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DO:s rapportserie 2008:2 eng

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ISBN 978-91-973654-8-2 ww

Discrimination of national minorities in the education system

Ombudsmannen mot etnisk diskriminering (DO)DO report no. 2008:2 eng© DO

Authors: Heidi Pikkarainen och Björn Brodin

Print: Lenanders Grafiska ABStockholm 2008

ISBN 978-91-973654-8-2

Contents

Introduction 5

Background 5

Purposeandquestions 7

Implementationofthework 7

Definitions 11

The DO’s mandate 13

ComplaintstotheDO 13

Historical background 18

Rights and freedoms of persons belonging to national minorities 23

TheCouncilofEurope’sFrameworkConvention 23

EuropeanCharterforRegionalorMinorityLanguages 25

Swedishlegislationconcerningnationalminorities’righttoeducation 26

Protectionagainstdiscriminationandoffensivetreatmentwithintheeducationsystem 28

Council of Europe criticism of Sweden 29

TheCouncilofEurope’sFrameworkConvention 29

EuropeanCharterforRegionalorMinorityLanguages 30

National minorities’ experiences of discrimination in the education system 32

Education 33

Harassment 35

Nativelanguageeducation 37

Bilingualeducation 39

Accesstoteachersandteachingaids 39

Summary and proposed measures 41

Recognition 42

Knowledge 43

Participation 43

Schoolandpreschool 44

WorkoftheDO 47

References 48

Introduction

Background

Eightyearsago,SwedenratifiedtheCouncilofEurope’sFrameworkConventionfortheProtectionofNationalMinoritiesandtheEuropeanCharterforRegionalorMinorityLanguages.1Inconjunctionwithratification,theJews,Roma,Sami,SwedishFinnsandTornedalers2wererecognizedasnationalminoritiesandYiddish,Romanichib(allvariants),Sami(NorthSami,LuleSamiandSouthSami),FinnishandMeänkieliwererecognisedasminoritylanguages.3RealisingtherightsofnationalminoritiesasexpressedintheminorityconventionsisapartofSweden’sobligationstorespecthumanrights.

NationalminoritiesandtheirlanguageshaveexistedinSwedenforcenturies.However,theseminoritieshaveinmanywayshadasubordinateroleandperiodicallybeenopenlyopposedbythemajoritysociety.ThepolicyofassimilationandeducationthatwaspursuedinSwedenoveranextendedperiodhasaffectedthelivingconditionsofthenationalminoritiesandtheirpossibilitytoacquiretheirownlanguage.4

Untiltheendofthe19thcentury,manyschoolsinnorthernSwedenusedFinnishandSamiasthelanguageofeducationinearlyprimaryeducation.Then,SwedenintroducedfinancialsupporttoschoolsbutrestrictedthatsupporttoSwedish-languagestateschoolsonly.5Theso-callednomadschoolwascompulsoryforthechildrenofreindeer-herdingSamiuntilthe1960s.6Samichildrenwereforcedtoleavetheirfamiliesforextended

1 Hereafter referred to as the framework convention or language charter, respectively, or jointly as the minority conventions.

2 They are also known as Torne Valley Finns.

3 Report of the Standing Committee on the Constitution 1999/2000:KU6 (2000) Nationella minoriteter i Sverige (Eng: National minorities in Sweden) and Rskr. 1999/2000:69.

4 See e.g. Catomeris, Christian (2004), Det ohyggliga arvet: Sverige och främlingen genom tiderna i Hyltenstam (Eng: The atrocious legacy: Sweden and the foreigner through the ages) in Hyltenstam, Kenneth, (ed) (1999) Sveriges sju inhemska språk – Ett minoritetsspråksperspektiv (Eng: Sweden’s seven domestic languages – A minority language perspective) and SOU 2006:19 (2006) Att återta mitt språk – Åtgärder för att stärka det samiska språket (Eng: Reclaiming my language – measures to strengthen the Sami language).

5 Hyltenstam, Kenneth (1999) ”Introduction: Ideology, politics and minority languages” in Hyltenstam, Kenneth (ed) Sweden’s seven domestic languages – A minority language perspective, p. 11.

6 Hyltenstam, Kenneth, Stroud, Christopher and Svonni, Mikael (1999) ”Språkbyte, språkbevarande, revitalisering. Samiskans ställning i svenska sapmi.” (Language replacement, language preservation, revitalisation) in Hyltenstam, Kenneth (ed) Sveriges sju inhemska språk – Ett minoritetsspråksperspektiv, p. 65.

periodsandexperiencedtheinsecurityassociatedwithlivingataboardingschool.7Inthemiddleofthe20thcentury,RomarepresentativesfoughtforRomachildrentobegivenaccesstoeducation.ContinuouseducationwasobstructedbytheRomabeingpushedfromplacetoplace.Romawerefirstgivenaccesstocontinuouseducationattheendofthe1960s.8ThepolicySwedenpursuedhasledtoadenialoftheculturalandlinguisticdiversitythatcharacterisedthecountryforcenturiesandstillaffectthesituationoftoday.Asadirectconsequenceofthepolicypursued,manyofthenationalminoritylanguagesareonthevergeofdisappearing.

IncontactswiththeOmbudsmanagainstEthnicDiscrimination(DO),nationalminoritiesexpressthatdiscriminationanddegradationassociatedwiththeirethnicidentityareapartofeverydaylife.ThishasalsobeenbroughtupbytheCouncilofEurope,whichhascriticizedhowSwedenimplementedtheCouncil’sminorityconventions.OneoftheCouncilofEurope’smostsharplyformulatedremarksconcernshowSwedenhashandledthepossibilitiesofnationalminoritiestoacquireaccesstonativelanguageeducationandhowregulationswithintheeducationsystemhavebeenformulated.

TheDOcanconfirmthatschoolsplayaspecialroleinsocietyastheyhaveanexpressdemocraticobjective.Thetaskofschoolsincludescreatingequalconditions,regardlessofgender,ethnicoriginandsocio-culturalbackground.Schoolresultsarecrucialtochildren’spossibilitiesoffurtherstudies,whichinturnaffecttheirpossibilitiesofenteringworkinglife.Itisaseriousmatterwhendiscriminatoryproceduresandcommonapproachesareappliedintheeducationsystem,constitutingobstaclestotheopportunitiesofnationalminoritiestoobtainaneducation.9

Inlightofthis,theDOhasconductedspecialeffortssinceautumn2007toillustratethenationalminorities’experiencesofdiscriminationintheeducationsystem.Thisreportpresentstheexperiencesofthiswork.

7 SOU 2006:19 (2006) Att återta mitt språk – Åtgärder för att stärka det samiska språket (Reclaiming my language – Measures to strengthen the Sami language), p. 74.

8 Rodell Olgac, Christina (2005) Den romska minoriteten i majoritetssamhällets skola – Från hot till möjlighet (The Roma minority in the schools of the majority society – From threats to opportunity).

9 Also see SOU: 2005:56 (2005) Det blågula glashuset – Strukturell diskriminering i Sverige (The blue and yellow glass house – Structural discrimination in Sweden), p. 209 and SOU 2006:40 (2006) Utbildningens dilemma – Demokratiska ideal och andrafierande praxis (The Dilemma of Education – Democratic ideals and otherisation practice), p. 9.

Purpose and questions

Toworkeffectivelytopreventandcombatdiscriminationagainstnationalminorities,theDOandotheractorsneedknowledgeabouthowdiscriminationofnationalminoritiesisexpressed.Suchastudycreatesawarenessofthesituationandabasistoassesswhatactionshouldbetakentoaddressdiscrimination.Accordingly,thepurposeofthisreportistocontributeknowledgeofhowdiscriminationagainstnationalminoritiesismanifestedintheeducationsystembyillustratingtheexperiencesofdiscriminationofJews,Sami,Swedish-Finns,TornedaliansandRoma.Anotherpurposeofthereportistoproposemeasuresforcounteractingandpreventingdiscriminationofnationalminoritiesintheeducationsystem.

Twomainareaswereseenascentraltoachievethesepurposes.Thefirstareafocusesonnationalminorities’experiencesofdiscrimination.

Howisdiscriminationmanifestedintheeducationsystemwithregardstopersonsbelongingtonationalminorities?

Whatconceptions,structuresandpatternscanbediscernedfromnationalminorities’experiencesintheeducationsystem?

Thesecondareaofinquirydealswiththemeasuresnecessarytocounteractandpreventdiscriminationofnationalminoritiesintheeducationsystem.

Whatmeasuresarerequiredtoaddressdiscriminationofnationalminoritiesintheeducationsystem?

HowcantheDOandotheractorsworktopreventandcounteractdiscriminationofnationalminoritiesintheeducationsystem?

Implementation of the work

Thisreportbuildsonthefivenationalminorities’experiencesofdiscriminationintheeducationsystemastheyhavebeenexpressedintheDO’swork.Thisworkwasbasedontheparticipationofminorities,whichisoffundamentalimportanceforeffortsonpreventingandcombatingdiscriminationtobecrediblebothamongtheminoritiesandinthemajoritysociety.Here,theDOfollowedtheEuropeanCommissionagainstRacismandIntolerance(ECRI)recommendationtomakeexperiencesofdiscriminationandracisminanaffectedminoritygroupvisible.10Researchondiscriminationindicatesthatstudiesofperceiveddiscriminationprovideanillustrationoftheactualproblemsthatminoritiesexperiencein

10 ECRI (1998), ECRI general policy recommendation no. 4. National surveys on the experience and perception of discrimination and racism from the point of view of potential victims.

contactwiththemajoritysociety.11However,itisimportanttokeepinmindthatindescribingthenationalminorities’experiencesofdiscriminationthereportdoesnotclaimtopaintacompletepictureofhowdiscriminationcanexpressitself,nordoesitclaimtooutlinethescopeofdiscriminationintheeducationsystem.Furthermore,itisimportanttoemphasizethatallexperiencesofdiscriminationdonotalwaysfulfilthecriteriarequiredtoestablishthatdiscriminationoccurredinalegalsense.

ThereportwillformthebasisforthefutureworkoftheOmbudsmanagainstEthnicDiscriminationtofindwaysandstrategiestocounteractandpreventdiscriminationtogetherwithareferencegroup.Thissectiondescribesthestartingpointsforthestrategyofmutualknowledgedevelopment,howthestrategywasappliedtotheDO’sworkandhowtheDOconductedtheworkwiththerightsofnationalminoritiesintheeducationsystem.

The strategy of mutual knowledge development

Since2002,theDOhasdevelopedastrategytopreventandcombatdiscriminationofminoritiesthatareparticularyaffectedbydiscrimination.ThisstrategyisbasedonseveralstudiesinitiatedbytheDOthatindicatedthattheDO’sactivitiesatthetimedidnotreachthosewhoweremostvulnerabletodiscriminationnorgaveanaccurateillustrationofwhatdiscriminationlookslikeinSweden.12ThispicturehadalreadybeenconfirmedbytheDO’sRomaproject,whichtookplaceduring2002–2003.13Tocollectreportsfromthevictimsofdiscrimination,theDOconfirmedthatitmustactivelyreachouttominoritieswithinformationaboutlegislationandrightsandnotidlywaitforcomplaintstobesubmittedtotheauthority.Thestrategy,whichwasprimarilydevelopedinthescopeoftheRomaproject,currentlyformsthebasisfortheDO’sworkwithminoritygroupsoncombatingandpreventingdiscrimination.14

Thestrategybuildsontheinsightthattheauthorityneedstoconductadialoguewiththeminorities.Thisisnecessarybecausetheirparticipation

11 de los Reyes, Paulina and Wingborg, Mats (2002), Vardagsdiskriminering och rasism i Sverige – En kunskapsöversikt (Everyday discrimination and racism in Sweden – a knowledge survey).

12 Lernestedt, Lennart, Lerwall, Lotta, Pettersson, Tove, Tiensuu, Annika (2004) Genomgång av DO:s individärenden samt förslag till förbättringar (Review of the DO’s individual cases and improvement proposals).

13 DO (2003) Discrimination of Romanies in Sweden – a report on the DO project in the years 2002 and 2003 on counteracting and forestalling ethnic discrimination against Romanies.

14 The minority groups that the DO actively works with and which the authority has identified as particularly exposed to discrimination are African-Swedes, national minorities, native peoples, people of a Middle Eastern background, Muslims and women of a non-European background.

isneededfortheauthority’sworkoncombatingandpreventingdiscrimination.Thisdialogueaimstoincreaseminorities’knowledgeaboutrightsandanti-discriminationefforts,andtoprovidemoredetailandvisibilitywithintheDOandtherestofsocietytotheknowledgeabouttheirlivingconditionsandexperiencesofdiscrimination.Thestrategyisanimportantforceforachievingapositiveandlong-termchangeandforminoritiestoasserttheirrightstoagreaterextent.

Animportantconditionfornationalminoritiestoobtainaccesstotheindividualprotectionthatdiscriminationlegislationprovidesagainstbothdirectandindirectdiscriminationisthatcomplaintsandtheauthority’sotherworkisadministeredbasedonwhatbecomesevidentthroughmutualknowledgedevelopment.Withoutinsightandknowledgeabouttherightsandfreedomsofpersonsbelongingtonationalminoritiesinconnectionwiththeirexperiencesofdiscrimination,itisdifficultfortheauthoritytoillustratethecomplexcourseofeventsthatmayexistinanindividualdiscriminationcase.IndividualcasesareaccordinglyinvestigatedbasedonwhatcomesforthintheDO’sdialoguewithminorities.Thisstrategytherebycontributestocontinuousmethoddevelopmentattheauthority.

Withequalopportunitiesandrightsastheoverridingobjectiveandwiththebasicideathatnationalminoritiesarethekeytopositivechangeprocesses,thegoaloftheworkistofurtherdevelopnationalminorities’owncapacityforcounsellingandactiveanti-discriminationwork.Thestrategyisaccordinglyfocusedonlong-termchangeprocesseswiththeobjectiveofincreasingtheconditionsfornationalminorities’empowermentandinfluenceovertheirownconditions.15

Reference group

Togetherwithareferencegroupconsistingofnationalminorityrepresentatives,theDOidentifiedexperiencesofdiscriminationandtheprotectionagainstdiscrimination.ThereferencegroupcomprisesAngelinaTaikon,supervisorandRomacultureclassteacher,ElsyLabba,primaryschoolteacheractiveattheSamischool,Eva-ChristinaBlind,lower-secondaryschoolteacherinNorthSamiwhoworkswithSamiintegratededucation,EskoMelakari,DelegationSecretaryoftheSweden-FinnishDelegation,MikaelDimitriTaikon,Romacultureclassteacher,SusanneSznajdermannRytz,expertinYiddishandminorityissuesfortheOfficialCouncilofJewishCommunitiesinSweden,andToreHjort,Chairmanof

15 See the Council of Europe’s Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, which emphasizes the importance of national minorities having influence in issues that concern them.

SverigesTornedalskaRiksförbund–Tornionlaaksolaiset(STR-T)(Sweden’sTornedalianNationalAssociation).Theworkwiththereferencegrouphasbeenfocusedonidentifyingproblemsandsolutionstocombatandpreventdiscriminationofnationalminoritiesaswellastoinvestigatewhichotheractorsshouldtakeactiontoaddresstheproblemsthatnationalminoritiesexperienceintheeducationsystem.Thedialoguewiththenationalminoritiesconsequentlyprimarilyfocusedonexperiencesofdiscriminationandhowminorityrightsareviolatedintheeducationsystem.Particularattentionwasthereforepaidtothelegalprotectionagainstdiscriminationandtotherightsandfreedomsofpersonsbelongingtonationalminorities.

ThereferencegroupalsohadadialoguewithJarmoLainio,ProfessorofFinnishatMälardalenUniversityandSweden’sexpertintheCouncilofEurope’sAdvisoryCommittee,andSeniorLecturerLeenaHuss,activeattheCentreforMultiethnicResearchatUppsalaUniversity.ThisdialoguewasdevotedtorelatingtheexperiencesthatthereferencegrouphastoahistoricperspectiveanddiscussingwhattheCouncilofEurope’sminorityconventionssetforthandthecriticismdirectedathowSwedenhasimplementednationalminorityrightswithinpreschoolandcompulsoryschool.

Inparallelwiththeeffortstoillustratenationalminorityrightsintheeducationsystem,theDOpursuedeffortsfocusedonthediscriminationoftheSamipeople.TheseeffortsalsoillustratedSamiexperiencesofdiscriminationintheeducationsystemandaredescribedinthereport,DiscriminationoftheSami–therightsoftheSamifromadiscriminationperspective.Theconclusionsofthereportregardingtheeducationsystemarealsopresentedinthisreport.

TheDOcanconfirmthatthereferencegroup’sworkhasbeenofcentralimportanceincreatinglong-termchangesintheDO’swork.Itprovidesaforumforparticipation,strengthensthegroupsandtheDO,andprovidesacredibletoolforcreatingchange.TheInstitutefortheStudyofHumanRightsatGöteborgUniversityevaluatedtheDO’seffortstopromotemutualknowledgedevelopment.TheInstitutebelievesthatworkwithreferencegroupsisastrategicwayofreachingoutwithlimitedresourcessothatmorepeoplewillgainaccesstoprotectionagainstdiscrimination.Themethodprovidesdesiredeffectsandisconsideredtobe“positiveandnecessaryfortheauthoritytoachievesetobjectivesandconfirmthecentralplaceoftherightsperspectiveintheauthority’swork”.16

16 Gustavsson, Josefine (2007) Extern utvärdering – Effekterna av informationsinsatser riktade till grupper särskilt utsatta för diskriminering (External evaluation – The effects of information efforts directed at groups particularly exposed to discrimination). p. 67.

Definitions

Thefollowingsectiondescribesthedefinitions,perspectivesanddelimitationsthatapplytothereport.Inaccordancewiththeframeworkconvention,theDOusesadefinitionofnational minoritythatcomprisesalloftheindividualswhoidentifythemselvesasJewish,Sami,Swedish-Finnish,Tornedalian17andRoma.18TheSamiarealsoanindigenouspeopleandareassuchgrantedadditionalrightsandfreedomsunderSwedishlawandinternationalconventionsanddeclarations.19Thetermminority languagereferstoYiddish,Sami(NorthSami,LuleSamiandSouthSami),Finnish,MeänkieliandRomanichib(allvariants).20Thetermeducation systemreferstopreschoolsandcompulsoryschools.Accordingly,thereportdoesnotdiscusshowthesituationlooksforstudentswhoattendupper-secondaryschool,universityormunicipaladulteducation.

TheDO’sworkcontainsbothanindividualandastructuralperspectiveofdiscriminationofnationalminoritiesintheeducationsystem.Theindividual perspectivemeansthattheworkisbasedonthenationalminorities’experiencesofdiscriminationintheeducationsystem.

Withastructural perspectiveofdiscrimination,itispossibletocapturehowthemajoritysocietyinvariouswayssystematicallysubordinatesandcreatesstigmatisingconceptionsofminorities“Jews”,“Sami”,“Swedish-Finns”,“Tornedalers”and“Roma”.ThedirectiveforthestudyPower,integrationandstructuraldiscriminationdefinestheconceptinthefollowingmanner:

“Structuraldiscriminationduetoethnicbackgroundorreligiousaffiliationrefersto[…]rules,norms,procedures,acceptedpracticeandbehaviourininstitutionsandothersocialstructuresthatconstituteobstaclestoachievingequalrightsandopportunitiesregardlessofethnicbackgroundorreligiousaffiliation.Suchdiscriminationcanbevisibleorhidden,andcanoccurintentionallyorunintentionally.”21

17 They are also known as Torne Valley Finns.

18 See Article 3 of the Council of Europe’s Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, which establishes that “every person belonging to a national minority shall have the right freely to choose to be treated or not to be treated as such and no disadvantage shall result from this choice or from the exercise of the rights which are connected to that choice.”

19 See DO (2008) Discrimination of the Sami – the rights of the Sami from a discrimination perspective.

20 Prop. 1998/99:143 (1999) Nationella minoriteter i Sverige (National minorities in Sweden) p. 32–35 where the Swedish Government presents the criteria for why the five minorities and their languages are to be considered as national minorities.

21 Dir. 2004:54 (2004) Makt, integration och strukturell diskriminering (Power, integration and structural discrimination).

Intermsofthisreport,individualandstructuraldiscriminationareplacedinalinguisticcontext.Itisaquestionofillustratinghowvariousfactorscaninteractandreinforceoneanotherandtherebyimpactalanguage’scapacitytodevelopandsurvive.KennethHyltenstam,ProfessorofLinguistics,believesthattheconceptofaminoritylanguagecanbeviewedfromtwoperspectives.Itcanbeseenasalanguagespokenbya“smallernumber”ofpeopleorasalanguagethathasa“subordinate”positioninsociety.Thelatteraspectisrelatedtopowerrelationshipsandresourcedistributionbetweenvariousgroupsinsociety.Languagesspokenindominantgroupseasilyattainadominantpositionandsubordinategroups’languagesareattributedalowerstatus,whichaccordingtoHyltenstamcanoccurinboththeviewofthemajorityandtheminority.22

Multiplestudiesindicatethatitisnotuncommonforminoritiesthathavelivedinamajoritysocietytoabandontheirownlanguageandinsteadbeginspeakingthemajoritylanguage.23Thisisparticularlycommoniftheminoritiesaresubjectedtoastrongassimilationorunificationpressureonthepartofthemajority.Thisiscalledthelanguagereplacementprocess.Accordingtoresearchersinthefield,itisaprocesswherealanguagegraduallylosesfunctions,speakersandmeansofexpression.24Anadvancestagelanguagereplacementprocesscanleadtoalanguagedyingout.25

Manywhospeaknationalminoritylanguagesarecurrentlyinalanguagereplacementprocess,althoughatdifferentstages.Researchersbelievethatitispossibletoreversethislanguagereplacementprocessthroughactive

22 Hyltenstam, Kenneth (1999) ”Inledning: Ideologi, politik och minoritetsspråk” (Introduction: Ideology, politics and minority languages) in Hyltenstam, Kenneth (ed) Sveriges sju inhemska språk – Ett minoritetsspråksperspektiv p. 25 f.

23 See e.g. Huss, Leena, Wande, Erling (2006) ”Emancipation i vardande? Drag i tornedalingars och sverigefinnars språkpolitiska utveckling.” (Emancipation in the making? Characteristics of the language policy developments of Tornedalers and Swedish Finns) in Junila; Marianne and Westin, Charles (ed) Mellan majoriteter och minoriteter – Om migration, makt och mening (Between majorities and minorities – About migration, power and intent), p. 229–267; Runblom, Harald and Tydén, Mattias (1990) ”Judar” (Jews) in Svanberg, Ingvar and Runblom Harald (ed) Det mångkulturella Sverige – En handbok om etniska grupper och minoriteter (The multi-cultural Sweden – A handbook about ethnic groups and minorities, p. 189–201.

24 Hyltenstam, Kenneth, Stroud, Christopher and Svonni, Mikael (1999) ”Språkbyte, språkbevarande, revitalisering. Samiskans ställning i svenska sapmi.” (Language replacement, language preservation, revitalisation. The status of Sami in Swedish Sapmi) in Hyltenstam, Kenneth (ed) Sveriges sju inhemska språk – Ett minoritetsspråksperspektiv, p. 91.

25 Lainio, Jarmo (1999) ”Språk, genetik och geografi – om kontinuitetsproblematiken och debatten om finska som minoritetsspråk” (Language, genetics and geography – on problems of continuity and the debate on Finnish as a minority language) in Hyltenstam, Kenneth (ed) Sveriges sju inhemska språk – Ett minoritetsspråksperspektiv pp. 165 and 191, and Hyltenstam, Kenneth (1999) ”Svenskan i minoritetsspråksperspektiv” (Swedish form a minority language perspective) in Hyltenstam, Kenneth (ed) Sveriges sju inhemska språk – Ett minoritetsspråksperspektiv, p. 234.

measuresonthepartofthesocietyandastrongawarenessanddesiretopreserveone’sownlanguageandcultureamongtheminoritiesthemselves.However,Hyltenstametalemphasizetheimportanceofunderstandingwhyalanguagereplacementprocessoccursandbelievethat,inreality,thepossibilitiesforanindividualtoinfluencetheprocessareextremelylimited.Researchshowsthatthelanguagereplacementprocessprimarilytakesplacebeyondtheindividual’scontrolandtheprocessisduetotheprevailingoverallsocialsituation.26

Asaninterpretiveframeworkforthisreport,theperspectivesofindividualandstructuraldiscriminationhavemultipleadvantages.Theyillustrateroutineactivitiesthatbenefittheinterestsofacertaingroupandthestructuresthataffectthesuperordinationandsubordinationofdifferentgroupsandtherebyobstructequalrightsandopportunitiesforindividuals,regardlessofbackground.Placingindividualandstructuraldiscriminationinalinguisticcontextillustratesthecomplexinteractionthatexistsbetweenfactorsonthesocialandgrouplevelandhowtheyaffectalanguage’spossibilitiesofdevelopingandsurviving.

26 See e.g. Hyltenstam, Kennet (ed) (1999) Sveriges sju inhemska språk – Ett minoritetsspråksperspektiv (Sweden’s seven domestic languages – A minority language perspective).

The DO’s mandateThefivenationalminoritiesarecoveredbySwedishdiscriminationlegislationandhaveparticularrightsinaccordancewithnationalandinternationallaw.ThischapterpresentsthetaskoftheDOandthecomplaintsreceivedbytheauthoritysince2000.

TheDOisanationalauthoritychargedwithworkingtopreventandcombatdiscriminationassociatedwithethnicbackground,religionorotherbelief.Theprotectionagainstdiscriminationincludesbothdirectandindirectdiscriminationandnationallegislation,EuropeanlawandinternationalconventionsformthebasisoftheDO’sactivities.Thenationallawsprotectagainstdiscriminationinworkinglife,preschool,compulsoryschoolandinhighereducationaswellasinthesocialinsurancesystem,healthcareandallcommercialactivitiessuchasretailtradeandthehousingmarket.Directdiscriminationmeansthatanindividualpersonisdisadvantagedinrelationtoanotherpersoninacomparablesituationifthespecialtreatmentisassociatedwithethnicbackground.Indirectdiscriminationmeansthatanindividualisdisadvantagedthroughtheapplicationofregulationsorcriteria,whichinitiallyappeartobeneutral,butinpracticeparticularlydisadvantagepersonswithacertainethnicbackground.Theprotectionalsoincludesabanonharassmentandongivinginstructionstodiscriminate.

Inrecentyears,protectionfortherightsoftheindividualhasbeenreinforcedinconjunctionwithnewdiscriminationlegislationthatenteredintoeffectin2003.TheDOtherebyobtainedgreaterpossibilitiesofpromotingtheabilityofindividualstoexercisetheserights.Since2006,aspeciallaw(2006:67)hasbeenineffectthatprohibitsdiscriminationandotheroffensivetreatmentofchildrenandstudents.Thislawalsochargesschoolswithactivelypromotingtheequalrightsofallstudentsandforestallingandpreventingharassmentduetoethnicbackground.

AcentralactivityintheDO’sworkistoreceiveandinvestigatecomplaintsofdiscriminationfromprivatepersons.TheDOworksforthepersondiscriminatedtoreceiveredress,primarilythroughvoluntaryagreements.Ifthisisunsuccessful,theDOisempoweredtobringactionincourtonbehalfoftheindividual.Theauthorityalsoexercisessupervisionovertheworkofemployers,universitiesandschoolstopromoteequalrightsandpreventethnicandreligiousdiscrimination.InaccordancewiththeEUdirectiveregardingimplementationoftheprincipleofequaltreatmentofpeopleregardlessofracialorethnicorigin,theDOalsopreparesreportsonandsubmitsrecommendationsinmattersconcerninghowdiscrimination

canbecombatedandprevented.27Altogether,theDO’svariousstrategiesandapproachesaimtoshapeasocietybasedontheprincipleoftheequalvalueandrightsofallpeopleregardlessofethnicbackgroundorreligionandtocontributetosocialchangeinthisdirection.

Centraltotheworkonsafeguardingthefivenationalminorities’humanrightsistheissueofdiscrimination.Thisisexpressedinanumberofinternationalconventionsanddeclarationswhichchargestateswithbothtakingactiontoprotectnationalminoritiesfromdiscriminationandwithpromotingequalrightsinallareasofsociety.Therightsandfreedomsthatnationalminoritiesaregrantedunderinternationalandnationallaw,shouldthereforebeseenasmeasuresintendedtoguarantee,inpractice,equalrightsandopportunitiesofpersonsbelongingtonationalminoritiesrelativetothemajoritypopulation.

Withthesestartingpointsandbasedonitsmandate,theDObecomesakeyplayerintheworkonguaranteeingandstrengtheningthehumanrightsofpersonsbelongingtonationalminorities.

Complaints to the DO

AnimportantpartoftheDO’sactivitiesisinvestigatingcomplaintsfrommenandwomenregardingethnicdiscrimination.However,studiesshowthattheinclinationtoreportdiscriminationtotheauthorityislow,whichiswhythenumberofunreportedcasesisestimatedtobelarge.28

Since2000,theauthorityhasreceivedsome30complaintsfromtheSami.Inmostcases,theyhaveconcerneddiscrepanciesassociatedwiththeSami’slinguisticrights.TheyhaveconcernedlacksinnativelanguagetechinginpreschoolandschoolandthelackofinformationinSamiatauthorities.TheDOhasalsoreceivedcomplaintsconcerningtheestablishmentofSamipreschools.29

27 Council Directive (2000) Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin. Official Journal of the European Communities. No. L 180, 19/07/2000, pp. 0022–0026.

28 See e.g. Lange, Anders (1999) Invandrare om diskriminering. En enkät och intervjuundersökning om etnisk diskriminering på uppdrag av Diskrimineringsombudsmannen (DO) (Immigrants on discrimination. A survey and interview study about ethnic discrimination on behalf of the DO) and Lernestedt, Lennart, Lerwall, Lotta, Pettersson, Tove, Tiensuu, Annika (2004) Genomgång av DO:s individärenden samt förslag till förbättringar (Review of the DO’s individual cases and improvement proposals).

29 See e.g. DO, Case no. 373-2000, 340-2000, 782-2001, 96-2002, 1183-2003, 1197-2003, 81-2008, and 283-2008.

SignificantlymorecomplaintshavecomefromtheRoma.30TheDOhasreceived30to40complaintsperyearsince2001.Almosthalfoftheseconcerndenialofaccesstopublicfacilitiessuchasshops,restaurantsandhotels.Approximately15%ofthecomplaintsfromRomaconcerntherighttohousing.Complaintsthatconcernadministrationandtreatmentinthesocialservicescomprisealmostthesamepercentageasthosereceivedregardinghousing.AfewofthereceivedcomplaintsconcerntheconditionsofRomachildreninschool,includingharassment.Ontheissueofharassment,theissuewaswhethertheschoolhadtakensufficientactiontoaddressethnicharassmentafteraneventcametotheschool’sattention.Othercomplaintshaveconcernedethnicharassmentanddiscriminatorytreatmentbyschoolpersonnelandmunicipalities.31

FromSwedishFinns,around120complaintshavebeenreceivedsince2000.Ofthese,afewcomplaintshaveconcernedlanguagerightssuchaslanguagebansattheworkplace32andelderlycareinFinnish33.Duetoacomplaintsofalanguagebanataworkplace,theDOinitiatedaninspection.ItconcernedtheMunicipalityofUppsala,whichhadacollectiveagreementthatcouldbeinterpretedasabanonspeakinganylanguageotherthanSwedishatwork,whichaffectedtheSwedish-Finnishminoritygroup,amongothers.TheDOputforwardtothemunicipalitythatsuchabanandagreementmayconflictwithdiscriminationlegislation,bothintermsofindividuals’rightsandtherequirementofpreventionworkintheaimofcombatingdiscriminationattheworkplace.TheDOalsomadeitclearthattherightsofnationalminoritiesareapartofSweden’sobligationstorespecthumanrightsandthatdiscriminationincludesbotharbitraryspecialtreatmentandfailuretorespecttherightofspecialtreatment.Themunicipalityandtheunionorganisationsignedanewcollectiveagreement.

OccasionalcomplaintshavebeenreceivedbytheauthorityfromJews34andTornedalers35regardingtheeducationsituation.

IntheDO’sdialoguewiththereferencegroup,thenumberofcomplaintsandtheinclinationtosubmitreportswerediscussed.Thesediscussionsconcernedtheminorities’lackoftrustinauthoritiesandfearthatacomplaintagainstaschoolmightcontributetogreaterexposureofthe

30 Since 2001, the authority actively works on preventing and combating discrimination of the Roma, which is the reason more reports come from Roma.

31 See e.g. DO, Case no. 879-2003 and 1109-2007.

32 See e.g. DO, Case no. 551-2003, 745-2005, 528-2006, 529-2006 and 530-2006.

33 See e.g. DO, Case no. 685-2006.

34 See e.g. DO, Case no. 1249-2002, 1489-2006 and 1293-2008.

35 See e.g. DO, Case no. 224-2001, 14-2004, 969-2007 and 1536-2007.

child.Itisinlightofthis,nationalminorities’experiencesofauthoritiesandperceptionsofhowschoolstreatandhavetreatednationalminorities,thatthenumberofunreportedcasesshouldbeseenandunderstood.Thisviewalsoincludesresearchthatshowsthattheinclinationtoreportdiscriminationisgenerallylow.

Historical backgroundToworkeffectivelytopreventandcounteractdiscriminationofnationalminoritiesintheeducationsystem,itisnecessarytounderstandhowdiscriminationagainstminoritieshasbeenmanifestedthroughSweden’shistory.KnowledgeofthehistoryofnationalminoritiesinSwedenislimited;theknowledgegapsarelarge.

ThischapterprovidesageneralreviewoftheSwedishstate’seducationandassimilationpolicyfromthe19thcenturyuptothepresent.ThisreviewdoesnotclaimtoprovideacompletepictureofthesituationofnationalminoritiesinSweden,butratherprovidessomeexamplesofhowstatepolicyhasaffectedthelivingconditionsofnationalminoritiesandtherebytheirpossibilitiesofgainingaccesstoeducation.

AknowledgeoverviewissuedbytheNationalAgencyforEducationportrayshowschoolsfunctioned.Schoolshavenotonlybeenaninstitutionforknowledgeacquisition,butratheralsoaninstitutionthatcreatedandmaintaineddifferencesbetweenstudentsofdifferentbackgrounds.

“Educationalhistoryresearchillustrateshowstudentswerebroughtupfortheiranticipatedplacesinagender,classandethnicity-structuredpattern.Knowledgecontent,skillsandsocialisationwereclearandknowinglyrelatedtogenderandclassfactors.Cleardifferencesintheschools’contentsandmethodsillustratetheschoolsystem’sfunctiontocreateandmaintainthe[…]unequalsociety.”36

ProfessorKennethHyltenstamdescribeshowthestatepolicyfromtheendofthe19thcenturyuptothe1970swasfoundedonanationalisticviewandbasedintheinterestsofthemajority.ThisledtoadenialofthelinguisticandculturaldiversitythatinfluencedSwedenforcenturies.However,inthe1950sand1960s,labourimmigrationbroughttotheforetheconsequencesoftheconductedpolicyanditbecameclearthatapolicybasedonlinguisticandculturalhomogeneityneitherreflectednormettheneedsthatexisted.Atthesametime,morepluralisticideasprevailedinternationally,wherethevalueofculturalandlinguisticdiversitywasemphasized,accordingtoHyltenstam.Theseideasandgreaterimmigrationledtothestatepolicychangingdirectioninthe1970s.Nativelanguageeducationwasintroducedwithinthescopeofvariousbilingualmodels,interpretationservicesandsupportforculturalactivitiesinlanguagesotherthanSwedish.Yiddish,Finnish,Meänkieli,SamiandRomanichibwereincludedinthispolicysincetheywerelanguagesotherthanSwedish.

36 Tallberg Broma, Ingegerd, Rubenstein Reich, Lena, Hägerström, Jeanette (2002) Likvärdighet i en skola för alla – Historisk bakgrund och kritisk granskning (Equality in a school for all – Historical background and critical review) p. 105.

However,nospecialeffortsweremadefortheselanguagesandculturesthathadexistedinSwedenforcenturies.Thedistancebetweenthenewnativelanguageeducationanditsimplementationwasalreadylargefromtheoutset,however,andbecameevenlargerinassociationwiththedecentralisationandfinancialcut-backsofthe1980sand1990s.HyltenstambelievesthatthegapbetweenlegislationandimplementationindicatesthatthenationalisticallybasedideasstillprevailintheSwedishstate’seducationandlanguagepolicy.37

TheschoolsystemthatprevailedinnorthernSwedenfromtheendofthe19thcenturyuptothe1960sprovidedexamplesofhowtheschoolsystem,withtheaimofsegregation,sortedchildrenintoethnicgroups.Attheendofthe19thcenturyandabitintothe20thcentury,SamichildrencouldattendtheLappprimaryschool,whichwassupposedtobetheequivalentofthepublicprimaryschool.TheLappprimaryschoolwasafive-yearschoolandthelanguageofinstructionwasFinnishandSami,whichiswhyitwasalsoopentoFinnishandTornedalianchildren.Itwasorientedalongthemajority’sculturalandreligiousvalues.TheideawasthatSamiandFinnishwouldbeusedasauxiliarylanguagesuntilthechildrenlearnedSwedishsufficientlywell.38

Duringtheperiodof1913uptothe1940swhen“Lapp-should-be-Lapp”ideasprevailed,theLappprimaryschoolwasreplacedwiththenomadschool,whichwascompulsoryforthechildrenofreindeer-herdingSami.39ResearcherEllacarinBlind,whointerviewedSamiabouttheirexperiencesofattendingthenomadschool,confirmsthatalthoughthenomadschoolwasaschoolforSamichildren,theSamilanguageandculturewerenotapartoftheregularactivities.Theschoolconveyed,accordingtoEllacarinBlind,anegativepictureoftheSamilanguage.ManySamichildrenhadSamiastheirmothertonguewhentheybeganattendingtheschool,but

37 Hyltenstam, Kenneth (1999) ”Inledning: Ideologi, politik och minoritetsspråk” (Introduction: Ideology, politics and minority languages) in Hyltenstam, Kenneth (ed) Sveriges sju inhemska språk – Ett minoritetsspråksperspektiv p. 11 ff.

39 DO (2008) Discrimination of the Sami – rights of the Sami from a discrimination perspective and Mörkenstam, Ulf (1999) Om ”Lapparnes privilegier” – Föreställningar om samiskhet i svensk samepolitik 1883–1997 (About ”the Lapps’ previleges” – Notions of being Sami in Swedish Sami policy 1883-1997).

sincethechildrenhadnocontactwiththeirparentsforlargepartsoftheyear,theylosttheirlanguage.40

Specialtentsweredevelopedforeducationandboardingschoolstays.Thetentswerebuiltofwoodwithfloorsofpeatandbushwoodandoutfittedwithreindeerskinsandskinrugs.Thestatedobjectiveofthetentswastopreventthechildrenfromacquiringatasteforcommonhousing.Thetentsweredraughtyandmanychildrenfellill.Thereisalsoinformationthatchildrendiedduetothesanitaryconditions.41Onlyin1964werereindeer-herdingSaminolongerrequiredtosendtheirchildrentothenomadschool.42Atthesametime,thenomadschoolwasopenedtoallSamichildren,Samibecamearequiredsubjectandwaspermittedtocoveramaximumoftwohoursweeklyand9-yearcompulsoryschoolattendancewasintroduced.In1981,thenomadschoolwasreplacedbytheSamischool.43

Anexampleofaregulationdirectedatlinguisticassimilationisthestategranttoschoolsintroducedattheendofthe19thcentury.ItwasrequiredthatonlySwedishcouldbeusedasteachinglanguage,andtherequirementappliedbothduringclassesandonbreaks.Itwasnotuntiltheendofthe1950sthattheNationalAgencyforEducationissuedinformationthatnobanwaspermittedonstudentsspeakinge.g.FinnishorSamiduringbreaks.44

Anexampleofdecisionsthataffectedminorities’possibilitiesofparticipatinginthepoliticalarenaisthefactthattheSamiwithoutpermanentresidenceswerenotgiventherighttovoteuntil1911.45Anotherexampleistherequirementthatonemustberegisteredinacertainmunicipalitytobeabletovote,whichhaspreventedtheRomafrom

40 SOU 2006:19, Att återta mitt språk – Åtgärder för att stärka det samiska språket (Reclaiming my language – Measures to strengthen the Sami language), Appendix 7 ”Att förlora sitt språk – Samers berättelser om nomadskoletiden” (Losing ones’ language – The Sami speak about the time of the nomad school).

41 Catomeris, Christian (2002), Det ohyggliga arvet (The atrocious legacy) p. 211 ff.

42 Catomeris, Christian (2002), Det ohyggliga arvet (The atrocious legacy) p. 211 ff.

43 Sami children can receive an education with a Sami focus at the Sami school. Education corresponds to the first six years of compulsory school.

44 Hyltenstam, Kenneth (1999) ”Begreppen språk och dialekt – Om meänkielis utveckling till eget språk.” (Concepts of language and dialect – About Meänkieli’s development into an independent language) in Hyltenstam, Kenneth (ed) Sveriges sju inhemska språk – Ett minoritetsspråksperspektiv, p. 127.

receivingvoterregistrationcards.ThepermanentresidencyoftheRomawasmadeimpossiblebydomiciliaryrightsandlocalregulationsthatpermittedmunicipalitiestodrivetheRomafromplacetoplace.ThisalsopreventedRomachildrenfromgainingaccesstocontinuouseducation.Itwasnotuntilthe1960sthatRomachildrengainedaccesstoschool.

Inherdissertation,ChristinaRodellOlgacdescribestheRomaminority’srelationshiptothemajoritysociety’sschoolsincethemiddleofthe20thcenturyuntilthepresent.OlgachasinterviewedRomaontheirschoolingduringtheperiodfrom1970upto2000.ItisclearthatopenlyracistnotionsoftheRomahaveinfluencedtheirschoolingandcontributedtoananimositytowardsschoolsasaninstitution.Manysaythattheyhaveexperiencesofoffensesthatareassociatedtotheirethnicbackground.NoneofthoseinterviewedexperiencedtheirRomaculturebeingportrayedasanassetinschool.Becausetheirparentsmostoftendidnotattendschool,theywereoftennotawareofwhatcompulsoryschoolattendancemeant.Fromtheinterviews,itisalsoapparentthattheonlymeansRomaparentshadtoprotecttheirchildrenfromracistattacksandfromgettingintotroublewastokeepthechildrenhomefromschool.Altogether,thiscontributedtotheschoolingofRomachildrenbeingdefective.46

ThetreatmentofnationalminoritiesinSwedenhasbeencharacterisedbypersecutionandvictimisationinotherwaysaswell.In1921,SwedenbecamethefirstcountryintheworldtoestablishanationalracialbiologyinstituteundertheguidanceofHermanLundborg.Racialbiologywasdevelopedduringthe19thcenturyandincreasinglycametoformthebasisofaracialpolicythatincludedanexpressedstrategyofthesterilisationofRomaandSami.Farintothe1960’s,themedicaldiagnosisof“Gypsyblood”wasareasonforsterilisation.47Swedish-Finns,TornedalersandJewswerealsosubjectedtoracialbiologystudies.Withthehelpofmeasurements,photographsandbloodtests,theracialbiologyinstitutecouldpresentstudiesthatstatedthatracialmixesnegativelyimpactedthedevelopmentofmankind.48

Inastudy,theOfficialCouncilofJewishCommunitiesinSwedendescribedtheconditionsrequiredforYiddishtocontinueasalivinglanguageandtodevelop.ItisclearthattheJewishcultureandtheYiddishlanguagehavehadanobscureroleinSweden.ManyJewsdescribetheoffence

46 Rodell Olgac, Christina (2005) Den romska minoriteten i majoritetssamhällets skola – Från hot till möjlighet (The Roma minority in the schools of the majority society – From threats to opportunity).

47 Lindquist, Bosse (1991) Förädlade svenskar (Refined Swedes), especially see pp. 106 and 136.

48 Catomeris, Christian (2002) Det ohyggliga arvet (The atrocious legacy).

andlossinvolvedinbeingdeniedtheirlanguageandtheirculturebytheassimilationpoliciesthatwerepursuedinSweden.Manyhaveexperiencesofcompulsorymorninggatheringsthatmeantclaspingoneshandsandsayingnon-Jewishprayers,ofshowingcertificatesforleaveduringJewishholidays,andofgoinghomeonlunchbreakstobeabletoeatakoshermeal.49

ThisgeneralreviewofthehistoryofnationalminoritiesinSwedenshowsthattheyweresubjectedtostate-sanctioneddiscriminationandpressuretoassimilatefromthemajoritysociety.Discriminationandpersecutioninboththeeducationsystemandtherestofsocietyhavebeenrecurringelementsofthelivesoftheminorities.IntheDO’sdialoguewithnationalminorities,particularattentionwaspaidtoeducationandassimilationpolicy.NationalminoritiesexpressthatSweden’spursuedpolicyhasaffectedtheirself-image.Manyexpresstheviolationinherentinnotbeingpermittedtoasserttheiridentityandhavingbeendeniedtheirmothertongue.Theminoritiesexpressthattheonlypossibilityofbeingacceptedinsocietyhasbeentosuppresstheirethnicidentityandinsteadadapttothemajoritysociety.50

49 Sznajderman-Rytz, Susanne (2007) Jiddisch – Ett språk utan land med hemvist i Sverige. Åtgärder för att stärka och utveckla jiddisch år 2007 (Yiddish – A language without a country resident in Sweden. Measure to strengthen and develop Yiddish in 2007), p. 5.

50 See also SOU 2006:19 (2006) Att återta mitt språk – Åtgärder för att stärka det samiska språket (Reclaiming my language – Measures to strengthen the Sami language), p. 74 ff.

Rights and freedoms of persons belonging to national minoritiesTheratificationoftheCouncilofEurope’sminorityconventionsisacleardistancingfrompreviousassimilationreasoning.Theconventionsestablishthatthesignatoriesshallraisethestatusoftheminorities’languagesandculturesandprotecttheminoritiesfromallactionsaimedatassimilation.51ThefollowingsectionpresentstheextendedrightsthatJews,Sami,Swedish-Finns,Tornedalers52andRomahaveasnationalminorities.ThissectionaimstoillustratewhattheinternationallawcommitmentsmeanfortherightsofSweden’snationalminoritieswithintheeducationsystem.

Sincethe1950s,internationalorganisationssuchastheUNandtheCouncilofEuropehaveemphasizedtheneedtosafeguardminorityrightsandhavethereforedraftedconventions,declarationsandrecommendations.ThelanguagecharterandtheframeworkconventionweredraftedintheCouncilofEuropeandbuildontheinsightthatthereisalargenumberofminoritiesinEuropethathavelonglivedintheareaandhavetheirownlanguageandculture.53TheCouncilofEurope’sminorityconventionsprovideculturalandlinguisticprotectionfornationalminoritiesandminoritylanguagesinthecountriesthatratifythem.Swedenratifiedthemin2000andhassincebeenobligedunderinternationallawtocomplywiththecommitmentsthatSwedenhastowardstheminoritiesrecognisedasnationalminorities.

The Council of Europe’s Framework Convention

Theintroductionoftheframeworkconventionconfirmsthat

“...apluralistandgenuinelydemocraticsocietyshouldnotonlyrespecttheethnic,cultural,linguisticandreligiousidentityofeachpersonbelongingtoanationalminority,butalsocreateappropriateconditionsenablingthemtoexpress,preserveanddevelopthisidentity.”

Insection1oftheframeworkconvention(articles1-3),fundamentalstartingpointsareestablishedforitscontentsandapplication.Itconfirmsthattheprotectionofnationalminoritiescomprisesanintegratedpartoftheinternationalprotectionofhumanrights,thateverypersonbelongingtoanationalminoritymayhimorherselfchoosewhethertheywanttobe

51 Prop. 1998/99:143 (1999) National minorities in Sweden p. 11ff. Also see the Council of Europe’s Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, article 5 in particular.

52 They are also known as Torne Valley Finns and Tornedalings.

53 Prop. 1998/99:143 (1999) National minorities in Sweden, p. 9.

treatedassuch,andthattherightsintheconventionsmaybeexercisedindividuallyandinunitywithothers.

Section2oftheframeworkconvention(articles4-19)presentsmoresubstantialrightswithregardtotheprotectionofnationalminorities.Therighttonotbediscriminatedagainstisparticularlyemphasized.Furthermore,thestateshalltakeappropriateactiontopromotecompleteandeffectiveequalitybetweenpersonswhobelongtonationalminoritiesandthosewhobelongtothemajoritypopulation,whichshouldbereadasarequirementofpositivespecialtreatmentinmatterswhereequalitydoesnotexistbetweenthegroups.Itisalsoestablishedthatthestateshallpromotetheconditionsforpeoplewhobelongtonationalminoritiestopreserveanddeveloptheirculture.Actionsandmethodsthataimtoassimilatepeoplebelongingtonationalminoritiesagainsttheirwillareprohibited.Thestateshallinsteadencouragetoleranceandinter-culturaldialogueandpromotemutualrespectandunderstandingbetweenresidentsregardlessoforigin.Thisisparticularlyemphasizedwithineducation,cultureandmassmedia.

Linguisticrightsarecentraltotheconvention.Amongotherelements,itisstipulatedthatnationalminoritieshavetherighttousetheirlanguageinprivateandpubliccontextsandthattheyundercertainconditionsshallbegiventhepossibilitytouseminoritylanguagesincontactwithauthorities.

Intermsofeducation,itisparticularlyemphasizedthatnationalminoritieshavearighttolearntheirminoritylanguageandthatthestateshaveacorrespondingobligationtooffernativelanguageinstructionoreducationinthenativelanguage.Furthermore,statesshalltakeactiontopromoteknowledgeaboutthenationalminoritiesinthecountry,thepossibilityofteachertraininginthearea,equalopportunitiesforpersonsbelongingtothenationalminoritiestogainaccesstoeducationatalllevelsandtheminorities’righttoestablishtheirownprivateeducationalbodies.

Section3oftheframeworkconvention(articles20-23)containsstipulationsthatassociatetherightsestablishedintheconventiontobothnationalandinternationallaw.Itisestablishedthatnothingintheconventionshallbeabletobeinterpretedsuchthatitentitlesanyonetocarryoutactionsthatconflictwithfundamentalprinciplesofinternationallawandthattheframeworkconvention’srightsaresubordinatetotheEuropeanConventionwithregardtotheinterpretationofcorrespondingprinciplesfoundthere.

Section4oftheframeworkconventionsetsouttheproceduresthatapplyforthemonitoringoftheconvention.StatesthatsignedtheconventionshallsubmitareporttotheCouncilofEuroperegardingissuesthatconcerntheimplementationoftheconventioneverythreeyears.States

normallypreparethereportinconsultationwiththeminorities,amethodstronglyrecommendedbytheCouncilofEurope.Themonitoringprocess,whichisinitiatedwhenthereportfromthestatehasbeenpresentedtotheCouncilofEurope’sAdvisoryCommittee,takesplaceinconsultationwithNGOsandrepresentativesoftheminorities.Basedonwhatcomesforthinthemonitoringprocess,theAdvisoryCommitteesubmitsareporttotheCommitteeofMinisters.TheCommitteeofMinisterspresentsrecommendationstothegovernmentsinthestatesthathaveratifiedtheconvention.Theserecommendationsarethemostauthoritativeinstrumentsintheconvention.

European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages

IntheintroductiontotheEuropeanCharterforRegionalorMinorityLanguages,itisestablishedthat

”…theprotectionofthehistoricalregionalorminoritylanguagesofEurope,someofwhichareindangerofeventualextinction,contributestothemaintenanceanddevelopmentofEurope’sculturalwealthandtraditions,[…]andtherighttousearegionalorminoritylanguageinprivateandpubliclifeisaninalienablerightconformingtotheprinciplesembodiedintheUnitedNationsInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights,andaccordingtothespiritoftheCouncilofEuropeConventionfortheProtectionofHumanRightsandFundamentalFreedoms.”

Thechartercomprisesfiveparts.Thefirstbringsupdefinitionsofcentralconcepts,whichincludewhatismeantbyregionalorminoritylanguages.Thelanguagesaredividedintotwocategories,ononehandregionallanguagesthathaveastrongterritorialassociation,andontheotherterritoriallyindependentlanguages,whereanassociationtoaspecificareawithinastatecannotbeproven.Whichlanguagesaretobeviewedasminoritylanguagesisnotdefined,butratherlefttoeachrespectivestatetodecide.Thesecondpartofthecharteronlyconsistsofarticle7anditlistsanumberofobjectivesandprinciplesthatthestatepledgestocomplywithuponratification.Theseincludethatstatesshallcombatandpreventdiscriminationrelatedtotheuseofminoritylanguagesandbuildupalegalandadministrativestructurethatrecognisesandrespectsminoritylanguages.Thisarticlefurthermoreincludesaparagraphthatemphasizesconsultationandinfluenceforthenationalminoritiescoveredbythecharter.

“Indeterminingtheirpolicywithregardtoregionalorminoritylanguages,thePartiesshalltakeintoconsiderationtheneedsandwishesexpressedbythegroupswhichusesuchlanguages.Theyareencouragedtoestablishbodies,ifnecessary,forthepurposeofadvisingtheauthoritiesonallmatterspertainingtoregionalorminoritylanguages.”

Thethirdpartofthecharterconsistsofanumberofprinciplescontainingoptionsthatadoptingstatescanchoosefromforadoption.Theimportanceofeducationisestablishedinitsfirstitem.Thisitembringsupprinciplesforeducationinandwithminoritylanguagesinvirtuallyallkindsofpublicschooleducation.Thecharteralsopresentsmeasuresthataimtorelateinstructiononhistoryandculturetothecountry’sminoritylanguagesandtoprovideteachertraining.

Thefourthpartofthecharterdescribesthereportingsystemconcerningcompliancetothecharter,whichisdescribedonpage23.

Swedish legislation concerning national minorities’ right to education

InconnectionwithSwedenratifyingtheminorityconventions,twonewlawswereintroducedthatprovideanextendedrighttouseSami,FinnishandMeänkieliinpubliccontexts.NocorrespondinglawsandrightsexistconcerningRomanichibandYiddish.

ThepartsoftheconventioncommitmentsconcerningeducationalissueswereconsideredtolargelyalreadyberegulatedintheSwedishschoolstatutes.Newregulationswereconsideredtoberequiredonlyinmattersregardingpreschoolandthatstudentshavehaveknowledgeofnationalminoritiesandminoritylanguages.54

Right to minority languages within certain geographic areas

ThecurrentSwedishminoritylegislationisbuiltuparoundthemodelthatthereshallbegeographicallydelimitedareaswhereprotectionandsupportfortheminoritiesisstronger.Theideaofspeciallanguagerightswithinaso-calledadministrativedistrictisthataminorityanditslanguageareconcentratedtoacertaingeographicarea.55Withintheadministrativedistricts,nationalminoritieshaveextendedrightstousetheminoritylanguagesincontactwithauthoritiesandcourtsandtoreceivecertainpublicservicesintheseminoritylanguages.TheSamiadministrativedistrictconsistsoftheMunicipalitiesofArjeplog,Gällivare,JokkmokkandKiruna.TheadministrativedistrictforFinnishandMeänkieliconsistsoftheMunicipalitiesofGällivare,Haparanda,Kiruna,PajalaandÖvertorneå.

54 Prop. 1998/99:143 (1999) National minorities in Sweden, pp. 58-59.

55 There are two laws that establish the right to use Sami or Finnish and Meänkieli at administrative authorities and courts (SFS 1999:1175 and 1999:1176).

Astoeducation,Sami,Swedish-FinnishandTornedalianchildrenintheadministrativedistrictsareentitledtopreschoolwhereallorpartsoftheactivitiesareconductedinSami,FinnishorMeänkieli.

Right to education in and with one’s own language

Therighttoeducationinminoritylanguagesisnottiedtocertaingeographicalareas,butratherguaranteedthroughnativelanguageteachingincompulsoryschool.Theschool’sobligationtoprovidesuchteachingisregulatedinChapter2Sections9-14oftheCompulsorySchoolOrdinance.Astudentisentitledtoteachinginher/hismothertongueifoneorbothofher/hisguardianshasalanguageotherthanSwedishastheirmothertongueandifthestudenthasbasicknowledgeofthelanguage.56However,amunicipalityisobligedtoarrangenativelanguagetraininginalanguageonlyifasuitableteacherisavailable.

Thereisalsoanobligationtooffernativelanguagesupportinpreschools.Inaccordancewiththe1998preschoolcurriculum,preschoolsshallcontributetochildrenbelongingtonationalminoritiesreceivingsupportindevelopingamulti-culturalidentity.PreschoolsshallcontributetochildrenwithmothertonguesotherthanSwedishreceivingthepossibilityofdevelopingboththeSwedishlanguageandtheirmothertongue.

Bilingualinstructionmayonlybearrangedforstudentsingrades1-6thathavealanguageotherthanSwedishastheirlanguageofdailyconversationwithoneorbothguardians,pursuanttoChapter2Section7oftheCompulsorySchoolOrdinance.ForstudentswithFinnishastheirlanguageofordinaryconversation,suchinstructionmayalsobearrangedforgrades7-9.Amunicipalitymay,however,arrangepilotprogrammeswithbilingualinstructionalsoforstudentsotherthanFinnishingrades7–9.57

PursuanttoChapter8Section8oftheEducationAct,Samichildrenmaycompletetheircompulsoryschoolattendanceduringgrades1-6intheSamischool.FortheSamischool,instructionshallbegiveninSwedishandSamiandthesubjectofSamishallbeinallgrades,seeChapter3Section2oftheSamiOrdinance.

56 The DO welcomes the recently implemented change where the criteria of it being a language of daily intercourse was removed, and the requirement on the minimum number of students for Sweden-Finnish and Jewish students. For independent schools, the same obligation to provide native language education applies in the same way as a municipality is obliged to provide such education.

57 The Ordinance regarding pilot activities with bilingual education in compulsory school (2003:306).

Protection against discrimination and offensive treatment within the education system

Theframeworkconvention’sstipulationsregardingequalityandprotectionagainstdiscriminationareimplementedinSwedenwithregardtoschoolsthroughtheAct(2006:67)prohibitingdiscriminationandotherdegradingtreatmentofchildrenandschoolstudents.Thelawaccordinglycoverschildrenandstudentswhobelongtothenationalminoritiesandtheireducationalsituationandrighttovariouseducationaleffortssuchasnativelanguageteaching.

Thelawprovidesprotectionagainstdiscrimination,harassmentandotherdegradingtreatmentonthepartoftheschoolandchargestheschoolwithworkingtopreventharassmentandotherdegradingtreatment.Thelawalsooutlinestheschool’sobligationtoconducteffortstopromotetheequalrightsofchildrenandstudents.

Council of Europe criticism of SwedenSignatorystatesoftheCouncilofEurope’sminorityconventionsshallsubmitreportstotheCouncilofEuropeeverythreeyearsregardingissuesthatconcerntheimplementationoftheconventions.MonitoringiscarriedoutbytheCouncilofEurope’sAdvisoryCommittees,whichauditthestates’reports.TheAdvisoryCommitteesthenpreparereportsfortheCouncilofEurope’sCommitteeofMinisters,whichpresentsrecommendationstotherespectivestatebasedonwhatcomestolightinthereports.

The Council of Europe’s Framework Convention

SwedenhassubmittedtworeportstotheCouncilofEuroperegardinghowithasimplementedtheframeworkconvention.ThelatestreportwassubjectedtoreviewandtheCouncilofEurope’sAdvisoryCommitteesubmitteditsreportregardingSweden’sapplicationofthestipulationsintheframeworkconventionon8November2007.58Thereportpointsoutanumberifdeficiencieswithregardtotheminorities’educationalopportunities.

TheAdvisoryCommitteewelcomestheNationalAgencyforEducation’sreviewofhownationalminoritiesarepresentedinteachingaidsandthereisawebsitefornativelanguageeducation,butconfirmsthatthecriticismpresentedinthepreviousmonitoringroundstillapplies.59

Thecommitteemaintainsthatrelevantauthoritiesshouldfindwaysofaddressingtheimageofthenationalminorities’cultureandhistorythatexistsintextbooks,asindicatedbytheNationalAgencyforEducation’sreview.Accordingtothecommittee,thisrequiresclosecooperationbetweennationalminoritiesandtheschoolsystem.60ThelackofteacherswhomasterminoritylanguagesisidentifiedbythecommitteeasamajorproblemforSweden.ThecommitteewelcomestheGovernment’sinitiativetoestablishaplantoofferuniversityeducationforteachersinminoritylanguages,butseeksconcreteresults.ThelackofteachersintheminoritylanguagesofRomaniChibandSouthSamiisparticularlyserious,accordingtothecommittee,anddemandsstrongandpromptaction.

58 Sweden will submit its next report to the Council of Europe regarding the application of the framework convention in June 2011.

59 Council of Europe (2007) Advisory committee on the framework convention for the protection of national minorities (2007) Second opinion on Sweden on 8 November 2007. items 21–22.

60 Council of Europe (2007) Advisory committee on the framework convention for the protection of national minorities (2007) Second opinion on Sweden on 8 November 2007. item 119.

TheAdvisoryCommitteenotesthatthereisacleardemandforbilingualeducationamongthenationalminorities.Furthermore,thecommitteeconfirmsthattheindependentschoolshavehadacentralroleinofferingeducationintheminoritylanguagesandencouragesSwedentoprovidefurthersupportforinitiativesinthisarea.Accordingtothecommittee,Swedenshouldconsidertheintroductionofastatutoryobligationtoarrangebilingualeducation.

ThecommitteeadditionallynotesthattheJewishschoolhasbeendefinedasaconfessionalschool,withoutJewishrepresentativeshavingthepossibilityofparticipatinginthedecisionprocess.Accordingtothecommittee,thisdecisionisunfortunate.ThecommitteeproposesthatSwedishauthoritiespromptlytakeactionsothatJewishrepresentativescanparticipateindecisionsconcerningtheschoolandensurethatdecisionsmadearenotdiscriminatory.

ThecommitteedevotesparticularattentiontotheconditionsofRomachildreninschool.ThecommitteewelcomesthefactthatthequestionofRomachildren’sschoolinghasreceivedattention,butseeksconcreteresultsthatmeanarealimprovementofthesituationofRomachildreninschool.ThecommitteeemphasizestheimportanceoffurthermeasuresthatensureRomachildren’spossibilityofreceivinganeducationthatisfreefromharassmentandthatrespectstheRomaandtheirculture.

European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages

SwedenhassubmittedthreereportstotheCouncilofEuroperegardingtheapplicationofthelanguagecharter.Thelatestreport,whichwassubmittedtotheCouncilofEuropeinOctober2007,isnowsubjecttoexaminationbytheAdvisoryCommittee.TheCommitteeofMinisterswillthen,during2009,submitrecommendationstotheGovernmentforthethirdtimeregardingSweden’sapplicationofthelanguagecharter.WhentheCouncilofEuropesubmitteditssecondreportin2006regardingSweden’sapplicationofthestipulationsinthecharter,anumberofdeficiencieswereconfirmedandanumberofrecommendationswereprovidedregardingmeasuresthatSwedenshouldimplement.

TheCommitteeofMinisterspointsouthowimportantitisthatSwedencreatesspecificlegislationfortheprotectionofthefiveminoritylanguagesandthatSwedenestablishesabodychargedwithmonitoringthislegislation.ThecommitteeespeciallyemphasizestheimportanceofexpandingtheadministrativedistrictsforFinnishandSami.

Inaddition,theCommitteeofMinistersemphasizesthatSwedenshouldundertakemeasurestostrengthentheaccesstoeducationinandonthe

minoritylanguages.Thecommitteepointsoutthatresourcesneedtobeaddedandactionneedstobetakentoremovethestructuralobstaclesthatexisttoday.TheCommitteeofMinistersbelievesthatlong-termstrategiestoresolvethelackofteachersandthelackofaccesstolower-secondaryeducationintheminoritylanguagesareneededtoaddressthis.

TheCommitteeofMinistersdevotesparticularattentiontochildren’sopportunitiesofreceivingnativelanguageeducationinminoritylanguages.ItisstressedthatboththequalityofandtheaccesstonativelanguageeducationmustbeimprovedandthatSwedenshouldundertakemeasuressothatSami,SwedishFinnish,TornedalianandRomachildrenwillbeabletobeofferedbilingualeducation.

TheCommitteeofMinistersfurthermorestressesthatSwedenshouldtakeactiontopromotetheuseofFinnish,MeänkieliandSamiincontactwithadministrativeauthoritiesandcourtsintheadministrativedistricts.61

61 Council of Europe (2006) Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers Council of Europe on the application of the Charter by Sweden.

National minorities’ experiences of discrimination in the education systemSchoolsplayaspecialroleandhaveaspecialresponsibilityinsociety.Duringthelatterhalfofthe20thcentury,schoolsweredifferentiatedasbothtoolsandmeansintheambitionofabolishingsocialgaps.Whenthecommoncompulsoryschoolwasintroducedatthebeginningofthe1960s,thevisionwasthatitwouldbeaplacewhereallstudentsregardlessofbackgroundwouldbeofferedthesameopportunitiesofeducationandcontinuedstudies.

Anillustrationofthespecialtaskofschoolscanbefoundinthepreschoolandcompulsoryschoolcurricula,whichstatethattheschoolisaplacewherechildrenregardlessofbackgroundshallbeofferedequaleducation.Schoolsshallbefoundedonandshapedinagreementwithfundamentaldemocraticvalues.62Thevaluesthatschoolsshallshapeandconvey,accordingtothe1994curriculum,are“theinviolabilityofhumanlife,individualfreedomandintegrity,theequalvalueofallpeople,equalitybetweenwomenandmenandsolidaritywiththeweakandvulnerable”.63Furthermore,thecurriculumsetsforthobjectivesthatindicatethedirectionoftheworkofschools.Schoolsshallstriveforeachstudentto“showrespectfortheindividualandorganisedailyworkindemocraticways”.64Uponcompletionofcompulsoryschool,eachstudentshallhave“knowledgeaboutthenationalminorities’cultures,languages,religionsandhistory”.65

Despiteexpressintentionstoworkbasedonacommonsetoffundamentalvaluesandtosafeguardthestudents’knowledgeandexperiences,researchandtheDO’sdialoguewithnationalminoritiesshowthatitisthemajoritysociety’sperceptionsthatmattersintheschoolworld.ThischapterdescribesJewish,Sami,Swedish-Finnish,TornedalianandRomaexperiencesofdiscriminationintheeducationsystemastheywereexpressedintheDO’sdialoguewiththenationalminorities.Itisimportanttoemphasizethatthefivenationalminoritygroupsdifferfromoneanotherandhavedifferentconditionswithregardtopreservinganddeveloping

62 Lpo 94 (1994) 1994 curriculum for the compulsory school system, the pre-school class and the leisure-time centre. 1 Fundamental values and tasks of the school.

63 Lpo 94 (1994) 1994 curriculum for the compulsory school system, the pre-school class and the leisure-time centre. 1 Fundamental values and tasks of the school.

64 Lpo 94 (1994) The curriculum for the compulsory school system, the pre-school class and the leisure-time centre, 2.1 Norms and values.

65 Lpo 94 (1994) The curriculum for the compulsory school system, the pre-school class and the leisure-time centre, 2.2 Knowledge.

theirlanguages.Thefollowingpresentsthesharedexperiencesfromthefivenationalminorities,aswellasspecificexperiencesforsomeofthenationalminorities.

Education

HoweducationisshapedisofcentralsignificancetothesurvivalofnationalminoritylanguagesandculturesinSweden.Researchindicatesthatiftheminorities’possibilitiesoftransferringthelanguagestothenextgenerationarenotensured,thelanguagesmaydieout.Itcannotbeemphasizedenoughthattheroleandactivitiesofschoolsandpreschoolscanbeofcrucialsignificanceforthepossibilitiesofindividualstoacquiretheminoritylanguageandculture.IntheDO’sdialoguewithnationalminorities,itbecomesclearthatmanyhaveexperiencesofmunicipalitieshavinginsufficientknowledgeaboutnationalminoritiesandtherightsthattheseminoritieshaveinaccordancewiththeminorityconventions.ThisisconfirmedinareportfromtheNationalAgencyforEducationthatconfirmsthatthereislittleknowledgeaboutnationalminorities’rightsandconsequentlythereisnoworkbasedonthespecialrightsofnationalminorities.66

IntheDO’sdialoguewithnationalminorities,itisclearthattheyhaveexperiencesofschoolsnotcontributingtostrengtheningtheiridentity,languageorculture.Itoccursextremelyseldomthatchildrenhavetheiridentity,cultureorlanguageaffirmedinaneducationalcontext.ThisisalsoillustratedinareportfromtheNationalAgencyforEducationthatanalysesaselectionoftextbooksincompulsoryandupper-secondaryschoolsintermsofif,howandtowhatextenttheydeviatefromthefundamentalvaluesofthecurricula.Thereportconfirmsthatmanytextbookscanbeperceivedasdegradingordiscriminatorybystudentswithnationalminoritybackgrounds.67Thebooksreviewedinsociologyandhistoryaretoobrief,sothattheyareunabletoprovidespaceforgreaterdetailorproblemdiscussionofe.g.thesituationoftheSamiinSweden.Thereviewalsoindicatesthatthebooksprovideaslantedviewofcurrentconditions.Forexample,Jewsarementionedonseveraloccasionsinthetextbooks,butonlyinconnectionwithpersecutionandmassmurder.Jewishcontributions

66 National Agency for Education (2005) De nationella minoriteternas utbildningssituation (The national minorities’ education situation), Rapport 2005:272.

67 National Agency for Education (2006) I enlighet med skolans värdegrund? En granskning av hur etnisk tillhörighet, funktionshinder, kön, religion och sexuell läggning framställs i ett urval av läromedel (In accordance with fundamental school values? An examination of how ethnic origin, disability, gender, religion and sexual orientation are presented in a selection of teaching aids) p. 45.

tocultureandsciencearerarelymentioned.Thesituation,cultureorlanguageoftheRoma,SwedishFinnsorTornedalersarenotdiscussedatall.68ResearcherHaraldRunholm,whoconductedthetextbookreviewonbehalfoftheNationalAgencyforEducation,stressesthatcompulsoryschoolbooks“donotliveuptotherequirementssetinthecompulsoryschoolcurriculumforsocialstudies”.69

ItistheDO’sviewthateducationaboutandwithnationalminoritiesabouttheircultureandlanguagecancontributetostrengtheningtheseminorities’languageandposition.Knowledgethatisconveyedinteachingaidsandeducationalcontextscanbesaidtoreflectwhatisconsideredsuitableknowledgetoteachtochildren.Itcannotbeemphasizedenoughthatteachingaidsmustpresentanuancedillustrationoftheminorities’historyandsituationinSweden.Sucheducationcancontributetostrengtheningthepositionofthenationalminoritiesandtherebycontributetocombatingandpreventingdiscriminationoftheseminoritiesbothineducationalcontextsandintherestofsociety.

InthepreparatoryworkfortheAct(2006:67)prohibitingdiscriminationandotherdegradingtreatmentofchildrenandschoolstudents,itisconfirmedthatitisofmajorsignificancethat

“…thetextbooksandotherteachingaidsthatareproducedforinstructionarenotdatedanddonotspreadprejudiceandantiquatednotionsandherebyconflictwithfundamentalanddemocraticvaluesandtheUNconventionsonhumanrights.”70

UsingliteratureineducationalcontextsthatcontainsgrossgeneralisationsorprovidesanegativedescriptionofthesituationofnationalminoritiesinSwedencannotbeseenaspromotingtheequalopportunitiesofstudents.Thereisariskthatschoolsconveyandcontributetocreatingsimplifiedandstereotypicalnotionsofnationalminoritiesgiventhestateoftheteachingaidstoday.Suchliteratureisalsoatriskofresultinginchildrenbelongingtonationalminoritiesfeelingdegradedandconsequentlynotbeingableor

68 National Agency for Education (2006) I enlighet med skolans värdegrund? En granskning av hur etnisk tillhörighet, funktionshinder, kön, religion och sexuell läggning framställs i ett urval av läromedel (In accordance with fundamental school values? An examination of how ethnic origin, disability, gender, religion and sexual orientation are presented in a selection of teaching aids) p. 22 f.

69 National Agency for Education (2006) I enlighet med skolans värdegrund? En granskning av hur etnisk tillhörighet, funktionshinder, kön, religion och sexuell läggning framställs i ett urval av läromedel (In accordance with fundamental school values? An examination of how ethnic origin, disability, gender, religion and sexual orientation are presented in a selection of teaching aids) p. 23.

70 Prop. 2005/06:38 (2006) Security, respect and responsibility – the prohibition of discrimination and other degrading treatment of children and school students p. 68, which describes the bases of the Act (2006:67) Prohibiting Discrimination and Other Degrading Treatment of Children and School Students.

wantingtoacquirethecontentofinstruction,whichcanaffectchildren’sschoolresults.

Theuseoftextbookswithdegradingcontentcanleadtoharassmentinalegalsenseandresultinanobligationtopaydamages.Thisisentirelydependentonhowtheinstructingteacherhandlesthematerialinrelationtothestudents.71Aschoolthatusesliteraturethatcanbeperceivedasdegradinginrelationtonationalminoritiesshouldthereforereplacesuchliteratureasapartoftheworktopromoteequalrightsandpreventdiscriminationandharassment.Iftheschoolbecomesawarethatastudenthasfeltharassedduetoliteratureusedinschooleducation,theschoolhasanobligationtoinvestigatethecircumstancesand,whereappropriate,undertakethemeasuresthatcanreasonablyberequiredtopreventcontinuedharassment.

Harassment

IntheDO’sdialoguewithnationalminorities,itbecomesapparentthatJewish,Sami,Swedish-Finnish,TornedalianandRomachildrenhaveexperiencedharassmentassociatedwiththeirethnicbackground.Theyhavebeensubjectedtothisbybothotherstudentsandbyteachers.Harassmentisatermthatreferstodegradingbehaviourthatisassociatedwithoneofthediscriminatorygroundsofgender,ethnicorigin,religionorotherbeliefs,sexualorientationordisability.72Thisexpressesitselfthroughverbalabusesuchas“Lappbastard”,“Gypsykid”,“Jewkid”and“Finnbastard”andotherdegradingverbalabuse.Oneexampleofhowharassmentcanbeexpressedinclassroomsinvolvedtwogirlswhowrote“Jew”onaboy’sneckwitharedpen.73

AnotherexampleisaSamiwomanwhotoldhowhersonwasassaultedatschoolbythreeotherboyswhoshouted“Lappbastard”and“killtheLappbastard”.Theassaultwassoseriousthathehadtobetakentohospital.Themotherhasindicatedthattheheadteachermadelightoftheeventandthat

71 Compare HomO’s factsheet Kränkande kurslitteratur i högskolans undervisning (Offensive course literature in university education). See also Prop 2007/08:95 (2008) A stronger protection against discrimination p. 196 which states: ”material with partially dated contents being used cannot normally be considered discriminatory, but it can generally be desirable that the education provider tries to avoid such material, the use of which can be perceived to involve harassment or other discrimination.”

72 The Act (2006:67) Prohibiting Discrimination and Other Degrading Treatment of Children and School Students, Section 2, and Prop. 2005/06:38 (2006) Security, respect and responsibility – the prohibition of discrimination and other degrading treatment of children and school students p. 81.

73 DO, Case no. 1293-2006.

shefeelsthattheschooldidnottakeactiontopreventsimilareventsinthefuture.74

InanassessmentofthereportofethnicdiscriminationagainsttheMunicipalityofVetlanda,theDOfoundthatthemunicipalityortheschooldidnotundertakesufficientmeasurestoaddresstheethnicharassmenttowhichtwoRomachildrenweresubjected.Theparentsspokewiththeheadteachermultipletimesaboutthechildrenbeingsubjectedtoracialslursinschool.Thechildrenwerebothphysicallyandverballyharassedanddiscriminatedwithouttheschooltakingaction.Furthermore,theyoungestchildwassubjectedtoethnicdiscriminationbyhavingbeendisadvantagedbytheschool’spersonnelinconnectionwithdevelopmentdiscussions.Thechildhaddevelopmentdiscussionswithteacherswithouttheguardianbeingpresent.75

AnotherexperiencethatcomesforthintheDO’sdialogueisthatRomaparentsdonotalwaysinformtheschoolthattheirchildrenareRomaandspeakavariantofRomaniChib.TheyhaveinsteadindicatedthattheycomefromPoland,forexample,andrequestnativelanguagetraininginPolish.ThereasonthatRomaparentsdonotalwaysindicatetheirRomaidentityisexperienceofdiscriminationandtheracistattitudesthattheRomaoftenmeet.76InastudycommissionedbytheDO,40%indicatedthattheywerenotopenabouttheirRomaidentityinschool.77ByRomaparentshidingtheirchild’sRomaidentity,theparentsprotectthemfromanticipatedethnicdiscrimination.ThisisaclearexampleofwhatHyltenstammeanswhenhedescribeshowthemajority’snegativeviewaccordingly“spillsover”ontotheminority’spossibilitiesofdevelopingandpreservingitsownlanguageandculture.78

IthasalsocometoligththatJewishparentsindiscussionswiththeschoolhavebeentoldthattheirchildrenshouldnotwearthestarofDavid,becauseitmaycreateproblemsofethnicdiscriminationforthechildreninschool.AnotherexperienceisthatJewish,Sami,Swedish-Finnish,TornedalianandRomachildrenhavebeentoldbyteachersandother

74 See DO (2008) Discrimination of the Sami – the rights of the Sami from a discrimination perspective p. 24.

75 DO, Case no. 1109-2007.

78 Hyltenstam, Kenneth (1999) ”Inledning: Ideologi, politik och minoritetsspråk” (Introduction: Ideology, politics and minority languages) in Hyltenstam, Kenneth (ed) Sveriges sju inhemska språk – Ett minoritetsspråksperspektiv p. 11 ff.

schoolpersonneltonotspeaktheirminoritylanguageine.g.theschoolcafeteriaandonbreaks.Thisconflictswiththeobjectiveoftheminorityconventionsthatprovideextendedrightstousenationalminoritylanguagesinpubliccontexts.

Native language teaching

Jews,Sami,SwedishFinns,TornedalersandRomaexperiencethatmunicipalitiesdonotobservetheirrighttonativelanguageteachingasitisexpressedintheminorityconventions.Thenationalminoritiesalsoexperiencethatsomemunicipalitiesevenopenlyworkagainstpossibilitiesofnativelanguageteaching.Itisclearthatinmanycasesachild’spossibilityofnativelanguageteachingisreliantonparents’involvementandknowledgeabouttheirrightsasanationalminority.

Manyparentshaveexperienceofhavingtoarrangenativelanguageteachersinthenationalminoritylanguagethemselves.Whenparentshaveultimatelygottenaholdofateacher,municipalitieshaveclaimedthattheteachersuggestedbytheparentsdoesnotmeettherequirementsoftheCompulsorySchoolOrdinanceofbeinga“suitableteacher”.Anotherexperienceisthatmunicipalitiesdonotoffernativelanguageteachingduetoalackofsuitableteachers,althoughthemunicipalitydidnotactivelyseekateacherbye.g.advertisingforsuchaposition.79

Thenationalminoritieshavealsoexperienceddeficienciesinthenativelanguageeducation.Theyexperiencethatitisoftenarrangedonanexceptionalbasis.Thesolutionsareoftenshort-termandunstructured.TheDOhasreceivedonereportagainstaschoolregardingnativelanguageteachinginSouthSamithatillustratestheconditionsthatnationalminoritiespointedoutintheDO’sdialoguewiththeseminorities.Instructiontakesplaceatadifferentschoolthanthechildrennormallyattendandthesincethemunicipalitydoesnotprovideschooltransportforthis,theparentshavetodrivethechildrentothatschoolthemselves.Sometimestheteacherandthestudentsarelockedoutoftheclassroomsandsincethenativelanguageteacherhasnotbeenallowedkeystotheschool,lessonshavetotakeplaceinthecorridorsinstead.Textbookswereinsomecasesmissingandinothersdelayed.The40-minutelessonstakeplaceafterregularschoolhoursonFridayafternoonsandotherteachershaveseveraltimesspeededupthelessonstobeabletolocktheschooland

79 See e.g. DO, Case no. 1109-2007.

gohomefortheday.Whenparentshavetriedtocalltheheadteachersattentiontothesituationtheyhavenotgottenaresponse.80

TherighttonativelanguageteachingisestablishedintheFrameworkConventionand,aspreviouslystated,thelanguagecharterisguaranteedinSwedenthroughtheCompulsorySchoolOrdinance.TheSwedishrulessurroundingnativelanguageeducationareformulatedasanobligationtoarrangeteachingandnotasarightfornationalminorities.AproblemwiththeformulationoftheSwedishrulesisthatthenationalminorities’possibilitiesofdemandingtheirrightsareverylimited.ThereisalsonosanctionpossibilityassociateddirectlywiththeCompulsorySchoolOrdinanceifamunicipalitydoesnotofferteachinginaccordancewiththeordinance.

AnotherproblemisthattheCompulsorySchoolOrdinancetiestheobligationtoarrangenativelanguageteachingtocertainconditions:inpartthatstudentshave“basicknowledge”intheirnativelanguage,inpartthattherebea“suitableteacher”.Theserequirementsareproblematicbasedonseveralofthenationalminoritylanguagesonlyhavingafewspeakersandthattheminorityprotectionininternationallawaimstopreserve,developandstrengthenthenationalminoritylanguages,eventhosethatareonthevergeofdyingout.Inaddition,therequirementofasuitableteacherhasbeeninterpretedbymunicipalitiesasarequirementforacertifiedteacher,whichisnaturallydifficultorimpossibletofindwhentherearefewspeakersofalanguageandwhenthereisnouniversityeducationinalanguage.Inthiscontext,itisalsonaturallyimportanttorememberthatthecurrentsituationforthenationalminoritylanguagesandtheirspeakersisrootedinhistoricalassimilationambitionsanddiscrimination.81

TheCouncilofEurope’sAdvisoryCommitteeandtheCouncilofEurope’sCommitteeofMinistershavedirectedcriticismatSwedenwithregardtoeducationinthenationalminoritylanguages,bothintermsofaccesstoandthequalityofsucheducation.AccordingtotheDO,theSwedishrulesconcerningnativelanguageeducationandtheapplicationofthemareastructuralproblemthatimpedesandobstructsstudentsbelongingtothenationalminoritiesfromgainingaccesstotherightstheyaregrantedunderinternationallaw.Basedonthis,itcanbecalledintoquestionwhetherSwedenlivesuptoitsinternationalobligationswithregardtothenationalminorities’linguisticrights.

IntheDO’swork,ithasalsocomeforththatmunicipalitiesalsodonotalwaysarrangenativelanguageteachingintheminoritylanguagesin

80 DO, Case no. 81-2008.

81 See the section on the Historical background p. 18.

accordancewiththeCompulsorySchoolOrdinance.Notofferingstudentsbelongingtothenationalminoritiesthenativelanguageteachingthatamunicipalityisobligedtooffercould,undercertaincircumstances,bediscriminationandleadtoanobligationtopaydamagesunderthediscriminationlegislation.

Bilingual education

Researchindicatesthatlanguageisanimportanttoolforthechild’spossibilitiesoflearningandinstructioninthenativelanguageaffectsthechild’spossibilitiesofacquiringthemajoritylanguage.Ithasbeenconfirmedthatchildrenandstudentswhoaregiventhepossibilitytodeveloptheirmothertonguecanmoreeasilydeveloptheircognitiveabilityandlearnotherlanguages.82

BilingualteachinginnationalminoritylanguagesexistsintheSamischool,theSwedish-Finnishschools,theJewishschool,theRomanicultureclassandotherremainingbilingualclassesundermunicipaldirection.IntheDO’sdialoguewiththenationalminorities,greatersupportfromsocietyissoughttostrengthenthepossibilitiesofgainingaccesstosuchteaching.Itisapparentthattherearepoorconditionsforgainingaccesstobilingualteaching.Themunicipalitieslackincentivetoarrangebilingualteaching.Moreover,effortsaresoughtforskillsdevelopmentofteachers,aswellastoincreasethepossibilitiesofteachertrainingforbilingualteaching.

Access to teachers and teaching aids

IntheDO’sdialoguewithnationalminorities,itisclearthataccesstoteachersforthenationalminoritylanguagesisaproblemthattosomeextentdiffersbetweenthesegroups.Thisisparticularlyproblematic,becausethelackofteachersmeansthatmunicipalitiesneednotoffereducationinthenativelanguage,pursuanttoChapter2Sections9-14oftheCompulsorySchoolOrdinance.Atthesametime,aspreviouslystated,thereareexperiencesofmunicipalitiesnottryingtoinvestigateiftherearesuitableteachersavailableby,forexample,advertisingforthepositionofnativelanguageteacher.83

TheNationalAgencyforEducationprovidesstatisticsinareportoverhowmanynativelanguageteacherstherewerein2005.Itisclearthatthenumberofnativelanguageteachersdoesnotcorrespondtothenumberof

82 SOU 2006:19 (2006) Reclaiming my language – Measures to strengthen the Sami language, p. 323.

83 See e.g. DO, Case no. 1109-2007.

studentswhoareentitledtoeducationinnationalminoritylanguages.Forexample,thenumberofteachersinRomaniChibisgivenasonlyfifteen.ThisfigurecanbecomparedwiththereportednumberofstudentsentitledtoeducationinRomaniChibinthevariantsofKaléandLovari/Kelderash,whichwas1,208.84

IntheDO’sdialoguewithnationalminoritygroups,theviewofnativelanguageteachingwasdiscussedandassociatedwithhowattractiveitistobeanativelanguageteacher.Itisviewedasworkofalowstatusandapartiallymarginalisedrolerelativetootherteachersincompulsoryschools.Furthermore,thereisalackofteachingaidsonandinthenationalminoritylanguages,whichiswhyitisnotuncommonthatteachersmustcreatetheirownteachingmaterials.85Manynativelanguageteachersalsohaveinsecuretermsofemployment.FromtheRomaniminoritygroup,theissueoftherequirementofbeingacertifiedteacheralsohasaparticularsetofproblemsthatrequirespecialsolutions.FewRomahavegraduatedfromupper-secondaryschool,consequently,fewRomahaveformalqualificationtoworkasnativelanguageteachers.TheproblemsituationalsoincludesthefactthatthereisnouniversityprogrammeinRomaniChib.

Asstated,thesituationforJewish,Roma,Sami,Swedish-FinnishandTornedalianchildren’spossibilitiesofacquiringtheirminoritylanguageisdependentonanumberofstructuralproblemsthataffectchildren’spossibilitiesofdevelopingandpreservingthelanguageandtherebytheirpossibilitiesofassertingtherightsstatedintheconventionforthelanguagetobeanaturalpartofthesociety.ThishasalsobeennotedbytheCouncilofEurope,whichhasdirectedsharpcriticismathowSwedenlivesuptotheconventions.

84 National Agency for Education (2005) De nationella minoriteternas utbildningssituation (The national minorities’ education situation) 272:2005, p. 49–50.

85 SOU 2006:19 (2006) Reclaiming my language – Measures to strengthen the Sami language, p. 336 f.

Summary and proposed measuresTheobjectiveofthisreportistocontributeknowledgeaboutthesituationofnationalminoritiesintheeducationsystemtodaybyillustratingtheirexperiencesofdiscriminationintheeducationsystemandproposemeasurestopreventandcombatdiscrimination.Theideaisthatthereportshallserveasabasisforthefuture,continuedworkoftheOmbudsmanagainstEthnicDiscriminationandotheractorstopreventandcombatdiscrimination.

ThegeneraldescriptionoftheassimilationandeducationpolicypursuedinSwedenillustrateshowthecodeofrulesandnormslimitedandobstructedminoritiesfromenjoyingtheirrightsinvariousways.Themajoritysocietyhasinvariouswayssystematicallysubordinatedandcreatedaneducationpolicythatstigmatisesnationalminorities.Languageprohibitionsandsegregatedformsofschoolhavedirectlyimpactedtheschoolingofnationalminorities.Theracialbiologyofthe20thcenturyandotherraciststructureshaveinvariouswaysinfluencedthemajoritysociety’sperceptionsofandactionstowardminorities.Theobviousviolationsofresearchandauthorities,suchassterilisations,tookplacebasedonracistnotionsofthenationalminorities’specialcharacteristicsandwaysoflife.Policyhasinfluencednationalminorities’possibilitiesofclaimingtheirlanguageandtheirculture.Whenproblemswereformulatedandsolutionsproposed,thenationalminoritiesdidnotparticipate,nordidtheyhaveinfluenceinissuesconcerningthem.AconsequenceofthisisthatmanyJews,Sami,SwedishFinns,TornedalersandRomahavelosttheirlanguageandneverhadtheopportunitytolearnYiddish,Sami,Finnish,MeänkieliorRomaniChib.Asstatedinthereport,manyoftheselanguagesareinalanguagereplacementprocess.

IntheDO’sdialoguewithnationalminorities,itisclearthatthepursuedpolicyhasaffectedtheseminorities’self-imageandmanyhaveexperienceofnotparticipatinginsociety.AlthoughSwedenratifiedtheCouncilofEurope’sminorityconventionsandtherebycommittedtopromotetherightsofnationalminorities,thisreportshowsthatdiscriminatorystructuresstillexist,whichaffectnationalminorities’possibilitiesofassertingtheirrights.

Nationalminorities’experienceofdiscriminationindicatesthatadditionalmeasuresarerequiredforSwedentoliveuptotheinternationalcommitments.ThisisalsoconfirmedbytheCouncilofEurope,whichhascriticizedhowSwedencomplieswiththeconventions.TheDObelievesthatthiscriticismmustbetakenseriouslyandresultinconcretemeasuresandbetterimplementationoftheminorityconventions.Thefollowingsectionpresentsanumberofproposalsthataimtoimprovetheeducation

situationfornationalminorities.Someoftheproposalsarenotdirectlylinkedtotheeducationsituation,butaffectnationalminorities’possibilitiesofassertingtheirrights.Amongthesearetheproposalspresentedunderthethreefollowingheadings:recognition,knowledgeandparticipation.

Recognition

ByratifyingtheCouncilofEurope’sminorityconventions,Swedenhasassumedspecificobligationstowardsnationalminorities.Asaratifyingstate,Swedenisobligedtoworksothattherightsestablishedintheconventionsaregrantedtotheminorities.

InthebillNationalminoritiesinSweden,theGovernmentstatesthemeasuresnecessaryforSwedentobeabletoratifytheconventions,andtheproposalsweretobeseenasaninitialsteptowardsacoordinatedminoritypolicy.86TheDObelievesthatanextstepisneededforSwedentoliveuptotheintentionsoftheminorityconventions.

TheDOalsobelievesthatSwedenshouldhaveahigherlevelofambitioninthesematters.TheCouncilofEuropehasparticularlynotedthattheadministrativedistrictsshouldbeexpandedandthatlawsarelackingoutsidetheadministrativedistrictsthatregulatenationalminorities’linguisticrights.Furthermore,theCouncilofEuropeisoftheopinionthatabodyshouldbeestablishedthatmonitorsandfollowsuponhowSwedenlivesuptotheminorityconventions.Therefore,theDOproposes:

thattheGovernmenttaketheinitiativetomeasuresthatmeanthatthelevelofambitionforminoritypolicyissignificantlyraisedandthatSwedenensuretherightsandfreedomsofpersonsbelongingtonationalminorites.

thattheGovernmentgivetheWorkingCommitteeonConstitutionalReformasupplementaldirectivewiththeaimofinvestigatinghowthenationalminoritiesandthespecialrightscanbegivenstrongerconstitutionalprotection.

thattheGovernmenttaketheinitiativetoanactonnationalminoritiesandminoritylanguageswiththeaimofensuringhumanrightsofpersonsbelongingtonationalminoritiesinaccordancewiththeminorityconventions.

thattheGovernmenttaketheinitiativetoasupervisoryauthoritychargedwithmonitoringSweden’scompliancewiththeminority

86 Prop. 1998/99:143 (1999) National minorities in Sweden, p. 30.

conventionsandotherinternationaldocumentsconcerningnationalminorities.Thischargeshouldalsoincludeworkingforgreaterknowledgeabouttherightsofnationalminorities.Thisisbecausemoreknowledgeisneededaboutthesituationandrightsofnationalminorities,asareclearergovernanceandmonitoringoftheimplementationofnationalminorityrights.

Knowledge

TheDOcanconfirmthatthelackofresearchandstatisticsisaproblemwhenevaluatingcompliancetorulesthatwillensurerightsandfreedomsofpersonsbelongingtonationalminoritiesandmonitoringchangesthatoccurovertime.Therefore,theDOproposes:

thattheGovernmentallocatefundsforresearchonthesituationofJews,Sami,SwedishFinns,TornedalersandRomaandinparticulartheexistenceofdiscriminationinvariouspublicbodiestoincreasetheknowledgeofthesituationofnationalminoritiesinSweden.

Participation

TheDOconsidersittobeimportantthatnationalminorities’possibilitiesofrealparticipationandinfluenceinsocietybeensured.Authorities,particularlynationalandmunicipal,playanimportantroleandhavegreatresponsibilityforSwedenfulfillingitscommitmentsregardinghumanrights.Today,municipalitiesareresponsibleforalargepartofthesocialservicesthatdirectlyaffectindividualcitizens,andanumberoftheseareofgreatimportancetotherealisationofnationalminorities’humanrights.

InlightoftheproblemsidentifiedintheDO’sworkwiththerightsandfreedomsofpersonsbelongingtonationalminorities,theDOproposes:

thattheGovernmentandconcernedauthorities,inadialoguewithnationalminorities,ensuretheparticipationandrealinfluenceofJews,Sami,SwedishFinns,TornedalersandRomainmattersthatconcerntheminaccordancewiththatprescribedbytheminorityconventions.

thattheGovernmentreviewthepossibilitiesforbothfinancialandmethodologicalsupportfornationalminorities’ownactivityandworkagainstdiscriminationandforhumanrights.

thattheGovernment,incooperationwithnationalminorities,focusinformationandeducationaleffortsoncountyadministrativeboardsandmunicipalitiesregardingthesituationandhumanrightsofJews,Sami,SwedishFinns,TornedalersandRoma.

School and preschool

Discriminatorystructuresinschoolsaffecttheschoolresultsofchildrenandtherebyimpacttheirpossibilitiesoffurtherstudies,whichinturnaffecttheiropportunitiestomaketheirwayoutintoworkinglife.

Thetaskoftheschoolincludesofferinganequaleducation,basedonthedifferentneedsandconditionsofeachgirlandboy.Itisaseriousmatterwhentherearestructuralobstaclesintheeducationsystemthatconflictwithnationalminorityrights.Itisclearthatmeasuresarerequiredinpreschoolsandschoolstoaddressthis.Howresourcesaredistributed,aswellasanabsenceofefforts,canbeexpressionsofstructuraldiscrimination.

ItisapparentthattheextendedrightsthatSwedish-Finnish,TornedalianandSamichildrenhaveinpreschool,whicharevalidintheadministrativedistricts,arenotalwaysprovidedtothesechildren.Moreover,manySwedishFinns,TornedalersandSamiliveoutsidetheadministrativedistricts,meaningthatmanychildrenarenotcoveredbythelanguagerightsthatapplyintheseareas.Furthermore,RomaniChibandYiddisharenotcoveredbytheserightsastheyareconsideredtobenon-territoriallanguages.TheDOcanconfirmthatthenationalminoritylanguagesofYiddishandRomaniChibhavenotatallreceivedthenationalinvolvementthatthelanguagesdeserveandareinneedof.Therefore,theDOproposes:

thattheGovernmenttaketheinitiativetomeasurestoimplementtheproposalspresentedintheinquiriesTheRighttoMyLanguage–StrengthenedMinorityProtection(SOU2005:40)andReclaimingMyLanguage–MeasurestostrengthentheSamilanguage(SOU2006:19).

thattheGovernmenttaketheinitiativetomeasuresfortyinglanguagerightstoimportantpublicfunctionstoagreaterextent.87

thattheGovernmenttaketheinitiativetomeasuresaimedatbreakingthelanguagereplacementprocessforRomaniChibandYiddish.

Jewish,Sami,Swedish-Finnish,TornedalianandRomachildrenandstudentshaveexperiencesofschoolsnotcontributingtostrengtheningtheiridentity.Furthermore,theyhaveexperienceofbeingsubjectedtoethnicharassmentanddiscrimination.Therefore,theDOproposes:

thattheGovernmentchargetheNationalAgencyforEducationtoconductspecialworktocombatandpreventdiscriminationintheeducationsystemindialoguewithnationalminorities.

87 Also see the DO’s official report comments, Ref. no. 375-2008.

thatschools,asapartoftheirplanningworktopromotechildren’sandstudents’equalrightsandpreventdiscriminationandharassment,inventorycourseliteratureandexaminehowtheeducationforandaboutnationalminoritiestakesplace.

Thelanguagereplacementprocessforthenationalminoritylanguagesmustbebroken.Promptactionisrequiredforthelanguagestobepreservedanddeveloped.Itcannotberuledoutthatschools’andmunicipalities’handlingofnativelanguageeducationandtheunequalpositionofnativelanguageteachersrelativetootherteachersinschoolsarereflectedinthechildren’sperceptionoftheirmothertongueandtheirculture.Nativelanguageteachingisoneofseveralimportantmeasuresinthepromotionofthenationalminoritylanguages.Thelackofteachersintheselanguagesisamajorstructuralproblemthatmustbesolvedtoensurethesurvivalanddevelopmentofthelanguages.Anotherobstacleistheknowledgethatschoolsconveyaboutnationalminoritiesandtheirrights.Therefore,theDOproposes:

thattheNationalAgencyforHigherEducationinvestigatehowitcanbeensuredthatteachersreceiveknowledgeaboutthelanguages,culturesandhumanrightsofnationalminoritiesinthescopeoftheteachertrainingprogramme.

thattheGovernmentchargetheNationalAgencyforHigherEducationwithstimulatingaccesstomoreteachersinthenationalminoritylanguagesbye.g.reviewingtheadmissioncriteriaforteachertrainingprogrammes.

thattheGovernmenttaketheinitiativetomeasurestoguaranteeeducationinandonthenationalminoritylanguagesbypromotingtheeducationofteachersintheselanguages.

thattheGovernmentchargetheNationalAgencyforEducationtoworkoutcriteriatogetherwiththenationalminoritiesforthedevelopmentofteachingaidsinandonthenationalminoritylanguages.

thattheGovernmentchargetheInspectorateofSchoolstoensureinadialoguewithnationalminoritiesthatschoolsreflectnationalminoritylanguagesandculturesintheiractivities.

thattheGovernmentchargetheInspectorateofSchoolstoinspectcompliancetotheextendedrightsofnationalminoritiesasapartofitsregularactivities.

FromtheCompulsorySchoolOrdinanceitisclearthattherearenosanctionpossibilitiesdirectlylinkedtotheCompulsorySchoolOrdinance,whichimpedesthepossibilitiesofnationalminoritiesfromdemandingtheirlanguagerights.Therefore,theDOproposes:

thattherulessurroundingnativelanguageeducationbechangedsothattherighttoeducationinthenationalminoritylanguagescaneffectivelybedemandedandthatpowerfulsanctionsbetiedtothefailureofmunicipalitiesfromofferingnativelanguageeducation.

FromtheCompulsorySchoolOrdinance,itisapparentthatamunicipalityisobligedtoarrangenativelanguageteachinginnationalminoritylanguagesonlyifthereisasuitableteacher.Inlightoftheproblemsdescribedinthereport,theDOproposes:

thattheCompulsorySchoolOrdinance’srequirementona“suitableteacher”berepealedinaccordancewiththeproposalfoundinReclaimingmylanguage–MeasurestostrengthentheSamilanguage(SOU2006:19)andthatanobligationforthemunicipalitiestoarrangenativelanguageteachingbeprescribed.Ifateacherisnotavailable,thestudentshallbeoffereddistanceeducationuntilateacherhasbeenfound.

Severaloftheminoritylanguageshavefewadultlanguagebearersthatcancarrythelanguagesfurtherduetothepursuedassimilationandeducationpolicy.Consequently,theDObelievesthattheCompulsorySchoolOrdinance’srequirementthatthestudentshallhavebasicknowledgeinthenationalminoritylanguagestoreceivenativelanguageteachingshallberepealed,andthataruleshallbeintroducedthatmakesitpossibleforstudentstolearnthelanguages.Therefore,theDOproposes:

thattheCompulsorySchoolOrdinance’srequirementof“basicknowledge”berepealedinaccordancewiththeproposalinTheRighttomylanguage–Strengthenedminorityprotection(SOU2005:40).ThisissothatJewish,Romani,Sami,Swedish-FinnishandTornedalianchildrenandschoolstudentsshallbegiventhepossibilityoflearningtheirminoritylanguageinthescopeofschoolactivities.

Toaddressthesituationwheremanychildrenandparentsfromthenationalminoritiesarenotawareoftheirlinguisticrights,theDOproposes:

thatmunicipalitiesbechargedwithprovidinginformationinconjunctionwithregistrationforpreschoolorwhenastudentisregisteredincompulsoryschoolabouttherighttotheirnativelanguageandaskwhichchildrenandstudentsdesirenativelanguageteaching.

Tobreakthelanguagereplacementprocess,measuresareneededthatensurebilingualeducationfornationalminorities.AnexperiencefromtheDO’sworkisthatfewmunicipalitiesarrangesucheducation.Onereason

maybethatthereisalackofbothincentiveandresourcesformunicipalitiestoprovidebilingualteaching.Therefore,theDOproposes:

thattheGovernmentundertakemeasuresthataimtoensurenationalminorities’possibilitiesofchoosingbilingualteaching.

Work of the DO

Withequalopportunitiesandrightsastheoverridingobjectiveandwiththebasicideathatnationalminoritiesarethemselvesthekeytopositivechangeprocesses,theDO’sworkaimsfortheseminoritiestodeveloptheirowncapacityforcounsellingandactiveanti-discriminationworkinthelongterm.Toachievethisobjective,itisimportantthattheDO,andthefutureOmbudsmanagainstDiscrimination,continuestoworkbasedonthestrategyofmutualknowledgedevelopment.Inthiswork,itisimportantthatthefollowingbeobserved.Throughthedialogue,alegitimacyandfar-sightednessiscreatedinthework.TheDOproposes:

thatthefutureOmbudsmanagainstDiscriminationutilisenationalminorities’experiencesofdiscriminationthroughcontinueddialoguewithrepresentativesfornationalminorities.

Itisimportantthatnationalminoritiesthemselves,andasmanyactorsaspossible,worktopreventandcombatdiscrimination.Tostrengthennationalminorities’possibilitiesofempowerment,theDOproposes:

thatthefutureOmbudsmanagainstDiscriminationcontributetoadevelopmentthatincreasesnationalminorities’knowledgeofhumanrightsandworkagainstdiscriminationbytraininginstructors,amongotherefforts.

thatthefutureOmbudsmanagainstDiscriminationcompileanddevelopahandbookintheworkforhumanrightsthatcanbeusedbynationalminoritiesforcontinuedindependentwork.

Thereisalackofknowledgeandacollectiveviewofnationalminorities’livingconditions.Throughresearch-orientedefforts,amorecomprehensiveviewofhownationalminoritiesperceivediscriminationandracismcanbeachieved.Therefore,theDOproposes:

thatthefutureOmbudsmanagainstDiscriminationparticularlyshedlightonwhethermenandwomenfromthenationalminoritieshavedifferentexperiencesofdiscrimination.

thatthefutureOmbudsmanagainstDiscriminationcontributetoasocialchangebydrivinglegaldevelopmentsintheareaofnationalminoritiesforward.

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Discrimination of national minorities in the education system

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