$.

. #K$D(HF '#* #K?>#!V#$ I?* AB#>A$CI?IA. (6N642)

7K>!T( "A%, #!* #K$D)RAI# «"+"IC». 5>(BSKI#$ AKC I(* (>$"µC I?% #K$D(HF%.

=A*A'$AT!"I# I(M% (>$"µ(S% #!* '#* AKA*IF"AI# "+"I!.

1D#L'+µA '#'(µ)*+* '#* @>#$!V#IA$ *A HL*#$ BAI! I?* #K$D(HF. (6N642)

,K$D(HF "?µAL*#$ A*!H*+"? '#'(µ)*+*. ,EC"(* IA '#'(µ)*A '#* ADD!V(M* '#*

@>#$!V#IA$ *A BD#$'+G(S*. 4( BD#L'+µA HL*#IA$ µC*( CIA* MK!>@#$ ADDAHF "IA '#'(-

µ)*A.

WIA* 'S( @>F"I#% B!*(M* #K$D(HF I+* L'$+* '#'(µ)*+* I?* L'$A @>(*$BF "I$HµF ? U!"?

&#'(µ)*+* BD#$'J*#$ IA '#'(µ)*A BA$ #K$I>)K#$ µC*( "# )*A @>F"I? B!G# E(>! *A IA '$A-

T!V#$. (-3O26)

7K>!T( "A%, #!* #K$D)RAI# «D!G(%». &$AT!"I# I?* AK!*I?"? "I?* K>(?H(Sµ#*?

#>JI?"?. ,LKAµ# CI$ BAI! I?* #K$D(HF '#* @>#$!V#IA$ *A HL*#$ BD#L'+µA.

4.3

1. b?IF"Aµ# I(M% KALBI#% µ# C*(µA «/LB(%» BA$ SQ(% µ#HADSI#>( I(M 1,96. X>A BA$ ( KAL-

BI?% µ# SQ(% 1,96 '#* µ#I)@#$ "I?* AK!*I?"? K(M #L*A$ ? #RF%:


23711 /LB(% 0+!**(M 1J"IA% 1,99 20/11/80 5!I>A

2. b?IF"Aµ# I(M% 7!*AIV#> µ# µ$B>C C*(µA /LB(%.

N,#µ1 -.+,Bµ# 4?D)E+*(

/LB(% UA"$D#L(M 061-555666

1 8 5A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 4

4.4

1. b?IF"Aµ# A*A'$!IAR? I(M KL*ABA KALBI?% BA$

#K$D(HF µC*( I+* "I?DJ* «W*(µA», «,KJ-

*Mµ(», «5CD?». H AK!*I?"? #L*A$ ? #RF%:

4.4

2. b?IF"Aµ# #K$D(HF µC*( I+* #K+*S-

µ+* I+* µ!*AIV#>, !>A:

W*(µA ,KJ*Mµ( 5CD?

/LB(% 0+!**(M 5!I>A

7$@!D?% =A*GC% 3GF*A

5)I>(% .DL(M 5!I>A

/LB(% 7$@AFD

/LB(% =A*GC% -!>$"A

5)I>(% 5)I>(M 3GF*A

,KJ*Mµ(

UA"$D#L(M

:>F"I(M

0+!**(M

.DL(M

UA"$D#L(M

4.5

7K>!T( "A%, #!* I( MD(K($F"AI#, H$AIL #L@# µLA KAHL'A. 5>JIA )K>#K# *A HL*#$ ? #K$D(HF

BA$ µ#I! ? K>(T(DF, H$AIL ADD$J% '#* GA µK(>(S"AI# *A #K$D)R#I# I?* «5CD?». . "+"IF

DS"? #L*A$ K ,KJ*Mµ(, aQ(% (" 5CD?=5!I>A (5ALBI?%)).

4.6

7K>!T( "A%, #!* I( MD(K($F"AI#, H$AIL FIA* 'S"B(D? !"B?"?.

1. ,L*A$ ? )*+"? 'S(

K$*!B+*, !>A )@(Mµ#

IA ABCD(MGA AK(I#D)-

"µAIA:

5ALBI?%

W*(µA

/LB(%

7$@!D?%

5)I>(%

/LB(%

/LB(%

5)I>(%

M!*AIV#>

W*(µA

/LB(%

1J"IA%

5)I>(%

.DLA%

7$@!D?%

5ALBI?% M!*AIV#>

W*(µA

/LB(%

7$@!D?%

5)I>(%

/LB(%

/LB(%

5)I>(%

/LB(%

1J"IA%

5)I>(%

.DLA%

7$@!D?%

1 8 6 A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 4

5ALBI?%

W*(µA

/LB(%

7$@!D?%

5)I>(%

/LB(%

/LB(%

5)I>(%

M!*AIV#>

W*(µA

/LB(%

1J"IA%

5)I>(%

.DLA%

7$@!D?%

5ALBI?% M!*AIV#>

W*(µA

/LB(%

7$@!D?%

5)I>(%

5ALBI?%

W*(µA

/LB(%

7$@!D?%

5)I>(%

/LB(%

/LB(%

5)I>(%

M!*AIV#>

W*(µA

/LB(%

1J"IA%

5)I>(%

.DLA%

7$@!D?%

5ALBI?% – M!*AIV#>

W*(µA

2. ,L*A$ ? I(µF 'S( K$*!-

B+*, !>A )@(Mµ# IA #RF%:

3. ,L*A$ ? '$AE(>! 'S(

K$*!B+*, !>A )@(Mµ# IA

#RF%:

4.7

7K>!T( "A%, #!* I( MD(K($F"AI# H$AIL FIA* 'S"B(D? !"B?"?. 3B(D(MG(S* ($ AKA*IF"#$%.

3K!*I?"? 1

A B P 8 E

1 3 6 7 1

3K!*I?"? 2

B P 8 E

1 7 4 5

3K!*I?"? 3

A B P 8

3 1 7 4

1 6 6 6

4.8

7K>!T( "A%, #!* IA BAIAE)>AI# "# AMIF I?* !"B?"?. dIA* K>AHµAI$B! 'S"B(D? AE(S

'#* #K#BIAGFBAµ# "I( "@#"$ABC MK(D(H$"µC BA$ '#* "A% 'J"Aµ# A>B#I! KA>A'#LHµAIA.

,!* '#* IA BAIAE)>AI#, µ?* AK(H(?I#S#"I#, ADD! AE$#>J"I# @>C*( H$A *A '$AT!"#I#

K#>$""CI#>A H$A I( "@#"$ABC MK(D(H$"µC AKC I? T$TD$(H>AELA K(M A*AH>!E#IA$ "I( I)D(%

I(M B#EADAL(M:

1) { x | A(x) E}

&?DA'F ($ #HH>AE)% x I(M "M*CD(M 3 H$A I$% (K(L#% $"@S#$ ? "@)"? 3.

2) {x(2) | (y) (A (y) x [1] = y [61] x [2] = y [62])}

&?DA'F ($ #HH>AE)% x µ# arity 2 H$A I$% (K(L#% ? K>JI? #L*A$ L'$A µ# I? "IFD? 61 I(M

KL*ABA 3 BA$ ? '#SI#>? L'$A µ# I? "IFD? 62 I(M KL*ABA 3.

3) {x | A(x) B(x)}

5>(EA*J% IA x K(M #L*A$ F "I(* KL*ABA 3 F "I(* KL*ABA U F BA$ "I(M% 'S( KL*AB#%.

4) {x | A(x) B(x)}

5!D$ K(DS AKD! IA x K(M #L*A$ "I(* KL*ABA 3 BA$ '#* #L*A$ "I(* KL*ABA U.

5) {x(a+b) | ( y(a)) (z(b)) (A (y) B (z) x [1] = y [1] … x [a] = y [a] x [a + 1] = z [1]

… x [a + b] = z [b])}

2M"$A"I$B! V?I!µ# IA x µ# arity L"( µ# I( arity I(M 3 BA$ I(M U µ# B($*! "I($@#LA, CK+%

BAG(>LV(*IA$ ($ "@)"#$%.

5.1

3B(D(MG#L ? AK!*I?"? "I$% KA>AB!I+ "M*I(µ(H>AEL#%:

1) SQL Structured Query Language

2) SEQUEL Structured English Query Language

3) QBE Query by Example

5.2

. #>JI?"? "# SQL "I?* K$( AKDF µ(>EF I?% #L*A$

SELECT ONOMA

FROM ª#£"ª#

WHERE $ø¢&$%™<1100;

8M"$B! ? L'$A #>JI?"? µK(>#L *A H>AE#L "I?* K$( A*ADMI$BF µ(>EF I?%

SELECT ª#£"ª#.ONOMA

FROM ª#£"ª#

WHERE ª#£"ª#.$ø¢&$%™<1100;

1 8 7A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 4 & 5

1 8 8 A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 5

WK($(* I>CK( BA$ *A #K$D)RAI# #L*A$ AKCDMIA "+"IC%. 1ADSI#>A, CIA* H>!E#I# #>+IF"#$%

"# SQL, *A )@#I# )*A #*$AL( I>CK( H>AEF%. 3B(D(MG#L BA$ ( KL*ABA% K(M GA K>(BSQ#$ +%

AK(I)D#"µA I?% AK!*I?"?%:

7K>!T( "A%, #!* AKA*IF"AI# "# CDA "+"I!. 6# A*ILG#I? K#>LKI+"?, RA*A'$AT!"I# IA

KA>A'#LHµAIA BA$ K#$>AµAI$"I#LI# K>$* K>(@+>F"#I# "I$% #KCµ#*#% A"BF"#$%.

5.3

. #>JI?"? "# SQL #L*A$ ('L*(Mµ# I? DS"? "I?* K$( AKDF µ(>EF I?%, ADD! EM"$B! BA$ ?

KDF>?% µ(>EF, CK+% #L'Aµ# "I?* K>(?H(Sµ#*? !"B?"?, #L*A$ #KL"?% "+"IF)


FROM $#£"°"!"™

WHERE "ª_°(¡>1/1/1960;

3B(D(MG#L BA$ ( KL*ABA% K(M GA K>(BSQ#$ +% AK(I)D#"µA I?% AK!*I?"?%



5.4

. #>JI?"? "# SQL #L*A$

SELECT ª#£"ª#.ONOMA, !ª"ª#.%¡%ª#

FROM ª#£"ª#, !ª"ª#

WHERE (ª#£"ª#.(!%™_¢&¢#™$= ‘#’) AND

(!ª"ª#.(!%™_&¢ƒÀ™"™<1980);

5>("(@F CI$ #'J '#* GA µK(>(S"# *A MK!>@#$ AKDF µ(>EF, AE(S K>)K#$ *A R#@+>LV#$ H$A

K($( C*(µA µ$D!µ# (I( C*(µA I(M IµFµAI(% F I( C*(µA I(M µAGFµAI(%). 3B(D(MG#L BA$ (

KL*ABA% K(M GA K>(BSQ#$ +% AK(I)D#"µA I?% AK!*I?"?%

ONOMA E5NNYMO

1+*"IA*IL*(% 7AB>S%

7$@AFD =A*GC%

:>F"I(% :>F"I(M

ONOMA

8M"$BF

MAG?µAI$B!



5.5

1. . #>JI?"? "# SQL #L*A$

SELECT ª#£"ª#.ONOMA

FROM ª#£"ª#

WHERE ª#£"ª#.$ø¢&$%™<1100

ORDER BY ª#£"ª#.%¡%ª#;


7K>!T( "A%, #!* AKA*IF"AI# "+"I!. 6# A*ILG#I? K#>LKI+"?, RA*A'$AT!"I# IA KA>A-

'#LHµAIA BA$ K#$>AµAI$"I#LI# K>$* K>(@+>F"#I# "I( #KCµ#*( IµFµA I?% !"B?"?%.

2. . #>JI?"? "# SQL #L*A$


FROM $#£"°"!"™

WHERE "ª_°(¡>1/1/1960

ORDER BY (¶ø¡Àª% DESC, %¡%ª# DESC;


ONOMA E5NNYMO

:>F"I(% :>F"I(M

7$@AFD =A*GC%

1+*"IA*IL*(% 7AB>S%

ONOMA MAO

7AG?µAI$B!

8M"$BF

ONOMA MAO ONOMA TMH

8M"$BF 7AG?µAI$BC

7AG?µAI$B! 7AG?µAI$BC

8M"$BF 8M"$BC

7AG?µAI$B! 8M"$BC

1 8 9A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 5

1 9 0 A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 5


'#LHµAIA BA$ K#$>AµAI$"I#LI# K>$* K>(@+>F"#I# "I( #KCµ#*( IµFµA I?% !"B?"?%.

3. . #>JI?"? "# SQL #L*A$

SELECT ª#£"ª#.ONOMA, !ª"ª#.%¡%ª#

FROM ª#£"ª#, !ª"ª#

WHERE (ª#£"ª#.(!%™_¢&¢#™$= ‘#’) AND

(!ª"ª#.(!%™_&¢ƒÀ™"™<1980)

ORDER BY ª#£"ª#.%¡%ª# DESC, !ª"ª#.%¡%ª# ASC;




5.6

. #>JI?"? "# SQL #L*A$


FROM $#£"°"!"™

WHERE %¡%ª# LIKE ‘MÈ¯%’;

5>("(@F, "IA '#'(µ)*A K(M )@(Mµ# #$"!H#$ )@(Mµ# 'J"#$ 'S( BAG?H?I)% µ# C*(µA ‘7$@!-

D?%’, µC*( K(M I(* )*A I(* #$"!HAµ# +% ‘7$@!D?%’ BA$ I(* !DD(* +% ‘7$@AFD’. 7# I?*

#*I(DF AMIF GA T>(Sµ# BA$ I(M% 'S(, #*J A* V?I!HAµ# ONOMA= ‘7$@!D?%’ GA T>L"BA-

µ# µC*( I(* )*A. 3B(D(MG#L ( KL*ABA% K(M GA K>(BSQ#$ +% AK(I)D#"µA I?% AK!*I?"?%



ONOMA E5NNYMO

7$@AFD UA>'F%

7$@!D?% =A*GC%

ONOMA MAO ONOMA TMH

8M"$BF 7AG?µAI$BC

8M"$BF 8M"$BC

7AG?µAI$B! 7AG?µAI$BC

7AG?µAI$B! 8M"$BC

5.7

. #>JI?"? "# SQL #L*A$:

SELECT ONOMA

FROM !ª"ª#

WHERE (!%™_&¢ƒÀ™"™ IS NULL;

,K#$'F )@(Mµ# #$"!H#$ I( )I(% L'>M"?% "# B!G# IµFµA, ( KL*ABA% K(M GA K>(BSQ#$ +% AK(-

I)D#"µA I?% AK!*I?"?% '#* GA )@#$ BAGCD(M "I($@#LA. 7K>!T( "A%, #!* AKA*IF"AI#

"+"I!. 6# A*ILG#I? K#>LKI+"?, RA*A'$AT!"I# IA KA>A'#LHµAIA BA$ K#$>AµAI$"I#LI# K>$*

K>(@+>F"#I# "I$% #KCµ#*#% A"BF"#$%.

5.8

. #>JI?"? "# SQL #L*A$

SELECT DISTINCT (¶ø¡Àª%

FROM º%&!"!"™

ORDER BY (¶ø¡Àª% DESC;

3B(D(MG#L ( KL*ABA% K(M GA K>(BSQ#$ +% AK(I)D#"µA I?% AK!*I?"?%. 5>(")RI# CI$ IA

'$KD! #KJ*MµA «UA"$D#L(M» BA$ «:>F"I(M» #µEA*LV(*IA$ µC*( µLA E(>!.


'#LHµAIA BA$ K#$>AµAI$"I#LI# K>$* K>(@+>F"#I# "I$% #KCµ#*#% A"BF"#$%.

5.9

OA 'J"(Mµ# K>JIA I?* #>JI?"? "# SQL µ# I? @>F"? I(M «0/»

SELECT º%&!"!"™.%¡%ª#, º%&!"!"™.(¶ø¡Àª%

FROM º%&!"!"™

WHERE º%&!"!"™."ª_°(¡ &¡

(SELECT "ª_°(¡

FROM $#£"°"!"™);

E5NNYMO

X>F"I(M

XAIVF

BA"$D#L(M

BA>'F%

1 9 1A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 5

1 9 2 A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 5

3*IL"I($@A, ? #>JI?"? "# SQL µ# I? @>F"? I(M «ANY» #L*A$

SELECT º%&!"!"™.%¡%ª#, º%&!"!"™.(¶ø¡Àª%

FROM º%&!"!"™

WHERE º%&!"!"™."ª_°(¡ = ANY

(SELECT "ª_°(¡

FROM $#£"°"!"™);

3B(D(MG#L ( KL*ABA% K(M GA K>(BSQ#$ +% AK(I)D#"µA I?% AK!*I?"?%. 5>(")RI# CI$ #L*A$

B#*C%, AE(S '#* )@(Mµ# #$"!H#$ B!K($(M% E($I?I)% K(M *A )@(M* I?* L'$A ?D$BLA µ# BAG?-

H?I)%. 5!*I+%, GA µK(>(S"AI# *A ADD!R#I# K>("+>$*! IA '#'(µ)*A I?% U!"?% &#'(µ)-

*+* K(M TA"LV#IA$ "I( KA>!'#$HµA 5.1 BA$ 5.2, J"I# *A MK!>@(M* BA$ E($I?I)% K(M *A $BA-

*(K($(S* AMIF I? "M*GFB? BA$ ? #>JI?"? *A )@#$ *C?µA.

7K>!T( "A%, #!* AKA*IF"AI# "+"I! BA$ H$A I$% 'S( K#>$KIJ"#$%. &#* FIA* #SB(D? !"B?-

"?. 6# A*ILG#I? K#>LKI+"?, RA*A'$AT!"I# IA KA>A'#LHµAIA BA$ K#$>AµAI$"I#LI# K>$* K>(-

@+>F"#I# "I$% #KCµ#*#% A"BF"#$%.

5.10

. #>JI?"? "# SQL #L*A$

SELECT º%&!"!"™.ONOMA, º%&!"!"™.(¶ø¡Àª%

FROM º%&!"!"™

WHERE º%&!"!"™."ª_°(¡ <= ALL

(SELECT º%&!"!"™."ª_°(¡

FROM º%&!"!"™);

5>("(@F, @>?"$µ(K($(Sµ# I(* I#D#"IF «<= ALL» BA$ C@$ I(* I#D#"IF «< ALL» H$AIL "I?*

#"+I#>$BF #>JI?"? GA )@(Mµ# CD(M% I(M% E($I?I)%, !>A BAG)*A% GA "MHB>$G#L µ# I(*

#AMIC I(M BA$ H$A AMIC @>#$AVCµA"I# BA$ I?* $"CI?IA. 3B(D(MG#L BA$ ( KL*ABA% K(M GA

K>(BSQ#$ +% AK(I)D#"µA I?% AK!*I?"?%:

7K>!T( "A%, #!* AKA*IF"AI# "+"I! "# AMIF I?* !"B?"? H$AIL FIA* µLA K>AHµAI$B!

'S"B(D? !"B?"?. 6# A*ILG#I? K#>LKI+"?, µ?* AK(H(?I#S#"I#, ADD! AE$#>J"I# DLH( @>C*(

ONOMA E5NNYMO

:>F"I(% :>F"I(M

ONOMA E5NNYMO

"I( *A K#$>AµAI$"I#LI# µ# IA #KLK#'A #>+IF"#+* BA$ I$% #*I(D)% «ANY» «ALL» BA$ «0/».

,KL"?%, RA*A'$AT!"I# IA KA>A'#LHµAIA BA$ K#$>AµAI$"I#LI# K>$* K>(@+>F"#I# "I$% #KC-

µ#*#% A"BF"#$%.

5.11

. #>JI?"? "# SQL #L*A$

SELECT º%&!"!"™.(¶ø¡Àª%, º%&!"!"™.%¡%ª#

º%&!"!"™.¶#!ƒø¡Àª%, ª#£"ª#.%¡%ª#

FROM (º%&!"!"™ INNER JOIN º%&!_ª#£

%¡ º%&!"!"™.#ª=º%&!_ª#£.#ª)

INNER JOIN ª#£"ª#

ON º%&!_ª#£.$ø¢&$%™=ª#£"ª#.$ø¢&$%™

ORDER BY º%&!"!"™.(¶ø¡Àª%, º%&!"!"™.%¡%ª#;

6I?* K>(?H(Sµ#*? #>JI?"? T!DAµ# BA$ '$!IAR? BAI! #KJ*Mµ( BA$ C*(µA E($I?IF H$A *A

#L*A$ K$( #SB(D? ? KA>(M"LA"? I+* AK(I#D#"µ!I+*, KA>CD( K(M '#* FIA* V?I(Sµ#*(.

(&?DA'F ? I#D#MIALA H>AµµF, I?% #>JI?"?% "# SQL GA µK(>(S"# BA$ *A KA>AD#LK#IA$.


1 9 3A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 5

,5N/<72 2/273 5349N/<72 2/273 73O.73426

UA>'F% /$BCDA(% 7$@AFD 8M"$BF

UA"$D#L(M ,D)*? 6+IF>$(% ;>Aµµ$BF XDH#T>A

UA"$D#L(M ,D)*? 6+IF>$(% 7AG?µAI$B!

UA"$D#L(M /$BCDA(% 6+IF>$(% 7AG?µAI$B!

:AIVF 7A>L*A 3GA*!"$(% U!"#$% &#'(µ)*+*

:AIVF 7A>L*A 3GA*!"$(% 8M"$BF

:>F"I(M :>F"I(% UA"LD#$(% Marketing

:>F"I(M :>F"I(% UA"LD#$(% &(µ)% &#'(µ)*+* 00

:>F"I(M :>F"I(% UA"LD#$(% -(H$BC% 6@#'$A"µC%

:>F"I(M :>F"I(% /$BCDA(% &(µ)% &#'(µ)*+* 0

:>F"I(M :>F"I(% /$BCDA(% -(H$BC% 6@#'$A"µC%

:>F"I(M :>F"I(% /$BCDA(% 5($CI?IA -(H$"µ$B(S

7K>!T( "A%, #!* AKA*IF"AI# "+"I! "# AMIF I?* !"B?"?. H$AIL FIA* µLA K>AHµAI$B!


"I( *A K#$>AµAI$"I#LI# µ# I? "S*'#"? I+* K$*!B+*.

1 9 4 A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 5

5.12

. #>JI?"? "# SQL #L*A$

SELECT º%&!"!"™.(¶ø¡Àª%, º%&!"!"™.AM,

ª#£"ª#.$ø¢&$%™, $#£"°"!"™.ONOMA,

$#£"°"!"™.(¶ø¡Àª%

FROM ($#£_ª#£

INNER JOIN ((º%&!"!"™ INNER JOIN º%&!_ª#£

ON º%&!"!"™.AM=º%&!_ª#£.AM)

INNER JOIN ª#£"ª#

ON º%&!_ª#£.$ø¢&$%™=ª#£"ª#.$ø¢&$%™)

ON $#£_ª#£.$ø¢&$%™=ª#£"ª#.$ø¢&$%™)

INNER JOIN $#£"°"!"™

ON ($#£_ª#£.(¶ø¡Àª%=$#£"°"!"™.(¶ø¡Àª%)

AND ($#£_ª#£.ONOMA=$#£"°"!"™.ONOMA);


,5N/<72 8 37 8204 1N&0126 7 2/273 1 ,5N/<72 1

UA"$D#L(M 19071 1089 ,$>F*? /$B(DA_'?

UA"$D#L(M 19071 1239 ,$>F*? /$B(DA_'?

UA"$D#L(M 19072 1089 ,$>F*? /$B(DA_'?

UA>'F% 19109 1045 7$@AFD UA>'F%

:AIVF 19409 1045 7$@AFD UA>'F%

:AIVF 19409 1667 7$@AFD =A*GC%

:>F"I(M 19345 1134 :>F"I(% :>F"I(M

:>F"I(M 19345 1891 1+*"IA*IL*(% 7AB>S%

:>F"I(M 19345 1992 :>F"I(% :>F"I(M

:>F"I(M 19344 1134 :>F"I(% :>F"I(M

:>F"I(M 19344 1998 1+*"IA*IL*(% 7AB>S%

:>F"I(M 19344 1892 1+*"IA*IL*(% 7AB>S%

7K>!T( "A%, #!* AKA*IF"AI# "+"I! "# AMIF I?* !"B?"?, H$AIL FIA* ? K$( 'S"B(D? !"B?-

"? K(M )@#I# BAIAK$A"I#L "# AMIC I( B#E!DA$(. 6# A*ILG#I? K#>LKI+"?, µ?* AK(H(?I#S#-

"I#, ADD! AE$#>J"I# DLH( @>C*( "I( *A K#$>AµAI$"I#LI# µ# I? "S*'#"? I+* K$*!B+*.

5.13

. #>JI?"? "# SQL #L*A$:

SELECT º%&!_!ª"ª#.ONOMA, COUNT (*)

FROM º%&!_!ª"ª#

GROUP BY º%&!_!ª"ª#.ONOMA

HAVING COUNT (*) <=1;

7# '#'(µ)*( CI$ "# B!G# IµFµA )@(Mµ# #$"!H#$ AKC 'S( E($I?I)% ( KL*ABA% K(M GA K>(-

BSQ#$ GA #L*A$ B#*C%. 7K>!T( "A%, #!* AKA*IF"AI# "+"I! "# AMIF I?* !"B?"?, H$AIL FIA*

A>B#I! 'S"B(D? !"B?"?. 6# A*ILG#I? K#>LKI+"?, µ?* AK(H(?I#S#"I#, ADD! AE$#>J"I#

DLH( @>C*( "I( *A K#$>AµAI$"I#LI# µ# I? "S*'#"? I+* K$*!B+*.

5.14

. #>JI?"? "# SQL #L*A$:

SELECT $#£_ª#£.ONOMA, $#£_ª#£.(¶ø¡Àª%, COUNT (*)

FROM $#£_ª#£

GROUP BY $#£_ª#£.(¶ø¡Àª%, $#£_ª#£.ONOMA

HAVING COUNT(*)>2;

5>(")RI# CI$ "I( GROUP BY @>?"$µ(K($(Sµ# IC"( I( C*(µA BA$ I( #KJ*Mµ( AE(S BD#$-

'L "I(M% BAG?H?I)% #L*A$ BA$ IA 'S(. 2 KL*ABA% K(M GA K>(BSQ#$ AB(D(MG#L

7K>!T( "A%, #!* AKA*IF"AI# "+"I! "# AMIF I?* !"B?"?, H$AIL FIA* A>B#I! 'S"B(D?. 6#

A*ILG#I? K#>LKI+"?, µ?* AK(H(?I#S#"I#, ADD! AE$#>J"I# DLH( @>C*( "I( *A K#$>AµAI$-

"I#LI# µ# I? "S*'#"? I+* K$*!B+*.

5.15

. #*I(DF '$AH>AEF% "I? HDJ""A SQL #L*A$

DELETE FROM º%&!"!"™

WHERE "ª_°(¡ = 20–08–1978;

2 KL*ABA% K(M GA K>(BSQ#$ GA )@#$ 'S( E($I?I)% D$HCI#>(M%, ($ (K(L($ BA$ '$AH>!E?BA*

+% AK(I)D#"µA I?% #*I(DF% BA$ AB(D(MG#L

ONOMA E5NNYMO

1+*"IA*IL*(% 7AB>S% 3

1 9 5A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 5

1 9 6 A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 5 & 6

7K>!T( "A%, #!* AKA*IF"AI# "+"I! "# AMIF I?* !"B?"?. 6# A*ILG#I? K#>LKI+"?, µ?*

AK(H(?I#S#"I#, ADD! AE$#>J"I# DLH( @>C*( "I( *A K#$>AµAI$"I#LI# µ# I$% #*I(D)%

«INSERT», «DELETE» BA$ «UPDATE».

8OITHTH6

2/273 ,5N/<72 5349N/<72 HO .7_;,/

,D)*? UA"$D#L(M 6+IF>$(% 19071 22-03-1980

/$BCDA(% UA>'F% 7$@AFD 19109 03-01-1977

:>F"I(% :>F"I(M UA"LD#$(% 19344 19-07-1976

7A>L*A :AIVF 3GA*!"$(% 19409 10-10-1977

6.1

2 KL*ABA% #>JI?"?% #L*A$ ( #RF%:

6I( "MHB#B>$µ)*( KA>!'#$HµA #K$D)RAµ# *A @>?"$µ(K($F"(Mµ# I( "MµT(D$"µC «9.». 8M"$-

B! BA$ ($ "MµT(D$"µ(L «9._1!I$» F «_1!I$» #L*A$ AKCDMIA "+"I(L. 2 KL*ABA% AK(I#D#-

"µ!I+* AB(D(MG#L

KAOH;HTH6

KQKOH -GRQSOK 5349N/<72 U3O70&3 .7_;,/

9. 9.

KAOH;HTH6

KQKOH -GRQSOK

,$>F*? /$B(DA_'?

1+*"IA*IL*(% 7AB>S%

7$@AFD UA>'F%

7$@!D?% =A*GC%

:>F"I(% :>F"I(M

7K>!T( "A%, #!* BAIAE)>AI# BA$ MD(K($F"AI# AMIF I?* !"B?"?. 6# K#>LKI+"? K(M '#*

IA BAIAE)>AI#, RA*A'$AT!"I# I?* #*CI?IA BA$ BADSI#>A, K>$* I?* #KA*AD!T#I#, K#$>AµA-

I$"I#LI# "SµE+*A µ# I$% ('?HL#% I?% '>A"I?>$CI?IA% 1 I(M B#EADAL(M AMI(S.

6.2

. #>JI?"? "# QBE #L*A$ ? #RF%:

3B(D(MG#L BA$ ( KL*ABA% AK(I#D#"µ!I+*:



6.3

. #>JI?"? "# QBE #L*A$:

OMµ?G#LI# CI$, CK+% #LKAµ# BA$ "# A*IL"I($@? !"B?"? "I?* SQL, "IA '#'(µ)*A K(M )@(M-

µ# #$"!H#$ )@(Mµ# 'J"#$ 'S( BAG?H?I)% µ# C*(µA ‘7$@!D?%’, µC*( K(M I(* )*A I(* #$"!-

HAµ# +% ‘7$@!D?%’ BA$ I(* !DD(* +% ‘7$@AFD’. 7# I?* #*I(DF AMIF GA T>(Sµ# BA$ I(M%

'S(, #*J A* T!VAµ# B!I+ AKC I( C*(µA ‘7$@!D?%’ GA T>L"BAµ# µC*( I(* )*A. 3B(D(MG#L

BA$ ( KL*ABA% K(M GA K>(BSQ#$ +% AK(I)D#"µA I?% AK!*I?"?%

1 9 7A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 6

2/273 ,5N/<72

1+*"IA*IL*(% 7AB>S%

7$@AFD UA>'F%

:>F"I(% :>F"I(M

8OITHTH6

2/273 ,5N/<72 5349N/<72 HO .7_;,/

P. P. > 1–1–1960

KAOH;HTH6

KQKOH -GRQSOK 5349N/<72 BAOMI&A .7_;,/

P. P.

LIKE ‘7$@%’

2/273 ,5N/<72

7$@AFD UA>'F%

7$@!D?% =A*GC%

7K>!T( "A% #!* AKA*IF"AI# "# CDA "+"I!. 6# A*ILG#I? K#>LKI+"?, RA*A'$AT!"I# IA


1 9 8 A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 6

6.4

. #>JI?"? "# QBE GA AK(I#D#LIA$ AKC K(DD(S% KL*AB#%, AE(S #L*A$ #>JI?"? "S*'#"?%

BA$ AKC )*A* KL*ABA H$A I(* BAG(>$"µC I(M AK(I#D)"µAI(%. 2$ KL*AB#% #L*A$ ($ #RF%:

8OITHTH6

2/273 ,5N/<72 5349N/<72 AM .7_;,/

_2/ _,5 _53 _37

A5ANTH6H

,5N/<72 2/273 5349N/<72 ONOMA MAOHMATO6

9._2/ 9._,5 9._53 9._2/73O

MAOHMA

KR8IKO! 2/273 ETO6_&I&A6K

_KN& _ONMAO

8OIT_MAO

AM KR8IKO!

_37 _KN&

6I(M% KA>AK!*+ KL*AB#% @>?"$µ(K($F"Aµ# I$% µ#IATD?I)% «_37» BA$ «_1N&» H$A *A

B!*(Mµ# I? "S*'#"? A*!µ#"A "I(M% KL*AB#%. 3B(D(MG#L BA$ ( KL*ABA% K(M GA K>(BSQ#$

+% AK(I)D#"µA I?% AK!*I?"?%

A5ANTH6H

,5N/<72 2/273 5349N/<72 ONOMA MAOHMATO6

UA>'F% /$BCDA(% 7$@AFD 8M"$BF

UA"$D#L(M ,D)*? 6+IF>$(% ;>Aµµ$BF XDH#T>A

UA"$D#L(M ,D)*? 6+IF>$(% 7AG?µAI$B!

UA"$D#L(M /$BCDA(% 6+IF>$(% 7AG?µAI$B!

:AIVF 7A>L*A 3GA*!"$(% U!"#$% &#'(µ)*+*

:AIVF 7A>L*A 3GA*!"$(% 8M"$BF

:>F"I(M :>F"I(% UA"LD#$(% Marketing

:>F"I(M :>F"I(% UA"LD#$(% &(µ)% &#'(µ)*+* 00

:>F"I(M :>F"I(% UA"LD#$(% -(H$BC% 6@#'$A"µC%

:>F"I(M :>F"I(% /$BCDA(% &(µ)% &#'(µ)*+* 0

:>F"I(M :>F"I(% /$BCDA(% -(H$BC% 6@#'$A"µC%

:>F"I(M :>F"I(% /$BCDA(% 5($CI?IA -(H$"µ$B(S

7K>!T( "A%, #!* AKA*IF"AI# "+"I! "# AMIF I?* !"B?"?, H$AIL FIA* µLA K>AHµAI$B!


"I( *A K#$>AµAI$"I#LI# µ# I? "S*'#"? I+* K$*!B+* "I? HDJ""A #>+IF"#+* QBE.

6.5

. #>JI?"? "# QBE GA AK(I#D#LIA$ AKC I(M% KA>AB!I+ KL*AB#%:

1 9 9A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 6

8OITHTH6

2/273 ,5N/<72 5349N/<72 HO .7_;,/

_2/8 _37

KAOH;HTH6

KQKOH -GRQSOK 5349N/<72 BAOMI&A .7_;,/

_2/K _E5K

8204_73O

HO LR8TLK!

_KN& _37

MAOHMA

KR8IKO! 2/273 ETO6_&I&A6K

_KN&

KAO_73O

2/273 E5NNYMO KR8IKO!

_ONK _E5K _KN&

A5ANTH6H

,5N/<72 AM 8OIT KN&IKO6 M ONOMA K E5NNYMO K

9._2/8 9._37 9._1N& 9._2/1 9._,51

6I(M% KA>AK!*+ KL*AB#% @>?"$µ(K($F"Aµ# I$% µ#IATD?I)% «_37», «_1N&», «_2/1»

BA$ «_,51» H$A *A B!*(Mµ# I? "S*'#"? A*!µ#"A "I(M% KL*AB#%. 3B(D(MG#L ( KL*ABA% K(M

GA K>(BSQ#$ +% AK(I)D#"µA I?% AK!*I?"?%

2 0 0 A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 6

7K>!T( "A%, #!* AKA*IF"AI# "+"I! "# AMIF I?* !"B?"?, H$AIL FIA* ? K$( 'S"B(D? !"B?-

"? K(M )@#I# BAIAK$A"I#L "# AMIC I( B#E!DA$(. 6# A*ILG#I? K#>LKI+"?, µ?* AK(H(?I#S#-

"I#, ADD! AE$#>J"I# DLH( @>C*( "I( *A K#$>AµAI$"I#LI# µ# I? "S*'#"? I+* K$*!B+* "I?

HDJ""A #>+IF"#+* QBE.

6.6

2$ KL*AB#% K(M AK(I#D(S* I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* "# H>AE$BF µ(>EF #L*A$ CK+% K#>LK(M EAL-

*#IA$ KA>AB!I+

A5ANTH6H

,5N/<72 AM 8OIT KN&IKO6 M ONOMA K E5NNYMO K

UA"$D#L(M 19071 1089 ,$>F*? /$B(DA_'?

UA"$D#L(M 19071 1239 ,$>F*? /$B(DA_'?

UA"$D#L(M 19072 1089 ,$>F*? /$B(DA_'?

UA>'F% 19109 1045 7$@AFD UA>'F%

:AIVF 19409 1045 7$@AFD UA>'F%

:AIVF 19409 1667 7$@AFD =A*GC%

:>F"I(M 19345 1134 :>F"I(% :>F"I(M

:>F"I(M 19345 1891 1+*"IA*IL*(% 7AB>S%

:>F"I(M 19345 1992 :>F"I(% :>F"I(M

:>F"I(M 19344 1134 :>F"I(% :>F"I(M

:>F"I(M 19344 1998 1+*"IA*IL*(% 7AB>S%

:>F"I(M 19344 1892 1+*"IA*IL*(% 7AB>S%

8OITHTH6

ONOMA

E5NNYMO

5ATPNNYMO

AM

HM_;EN

8OIT_TMHMA

AM

KR8IKO!

MAOHMA

KR8IKO!

ONOMA

ETO6_&I&A6K

2$ "M*')"#$% )@(M* HL*#$ "IA BD#$'$! B!G# KL*ABA BA$ "MHB#B>$µ)*A "IA «37» BA$

«1N&0126».

2 KL*ABA% AK(I#D)"µAI(% #L*A$ I?% µ(>EF% K(M EAL*#IA$ "I( #KCµ#*( KA>!'#$HµA.

6# AMIC* I(* KL*ABA ( @>F"I?% )@#$ "S>#$ IA K#'LA «2/273», «,5N/<72» BA$

«5349N/<72» AKC I(* KL*ABA «8204.4.6» BA$ «2/273» AKC I(* KL*ABA

«73O.73». ,KL"?%, )@#$ #K$D)R#$ *A #L*A$ CDA #µEA*L"$µA "I( AK(I)D#"µA BA$ *A MK!>-

@#$ '$!IAR? K>JIA µ# I( #KJ*Mµ( BA$ µ#I! µ# I( C*(µA.

7K>!T( "A%, #!* IA BAIAE)>AI# µ# AMIF I?* !"B?"?. &(B$µ!"I# *A I?* MD(K($F"#I# BA$

"I?* K>!R? "# B!K($( "S"I?µA.

6.7

2$ KL*AB#% K(M AK(I#D(S* I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* "# H>AE$BF µ(>EF #L*A$ CK+% K#>LK(M EAL-

*#IA$ KA>AB!I+

2 0 1A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 6

Field: ,5N/<72 2/273 5ATPNNYMO 2/273

Table: 8204.4.6 8204.4.6 8204.4.6 MAOHMA

Sort: Ascending Ascending

Show: # # # #

Criteria:

Or:

8OITHTH6

ONOMA

E5NNYMO

5ATPNNYMO

AM

HM_;EN

KAOH;HTH6

ONOMA

EGRNYMO

5ATPNNYMO

BAOMI&A

HM_;EN

8OIT_TMHMA

AM

KR8IKO!

MAOHMA

KR8IKO!

ONOMA

ETO6_&I&A6K

KAO_MAO

KR8IKO!

ONOMA

E5NNYMO

2$ "M*')"#$% )@(M* HL*#$ "IA BD#$'$! B!G# KL*ABA BA$ "MHB#B>$µ)*A "IA «37» K(M "M*-

')#$ I(M% KL*AB#% «8204.4.6» BA$ «8204_73O», "I( K#'L( «1N&0126» K(M "M*')-

2 0 2 A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 6

6# AMIC* I(* KL*ABA ( @>F"I?% )@#$ "S>#$ IA K#'LA «,5N/<72» BA$ «37» AKC I(* KL*A-

BA «8204.4.6», IA K#'LA «2/273» BA$ «1N&0126» AKC I(* KL*ABA «73O.73»

BA$ IA K#'LA «2/273» BA$ «,5N/<72» AKC I(* KL*ABA «13O.;.4.6». ,KL"?%,

)@#$ #K$D)R#$ *A #L*A$ CDA #µEA*L"$µA "I( AK(I)D#"µA BA$ )@#$ 'J"#$ +% B>$IF>$(

«<19400» "I( K#'L( «37». 4)D(%, '#* )@#$ BAG(>L"#$ A* GA MK!>@#$ '$!IAR? I+* AK(I#-

D#"µ!I+*.

2 KL*ABA% µ# IA AK(I#D)"µAIA AB(D(MG#L

Field: ,5N/<72 AM KN&IKO6 2/273 2/273 E5NNYMO

Table: 8204.4.6 8204.4.6 MAOHMA MAOHMA KAOH;. KAOH;.

Sort:

Show: # # # # # #

Criteria: < 19400

Or:

,5N/<72 AM KN&IKO6 ONOMA ONOMA E5NNYMO

8OITHTH 8OITHTH MAOHMATO6 MAOHMAT. KAOH;HTH KAOH;HTH

UA"$D#L(M 19071 1089 7AG?µAI$B! ,$>F*? /$B(DA_'?

UA"$D#L(M 19071 1239 ;>Aµµ$BF

XDH#T>A ,$>F*? /$B(DA_'?

UA"$D#L(M 19072 1089 7AG?µAI$B! ,$>F*? /$B(DA_'?

UA>'F% 19109 1045 8M"$BF

:>F"I(M 19345 1134 -(H$BC%

6@#'$A"µC% :>F"I(% :>F"I(M

:>F"I(M 19345 1891 &(µ)%

&#'(µ)*+* 0 1+*"IA*IL*(% 7AB>S%

:>F"I(M 19345 1992 5($CI?IA

-(H$"µ$B(S :>F"I(% :>F"I(M

:>F"I(M 19344 1134 -(H$BC%

6@#'$A"µC% :>F"I(% :>F"I(M

#$ IC"( I(* KL*ABA «8204_73O» µ# I(* KL*ABA «73O.73», C"( BA$ I(* KL*ABA

«73O.73» µ# I(* KL*ABA «13O_73O» BA$ "I( BD#$'L «2/273 – ,5N/<72», K(M

"M*')#$ I(M% KL*AB#% «13O_73O» BA$ «13O.;.4.6».

2 KL*ABA% AK(I#D)"µAI(% #L*A$ I?% µ(>EF% K(M EAL*#IA$ "I( KA>AB!I+ KA>!'#$HµA

:>F"I(M 19344 1998 Marketing 1+*"IA*IL*(% 7AB>S%

:>F"I(M 19344 1892 &(µ)%

&#'(µ)*+* 00 1+*"IA*IL*(% 7AB>S%

2 0 3A ¶ "¡ & ' ™ ! # ™ " ™ % ' ™ !ø ¡ " À & $ "• # $ §$ °' ™' ™ / K E º . 6

7K>!T( "A%, #!* IA BAIAE)>AI# µ# AMIF I?* !"B?"?, H$AIL FIA* A>B#I! 'S"B(D?, AE(S

AKA$I(S"# *A @>?"$µ(K($F"#I# K)*I# '$AE(>#I$B(S% KL*AB#%. &(B$µ!"I# *A I?* MD(K($F-

"#I# BA$ "I?* K>!R? "# B!K($( "S"I?µA.

O‰ËÁ›Â˜ Î·È Î·ÙÂ˘ı‡ÓÛÂÈ˜ ÁÈ· ÙÈ˜ ‰Ú·ÛÙËÚÈfiÙËÙÂ˜

1.1

5#>$H>!QI# KA>A'#LHµAIA I(M K>AHµAI$B(S BC"µ(M IA (K(LA H*+>LV#I# A>B#I! BAD!. ;$A

KA>!'#$HµA #!* )@#I# #>HA"I#L "# B!K($( BAI!"I?µA "B#EI#LI# #!* GA #L@# #EA>µ(HF µLA

U!"? &#'(µ)*+* H$A AMIC I( BAI!"I?µA BA$ I( "B(KC BA$ I? µ(>EF I+* '#'(µ)*+* K(M

GA #$"A@G(S* "# AMIF I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+*. 6B#EI#LI# I( ,DD?*$BC 3*($BIC 5A*#K$"IF-

µ$( "I( (K(L( "K(M'!V#I# BA$ K+% µ$A U!"? &#'(µ)*+* GA µK(>(S"# *A µ(*I#D(K($F"#$

IA '#'(µ)*A I(M.

1.2

OMµ?G#LI# CI$ CD($ ($ @>F"I#% '#* GA K>)K#$ *A )@(M* K>C"TA"? "# CDA IA '#'(µ)*A. ;$A

KA>!'#$HµA 'S( #KLK#'A @>?"IJ* GA FIA* «<K#SGM*(% -#$I(M>HLA% I?% U!"? &#'(µ)*+*»

µ# '$BAL+µA *A #$"!H#$ "I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* I$% µ#I#+>(D(H$B)% KD?>(E(>L#% BA$ «3KDC%

:>F"I?%» ( (K(L(% µC*( '$AT!V#$ I$% KD?>(E(>L#%. 3KD(L @>F"I#% GA µK(>(S"A* *A #L*A$

I?D#(KI$B(L BA$ >A'$(E+*$B(L "IAGµ(L, #E?µ#>L'#% BID. ,!* '#* IA BAIAE)>AI# *A #*I(-

KL"#I# I? '$AE(>! A*!µ#"A "# AKD(S% @>F"I#% BA$ @>F"I#% K(M )@(M* I?* #MGS*? '$A@#L-

>$"?% I+* '#'(µ)*+* µ?* AK(H(?I#S#"I#, ADD! #KA*AD!TAI# I? µ#D)I? I?% #*CI?IA% 1.2.

1.3

6B#EI#LI# )*A D(H(I#@*$BC T$TDL(. . µ#IAE(>! I(M MD$B(S I(M "# µLA U!"? &#'(µ)*+*

BA$ ? (>H!*+"F I(M% '#* GA #L@# *C?µA, AE(S ? KD?>(E(>LA #L*A$ "IAI$BF BA$ K>((>LV#-

IA$ H$A "#$>$ABF A*!H*+"?. 0"@S#$ Cµ+% I( L'$( H$A µLA #HBMBD(KAL'#$A; (5>(EA*J% C@$

BA$ µK>!T( "A% #!* I? "MµK#>$D!TAI# "I$% #K$D(H)% "A%.)

1.4

3*AI>)RI# "I$% ('?HL#% H$A I? '>A"I?>$CI?IA 1.1 BA$ '#LI# I$ K>(I#L*Aµ# H$A I(M% @>F"I#%

I?% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+*. 4J>A µ# T!"#$ I?* #µK#$>LA K(M )@#I# AK(BIF"#$ BAG(>L"I# IA

C>$A I+* 'M*AI(IFI+* K(M K>)K#$ *A #K$I>)K#$ ? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* "# BAG)*A* AKC AMI(S%.

;$A KA>!'#$HµA ( AKDC% @>F"I?% (AKC )*A I?D#(KI$BC "IAGµC) GA K>)K#$ *A µK(>#L *A '$A-

T!V#$ IA '#'(µ)*A, ADD! '#* GA K>)K#$ *A )@#$ BAµLA 'M*AICI?IA µ#IAT(DF% I+*.

1.5

6# AMIF I? '>A"I?>$CI?IA "A% V?I!µ# *A «KALR#I# I( >CD(» I(M A*ADMIF, '?DA'F I(M #K$-

"IFµ(*A K(M "MV?I! µ# B!K($(* K#D!I?, #*I(KLV#$ I$% A*!HB#% I(M BA$ K>(I#L*#$ I#@*(D(-

H$B)% DS"#$% K(M *A I(* #RMK?>#I(S* (CIA* AMIC #L*A$ #E$BIC). 7# I?* #µK#$>LA K(M )@#I#

2 0 6 O ¢' ° # ! ™ % " # % "& ! À £ À ¡ ™ ! # ™ ° # " & # ™ ¢ ƒ" ™ & ' ƒ # $ & ' & ! ™ / K E º . 1 & 2

GA K>)K#$ *A #*I(KL"#I# IA '#'(µ)*A K(M @>?"$µ(K($(S*IA$, I$% K$GA*)% #>+IF"#$% BA$ I(

BM>$CI#>( *A A*AH*+>L"#I# #!* ? DS"? #L*A$ "MµE)>(M"A ('?DA'F GA '$#MB(DS*#$ I?* #K$-

@#L>?"? "I( )>H( I?%) F C@$. ,!* AR$(K($F"AI# I?* #µK#$>LA "A% AKC I$% '>A"I?>$CI?I#%

1.1 BA$ 1.3 #LµA"I# T)TA$($ K+% '#* GA A*I$µ#I+KL"AI# K>(TDFµAIA. 6# A*ILG#I? K#>L-

KI+"? µ#D#IF"I# K!D$ CD( I( B#E!DA$( (#L*A$ µ$A BADF #MBA$>LA H$A µ$A H#*$BF #KA*!D?-

Q?) BA$ #KA*AD!TAI# I$% '>A"I?>$CI?I#% 1.1, 1.3 BA$ 1.5.

2.1

4( V?I(Sµ#*( AKC AMIF I? '>A"I?>$CI?IA FIA* *A "@#'$A"I(S* IA "@FµAIA 2.2 BA$ 2.3

I(M B#EADAL(M 2 H$A I$% I>#$% #*I(D)% K(M #K$D)RAI#. PI"$ "# B!G# K#>LKI+"? BA$ @>?"$-

µ(K($J*IA% I( "@FµA 2.2 ? #*I(DF I(M @>F"I? GA #µEA*$"G#L "I( #R+I#>$BC #KLK#'( BA$

IA '#'(µ)*A K(M GA A*ID?G(S* AKC I(M% 'L"B(M% "I( EM"$BC #KLK#'(. 4( #KLK#'( A*ILD?-

Q?% GA I( A*IDF"#I# AKC I( "@FµA 2.3 BA$ GA #*"+µAI+G#L "I( "@)'$( "A%.

2.2

:>?"$µ(K($J*IA% I?* #µK#$>LA "A% AKC I?* !"B?"? 3 '#* GA )K>#K# *A A*I$µ#I+KL"AI#

BA*)*A K>CTD?µA. ,*'#$BI$B! "A% 'L*(Mµ# 10 #HH>AE)%: (101, 17/3/1998, 23), (105, &#M-

I)>A, 67), (882, 11/8/97, 23), (171, 3U;, 3), (999, 4>LI?, 88), (192, 23/12/1997, 11), (185,

7!>I$(%, 7), (22, 11/1/1994, 3), (1271, &#MI)>A, 7), (8939, 18/1/91, 8).

2.3

7K>!T( "A%, #!* '#* A*I$µ#I+KL"AI# BA*)*A K>CTD?µA. 4( TA"$BC FIA* *A #*I(KL"#I# IA

'(µ$B! "I($@#LA I(M A>@#L(M, '?DA'F IA blocks BA$ I$% #HH>AE)%. 1!G# block )@#$ 200 bytes,

AKC IA (K(LA IA 20 #L*A$ '#"µ#Mµ)*A, BA$ B!G# #HH>AEF 25 Bytes. X>A "# B!G# block

@+>(S* 7 #HH>AE)% BA$ µ)*(M* BA$ A'$!G#IA 5 Bytes. 3B(D(MG#L )*A "@FµA µ# I$% 10 KA>A-

K!*+ #HH>AE)%. 4A blocks @+>LV(*IA$ µ# bold H>Aµµ)% BA$ B!G# B(MI!B$ A*I$"I($@#L "# 1

Byte, #*J IA HB>LVA B(MI!B$A #L*A$ B#*!.

2.4

UA"$BC "I($@#L( AMIF% I?% '>A"I?>$CI?IA% #L*A$ *A K>(")R#I# K($#% #HH>AE)% )@(M* '$A-

H>AE#L BA$ *A H>!Q#I# "I? G)"? I(M% I$% *)#%. 5>(")RI# CI$ "I?* K>AHµAI$BCI?IA ($ #HH>A-

E)% '#* '$AH>!E(*IA$ AKC I( 'L"B(, ADD! #*#>H(K($#LIA$ I( bit '$AH>AEF%. ,!* A*I$µ#I+-

KL"AI# K>(TDFµAIA µ# I? '>A"I?>$CI?IA, #KA*AD!TAI# I?* #*CI?IA 2.3.1 BA$ I$% '>A"I?-

>$CI?I#% 2 BA$ 3 I(M B#EADAL(M 2.

2.5

OA )@#I# 11 blocks "I( @A>IL (I( I#D#MIAL( block GA )@#$ µC*( 4 KCD#$%). 2 K>JI(% BAI!-

D(H(% GA )@#$ 3 blocks µ# 5 KCD#$% "IA 'S( K>JIA BA$ 1 µC*( KCD? "I( I#D#MIAL(. OA @>#$-

A"I#LI# BA$ '#SI#>( #KLK#'( µ# )*A block BA$ I>#$% KCD#$%. 7K>!T( "A%, #!* I( MD(K($F-

"AI#, H$AIL FIA* 'S"B(D(. ,!* #L@AI# K>(TDFµAIA µ#D#IF"I# I?* #*CI?IA 2.3.3 BA$ #$'$-

BCI#>A I( "@FµA 2.6.

2 0 7O ¢' ° # ! ™ % " # % "& ! À £ À ¡ ™ ! # ™ ° # " & # ™ ¢ ƒ" ™ & ' ƒ # $ & ' & ! ™ / K E º . 2

20 Bytes '#"µ#Mµ)*A H$A I( block

23 K+'$BC% 105e & # M I ) > A

11 K+'$BC% 185e M ! > I $ (

K+'$BC% 999 T > L I ?

67 K+'$BC% 882e 1 1 / 8 / 9

88 K+'$BC% 192e 2 3 / 1 2 / 1 9 9 7

23 K+'$BC% 171e A

K+'$BC% 101 1 7 / 3 / 1 9 9 8

7

%

B ; 3

7

20 Bytes '#"µ#Mµ)*A H$A I( block

3 K+'$BC% 1271e & # M I ) > A7 K+'$BC% 8939e 1 8 / 1 / 9

7 KID…

K+'$BC% 22 1 1 / 1 / 1 9 9 4

1

2 0 8 O ¢' ° # ! ™ % " # % "& ! À £ À ¡ ™ ! # ™ ° # " & # ™ ¢ ƒ" ™ & ' ƒ # $ & ' & ! ™ / K E º . 3

3.1


(*CµAIA BA$ *A IA '$AI!R#I# $#>A>@$B! A>@LV(*IA% AKC IA KADA$CI#>A µ)D? I(M H#*#AD(-

H$B(S ')*I>(M (K.@. I(* K>(K!KK( "A%).

1. ,!* )@#I# T!D#$ IA "I($@#LA H$A CDA IA µ)D? I?% ($B(H)*#$! "A%, '#* GA K>)K#$ *A #L*A$

I#>A>@$BC &)*I>(! 8M"$BC #L*A$, AE(S #"#L% GA )@#I# +% BCµT(M% H(*$(S% I(M% BCµT(M%

I+* H(*)+* "A%, '?DA'F GA )@#I# 'S( BCµT(M% H(*$(S%, B!I$ K(M )>@#IA$ "# A*ILG#"?

µ# I(* (>$"µC I?% #*CI?IA% 3.1.

2. W@$, AE(S '#* #L*A$ $#>A>@$BC ')*I>(.

3. 7LA AKDF ADDAHF GA FIA* *A #I($µ!"#I# I( ')*I>( A*AE)>(*IA% µC*( )*A µ)D(% B!G#

V#MHA>$(S (K.@. µC*( I(* KAI)>A). XDD? DS"? *A A*AE)>#I# BA$ I(M% 'S( H(*#L% "# µLA

#HH>AEF. 7K>!T( "A%, #!* '#* A*I$µ#I+KL"AI# K>CTD?µA, H$AIL FIA* µLA 'S"B(D? '>A-

"I?>$CI?IA.

3.2


(*CµAIA BA$ *A IA '$AI!R#I# $#>A>@$B! A>@LV(*IA% AKC IA KADA$CI#>A µ)D? I(M H#*#AD(-

H$B(S ')*I>(M (K.@. I(* K>(K!KK( "A%). 4J>A '#* MKF>@# K>CTD?µA *A )@#I# +% #HH>AE)%

BA$ I(M% 'S( H(*#L% H$A B!G# KA$'L.

3.3

7K>!T( "A%, #!* '#* A*I$µ#I+KL"AI# BA*)*A K>CTD?µA. 4( TA"$BC FIA* *A #*I(KL"#I# I$%

TA"$B)% (*ICI?I#% (CK+% K.@. ? (*ICI?IA KCD?) BA$ *A #K$D)R#I# IA @A>ABI?>$"I$B! K(M

K#>$H>!E(M* B!G# KCD? (CK+% K.@. ? (*(µA"LA I?% B!G# KCD?%). ,!* A*I$µ#I+KL"AI# K>(-

TDFµAIA, µ?* A*?"M@#LI#. OA K#>$H>!Q(Mµ# K#>$""CI#>( IA '$AH>!µµAIA "@)"#+* – (*I(-

IFI+* "I$% #KCµ#*#% #*CI?I#% BA$ GA R#BAGA>L"(M* BADSI#>A.

3.4

7K>!T( "A%, #!* '#* A*I$µ#I+KL"AI# BA*)*A K>CTD?µA. P@(Mµ# 'S( (*ICI?I#% (I$%

«2µ!'A» BA$ «5ALBI?%») BA$ 'S( "@)"#$%: A) I? "@)"? «5ALV#$», K(M A*AE)>#IA$ "# KAL-

BI? K(M KALV#$ "# (µ!'A BA$ #L*A$ "@)"? 1 K>(% L ()*A% KALBI?% KALV#$ "# µLA µC*( (µ!'A,

ADD! µLA (µ!'A )@#$ K(DD(S% KALBI#%), BA$ T) I? "@)"? AHJ*A%, K(M #L*A$ "@)"? L K>(%

S "I?* (*ICI?IA «2µ!'A» ('?DA'F "Mµµ#I)@(M* #HH>AE)% AKC I?* (*ICI?IA (µ!'A).

3.5

7K>!T( "A%, #!* '#* A*I$µ#I+KL"AI# BA*)*A K>CTD?µA. 4( TA"$BC FIA* *A #*I(KL"#I# I$%

TA"$B)% (*ICI?I#% (CK+% K.@. ? (*ICI?IA «KCD?» BA$ ? *)A (*ICI?IA «µ)I>?"?») BA$ I$%

µ#IARS I(M% "@)"#$%. 5>(")RI# I?* )**($A I?% ?µ#>(µ?*LA% H$A B!G# «µ)I>?"?».

3.6

3MIF #L*A$ µLA 'S"B(D? '>A"I?>$CI?IA, H$AIL #L*A$ ? K>JI? E(>! K(M A*I$µ#I+KLV#I# I(

G)µA I+* "@)"#+* (*I(IFI+* "@#'$A"I$B!. 7K>!T( "A%, #!* '#* A*I$µ#I+KL"AI# BA*)*A

K>CTD?µA. 4( TA"$BC FIA* *A @>?"$µ(K($F"#I# IA '(µ$B! "I($@#LA K(M K#>$H>!QAµ# "I?*

#*CI?IA 3.3.3 BA$ *A A*AKA>A"IF"#I# I$% "@)"#$% BA$ I$% (*ICI?I#% I(M K>(TDFµAI(%.

PI"$, GA )K>#K# *A )@#I# 'S( I#I>!H+*A ()*A H$A B!G# (*ICI?IA) BA$ 'S( >CµT(M% ()*A H$A

B!G# "@)"?. 5>(")RI# ( >CµT(% K(M K#>$H>!E#$ I? "@)"? «3HJ*A%» R#B$*!#$ AKC I?* (*IC-

I?IA (µ!'A BA$ BAIADFH#$ K!D$ "I?* (*ICI?IA (µ!'A BA$ #L*A$ "@)"? L K>(% S. 7?* KA>A-

D#LQ#I# *A "@#'$!"#I# BA$ I$% #DD#LQ#$% H$A IA BAI?H(>FµAIA BA$ *A "?µ#$J"#I# IA BAI?-

H(>FµAIA K(M #L*A$ BD#$'$!. ,KL"?% GMµ?G#LI# CI$ ? "@)"? AHJ*A% )@#$ BAI?H(>FµAIA BA$

"MµK#>$D!T#I) IA "I( "@FµA.

3.7

7# T!"? I?* #µK#$>LA K(M AK(BIF"AI# "I? '>A"I?>$CI?IA 6 K(M K>(?HFG?B# '#* GA )K>#-

K# *A A*I$µ#I+KL"AI# B!K($( K>CTD?µA. 6# K#>LKI+"? Cµ+% K(M #L@AI# K>(TDFµAIA #LI#

µ# AMIF I? '>A"I?>$CI?IA, #LI# µ# I?* K>(?H(Sµ#*?, ICI# BADSI#>A *A AE$#>J"#I# @>C*(

H$A µLA BADF #KA*!D?Q? I?% #*CI?IA% 3.3.

3.8

7K>!T( "A%, #!* '#* A*I$µ#I+KL"AI# K>CTD?µA "# AMIF I? '>A"I?>$CI?IA. 4( V?I(Sµ#-

*( #L*A$ *A #*I(KL"#I# IA "I($@#LA K(M #L*A$ B($*! IC"( H$A I(M% KALBI#% C"( BA$ H$A I(M%

µ!*AIV#> ("I?* K#>LKI+"? AMIF #L*A$ µC*( I( C*(µA BA$ I( #KJ*Mµ() BA$ *A IA G)"#I# +%

"I($@#LA I?% (*ICI?IA% «X*G>+K(%». 4A #$'$B! "I($@#LA H$A B!G# (*ICI?IA GA K>)K#$ *A

K#>$(>$"I(S* "I$% (*ICI?I#% K(M GA K#>$H>!E(*IA$ µ# "@)"? ISA.

3.9

6# AMIF I? 55"A% V?IFG?BA* "I($@#LA K(M A*AE)>Aµ# "I( B#E!DA$( 2. 6# K#>LKI+"? K(M

A*I$µ#I+KL"AI# K>CTD?µA, L"+% GA )K>#K# *A AE$#>J"#I# B!K($( @>C*( H$A µLA #KA*!-

D?Q? IC"( "I( B#E!DA$( 2 C"( BA$ "I( B#E!DA$( 3. 5!*I+%, #!* µ#IAE)>AI# "I( @A>IL

CI$ AB>$TJ% KA>(M"$!V#IA$ "I( "@FµA 3.9, '#* GA )K>#K# *A #L@AI# K>CTD?µA. OMµ?G#LI#

2 0 9O ¢' ° # ! ™ % " # % "& ! À £ À ¡ ™ ! # ™ ° # " & # ™ ¢ ƒ" ™ & ' ƒ # $ & ' & ! ™ / K E º . 3

2 1 0 O ¢' ° # ! ™ % " # % "& ! À £ À ¡ ™ ! # ™ ° # " & # ™ ¢ ƒ" ™ & ' ƒ # $ & ' & ! ™ / K E º . 3 & 4

*A µ#IAE)>#I# IA BAI?H(>FµAIA "# K#'LA BA$ EM"$B! K>(")RI# IA BD#$'$! B!G# (*ICI?IA%

*A #µEA*LV(*IA$ "I$% "@)"#$% "I$% (K(L#% "Mµµ#I)@#$ AMIF ? (*ICI?IA.

3.10

P*A K>CTD?µA #L*A$ KJ% GA K#>$H>AE#L I( H#H(*C% CI$ 'S( (µ!'#% µK(>(S* *A KALR(M*

K#>$""CI#>(M% AKC )*A* AHJ*A A*! "#VC*. 5J% GA K#>$H>AE#L AMIC "I( '$!H>AµµA, #!*

'#* HL*(M* ADDAH)% "I? "@#'LA"?; ,KL"?% I$ HL*#IA$ µ# I$% '$AE(>#I$B)% @>(*$)%; 5J% µK(-

>(Sµ# *A )@(Mµ# KD?>(E(>L#% H$A I( K(S )KA$V# )*A% KALBI?% K>$* AKC I?* (µ!'A "I?*

(K(LA KALV#$ IJ>A;

7K>!T( "A% #!* #*I(KL"AI# K>(TDFµAIA, CK+% IA KA>AK!*+. 5>("KAGF"I# *A µ#IAI>)-

Q#I# I( KA>!'#$HµA "# )*A A>B#I! K$( µ#H!D( BA$ K(DSKD(B( "@FµA, K(M *A 'L*#$ DS"#$%

"IA KA>AK!*+.

4.1

-(H$B! '#* GA )K>#K# *A A*I$µ#I+KL"#I# K>(TDFµAIA BA$ µK>!T( "A%, #!* IA BAIAE)>A-

I#. 4( V?I(Sµ#*( FIA* *A #$"!H#I# 10 KA>A'#LHµAIA H$A B!G# (*ICI?IA BA$ 5 KA>A'#LHµA-

IA AKC #HH>AE)% H$A B!G# "@)"?. 4A "?µ#LA K(M )K>#K# *A K>(")R#I# FIA* *A @>?"$µ(-

K($F"I# "I$% "@)"#$% #HH>AE)% ('?DA'F IA BD#$'$! AKC #HH>AE)%) K(M #L@AI# F'? #$"!H#$

"I$% (*ICI?I#% BA$ EM"$B! *A K>(")R#I# *A µ?* MK!>@(M* B#*)% I$µ)% "IA BD#$'$!.

4.2

-(H$B! '#* GA )K>#K# *A A*I$µ#I+KL"#I# K>(TDFµAIA µ# '#'(µ)*( CI$ #L@AI# MD(K($F"#$

I? '>A"I?>$CI?IA 1 I(M B#EADAL(M 4 BA$ µK>!T( "A%, #!* IA BAIAE)>AI#. ,!* A*I$µ#I+-

KL"AI# K>CTD?µA "I( *A #*I(KL"#I# I$% #HH>AE)% K(M '?µ$(M>H(S* K>(TDFµAIA AB#>A$C-

I?IA%, ICI# AE$#>J"I# DLH( @>C*( H$A µLA #KA*!D?Q? I?% #*CI?IA% 4.1.2 BA$ #KA*AD!T#-

I# I? '>A"I?>$CI?IA.

4.3

-(H$B! '#* GA )K>#K# *A A*I$µ#I+KL"#I# K>(TDFµAIA µ# '#'(µ)*( CI$ )@#I# #µK#$>LA "I$%

K>(T(D)% AKC I$% K>(?H(Sµ#*#% A"BF"#$%. OA )K>#K# *A K!>#I# K>(T(D)% #LI# µ# µC*( I(

«W*(µA», #LI# µ# µC*( I( «,KJ*Mµ(», #LI# BA$ µ# IA 'S( AKC I(M% KL*AB#% «5ALBI?%» BA$

«7!*AIV#>» BA$ *A #K$T#TA$J"#I# I?* $"CI?IA "MHB>L*(*IA% IA AK(I#D)"µAIA I+* K>!-

R#+*.

4.4

&#* GA "A% 'J"(Mµ# I?* KDF>? DS"? H$A AMIF I? '>A"I?>$CI?IA H$AIL GA K>(BSQ#$ )*A%

I#>!"I$(% KL*ABA%. 3MIC% ( KL*ABA% GA K>)K#$ *A )@#$ arity 10 (( KL*ABA% «5ALBI?%» )@#$ 7

"IFD#% BA$ ( KL*ABA% «7!*AIV#>» 3, !>A I( !G>($"µ! I(M% #L*A$ 10) BA$ cardinality 30 (6

H>Aµµ)% K(M )@#$ ( KL*ABA% «5ALBI?%» #KL 5 H>Aµµ)% K(M )@#$ ( KL*ABA% «7!*AIV#>» µA%

'L*#$ 30). 7K>!T( "A%, #!* MD(K($F"AI# I(* KL*ABA µ# CDA IA KA>AK!*+ @A>ABI?>$"I$B!.

4.5

3MIF ? '>A"I?>$CI?IA FIA* A>B#I! 'S"B(D?. ,!* '#* IA BAIAE)>AI#, µ?* AK(H(?I#S#-

"I#, ADD! AE$#>J"I# @>C*( H$A *A '$AT!"#I# K#>$""CI#>A H$A I( "@#"$ABC MK(D(H$"µC

AKC I? T$TD$(H>AELA K(M A*AH>!E#IA$ "I( I)D(% I(M B#EADAL(M. 2M"$A"I$B! AKC I$% K>!-

R#$% K(M K#>$H>!QAµ# "I?* #*CI?IA 4.2 I$% K#>$""CI#>#% I$% BADSQAµ# "I?* K>(?H(Sµ#-

*? !"B?"? AMI(AR$(DCH?"?% (!"B?"? 8 I(M B#EADAL(M 4).

. K>!R? I(µF '#* GA "A% 'M"BCD#Q#, #!* GMµ?GFBAI# CI$ #L*A$ 'S( AEA$>)"#$%. W"( H$A

I$% "M*')"#$%, #LKAµ# CI$ #L*A$ K>(T(D)% BA$ #K$D(H)% K!*+ "# )*A BA>I#"$A*C H$*Cµ#*(.

7K>!T( "A%, #!* IA BAIAE)>AI# H$A CD#% I$% K>!R#$%.

5.1

7K>!T( "A%, #!* IA BAIAE)>AI#, H$AIL AMIF FIA* µLA '>A"I?>$CI?IA K(M AKA$I(S"# A>B#-

IF #>HA"LA BA$ A*AVFI?"?. . AK!*I?"F "A% GA K>)K#$ *A K#>$)@#$ A>B#I! "M"IFµAIA, µ#>$-

B! AKC AMI! L"+% *A µ?* #L*A$ "# µ#H!D? @>F"? "Fµ#>A. ,KL"?%, GA K>)K#$ *A )@#I# "MµK#-

>$D!T#$ "I?* AK!*I?"F "A% IC"( µ$B>! "M"IFµAIA, CK+% ? Microsoft Access (K(M MK(-

"I?>LV#$ IC"( SQL BA$ QBE, µ# BS>$A HDJ""A #>+IF"#+* I? QBE), C"( BA$ µ#H!DA

"M"IFµAIA, CK+% H$A KA>!'#$HµA ? ORACLE. ,!* '#* IA BAIAE)>AI#, µ?* AK(H(?I#S#-

"I#. 7K(>#LI# *A A*AV?IF"#I# KD?>(E(>L#% AKC MK(D(H$"I$B! B)*I>A Iµ?µ!I+* 5A*#K$-

"I?µL+*, BAGJ% BA$ "I(* #KAHH#DµAI$BC @J>(. ,B#L GA #*I(KL"#I# A>B#I! "M"IFµAIA H$A

*A µK(>)"#I# *A (D(BD?>J"#I# I? '>A"I?>$CI?IA.

5.2

7K>!T( "A%, #!* IA BAIAE)>AI#, A* BA$ '#* GA K>)K#$ *A 'M"B(D#MIFBAI#. 7K(>#LI# *A

@>?"$µ(K($#LI# I? U!"? &#'(µ)*+* K(M '?µ$(M>HF"AI# H$A *A #D)H@#I# I?* (>GCI?IA I+*

A"BF"#+* I(M B#EADAL(M BA$ H$A *A #*I(KLV#I# BA$ *A '$(>GJ*#I# K$GA*! D!G? "A%.

5.3

7K>!T( "A%, #!* IA BAIAE)>AI#. ;#*$B!, µ? '$"I!V#I# *A K#$>AµAILV#"I# µ# I? U!"?

2 1 1O ¢' ° # ! ™ % " # % "& ! À £ À ¡ ™ ! # ™ ° # " & # ™ ¢ ƒ" ™ & ' ƒ # $ & ' & ! ™ / K E º . 4 & 5

2 1 2 O ¢' ° # ! ™ % " # % "& ! À £ À ¡ ™ ! # ™ ° # " & # ™ ¢ ƒ" ™ & ' ƒ # $ & ' & ! ™ / K E º . 5

&#'(µ)*+* K(M '?µ$(M>HF"AI#. 3MIC% #L*A$ BA$ ( BADSI#>(% I>CK(% H$A *A µ!G#I# SQL.

7K(>#LI# *A '?µ$(M>HF"#I# )*A A*ILH>AE( I?% U!"?% &#'(µ)*+* "A% BA$ *A K#$>AµAIL-

V#"I# "M*#@J% µ# AMIC I( A*ILH>AE(, @+>L% *A MK!>@#$ ECT(% *A BAIA"I>)Q#I# IA A>@$-

B! '#'(µ)*A K(M )@#I# '?µ$(M>HF"#$ "I( K>+ICIMK(. 7# AMIC I(* I>CK( GA µ!G#I# K(DD!

K#>$""CI#>A AKC B!G# !DD? µ(>EF µ#D)I?%.

5.4

7K>!T( "A%, #!* IA BAIAE)>AI#. WK+% "A% #LKAµ# BA$ "I?* K>(?H(Sµ#*? '>A"I?>$CI?-

IA ( BADSI#>(% I>CK(% H$A *A µ!G#I# SQL #L*A$ *A K#$>AµAILV#"I# "M*#@J% K!*+ "I(

6S"I?µA &$A@#L>$"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+*, K(M #K$D)RAI# *A @>?"$µ(K($#LI#.

5.5

6I? '>A"I?>$CI?IA AMIF K>)K#$ *A K>(")R#I# *A µ?* @>?"$µ(K($F"#I# I?* L'$A µ#I(*(-

µA"LA H$A '$AE(>#I$B(S% KL*AB#% BA$ EM"$B! *A µ?* B!*#I# D!G(% "I? @>F"? I+* *)+*

(*(µ!I+*. 7K>!T( "A%, #!* IA BAIAE)>AI# µ# AMIF I? '>A"I?>$CI?IA.

5.6

UA"$BC "# AMIF I? '>A"I?>$CI?IA FIA* *A K>(")R#I# K($#% #*I(D)% #BI#D(S* K>!R#$% "#

"S*(DA (CK+% H$A KA>!'#$HµA ? «UNION») BA$ K($#% #*I(D)% #K$"I>)E(M* «AD?G)%» F

«Q#M')%» "I? "M*GFB? I(M «WHERE». -(H$B! '#* GA )K>#K# *A A*I$µ#I+KL"AI# "?µA-

*I$B! K>(TDFµAIA BA$ µK>!T( "A%, #!* IA BAIAE)>AI# *A MD(K($F"#I# µLA I(MD!@$"I(*

#>JI?"? H$A B!G# #*I(DF K(M "MV?IF"Aµ# "# AMIF I?* #*CI?IA.

5.7

7K>!T( "A%, #!* IA BAIAE)>AI# BA$ MD(K($F"AI# #>+IF"#$% µ# "M*')"#$%. WK+% #KA*A-

DAµT!*(Mµ# "M*#@J% "# AMIC I( B#E!DA$(, ( BADSI#>(% I>CK(% H$A *A µ!G#I# SQL #L*A$

*A K#$>AµAILV#"I# "M*#@J% K!*+ "I( 6S"I?µA &$A@#L>$"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+* K(M #K$-

D)RAI# *A @>?"$µ(K($#LI#.

5.8

7K>!T( "A%, #!* IA BAIAE)>AI# BA$ '#* A*I$µ#I+KL"AI# K>CTD?µA µ# AMIF I?* #>HA"LA.

;#*$B! ( BADSI#>(% I>CK(% #Bµ!G?"?% #L*A$ ( "M*#@F% K#$>AµAI$"µC%.

5.9

. #BI)D#"? AMIF% I?% '>A"I?>$CI?IA% "@#ILV#IA$ !µ#"A µ# I( "S"I?µA K(M @>?"$µ(K($-

#LI#. 6# K#>LKI+"? K(M A*I$µ#I+KL"AI# 'M"B(DL#%, AMIC µK(>#L BA$ *A (E#LD#IA$ "I(

"S"I?µA. 7#D#IF"I# IA #H@#$>L'$A @>F"?% I(M BA$ RA*AK>("KAGF"I#, ADD! BM>L+% µ?*

AK(H(?I#S#"I#.

5.10

6# K#>LKI+"? K(M IA BAIAE)>AI# µ# I? '>A"I?>$CI?IA 9 '#* GA K>)K#$ *A A*I$µ#I+KL"A-

I# K>CTD?µA (SI# µ# AMIF I? '>A"I?>$CI?IA. 7K>!T( "A% #!* @>?"$µ(K($F"AI# BA$ I$%

#*I(D)% UPDATE BA$ DELETE H$A *A '$(>GJ"#I# K$GA*! D!G? K(M B!*AI#.

6.1

P*A BADC "S"I?µA K(M µK(>#LI# *A @>?"$µ(K($F"#I# #L*A$ ? Microsoft Access K(M KA>)-

@#$ I?* QBE +% TA"$BF HDJ""A MK(T(DF% #>+IF"#+*. 7K>!T( "A%, #!* IA BAIAE)>AI#

BA$ AK(BIF"AI# #R($B#L+"? µ# I?* MK(T(DF #>+IF"#+* "# QBE, H$AIL AMIF ? H*J"? GA

"A% EA*#L @>F"$µ? H$A I$% #KCµ#*#% A"BF"#$% BA$ '>A"I?>$CI?I#%.

6.2

7K>!T( "A%, #!* IA BAIAE)>AI# BA$ MD(K($F"AI# I$% #>+IF"#$% "I( 6S"I?µA &$A@#L>$-

"?% U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+* K(M @>?"$µ(K($#LI#. 6# K#>LKI+"? K(M A*I$µ#I+KL"AI# K>CTD?-

µA, #L*A$ K(DS K$GA*C AMIC *A (E#LD#IA$ "# µ$B>)% '$AE(>(K($F"#$% I?% QBE K(M @>?"$-

µ(K($#L I( "S"I?µ! "A%. 1ADSI#>A µ#D#IF"I# IA #H@#$>L'$A I(M "M"IFµAI(% BA$ #KA*A-

D!TAI# I? '>A"I?>$CI?IA.

6.3

P*A TA"$BC KD#(*)BI?µA I(M "M"IFµAI(% AMI(S #L*A$ CI$ µK(>#LI# *A 'J"#I# I?* #>JI?-

"? "# µLA AKC I$% HDJ""#% K(M µ!GAµ# (SQL F QBE) BA$ *A '#LI# I?* L'$A #>JI?"? AMIC-

µAIA BA$ "I?* !DD? HDJ""A. 7K>!T( "A%, #!* I( A*ABADSQAI# BA$ K#$>AµAI$"IFBAI# µ#

AMIC.

2 1 3O ¢' ° # ! ™ % " # % "& ! À £ À ¡ ™ ! # ™ ° # " & # ™ ¢ ƒ" ™ & ' ƒ # $ & ' & ! ™ / K E º . 5 & 6

2 1 4 O ¢' ° # ! ™ % " # % "& ! À £ À ¡ ™ ! # ™ ° # " & # ™ ¢ ƒ" ™ & ' ƒ # $ & ' & ! ™ / K E º . 7

7.1

7K>!T( "A%, #!* IA BAIAE)>AI#. <KF>@A* K(DD)% I)I($#% U!"#$%,

CIA* H>AECIA* I( T$TDL( BA$ "LH(M>A GA )@(M* F'? BMBD(E(>F"#$

A>B#I)% ABCµA. . '>A"I?>$CI?IA AMIF #L@# BM>L+% +% "B(KC *A "A%

'#LR#$ CI$ ($ A*I$B#$µ#*("I>AE#L% U!"#$% &#'(µ)*+* B!*(M* "IA'$A-

B! I?* #µE!*$"F I(M% "I?* AH(>!.

7.2

7K>!T( "A%, #!* IA BAIAE)>AI#. WK+% #LKAµ#, "# AMIC I( T$TDL( '#*

GA AE$#>J"(Mµ# K(DS µ#H!D( @J>( "I?* KA>(M"LA"? I+* A*I$B#$µ#-

*("I>AEJ* U!"#+* &#'(µ)*+* BA$ H$A AMIC #L*A$ "AEJ% BADSI#>A

*A K#$>AµAI$"I#LI# BA$ *A '$AT!"#I# A>B#I! AKC I?* K>(I#$*Cµ#*?

T$TD$(H>AELA.

7.3

7K>!T( "A%, #!* IA BAIAE)>AI#. WK+% #LKAµ# BA$ "I?* K>(?H(Sµ#-

*? '>A"I?>$CI?IA, "# AMIC I( T$TDL( '#* GA AE$#>J"(Mµ# K(DS µ#H!-

D( @J>( "I?* KA>(M"LA"? I?% OQL BA$ H$A AMIC #L*A$ "AEJ% BADS-

I#>A *A K#$>AµAI$"I#LI# BA$ *A '$AT!"#I# A>B#I! AKC I?* K>(I#$*C-

µ#*? T$TD$(H>AELA.

7.4

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ΕΑΠ 11 Γ - Βασεις Δεδομενων

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