Post on 20-Apr-2018
A New Nation
European powers colonized the Americas in order to gain wealth from the new land. The English
colonies established ideas of self-government and liberty. The American colonists became increasingly
dissatisfied with British rule and decided to declare their independence. With the Declaration of
Independence, the country’s leaders announced to the world the establishment of a new republic, the
United States, and justified to other countries the right to be independent.
In the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson expands on the ideas of English
philosopher John Locke. Locke believed people had natural rights, and people formed governments to
protect these rights. According to Locke, if a country’s leaders failed to act in the interests of its people,
they have the right to revolt and replace that government with a new one. In the declaration, Jefferson
defends that the United States is a country founded on the principle of individual liberty. He states that
“all men are created equal” and all people have “unalienable rights” given to them by God, which
includes the right of liberty. Jefferson argues that the king of England has not served the interests of the
American colonists. Therefore, the American colonies had the right to declare that they are free and
independent states. In this way, Jefferson established some of the basic principles of American
government and society. Primarily, the United States would be a nation where common citizens have a
strong voice in their government.
During the approval of Jefferson’s draft of the Declaration of Independence, a debate over the
social complication of slavery emerged. Jefferson accused the king of being responsible for the slave
trade and referred to it as “this execrable commerce.” Sadly, the proponents of slavery prevailed, and all
mention of slavery was deleted from the document.
The victory of the colonists in the American Revolutionary War led to the formation of a new
republic. Leaders of the new country met at a Constitutional Convention and, after debate and
compromise, devised a new form of government. The new Constitution was subsequently ratified by the
states.
The Constitution written in 1787 has remained basically the same until today. It has survived
because it is flexible enough to adapt to social changes but specific enough about certain important
questions so as not to be misinterpreted by future generations. It not only defines the structure of
American government, but also declares its goals. The Preamble to the
Constitution begins with the three words, “We the People.” The rest of the document follows this
basic idea that in the United States it is the people who govern.
The Constitution still serves as the plan for the government of the United States. The key point
of the document deals with keeping government under control. It does this by dividing power in two
ways. First, the Framers (those men at the Constitutional Convention) established a federal system of History 1A – Discussion points
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government. In this system power is shared among state governments and national governments. Some
powers are delegated only to the national government (i.e. declaring war), some powers are reserved
solely for the states (i.e. establishing an educational system), and some powers are possessed by both (i.e.
collecting taxes). Secondly, the Constitution created what is called a separation of powers among the
legislative, executive, and judicial branches (powers) of government. Each branch has its own authority,
but no branch has complete power over the government. Furthermore, to guarantee no branch of
government gains too much power, the Framers created a system of checks and balances. This system
gives each branch of government the power to check, or stop, the other branches in certain ways. For
example, the president, who is the head of the executive branch, can veto laws passed by Congress. The
structure of the legislative branch also demonstrates its effort to preserve and limit people’s control of
government. The Constitution creates a bicameral Congress. Representation in the House of
Representatives is based on each state’s population. Members serve for only two years before they must
face another election. In this way, the people have the opportunity to change their representatives
relatively quickly. In the Senate, each state elects two members. Senators are elected for six-year terms,
which allow them some independence from popular opinion.
The Constitution created a strong executive officer, the president, who is elected to serve a four-
year term. Among the powers of the president is the role of commander-in-chief of the nation’s military
forces. This establishes the important principle of civilian control of the government. The president also
has the power to veto laws and choose, with the approval of the Senate, the judges for the national courts.
Finally the Constitution establishes a national court system. Judges were supposed to be
independent. To guarantee this, they were selected indirectly from the people (chosen by the president
and approved by the Senate). The Constitution also makes the removal of judges difficult so they cannot
be controlled by the people. Federal judges hold office for life, or as long as they do not act dishonorably.
To approve the Constitution, several accords, or compromises, had to be reached to resolve
social complications among the Framers. One of these compromises focused on the question of slavery.
Southern leaders refused to consider giving blacks the right to vote; however, they wanted to include
them as part of a state’s population. Some of the Framers considered slavery to be immoral. Still they did
little to stop this contradiction. In the end, it was agreed that three-fifths of a state’s slaves be counted for
purposes of House representation. It was also decided that the new government could not ban the slave
trade for at least 20 years.
While the Constitution was being debated by the states for its final approval, some criticized the
document because it did not specifically protect individual liberties. Consequently, it was agreed that ten
amendments would be immediately added to the Constitution after its ratification. These ten amendments
are called the Bill of Rights.
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The Bill of Rights guarantees that all Americans have basic rights. These fundamental rights
permit people living in the United States to worship as they wish, speak freely, and read and write what
they choose. Other amendments of the Bill of Rights guarantee the right to bear (possess) arms, the right
to a trial by jury, and the right not to testify against oneself. The Bill of Rights also ensures that every
person will have fair and equal treatment under the law. The Tenth Amendment guarantees that states
have all powers not specifically mentioned in the Constitution.
An early test of the republic came in the War of 1812. The war started badly. The nation could
have collapsed if American victories hadn’t ended the war quickly and favorably. As a result of the War
of 1812, a new spirit of nationalism appeared in the United States.
1820-1865 Regional Conflict and Civil War
The advance of the Industrial Revolution caused a division between the North and the South.
Geographic advantages helped the North develop more industries than the South. These northern
industries increased even more with the arrival from England of the steam engine, which created a new
era of productivity in the American workplace. By the middle of the 19th century, theeconomy of the
North was based on industrial production, while the economy of the South continued to be based on the
production of agricultural products, which depended on slavery. This division led to social complications
as Americans became more divided on the question of slavery.
One of the most influential books ever written about the United States is Democracy in America
by Alexis de Tocqueville. In his book, Tocqueville proposes the idea that the United States is an
exceptional country. He identifies five values he believed to be crucial to the success of the American
constitutional republic. These values are liberty, egalitarianism, individualism, populism, and laissez
faire.
One way that America has maintained democracy is by emphasizing the importance of liberty. An
example of this is seen in the decentralized nature of government in the United States. According
to Tocqueville, "Without local institutions a nation may give itself a free government, but it has
not got the spirit of liberty."
Tocqueville admired the high degree of equality among immigrants. He found that people are
respected on the basis of intellect and virtue. There is no aristocratic element in American society.
In times of equality, Tocqueville says that people tend to be individualistic, causing each citizen to
isolate himself or herself. Because tyrants have an interest in keeping people isolated, the
individualism resulting from equality can become a great danger to democracy. Therefore,
exercising freedom through participation in public affairs is extremely important. It gives people a
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personal interest in thinking about others in society. America’s emphasis on local selfgovernment
forces the people to act together and feel their dependence on one another.
Populism through the formation of associations is an excellent tool to combat individualism. They
allow people to exercise their freedom by taking a part in politics. Tocqueville believed that
Americans use the right of assembly more frequently and effectively than anywhere else in the
world.
Finally, Tocqueville admires the decentralized American system because of its political effects in
allowing the people to exercise their freedom. Freedom of businesses to work away from
government interference results in less chance for tyranny.
Beginning in the 18th century and continuing into the 19th century, social complication
increased between North and South as the abolitionist movement began to emerge in the North. From
1774 until 1804, every northern state, except for Maryland, passed laws that gradually abolished slavery.
All importing of slaves to the United States ended in 1808. While the abolition movement grew stronger,
southerners began to resist more firmly any effort to end slavery.
Abolitionist authors such as Harriet Beecher Stowe increased the antislavery sentiments of
Northerners. The success of Stowe’s abolitionist novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin made many Americans
understand better the evil consequences of slavery. Another writer that supported the abolitionist cause
was Henry David Thoreau. In his book Walden, Thoreau explained the philosophy of transcendentalism
and displayed the value of simple living.
Between 1820 and 1860, a series of compromises were made between to maintain an equal
number of slave states and free states. These compromises only were temporary solutions as a growing
sentiment against slavery continued in the North. In 1857, the Supreme Court’s decision in the Dred Scott
v. Sanford case affirmed that fugitive slaves like Mr. Scott had no rights because they could not be
considered U.S. citizens.
Although he received little support in the South, Abraham Lincoln, who was firmly against
slavery, was elected President in 1860. The Southern states feared that the end of slavery would ruin their
economies and seceded from the Union. Southerners were more loyal to their states than to the federal
government. The newly formed Confederate States of America chose Jefferson Davis as president.
The Civil War began when the South attacked Fort Sumter. Lincoln declared war in order to try
and preserve the Union. In the first two years of the war, the Confederate (Southern) army, led by General
Robert E. Lee, successfully defended the eastern front. In the west, the Union (Northern) army,
commanded by General Ulysses S. Grant, won significant victories.
In an attempt to win the war, Lee and his army invaded the North in the fall of the 1862. Union
forces stopped the Confederate army advance at the Battle of Gettysburg. The Union victory at the Battle
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of Vicksburg gave the Union complete control of the Mississippi River. Grant assumed command of the
entire Union army and began to attack the South. In 1865, the Confederacy surrendered.
The Civil War was the first war in which several thousand women served as nurses. Among
these nurses was Clara Barton, who later would establish the American Red Cross. The leadership of
Abraham Lincoln was essential in the victory of the North. As a consequence of Lincoln’s efforts, people
came to see the United States as a single nation rather than a collection of states.
1865-1900 Rebuilding the South
After the war the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution was passed, and slaves were
officially given their emancipation (freedom). President Abraham Lincoln, with the Congress, began to
formulate a plan to rebuild the government and society of the South. The plan to reunite the country
following the Civil War was known as Reconstruction. It was Lincoln’s intention to treatthe South
generously, as if it had never actually left the Union. Lincoln was assassinated before he could effectively
start his plan, and Andrew Johnson became the next president. One of the first organizations created
during Reconstruction was the Freedman’s Bureau, which was established in 1865 to aid the poor of the
South.
President Johnson fought with Congress about how to implement Reconstruction. Being an ex-
slave owner and from the South, Johnson favored a more soft approach with Southern leaders. Johnson
opposed the Republicans’ proposal for the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which declared all
ex-slaves citizens. After only one of the ex-Confederate States approved the Fourteenth Amendment,
Republicans became more militant. Congress passed the Reconstruction Act of 1867, which effectively
took over control of Reconstruction from the president. This new phase, called Radical Reconstruction,
imposed military rule on the South in an attempt to establish political equality for blacks. The Republican
Congress proposed the Fifteenth Amendment, which constitutionally ensured the right to vote for blacks.
The three Reconstruction Amendments (13th, 14th, and 15th) addressed the social question of
civil rights of African Americans. These amendments gave African Americans constitutional protection
of their rights. The process had begun with the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution. It
was advanced by the abolitionist movement and the compromises to limit slavery in the West.
Unfortunately, the social complications caused by slavery only ended after the election of Abraham
Lincoln and the victory of the North in the Civil War. African Americans now had the same rights as all
citizens of the United States.
Many southern whites resisted change. Land and labor practices led to the increase of rural
poverty. The most common of these practices was called sharecropping. In this model, the landowner
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supplied the land and seed in exchange for the labor of the farmer (often an ex-slave) and a large portion
of his harvest. This way the poor farmer never escaped the cycle of poverty. In the 1870s the Ku Klux
Klan emerged with the goals of intimidating black voters, forcing blacks out of politics, and restoring
white supremacy. A deal made between southern Democrats and presidential candidate Rutherford B.
Hayes after the disputed election of 1876 formally ended the era of Radical Reconstruction. Jim Crow
laws were passed that made segregation a common part of southern life. Southern white Democrats
formed a new political coalition, referred to as the “Solid South,” and started taking control.
1865-1900 The Emergence of Industrial America
Between the Civil War and 1900, innovations and inventions revolutionized almost every area of
American life and resulted in the expansion of American industries. Innovations such as the Bessemer
process helped to create the steel industry. The development of the steel industry permitted the expansion
of railroads. The expansion of railroads had a very positive impact on industry in the United States.
Railroads offered a fast and efficient way to transport products. They also reduced the cost of transporting
goods. The expansion of railroads permitted businesses to sell products nationally, not just locally.
Similarly, resources used to make products could be obtained anywhere in the country. The development
of steel also stimulated the construction of buildings and bridges, improving city life.
Inventions like the electric light bulb by Thomas Edison revolutionized life in America. Two
inventions, in particular, had a dramatic impact upon industrial productivity. Samuel Morse’s creation of
Morse code for the telegraph made communication between individuals much faster. Customers could
place orders more quickly as inventories fell low. Investors could buy stocks faster. Railroads could keep
people informed of changes to schedules. The invention of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell also
had a dramatic impact on industrial production. Businesses could now speak directly with customers,
reducing the number of production mistakes. Customers could receive immediate responses to their
questions. Similar to the way the Internet improved communication in the 1990s, the telegraph, and
telephone have advanced communication in their era and helped industries and the economy grow.
Seeking greater efficiency and profits, many American companies grew to enormous sizes in the
late 1800s. One great industrialist of the era was Andrew Carnegie. He built the Carnegie Steel Company
into the world’s largest steel manufacturer. His company was so prosperous because Carnegie succeeded
in controlling all processes of steel production. When a company controls all the steps involved in its
production process from raw materials to the finished good is called vertical integration.
Another important corporation at the time was the Standard Oil Company. John D. Rockefeller,
the company’s principal owner, knew that the demand was growing for oil as a fuel for lights and a
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lubricant for machines (people did not realize the true importance of oil until the development of the
internal combustion engine). Rockefeller created a giant oil company by consolidating all the oil
refineries. When a business dominates one phase of the production process, this is called horizontal
integration.
Companies in various industries united to form trusts, trying to limit competition and raise
prices. The financial support to form large corporations and trusts came from men like J.P. Morgan. In the
late 1800s, Morgan’s bank dominated the area of finances.
As some corporations and trusts grew larger and more powerful, the federal government took
steps to regulate these businesses. The Interstate Commerce Commission and the Sherman Antitrust Act
tried to halt unfair business practices by large companies by establishing regulatory standards for specific
industries. The Supreme Court blocked the efforts of the federal government to apply these laws.
Workers had to tolerate poor ventilation and excessive heat in workplaces that came to be called
sweatshops. Children were commonly employed in factories and worked long hours. By 1900, children
were entering the work force in increasing numbers.
Craft unions and workers’ unions began to make their way into the lives of working Americans.
Disagreement between workers and owners over a number of issues caused many strikes. Many of the
strikes turned violent. One famous example was the Haymarket Riot, which was the result of a
demonstration in protest of violence between police and strikers. The deaths that resulted from violent
strikes turned public opinion against the unions.
Looking to the West
During the middle of the 19th century, American settlers continued migrating west in search of
land to farm and ranch, and looking for minerals like gold and silver. In subsequent decades, the Great
Plains region, in the middle of the United States, became the destination of many Americans. Helped by
the government and new technology, settlers worked hard to farm new lands. The Homestead Act of 1862
offered free land to Americans wishing to move west. Dry farming techniques allowed farmers to grow
food under the arid conditions of the Plains. Innovations such as John Deere’s steel plow and the
mechanical reaper of Cyrus McCormick also made possible the farming of the Great Plains. Because of
these innovations and the migration west to establish farms, agriculture production in the United States
doubled from 1870 to 1900.
The westward migration of white settlers caused a conflict with the Plains Indians that resulted in
war. While the U.S. Army sent troops to defeat the Indians, settlers killed millions of buffalo, a resource
the Indians depended on. Despite the great advantages the U.S. army had with superior technology, the
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Indians resisted for almost thirty years. The last battle between the natives and the U.S. army was at
Wounded Knee, South Dakota.
While mining became a major industry in various parts of the West and Alaska, cattle ranching
also became a big business in the Great Plains. The expansion of the railroads and the development of
railheads (railroad transport stations) turned cattle ranching into a successful business. During the late
1800s, prices of farm produce fell steadily. Farmers also blamed their problems on the increasing costs
caused by tariffs. Farmers united to protect their interests. In 1867, the first organization of farmers, the
National Grange, was formed. After the Grange weakened, the Farmers’ Alliance emerged to replace it.
Leaders of the Farmer’s Alliance decided to establish a political party whose followers were
known as Populists. The Populists supported farmers’ call to increase the federal money supply by using
both silver and gold to support the U.S. dollar. This policy would create inflation in the economy, which
would help farmers that were suffering because of falling crop prices. The reform was opposed by gold
supporters, who favored a “tight money” plan for the economy.
Calls for new government policies reached a peak during the Depression of 1893. To call
attention to the plight of people hurt by the depression, Populist leader Jacob Coxey led an army of
marchers to Washington D.C. in 1894. The presidential election of 1896 became very important. For that
election, the Populists united with the Democrats and nominated William Jennings Bryan as their
candidate. Bryan’s central theme was the unlimited minting of silver to solve the nation’s economic
difficulties. In spite of his vigorous efforts, Bryan was unable to attract many urban voters, who supported
the victorious Republican candidate, William McKinley.
Immigration, Politics, and Urban Life
The end of the 1800s saw a great influx of immigration from many parts of the world. Most
immigrants found their way to America to take advantage of its freedom and job opportunities. The
immigrants who arrived in America after 1880 were typically poor, from southern and eastern Europe,
and mostly Catholic and Jewish. They mostly stayed in larger cities to work and live. In the cities, these
immigrants frequently created ethnic communities called ghettoes.
These immigrants like those before would have an important role in the development of the
nation in the 20th century. They illustrate the true meaning of the motto of the United States, E Pluribus
Unum. The phrase appears on all American coins and means “out of many, one.”
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Some Americans disliked immigrants and tried to limit immigration. They feared newcomers
would take away jobs or not adapt to American life. This hostility directed at immigrants by native-born
Americans was called nativism. American cities expanded quickly in area and population at the end of the nineteenth century.
Besides the arrival of immigrants, more people moved from their rural homes into cities. Immigrants and
rural migrants provided workers for the growing economy and new markets for commerce. The growth of
cities resulted in the development of mass transit systems, which permitted people to travel better inside
cities and move to suburbs.
As a result of rapid industrialization and immigration into the cities, urban areas became
overcrowded. A new type of apartment building called tenements appeared which were designed to house
large numbers of people as cheaply as possible. Tenement houses were cramped (crowded), dark, poorly
ventilated, and unsanitary. Disease and lack of privacy were common. A good public education system
was developed to help immigrants adapt to American society. Immigrants frequently relied on city
leaders, known as “bosses,” to provide jobs and help them with basic needs. Bosses took advantage of
immigrants to create corrupt political machines.
Herbert Spencer’s popular theory known as Social Darwinism ("survival of the fittest") said that
the laws of nature applied to society. Social Darwinism was used to support the economic theory of
laissez-faire. The theory of laissez-faire affirms that government should not interfere with business
activities.
In fact, government often helped industries. Many saw the relationship between government and
big business as a corrupt one built on the spoils system. Government contracts and subsidies were not
awarded fairly. Corruption became a common practice in government. One such corrupt political
organization was New York’s Tweed Ring, named after "Boss" Tweed, the leader of that city’s
Democratic Party. The political machine commanded by Boss Tweed was called Tammany Hall. It
wasn’t until the assassination of President Garfield that government finally acted. The Civil Service Act
of 1883 (also known as the Pendleton Act) established a commission to evaluate applicants’ suitability
for government-service jobs.
Individuals like Andrew Carnegie tried to help improve the lives of poor Americans. Andrew
Carnegie believed the rich had a duty to help the poor. He called his theory the “Gospel of Wealth.”
Blacks looked to their own race for leaders and two powerful figures emerged with different
philosophies: Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois. Washington believed that blacks should first
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concentrate on education while learning a profession before challenging racial discrimination. With
economic independence, he argued, social and political equality would follow. Other blacks preferred the
more combative style of Du Bois, who believed blacks should fight against racial discrimination. Du Bois
and other prominent blacks supported the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
(NAACP) to promote legal rights for blacks.
The Progressive Reform Era
In 1899, Americans began to think about the turn of the century. They had feelings of hope
together with fears and concerns about what the 20th century would bring. This mood lasted about 15
years and was known as the Progressive Era. It was a time of progress and reform in many areas of
American life. Reformers were known as Progressives because they were trying to progressively move
forward in social, economic, and political arenas. They believed in a democratic society with honest and
sincere officials. Government should control greed, corruption, and special interests that tended to exploit
segments of the society, even if it might create an expanded government bureaucracy to do it.
Many people associate the Progressive Reform Era with the writings of journalists, called
muckrakers, who exposed unfair business and government practices. One of the most famous, Upton
Sinclair, shocked the nation with his book, The Jungle, which revealed ugly secrets about the meat
packing industry in Chicago.
The Progressive Reform Era is also well known for the rise of socialism and labor unions.
American Socialists wanted to end the capitalist system, distribute wealth more equally, and have the
government own the nation’s industries. They formed the Socialist Party of America, which was
successful in electing its candidates to government offices. With the reforms of the Progressive Era, labor
leaders gained confidence. Unions organized marches to protest for better working conditions.
Progressives began to regulate business in order to protect the public interest. Influenced by The
Jungle, the President passed the Meat Inspection Act of 1906. The Pure Food and Drug Act prohibited
dangerous drugs and made it necessary to put the contents of foods and drugs on the labels of products.
The Hepburn Act gave the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) power to limit how much railroads
could charge for transporting products. Together with the ICC, the Sherman Antitrust Act also expanded
its influence in the 20th century.
Most Progressives did not support government control of businesses, except in the case of
essential services such as water and electricity. Reformers made efforts to regulate or remove the
monopolies that owned these city utilities.
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Progressive reform organizations sought to make local, state, and national governments more
democratic. They changed the structure of city governments by establishing city councils or commissions
— a board of citizens elected by the people that shared power with the mayor. Progressives also began the
practice of hiring city managers — a technical expert hired by the city council or city commission to
resolve complex problems in areas such as engineering or sanitation.
State governments were also the targets of Progressives. Many Americans believed that state
government had become undemocratic. With the slogan “give the power back to the people!”
Progressives implemented reforms: (1) the initiative gave people the power to propose a new law to
appear directly on the ballot for voters to decide or reject; (2) the direct primary system established
nominating elections to allow people to select political party candidates. (3) The referendum was a
public vote on a law proposed by state legislatures; (4) the recall permitted voters a chance to remove a
public official from office before the next election. All these reforms took power away from politicians
and gave citizens greater participation in government.
At a national level, the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment permitted the implementation of
a federal income tax. This increased government revenues. The Seventeenth Amendment authorized the
direct election of senators, increasing voters’ power, and reduced corruption in state legislatures.
Some people wanted to extend the reforms implemented during Progressivism to moral issues
like drinking alcohol. The movement to prohibit alcohol grew with support of women and religious
groups. One famous Christian-motivated crusader, Carrie Nation, would attack saloons with an axe in
order to close them. During World War I, prohibitionists argued that a ban of alcohol would make
factories more efficient and make more grain available for food. Finally, in 1919, Prohibition was realized
with the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment, which made illegal the manufacture, sale, distribution,
and consumption of alcohol. The Congress passed the Volstead Act in 1919 to enforce the 18th
Amendment.
The struggle for women’s right to vote was a long and difficult one. The movement most famous
leader was Susan B. Anthony, who founded the National Woman Suffrage Association. Suffragettes
struggled unsuccessfully for more than sixty years. The strongest reason for suffragettes was equal rights
of men and women. On the movement’s newspaper appeared their slogan, “...men, their rights and
nothing more; women, their rights nothing less.”
By the beginning of the 20th century, the suffragette movement was growing into a potent
political force. By 1917, the NAWSA had more than two million members. Women had gained the right
to vote in various states, including New York. Such a block of potential voters could not be ignored by
national politicians.
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World War I had a large impact on winning the voting rights of women. When war began,
volunteered to help in patriotic service to the country. During the war, women showed that they could do
the same work as men. After that, most resistance against giving women the right to vote disappeared. In
1920, the Nineteenth Amendment was approved, and a woman’s right to vote became constitutionally
protected.
Gaining the right to vote reaffirmed that the role of women had already changed substantially in
American society. More women were working and going to college. Hairstyles had become shorter, and
skirts and blouses reflected the changing lifestyle of women. The divorce rate had risen in the first two
decades of the 20th century. In the 1920s, women continued to be more independent. The equality gained
with the right to vote had given some women a new confidence to express themselves. Still, most women
continued to see their primary role in society as homemakers and mothers. This attitude would not change
for some time.
Progressive reforms would not have been possible without the support of political leaders. After
becoming president, Theodore Roosevelt launched his government plan to treat Americans fairly. He
called it the Square Deal. His main interest was protecting Americans against abusive business practices.
He strengthened the Sherman Antitrust law and with it attacked “bad” trusts that he believed did not serve
the public. During his term, big trusts, like those of the railroad and oil industries, would be broken up by
the courts. While he was president, important consumer laws such as the Meat Inspection Act, the Pure
Food and Drug Act, and the Hepburn Act all were passed. Roosevelt’s policies to fight against big
business and trusts led to his nickname as “the trust buster.”
Theodore Roosevelt is considered to be one of the nation’s first conservation-minded presidents.
In 1902, the National Reclamation Act was passed. It used money from the sale of public land to build
irrigation systems in arid states. In 1905, he established the United States Forest Service to develop
policies to adequately use and protect public land and water. While president, Roosevelt allocated 200
million acres of public land for national forests, mineral reserves, and water projects. By his actions
Roosevelt established a precedent to protect the nation’s resources that future leaders would follow. In
1916, Congress embraced conservation by establishing the National Park Service to protect the nation’s
natural resources.
Taft and Roosevelt disagreed about Progressive policies. In 1912, Roosevelt challenged Taft as a
third-party candidate in the presidential election. Roosevelt and his Progressive Party received a greater
percentage of votes than any other third party in modern history. The Progressives along with the
Populists formed two of the largest third party movements of the early 20 th century. Nevertheless, the
votes Roosevelt won divided the Republicans, giving the victory to the Democratic candidate Woodrow
Wilson.
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1890-1915 Becoming a World Power
By the late 1800s, Americans were showing new interest in world affairs. Many Americans that
supported the idea of U.S. expansionism wanted to follow the British and French example of establishing
colonies around the world. The outside world offered Americans places to invest and markets for the
nation’s growing production and surplus of goods. Those leaders who favored a strong navy pushed for
expansion since warships would be needed to protect markets from foreign rivals. By the end of the 19th
century, the United States was building one of the most powerful navies in the world. Some Americans
also believed that Social Darwinism (“survival of the fittest”) gave the United States a right to colonize
other countries. Just as most Americans had accepted the conquest of Native Americans as right and
inevitable, they gradually favored the idea of expansionism.
One of the first American colonies was Hawaii. A group of American businessmen and planters
started a revolt to remove Queen Liliuokalani from power. With the assistance of the United States
military, Queen Liliuokalani was forced to surrender. The independent nation of Hawaii was officially
annexed by the United States in 1898.
Along with islands in the Pacific, American expansionists were interested in the Western
Hemisphere. Events in Cuba offered an opportunity for the United States to increase its influence as a
world power and gain territories. In the late 1800s, Cuban rebels were involved in a war of independence
against Spain. Americans became aware of Cuba through the sensational newspaper coverage of Spanish
atrocities in trying to suppress the revolt. This “yellow journalism,” led by newspaper publishers Joseph
Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst, played an important part in increasing the war sentiment in the
United States.
President McKinley did not favor intervention. However, after the U.S. battleship Maine
mysteriously exploded in Havana harbor, killing 260 sailors, the United States blamed the Spanish and
declared war. One of the heroes of the war was Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt organized a group of
soldiers that called themselves the “Rough Riders.” Two days after arriving in Cuba, Roosevelt led the
Rough Riders to victory in the Battle of San Juan Hill. In the Philippines, the American navy destroyed
the Spanish fleet. After being defeated in Cuba and the Philippines, Spain surrendered.
For the United States, the Spanish-American War of 1898 was a great success. In the treaty with
Spain that followed the war, the U.S. gained control of the ex-Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico, Guam,
and the Philippines together with hegemony or domination of the Western Hemisphere, thereby becoming
a world power.
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Long interested in Asia, the United States was taking a much more active role in the region by
1900. Several European countries at the time were attempting to exclusively control trade in parts of
China. The United States Secretary of State John Hay proposed the Open Door Policy, which called for
all nations to have equal trading rights with China.
Now that the United States had asserted its presence in both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, it
needed a way to link the two together. Americans realized that a canal across Central America would be a
great benefit to global trading. In 1880, a French company started building a canal across the Isthmus of
Panama. The French were forced to abandon the project because it became too expensive. President
Roosevelt bought the patrimony of the French to complete the project.
At that time, the Isthmus of Panama was part of Colombia and that country wanted more money
from the Americans. Roosevelt encouraged the Panamanians to rebel against Colombia. With U.S. help,
the Panamanians won their independence and permitted the U.S. to finish and operate the Panama Canal.
The United States restarted construction of the Panama Canal restarted in 1904, bringing in
thousands of workers. Technical engineers, supervisors, and construction experts were also brought to the
site. Huge machinery, some of which was designed and built specifically for this project, was transported
to Panama. One of the biggest obstacles to completing the canal was malaria. Mosquitoes that carried the
disease had to be exterminated. The Panama Canal is still considered one of the greatest technological
achievements in United States history and further established the nation as a world power.
President Roosevelt also extended the Monroe Doctrine, which prohibited the establishment of
new colonies in the Americas. Theodore Roosevelt had a favorite slogan, “Walk softly, and carry a big
stick.” He had first used his “big stick” policy against trusts and big businesses. Now he applied this
strategy to Latin America and the Caribbean. He proposed a policy called the Roosevelt Corollary, which
declared that the United States would intervene in any Latin American country whose stability was in
question. The U.S. first applied the Roosevelt Corollary in the Dominican Republic by taking over control
of their customs duties. During Roosevelt’s years as president, the United States would become a type of
policeman for the Western Hemisphere.
Presidents Taft and Wilson continued the policy of intervening in Latin America. Taft
encouraged investment in Latin America to help their economies and to increase American influence. Taft
referred to this policy as “Dollar Diplomacy.” Wilson declared that the U.S. was firmly against
imperialism, but supported continued intervention in the region.
1914-1918 The World War I Era
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The immediate cause of World War I (1914 - 1918) was the assassination of Archduke Franz
Ferdinand of Austria Hungary by a Slavic nationalist. However, there were several other causes for the
war. Nationalism, imperialism, and militarism all contributed to the beginning of the war. The principal
reason, however, for the escalation of a regional confrontation into worldwide violence was the complex
system of alliances. The most powerful countries in Europe were divided into two groups, the Triple
Entente (Great Britain, France, and Russia) and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and
Italy). In a chain reaction, these nations pulled each other into war.
The two opposing side were the Central Powers: Germany and Austria- Hungary against the
Allies: France, Russia, and Great Britain. The initial fighting was very intense and both sides constructed
trenches to protect themselves. Neither side was able to gain an advantage. The result was a stalemate.
The fighting was fierce and unbelievably bloody. The soldiers of World War I confronted new
types of killing machines that had never been used before. Defensive forces used machine guns to
annihilate attacking enemy soldiers. In addition to machine guns, hand grenades, and heavy artillery
killed many men. The age of chemical warfare arrived when the Germans began using poisonous gas. In
retaliation, the Allies soon started using poisonous gas on German soldiers. The generals were
unaccustomed to these new weapons. They believed that attacking enemy positions with a superior
number of troops would result in victory. This strategy only produced an enormous number of dead
soldiers.
The cost in human life of the “war to end all wars” (as World War I was ironically referred to)
was horrific. Total number of dead from combat was approximately 8 million men. Six million more were
left crippled. Another 20 million people died of disease, hunger, and war-related causes. An entire
generation of young men had been destroyed.
One of the most feared of these new weapons was the German submarine, or U-boat. In May
1915, a German submarine sunk the luxury passenger ship the Lusitania. The deaths of many innocent
passengers outraged the American public. The Germans apologized and paid reparations to the families of
the U.S. victims. Subsequently, the Germans made a formal promise to warn merchant ships before
attacking — the Sussex Pledge. Most Americans were satisfied and continued to support U.S. neutrality.
President Woodrow Wilson made it clear that the United States would remain neutral in this European
conflict. Although most agreed with the President, many Americans worried about the growing conflict.
However, by 1917, there existed strong reasons for U.S. entry into the war. First, Wilson needed to
protect American shipping after the Germans broke the Sussex Pledge in the early months of 1917, by
sinking American merchant ships. Moreover, British intelligence intercepted a note sent by the German
foreign minister, Arthur Zimmerman, to the Mexicans trying to persuade them to oppose the United
States, a direct violation of international law. Public opinion was now clearly anti-German. A final
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obstacle to American participation in the war was removed when Russia deposed Czar Nicholas II and
established a democratic government, making it an acceptable ally. Previously, Wilson had promised that
the United States would only enter the war to support democracy in the world. Wilson strongly hated war,
but feared a German military victory more.
Hundreds of thousands of American soldiers had arrived in France by 1918. The American
Expeditionary Force was commanded by General John J. Pershing. The American forces soon proved to
be invaluable to the Allies, whose own troops were worn out, ailing, and disheartened by the war. In the
spring of 1918, the Germans made an advance on Paris. The Americans managed to stop the German
attack at Chateau-Thierry, east of Paris, and, with the help of French troops, managed to save Paris from
the Germans. Then, the Americans led a massive counter-attack in the Battle of the Argonne Forest. One
of the heroes of that battle was Corporal Alvin York, who was awarded the Medal of Honor for his
bravery. The Battle of the Argonne Forest was the largest American military offensive of World War I.
The victory of the Allies put the German army in full retreat. With defeat imminent, the Germans were
forced to ask for peace terms.
United States President Woodrow Wilson proposed his “Fourteen Points,” which spelled out
strategies to prevent future wars. He believed that a new international organization called the League of
Nations should be established to promote peace. The provision for the formation of Wilson’s League of
Nations became part of the Treaty of Versailles. The terms also favored the creation of new nations based
on ethnic groups.
It was difficult for President Wilson to convince the other leaders to accept his peace plan.
France insisted that a clause be included to blame Germany for the war and to force them to pay
reparations. In 1919, representatives of the victorious Allies met at the Palace of Versailles, outside Paris,
to formally write a peace treaty. The Treaty of Versailles took land away from Germany, reduced its
military, and made Germany pay war reparations to Allied countries. The peace terms of the treaty caused
deep feelings of resentment in Germany, which would result in the rise of Adolf Hitler and the start of
World War II. The finalized treaty was signed by Germany on June 28, 1919.
When President Wilson returned home from Europe, he discovered that many senators did not
support the Treaty of Versailles. In particular, they did not like the League of Nations. To increase public
pressure on senators, Wilson began a speaking tour across the United States. While campaigning for the
treaty’s ratification, Wilson suffered a stroke and remained partially paralyzed for the rest of his
presidency. Without Wilson’s support, the Senate rejected any participation in the League of Nations and,
therefore, did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles.
During the war, almost all immigration from Europe stopped. Furthermore, millions of young
men entered the armed forces. As a result, business owners suddenly needed workers. Owners and
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managers, who had discriminated against African Americans before, now recruited them to work in their
factories. Thousands of black Americans left their farm work in the rural South for factory jobs in the
North. At this time, more than half a million African Americans migrated north. This mass movement of
people was called the Great Migration.
The United States had been deeply changed by the war. The country emerged from World War I
with new wealth and increased its status as a world power. As a result of the war workers earned more
money and had a higher standard of living, and women gained new opportunities toward equality. The
significant contribution that woman made in the war effort helped them win the right to vote. Yet again,
American blacks saw only temporary gains. African Americans remained segregated and discriminated in
many states. The movement to consumer materialism had begun.
1919-1929 Postwar Social Change
One of the most dramatic changes of the new era was the changing role of women in American
society. A group of women known as flappers appeared on the scene with shorter dresses, shorter hair,
and changed social behaviors. Flappers became a symbol for this new independence of American women.
After World War I, many young men and women moved to urban areas in search of new jobs
and careers. Traditional religious beliefs clashed with modern science. The most famous example
occurred in the Scopes Trial. John Scopes, a biology teacher, was accused of violating a state law that
prohibited teaching evolution. The two key figures of the Scopes trial were lawyers Clarence Darrow,
who defended Scopes, and William Jennings Bryan, who led the prosecution.
Americans looked to individual heroes to confirm their sense of American values. The greatest
hero of the decade was aviator Charles Lindbergh. In 1927, he became the first man to fly non-stop from
New York to Paris aboard his plane, the “Spirit of St. Louis.”
Together with the growth of radio, a new style of music became popular: jazz. This new style
was based on lots of improvisation and creative energy. Jazz music reflected the vitality of the decade,
and the 1920s became known as the Jazz Age.
A more critical view of society began to shape art, literature, and fashion. Two important writers
of the time were Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald. Fitzgerald’s novel The Great Gatsby
described the hypocrisy and greed found in the lifestyles of wealthy Americans during the Jazz Age.
The literary movement known as the Harlem Renaissance celebrated the lives of African
Americans. One of the leaders of the movement was poet and author Langston Hughes. His poem “I, Too,
Sing America” celebrates the contribution of African Americans to the history of the United States.
After World War I, the U.S. had trouble adjusting to peacetime. Factories were unable to
produce enough to equal the demand for goods after the war, and inflation occurred. In 1919, violent
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labor strikes erupted, principally in the steel industry. Terrorist incidents made some Americans fear a
worldwide communist revolution. These events were attributable to a national mood of anxiety that
became known as the Red Scare. Americans supported the government’s strong actions to protect
American values and to fight the communists.
Newly elected President Warren G. Harding called for a return to “normalcy" - a new period of
peace and quiet. While Harding was president, the economy improved, and internal agitation declined.
However, accusations of corruption occurred, such as the Teapot Dome scandal, which ruined Harding’s
reputation. Upon Harding’s death in 1923, Vice President Calvin Coolidge took over the office of
President.
President Coolidge believed that “the business of America is business,” and, as a result, his
policies were designed to help business interests and other large investors in the American economy.
Industries made expensive purchases more affordable with installment plans and by buying on credit. The
success of mass advertising techniques brought about an increase in demand for consumer goods. Henry
Ford installed the first moving assembly line as a way to streamline the production process and to mass-
produce cheap and reliable automobiles, like the Model T.
The American economy was booming in the 1920s. The GNP grew at an average rate of six
percent per year. During the 1920s, the national per capita income also increased dramatically. The results
of the 1928 election showed Americans satisfaction with the economic prosperity. The Republican
candidate Herbert Hoover won by a significant margin, and people expected the same conservative
leadership to continue in the White House.
1929-1933 Crash and Depression
In the beginning of 1929, Americans were full of confidence. They thought that the nation’s
prosperity would continue. They were wrong. In reality, the American economy had fundamental
problems that would soon provoke an economic depression. There was an unequal distribution of wealth
and a large amount of personal debt caused by people buying on credit. Finally, the American economy
was starting to suffer the effects of a problem that was even more serious: overproduction in industry and
agriculture.
In the 1920s, many people made money due to the rise in the value of the stock market.
However, this rise was primarily because of speculation. Americans were so confident that the price of
stocks would continue to increase that they not only invested their savings but borrowed money (buying
on margin) to buy stocks. With so many investors, stock prices became artificially high. In October 1929,
the stock market crashed and many people lost their life savings practically overnight.
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The fact that many Americans lost money in the stock market crash had a profound impact on
the economy. Factories were unable to sell their products. Consequently, businessmen reduced production
and began to lay off workers. A vicious circle started developing as less consumer spending caused
factories to make more production cuts and lay off more workers. Many businesses and banks failed. The
era of the Great Depression had begun.
Congress did not help the situation when it passed the Hawley-Smoot Tariff in 1930. The law
imposed high tariffs on imported goods thinking this would stimulate the national economy. On the
contrary, the high tariffs dampened1 trade and worsened the situation not only in the United States, but
also around the world.
The Great Depression caused terrible suffering among all Americans, especially women, African
Americans, and farmers. Many unemployed and homeless Americans were forced to camp out in
shantytowns, which were referred to as Hoovervilles by their residents. The Great Depression was
particularly hard on women and African Americans. Many workingwomen were accused of taking jobs
away from men. Companies refused to hire women or dismissed them. African Americans had to confront
discrimination at work and when looking for a job. By 1932, fifty percent of the Negro population in the
United States was unemployed.
Falling prices for farm products led many farmers to despair. To make matters worse, many
Great Plains farmers were ruined by a severe drought. Years of poor farming practices in that region had
eliminated the native prairie grasses. The severe drought dried the remaining soil. Strong winds blew
away the earth in enormous clouds of dust that ruined farmers’ crops. The vast region from the Dakotas to
Texas became known as the Dust Bowl.
The automobile was often the only hope for the future to many families fleeing from the Dust
Bowl in the Southwest during the Great Depression years of the 1930s. Thousands of farmers loaded all
their family possessions onto their cars and left the southern Great Plains. It is estimated 450,000 people
moved out of the state of Oklahoma, and almost 300,000 left Kansas. Many of these refugees looked for
work and a better life in California. These migrants were called “Okies” because so many of them came
from Oklahoma.
The American people blamed Hoover for not doing enough to combat the Great Depression.
Hoover, following his laissez-faire economic principles, did not believe in direct government assistance.
His philosophy called for voluntary aid and individual action to reverse the crisis. It was the voters’
negative reaction to Hoover’s response to the worsening economic situation that helped Franklin D.
Roosevelt to win the 1932 election by a large margin. President Roosevelt’s plan to revive the economy
during the Great Depression era was called the New Deal.
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