Vocabulary: Defining Best Practice in Reading First Schools Michael C. McKenna University of...

Vocabulary:Defining Best Practice in

Reading First Schools

Michael C. McKennaUniversity of Virginia

Today’s Goals

Learn about how children acquire word meanings

Examine research findings on vocabulary instruction

Discuss scientifically-based instructional approaches

Form an action plan for your schools

What are some ways elementary-school children learn new vocabulary?

What are some ways elementary-school teachers typically teach new vocabulary?

Is the word vocabulary in your vocabulary?

word-hoard

estuary

What is vocabulary? Speaking vocabulary Listening vocabulary Reading vocabulary Writing vocabulary General vocabulary Technical vocabulary Meaning vocabulary

Modality

Domain

Modality

Domain

Modality

Domain

Modality

Domain

Modality

Domain

1755 Dictionary of the English Language

114,000 words

impertransibilityquecknould

2005 Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.)

114,000 words

660,000+ words

webcamcyberphobic

English users follow set rules for coining new words, thus adding greatly to the number of potential words in the language.

The postman likes our street because it is dogless.

Are you a logophile?

A Vocabulary Challenge

To comprehend what we read, at least 95% of the words must be recognized

automatically.

How is this possible given the number of words in English?

5,000 •1,500 •

5,0001,500

45,000

17,000

“Vocabulary levels diverge greatly during the primary years, and virtually nothing effective is done about this in schools.” (p. 29)

Biemiller, A. (2004). Teaching vocabulary in the primary grades.In J.F. Baumann & E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 28-40). New York: Guilford.

Andy Biemiller

Oral vocabulary at the end of first grade is a significant predictor of comprehension ten years later.

Cunningham, A.E., & Stanovich, K.E. (1997). Early reading acquisition and its relation to experience and ability 10 years later. Developmental Psychology, 33, 934-945.

Why is a large vocabulary associated with good

comprehension?

The Instrumental Hypothesis

Vocabulary aids comprehension by providing the reader with a tool, or instrument.

The Knowledge Hypothesis

It’s not so much the words themselves that help, but the knowledge they represent.

The Aptitude Hypothesis

Comprehension and vocabulary are correlated “not because one causes the other, but because both reflect a more general underlying verbal aptitude.” – Stahl & Nagy (2005)

The Access Hypothesis

A larger vocabulary means

a deeper understanding of words (including nuances of meaning)

quicker access to words in the lexicon

flexibility in deciding among multiple meanings

The Reciprocal Hypothesis

Being a better reader makes it possible for

you to read more

Reading more gives you a bigger

vocabulary

Having a bigger vocabulary makes you a better reader.

Four Obstacles to Acquiring a Large Vocabulary

1. The number of words in English is very large.

2. Academic English differs from the kind of English used at home.

3. Word knowledge involves far more than learning definitions.

4. Sources of information about words are often hard to use or unhelpful.

– Stahl & Nagy (2005)

How do we learn words from experiences?

gavagai

An aborigine points to a running rabbit and says “Gavagai.” Can you infer the word’s meaning?

Each encounter with a word helps a child narrow its meaning. For example, if he next hears the word gavagai used to refer to a sitting rabbit, the child will infer that running is not connected with the meaning.

Young children learn word meanings from one-on-one interactions with parents and siblings. These interactions may be rich or poor. Consider two examples based on Hart and Risley’s (1995) comparison of families of different socioeconomic levels.

Do I have to eat these?

Yes, because they have vitamins that will help you grow and get stronger.

“Motherese”

What does it mean to know a word?

A Continuum of Word Knowledge

No knowledge

A vague sense of the meaning

Narrow knowledge with aid of context

Good knowledge but shaky recall

Rich, decontextualized knowledge,connected to other word meanings

A Continuum of Word Knowledge

No knowledge

A vague sense of the meaning

Narrow knowledge with aid of context

Good knowledge but shaky recall

Rich, decontextualized knowledge,connected to other word meanings

The Reading System (Adams)

Reading Writing Speech

MeaningProcessor

Phonological Processor

OrthographicProcessor

ContextProcessor

The Reading System (Adams)

Reading Writing Speech

MeaningProcessor

Phonological Processor

OrthographicProcessor

ContextProcessor

Lexicon

lexicon

That part of long-term memory devoted to word knowledge

How is a word stored in the lexicon?

/kat/4 legs

“meow”c-a-t

/kat/4 legs

“meow”c-a-t

animal

petlion

mammal

4 legs

“meow”c-a-t

animal

petlion

mammal

4 legs

“meow”c-a-t

animal

petlion

mammal

4 legs

“meow”c-a-t

animal

petlion

mammal

4 legs

“meow”c-a-t

animal

petlion

mammal

4 legs

“meow”c-a-t

animal

petlion

Dual Coding Theory

Two systems are involved in learning words. One contains verbal information, the other non-verbal (images). When we learn a word, real-world images that we associate with the concept are also stored. Accessing a word in the lexicon therefore involves both the verbal system and non-verbal (imagery) system.

~ Moral ~When teaching new words, use pictures and other images where possible.

mammal

4 legs

“meow”c-a-t

animal

petlion

The Nonverbal (Imagery) System

New meanings and even new pronunciations of a word may be added to a child’s lexicon over time.

produce

próduce

Raw veggies

prodúce

to make

K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 •••

leanTo rest

oneobject againstanother

To rely on anotherperson

forsupport

Is wide reading enough?

Why Wide Reading Why Wide Reading Is Enough Is Not Enough

Vocabulary size andthe amount a child reads are correlated.

Direct instruction cannot possibly account for the number of word meanings children acquire.

Context is generally unreliable as a means of inferring word meanings.

Most words occur too infrequently to provide the number of exposures needed to learn them.

Marzano, R.J. (2004). The developing vision of vocabulary instruction. In J.F. Baumann & E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 100-117). New York: Guilford.

“There is no obvious reason why direct vocabulary instruction and wide reading cannot work in tandem.”

– Marzano (2004, p. 112)

RobertMarzano

The Vocabulary Catch-22

Children need to learn more words to read well, but they need to read well to

learn more words.

McKenna, M.C. (2004). Teaching vocabulary to struggling older readers. Perspectives, 30(1), 13-16.

Perhaps one of the most important reasons why teachers need to pay attention to vocabulary is that vocabulary knowledge is cumulative. The more words you know, the easier it is to learn yet more words.

– Stahl & Nagy (2005)

What about context clues?

Four Types of Contexts

1. Directive (provides powerful clues)“Sue was talkative but Bill was taciturn.”

2. General (helps categorize a word)“She’d had measles, mumps, and varicella.”

3. Nondirective (offers very little help)“The dress was taupe.”

4. Misdirective (can be misleading)“He was huge, muscular, and adroit.”

– Beck & McKeown (2004)

Teaching Students about Context

Remind them that context does not always provide strong clues.

Remember that many students may have difficulty making inferences about words from context.

Model the process when possible.

Three Broad Categories of Clues

1. Pictorial and Typographic

The crescent moon shone on the lawn.

“My dad calls that a ‘fingernail moon,’ ” said Ed.

2. Syntactic

A zerp was jumming the zum.

3. Semantic

She peeled a juicy, red zum.

Some Types of Semantic CluesDefinition The vole, a small rodent, has a short tail.Antonym Sue was adroit but Bill was clumsy. Synonym The soup was hot – scalding, in fact.Example Periwinkle was her favorite color.General The room was disheveled. Clothes and dirty

dishes were everywhere. Chairs were overturned, and trash littered the floor.

Series Would you like cake, peach pie, or a flan?Mood The day was dull and dark. Clouds hung low

and a feeling of melancholy was everywhere.Experience A pair of crows cawed raucously.Expression He was as famished as a bear.

Edwards, E.C., Font, G., Baumann, J.F., & Boland, E. (2004). Unlocking word meanings: Strategies and guidelines for teaching morphemic and contextual analysis. In J.F. Baumann & E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 159-176). New York: Guilford.

Some Types of Semantic CluesDefinition The vole, a small rodent, has a short tail.Antonym Sue was adroit but Bill was clumsy. Synonym The soup was hot – scalding, in fact.Example Periwinkle was her favorite color.General The room was disheveled. Clothes and dirty

dishes were everywhere. Chairs were overturned, and trash littered the floor.

Series Would you like cake, peach pie, or a flan?Mood The day was dull and dark. Clouds hung low

and a feeling of melancholy was everywhere.Experience A pair of crows cawed raucously.Expression He was as famished as a bear.

Edwards, E.C., Font, G., Baumann, J.F., & Boland, E. (2004). Unlocking word meanings: Strategies and guidelines for teaching morphemic and contextual analysis. In J.F. Baumann & E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 159-176). New York: Guilford.

But remember . . .

Teaching context clues through contrived contexts is unlikely to transfer to natural contexts.

– Beck, McKeown, & Kucan (2002)

How do I know which words to teach?

Two characteristics that make a word inappropriate for teaching:

1. We can’t define it in terms that the students know.

2. The students are not likely to find the word useful or interesting.

word family

A group of words formed from a single root word

historyhistoric

prehistorichistoricalhistorian

Beck and McKeown’s Three TiersTier 3 • Rare words

• 73,500 word families K-12• Usually content-area related• Examples: isotope, estuary

Tier 2 • Important to academic success• 7,000 word families• Not limited to one content area• Examples: fortunate, ridiculous

Tier 1 • The most familiar words• 8,000 word families• Known by average 3rd grader• Examples: happy, go

• 73,500 word families K-12• Often content-area related• Examples: isotope, estuary

“Goldilocks” Words– Stahl & Stahl, 2004

How intensive should vocabulary instruction be?

Three Types of WordsTo Teach

Graves, M.F. (1986). Vocabulary learning and instruction, In E.Z.Rothkopf (Ed.), Review of research in education (Vol. 13, pp. 49-91). Washington, DC: AERA.

1. Words already in the student’s oral vocabulary, which he or she needs to learn to recognize in print.

These are words that a child needs to learn to decode or recognize by sight. (Stahl & Nagy, 2005)

2. Words not in the student’s oral vocabulary, but which are labels for concepts already familiar to the student.

The student may need to learn that apologize means to say one is sorry, or that elaborate means pretty much the same as complicated. These words may represent different shades of meaning from their synonym, but knowledge of the more frequent synonym will usually get a reader through a text containing that word. The different shades will be learned through continued exposure. Less intensive instruction may suffice. (Stahl & Nagy, 2005)

3. Words not in the student’s oral vocabulary that refer to concepts new to the student.

For example, the student may not know the word osmosis, or feudalism, or exponential. In such a case, it is not simply a matter of not knowing the word: The student is likely to be totally unfamiliar with the concept. In this case, a definition or other brief explanation is unlikely to help. Rather, a teacher would need to spend a great deal of time examining such concepts. (Stahl & Nagy, 2005)

Words in OralVocabulary

Known Concepts not Yet Associated with New Words

W3 W2 W1

What are some of the guiding principles of

teaching vocabulary?

Preteach key words to improve comprehension.

Guiding Principle

In 1367, Marain and the settlements ended a seven-year war with the Langurians and Pitoks. As a result of this war, Languria was driven out of East Bacol. Marain would now rule Laman and the other lands that once belonged to Languria. This brought peace to the Bacolean settlements. The settlers no longer had to worry about attacks from Laman. The Bacoleans were happy to be part of Marain in 1367. Yet a dozen years later, these same people would be fighting the Marish for independence, or freedom from United Marain’s rule.

In 1763, Britain and the colonies ended a seven-year war with the French and Indians. As a result of this war, France was driven out of North America. Britain would now rule Canada and the other lands that once belonged to France. This brought peace to the American colonies. The settlers no longer had to worry about attacks from Canada. The Americans were happy to be part of Britain in 1763. Yet a dozen years later, these same people would be fighting the British for independence, or freedom from Great Britain’s rule.

Provide more than definitions.

Guiding Principle

WORD = DEFINITION

Stimulus Response

WORD = DEFINITION

Stimulus Response

truncate “to cut off”

WORD = DEFINITION

Stimulus Response

truncate “to cut off”

“She truncated the lights.”

Combine definitions and contextual examples.

Guiding Principle

Minimize rote copying of definitions.

Guiding Principle

Introduce new words in related clusters.

Guiding Principle

antennae leg

abdomen

thorax

In content areas, clustering words is natural!

But general vocabulary words can be clustered if you work at

Provide brief, periodic review.

Guiding Principle

A Thought Experiment

Group 1

• Receives 1 hour of direct instruction on 20 new words

• Spends 1 full hour of intense review on all 20 words

• This hour is uninterrupted.

Group 2

• This hour is broken into 6 10-minute sessions, 1 per month for 6 months.

Assuming that no one encountered any of the 20 words again, which group would do better on a test after a delay of 10 years?

Massedvs.

DistributedPractice

What did the National Reading Panel conclude

about teaching vocabulary?

NRP Findings on Vocabulary

Teaching vocabulary improves general comprehension ability.

Preteaching vocabulary helps both word learning and comprehension of a selection.

Much vocabulary is acquired through incidental exposure.

Repeated exposures in a variety of contexts are important.

A combination of definitions and contextual examples works better than either one alone.

Many instructional methods can be effective in teaching vocabulary.

Instructional methods should result in active engagement.

Both direct and indirect methods should be used.

The more connections that are made to a word, the better the word tends to be learned.

Computer applications can be effective. The effectiveness of some instructional

methods depends on the age or ability of the children.

What the NRP said they didn’t know about vocabulary instruction

Which methods work best with students of different ages and abilities?

How can technology best be used to teach vocabulary? How is vocabulary best integrated with comprehension

instruction? What combinations of instructional methods tend to work

best? What are the best ways to assess vocabulary?

To what extent do you see these findings reflected in your core materials?

What are some of the most effective ways of teaching vocabulary?

Some Research-Based Techniques

Read-Alouds Semantic Feature Analysis Graphic Organizers List-Group-Label Semantic Maps (word webs) Word Lines Word Sorts Possible Sentences

Read-Alouds

“Adding three root words a day is the average daily number of words learned by primary age children with the largest vocabularies.” (p. 37)

3 words x 140 days 400 words per year

Planning a Read-Aloud Choose engaging, well-illustrated books. A number of words should be unknown to about

half the students. Choose 3 target words that are important for

comprehension but likely to be unfamiliar. Keep track of the words you choose. Plan to repeat the read-aloud. Plan for small-group sessions (2-5 students). Plan multiple exposures in the days following.

Conducting a Read-Aloud Be “performance oriented”; read with expression. Include “rich, dialogic discussion.”

Activate prior knowledge. Link the story to experiences of students. Elicit responses from students.

Give direct, clear, and simple instruction in word meanings before the read-aloud.

Give a sentence context from the story in advance.

Discuss words before and after the story. Ignore rare words. (Biemiller) Embed quick definitions while reading. (Biemiller) Do not display pictures while reading (Beck et al.)

Storybook InterventionDay 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6

Book 1

Intro &

1st Read-Aloud

Book 2

Intro &

1st Read-Aloud

Book 1

2nd Read-Aloud

Book 2

2nd Read-Aloud

Vocabulary

Activities

Coyne, M.D., Simmons, D.C., & Kame’enui, E.J. (2004). Vocabulary instruction for young children at risk of experiencing reading difficulties: Teaching word meanings during shared storybook readings. In J.F. Baumann & E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 41-58). New York: Guilford.

Three Read-Alouds per Day

Book InterruptionsNew Book None

Old Book 1 Some, to remind students of words

Old Book 2 Some, to remind students of words

Warning!

Spending too much time discussing read-alouds may detract from valuable reading practice.

– Stahl (1998).

A Closer Look at Definitions

golf n.1. a good walk spoiled

(Mark Twain)

2. a game in which a player using special clubs attempts to sink a ball with as few strokes as possible into each of the 9 or 18 successive holes on a course (Webster)

a game in which a player using special clubs attempts to sink a ball with as few strokes as possible into each of the 9 or 18 successive holes on a course

class distinguishing features

a game in which a player using special clubs attempts to sink a ball with as few strokes as possible into each of the 9 or 18 successive holes on a course

class distinguishing features

Aristotle

Semantic Feature Analysis

humans adult female

woman + +

man + o

girl o +

boy o o

games clubs ball o

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +

games clubs ball o

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +

games clubs ball

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +

games clubs ball

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +

games clubs ball

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +

games clubs ball

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +

games clubs ball

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +

games clubs ball

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +

games clubs ball

golf + +

hockey + o

basketball o +

popinary

“a fry cook”

popinary

“a fry cook”

Mrs. Byrne's Dictionary of Unusual, Obscure, and Preposterous Words: Gathered from Numerous and Diverse Authoritative Sources

cooks fries makes bakesthings salads

popinary + o o

chef + + +

baker + o + adult female

popinary + o o

chef + + +

popinary + o o

chef + + +

popinary + o o

chef + + +

popinary + o o

chef + + +

popinary + o o

chef + + +

popinary + o o

chef + + +

popinary + o o

chef + + +

popinary + o o

chef + + +

popinary + o o

chef + + +

popinary + o o

chef + + +

baker + + + adult female

popinary + o o

chef + + +

baker s + + adult female

Characters Wise Adventurous

Curious George

How can feature analysis be used in the primary grades?

How early can it be effective?

Graphic Organizers

A graphic organizer is a diagram that shows how key terms are

related.

What’s so great about them?

They help kids “see” abstract content.

There is little to “read.”

They are easy to construct and discuss.

Technical terms can be taught in clusters.

They enhance recall and understanding.

They have an impressive research base.

Time Lines

(and other continua)

Columbus Pilgrims American reaches land at RevolutionNorth America Plymouth begins

1500 1600 1700 1800

Goldilocks Goldilocks Goldilocks finds cottage eats porridge goes upstairs

larvaadult

Tree Diagrams

Musical Instruments

wind nonwind

Musical Instruments

wind nonwind

brass woodwind

Musical Instruments

wind nonwind

brass woodwind string percussion

Musical Instruments

wind nonwind

brass woodwind string percussion

trumpet clarinet violin drum

Venn Diagrams

Frog and Toad Curious George

No people

AnimalCharacters

Animals talk

Could happen

Blue People

Thin PeopleTall People

Blue People

drugsstimulants

depressantsalcohol

barbituatescaffeine

dexadrine

drugsstimulants depressants

caffeinedexadrine

alcoholbarbituates

drugsstimulants depressants

caffeine dexadrine alcohol barbituates

antennae leg

abdomen

thorax

Labeled Picture

Which types of graphic organizers are likely to be effective with primary children?

What about science and social studies materials?

List-Group-Label

Hilda Taba

ListStudents brainstorm all the words they can recall at the end of a unit.

GroupStudents suggest logical ways to group the words.

LabelStudents suggest a label for each group they form.

no legs garterboa

venomcobra

fang scales

coral tail

rattlecopperhead

treesholes

ground

no legs garterboa

venomcobra

fang scales

coral tail

rattlecopperhead

treesholes

ground

no legs garterboa

venomcobra

fang scales

coral tail

rattlecopperhead

treesholes

ground

Kinds of Snakes garter boa copperhead cobra coral

Things Snakes Might Have rattle scales fang no legs venom tail

Where Snakes Are Found trees holes ground

no legs garterboa

venomcobra

fang scales

coral tail

rattlecopperhead

treesholes

ground

Can List-Group-Label be useful in the primary grades? Would it need to be modified?

Semantic Maps

(Word Webs)

BrainstormingStudents offer ideas related to a topic.

MappingTeacher and students form categories and map the words into a diagram.

ReadingStudents read a nonfiction selection.

Completing the MapTeacher and students revisit the map and together refine and expand it.

no legs garterboa

venomcobra

fang scales

coral tail

rattlecopperhead

treesholes

ground

Snakes

treesholes

ground

garterboa

copperheadcobracoral

Kinds Where

Things Snakes Might Have

rattle no legsscales venomfang tail

Semantic maps have the advantage of mirroring how

words are stored in the lexicon.

mammal

4 legs

“meow”c-a-t

animal

petlion

Word Lines

hot cold

hot tepid cold

sweltering

hot tepid cold

sweltering chilly

hot tepid cold

sweltering chilly

Can you think of additional examples of word lines, perhaps not based on antonym anchors?

Word Sorts

thorax pupaabdomen antennaewing larvaadult headegg leg

Open Sort Categories are not given.

Closed Sort Parts Stages

thorax pupaabdomen eggwing larvahead adultlegantennae

Closed Sort Parts Stages

Now try your hand at an open word sort!

Possible Sentences

1. Present a list of 8-12 words the students will encounter in the new text.

2. Add a few familiar terms.3. Ask for sentences containing at

least two of the words.4. Teach the text.5. Return to the sentences.6. Together decide whether they are

correct or can be edited to make them so.

connotationword familydual coding

lexiconsyntactic clue

distributed practiceeponymtoponympopinary

worddefinition

Some Research-Based Techniques

Read-Alouds Semantic Feature Analysis Graphic Organizers List-Group-Label Semantic Maps (word webs) Word Lines Word Sorts Possible Sentences

What do all of these techniques (except one) have in

common?

1. They involve clusters of related words.

2. They encourage children to categorize.

What’s the exception?

Huckleberry Finn

fan-tods

yallerboys

mudcat

Illinois

Kentucky

Tennessee

Mississippi

Louisiana

Arkansas

Missouri

Illinois

Kentucky

Tennessee

Mississippi

Louisiana

Arkansas

Missouri

Hannibal

Illinois

Kentucky

Tennessee

Mississippi

Louisiana

Arkansas

Missouri

Hannibal

More Suggestions

Echo student talk, using richer vocabulary.

I wrote this.

Wonderful. I hope you told me exactly what you saw on your trip to the zoo.

“Sprinkle” your classroom with vocabulary.

Beck & McKeown (2004)

Talk around words.

Stahl & Stahl (2004)

Be a Word Wizard!wary scowl ridiculous fortunate

Tom Sue Ed Juan Maria Lakesha Paul Jack

Ask “silly questions.”

Would a fortunate person scowl?

Encourage word play

(including teachers!)

Words Named for People(eponyms)

• einsteinium• teddy bear• boycott• pasteurize• watt• decibel• saxophone• braille

• silhouette• sousaphone• zinnia• sideburns• shrapnel• magnolia• hooligan• gardenia

Words Named for Places(toponyms)

• bikini• tuxedo• badminton• hamburger• californium• uranium• plutonium• damask

• ottoman• bayonet• cologne• frankfurter• magenta• marathon• tangerine• manila

Words with Unusual Stories

• bazooka• bleachers• blurb• cowlick• crowbar• Dixie• gas• goatee

• googol• gorilla• jeep• jumbo• sandwich• Pacific• serendipity• tank

Blends (Portmanteaus)

• beefalo• bit• brunch• caplet• cockapoo• electrocute• guestimate• infomercial

• jack rabbit• liger• lox• modem• moped• motel• sitcom• skort

More Blends . . .

• slurb• smog• snazzy• splatter• spork (why not

foon?)• squiggle• tangelo

• telethon• tiglon• transister• twiddle• zap• zedonk• breen

Acronyms

• scuba

• radar

• sonar

• laser

• snafu

• fubar

Mnemonics

principle

principal

Connotations

What’s the difference between a fiddle and a violin?

What can we do increasechildren’s vocabularies in

Title I schools?

1. Make vocabulary a schoolwide goal

Amend your plan.

Establish instructional goals.

Raise consciousness.

Communicate expectations.

2. Provide professional development

Focus on research-based methods.

Ensure ties to actual materials.

Provide follow-up to aid implementation.

3. Establish teacher study groups

Organize groups by grade level.

Provide time for discussion.

Reward participation.

Encourage administrator participation.

Select resource books.

4. Consider supplemental and intervention programs

Tie their use to assessments.

Establish guidelines for use.

Locate product reviews.

http://www.fcrr.org

“In the long run, effective intervention will involve extended vocabulary work as a normal part of a primary curriculum.” (p. 34)

AndyBiemiller

Where do we start in our schools?

What steps can we take to promote greater vocabulary growth?

Suggested ReferencesBaumann, J.F., & Kame’enui, E.J. (2004). Vocabulary

instruction: Research to practice. New York: Guilford.Bear, D.R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S.R., & Johnston, F.

Words their way (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York: Guilford.

Nagy, W.E. (1988). Teaching vocabulary to improve reading comprehension. Newark, DE: IRA.

Stahl, S.A. (1999). Vocabulary development. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.

Stahl, S.A., & Kapinus, B.A. (2001). Word power: What every educator needs to know about teaching vocabulary. Washington, DC: NEA.

Stahl, S.A., & Nagy, W.E. (2005). Teaching word meanings.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

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Materia: INGLESE GRAMMAR VOCABULARY · Power point presentation of a design object 8 Towns and cities Defining and non defining relative clauses Qualifiers articles Living spaces

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LiceoMachiavelli Lucca … · Unit 04: The Big Read Grammar: • Past perfect, • narrative tenses, • defining and non-defining relative clauses Vocabulary: books and reading Functions:

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Welcome!. Building Vocabulary and Comprehension through Primary Read-Alouds Michael C. McKenna University of Virginia.