Post on 05-Apr-2020
The
long
road
to
reco
very
: C
omm
unity
re
spon
ses t
o in
dust
rial d
isas
ter
Not
e to
the
read
er fr
om th
e U
NU
Th
is h
oo
k i
s an
ou
tcom
e of
a re
sear
ch p
roje
ct o
n "
Co
mm
unit
y R
esponse
s to
In
dust
rial
laz
ards
" ca
rrie
d ou
t un
der
the
Env
iron
men
t P
rogr
amm
e of
the
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Uni
vers
ity.
"1 h
e pr
ojec
t was
init
iate
d w
ith
a co
nfer
ence
of
the
sam
e ti
tle
held
in
Min
amat
a, J
apan
, in
Nov
embe
r 19
92. T
he m
ain
obje
ctiv
es o
f th
e pr
ojec
t wer
e to
st
udy
case
s w
here
soc
ieta
l di
srup
tion
has
bee
n ca
used
by
seri
ous
envi
ronm
enta
l po
llut
ion,
and
to
exch
ange
inf
orm
atio
n an
d le
sson
s co
ncer
ning
the
com
mun
ity
reco
very
pro
cess
fol
low
ing
such
dis
aste
rs. T
he e
xpli
cit
conc
ern
was
to
lear
n fr
om
thes
e ex
peri
ence
s so
as
to a
void
sim
ilar
unf
ortu
nate
epi
sode
s in
the
fut
ure
and,
w
here
they
can
not h
e av
oide
d, to
fac
ilit
ate
com
mun
ity
reha
bili
tati
on.
The
sev
en c
ase-
stud
ies
sele
cted
cov
er a
var
iety
of
geog
raph
ical
loca
tion
s in
bot
h in
dust
rial
ized
and
dev
elop
ing
coun
trie
s. T
he h
azar
ds a
naly
sed
fall
into
the
cate
gory
of
dis
aste
r "s
urpr
ises
," a
nd r
ange
fro
m i
ndus
tria
l ac
cide
nts
to t
hose
cau
sed
by w
ar.
The
boo
k fo
cuse
s on
the
rel
ativ
ely
negl
ecte
d is
sue
of l
ong-
term
rec
over
y fr
om
indu
stri
al d
isas
ters
. It
call
s fo
r a
new
sys
tem
for
con
cept
uali
zing
and
man
agin
g in
dust
rial
haz
ards
and
dis
aste
rs.
Edite
d by
Jam
es K
. Mitc
hell
r ip, U
nite
d Na
tions
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss
TOK
YO
• N
EW Y
OR
K •
PAR
IS
C“'t
Indu
stria
l dev
asta
tion
in Ir
an
Iran
ian
reco
very
from
in
dust
rial d
evas
tatio
n du
ring
war
with
Iraq
H
oosh
ang
Am
irah
mad
i
Intr
oduc
tion
Mai
nstre
am li
tera
ture
abo
ut in
dust
rial d
isas
ters
har
dly
reco
gniz
es th
e re
leva
nce
of w
ar. Y
et w
ar is
a m
ajor
des
troye
r of i
ndus
trial
faci
litie
s.
Ong
oing
war
s in
the
form
er Y
ugos
lavi
a an
d th
e fo
rmer
USS
R n
ot
only
hav
e ki
lled
tens
of t
hous
ands
of p
eopl
e bu
t als
o ha
ve d
estro
yed
impo
rtant
indu
stria
l pla
nts
in p
lace
s su
ch a
s Sa
raje
vo, G
rozn
yy, a
nd
Sukh
umi -
with
far-
reac
hing
con
sequ
ence
s fo
r the
eco
nom
ic s
ur-
viva
l of t
hose
citi
es. T
he P
ersi
an G
ulf W
ar o
f 199
0-19
91 d
evas
tate
d th
e in
dust
rial
bas
es o
f Ir
aq a
nd K
uwai
t, ca
used
sub
stan
tial h
arm
to
hum
ans,
and
dam
aged
the
natu
ral e
nvir
onm
ent (
El-
Baz
and
M
akha
rita
1994
). O
bvio
usly
, war
may
trig
ger t
he sa
me
kind
s of i
ndus
-tri
al d
isas
ters
that
occ
ur d
urin
g pe
acet
ime
(e.g
. fire
s, e
xplo
sion
s). I
t ca
n al
so a
dd s
ome
new
dim
ensi
ons
to in
dust
rial
dis
aste
rs (e
.g. s
ys-
tem
atic
, del
iber
ate,
and
repe
ated
des
truc
tion
of th
e sa
me
faci
litie
s;
cont
amin
atio
n of
indu
stria
l pla
nts
by c
hem
ical
wea
pons
). Fi
nally
, the
in
flue
nce
of w
ar o
n in
dust
rial
dis
aste
rs m
ay b
e in
dire
ct, a
s in
the
thre
at o
f pol
lutio
n fr
om w
eapo
ns-m
anuf
actu
ring
pla
nts,
wea
pon-
test
ing
site
s, a
nd w
eapo
ns d
umps
(Sto
ckho
lm In
tern
atio
nal P
eace
R
esea
rch
Inst
itute
[SIP
RIJ
197
7, 1
980)
. W
ar is
a m
ore
com
plex
and
per
vasi
ve p
heno
men
on th
an in
dust
rial
disa
ster
, so
plan
ning
for -
and
reco
veri
ng fr
om -
war
-rel
ated
indu
s-tri
al d
isas
ters
is li
kely
to b
e a
com
plic
ated
bus
ines
s. E
xpla
natio
ns o
f
the
orig
ins
of th
e w
ar to
uch
on m
any
diff
eren
t dee
p-se
ated
and
wid
e-ra
ngin
g at
trib
utes
of s
ocie
ty. W
ars
them
selv
es a
re re
petit
ive
phe-
nom
ena
but e
very
war
is u
niqu
e. W
ars
are
also
sem
i-con
tinuo
us a
nd
mor
e or
les
s al
l-em
brac
ing.
C—
pare
d w
ith c
onve
ntio
nal i
ndus
tria
l ha
zard
s, th
e pe
riod
of a
ctiv
e th
reat
is u
sual
ly p
rolo
nged
dur
ing
war
s an
d a
larg
er p
ropo
rtio
n of
the
citiz
enry
are
aff
ecte
d. B
ecau
se w
ars
leav
e a
mor
e co
mpl
ex a
nd p
erva
sive
impr
int o
n so
ciet
y, th
ey m
ake
post
-war
reco
nstru
ctio
n m
ore
chal
leng
ing
than
rest
orat
ion
in th
e w
ake
of in
dust
rial d
isas
ters
. Th
e ch
angi
ng n
atur
e of
con
tem
pora
ry w
ar s
igna
ls a
pos
sibi
lity
of
mor
e w
ar-r
elat
ed in
dust
rial d
isas
ters
in th
e fu
ture
as
wel
l as
a w
ider
ra
nge
of o
ther
thre
ats
to th
e en
viro
nmen
t and
hum
an h
ealth
(Win
ne-
feld
and
Mor
ris 1
994)
. Thi
s is
an
outc
ome
of tr
ends
in th
ree
fact
ors
--th
e te
chni
cal s
ophi
stic
atio
n of
wea
ponr
y, th
e st
rate
gic
logi
c of
tar-
getin
g a
natio
n's
indu
stria
l cap
acity
dur
ing
war
, and
the
incr
easi
ngly
re
gion
al n
atur
e of
con
flic
t. A
dvan
ces
in w
ar-m
akin
g te
chno
logi
es
such
as
met
hods
of s
urve
illan
ce, p
reci
sion
-gui
ded
shor
t-ra
nge
mis
-si
les,
che
mic
al a
nd b
iolo
gica
l war
fare
, hel
icop
ters
, and
all-
wea
ther
an
d ni
ght v
isio
n sy
stem
s, a
mon
g ot
hers
, ens
ure
incr
ease
d de
stru
ctiv
e ca
pabi
litie
s. A
nat
ion'
s in
dust
rial
cap
acity
and
ass
ocia
ted
civi
lian
popu
latio
ns a
re in
crea
sing
ly fa
vour
ed ta
rget
s be
caus
e th
ey g
ener
ate
inco
me
and
mat
eria
ls n
eede
d to
mai
ntai
n th
e w
ar e
ffor
t. R
egio
nal
conf
lict i
s un
ques
tiona
bly
on th
e ri
se (e
.g. B
osni
a, A
rmen
ia, A
zer-
baija
n, S
omal
ia, A
fgha
nist
an, R
wan
da, P
hilip
pine
s, S
ri La
nka)
. Dur
-in
g su
ch c
onfli
cts,
dam
age
is u
sual
ly re
stric
ted
to s
mal
l are
as, w
hich
su
stai
n re
peat
ed a
ttack
s an
d di
spro
porti
onat
ely
heav
y lo
sses
. W
hat f
ollo
ws
is a
cas
e-st
udy
of in
dust
rial h
azar
ds a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith
Iran
's ei
ght-
year
war
aga
inst
Iraq
(198
0- 1
988)
. Man
y of
the
com
-m
uniti
es in
Iran
's oi
l- an
d ga
s-pr
oduc
ing
regi
ons
wer
e af
fect
ed b
y th
is
conf
lict.
The
war
's im
pact
on
indu
stry
was
mer
ely
one
face
t of t
he
wid
er c
onfli
ct, s
o th
e ca
se-s
tudy
is d
iscu
ssed
in th
e la
rger
con
text
of
the
conf
lict's
soc
io-e
cono
mic
impa
ct o
n Ir
ania
n so
ciet
y (C
orde
sman
19
90).
Bec
ause
nei
ther
an
accu
rate
nor
a fi
rst-h
and
acco
unt o
f Ira
q's
expe
rienc
e w
ith th
is w
ar is
read
ily a
vaila
ble,
the
pers
pect
ive
is c
on-
scio
usly
Iran
ian.
' Alth
ough
the
acco
unt m
ay b
e in
com
plet
e, th
e in
for-
mat
ion
is n
ever
thel
ess
belie
ved
to b
e ac
cura
te.
By
delin
eatin
g Ir
an's
expe
rienc
e w
ith th
e w
ar a
nd re
cons
truct
ion,
it
is in
tend
ed n
ot o
nly
to a
naly
se th
e re
latio
nshi
p of
war
, com
mun
ity
dest
ruct
ion,
and
indu
stri
al d
isas
ter b
ut a
lso
to s
how
how
par
ticul
ar
issu
es o
f rec
over
y fr
om in
dust
rial d
isas
ters
can
bec
ome
caug
ht u
p in
br
oade
r con
cern
s ab
out r
ecov
ery
from
oth
er e
vent
s th
at in
flict
mor
e
148
149
•1.
fahu
n D
ehlo
ran
•
Sh
im•
0
Kilo
met
ers
200
°M
IRA
N
Qm
r-e
KE
RM
AN
SH
AIIA
N•
Kerm
ansh
ah •
Ilan o
B
AG
HD
AD
•
Kho
rrut
naba
d
ILA
NI
Al A
rnar
th •
E= Wa
r dam
aged
pro
vinc
es
•Pr
ovin
cial
Cap
ital
•C
ity
•Maul
4Ifr
KIIIIZ
ES
TA
N
llove
lseh
•
(sf
ID A
lma,
.
Al B
asra
SA
UD
I A
RA
BIA
Rut
gers
Car
togr
aphy
199
3
',Ham
adan
Indu
stri
al d
evas
tatio
n in
Iran
Fig.
6.1
F
ront
-lin
e pr
ovin
ces
of I
ran,
198
0-19
88 (
Sour
ce:
Am
irah
mad
i 198
7: 1
36)
(red
raw
n)
in s
igni
fican
t num
bers
, tho
ugh
prec
ise
figur
es a
re d
iffic
ult t
o de
ter-
min
e. O
ne s
ourc
e lis
ts 2
0 ch
emic
al ro
cket
atta
cks,
284
che
mic
al a
ir at
tack
s, a
nd 7
4 ch
emic
al a
rtill
ery
atta
cks,
whi
ch k
illed
ove
r 5,7
00
peop
le, m
ostly
civ
ilian
s liv
ing
in u
rban
are
as (S
hem
irani
199
3). T
he
Iraq
i Kur
dish
tow
n of
Hal
abch
eh w
as a
lmos
t tot
ally
des
troy
ed b
y a
chem
ical
bom
bard
men
t und
erta
ken
by Ir
aq to
pre
vent
it fa
lling
into
th
e ha
nds
of Ir
ania
n tr
oops
. Eve
n no
w, m
any
year
s af
ter t
he e
nd o
f op
en h
ostil
ities
, bot
h co
untr
ies
still
reta
in s
tock
pile
s of
che
mic
al
wea
pons
.
151
Am
irah
mad
i
enco
mpa
ssin
g ty
pes
of d
amag
e. F
urth
er, t
his
chap
ter e
xplo
res
inte
r-co
nnec
tions
am
ong
loca
l-le
vel r
econ
stru
ctio
n pr
iori
ties,
nat
iona
l-le
vel g
oals
, and
inte
rven
tion
by th
e in
tern
atio
nal c
omm
unity
in th
e po
st-w
ar p
eace
and
reco
nstr
uctio
n ef
fort
s. It
is h
oped
that
the
case
-st
udy
will
als
o pr
ovid
e in
sigh
ts th
at le
ad to
war
d cr
eatio
n of
mod
els
of
indu
stria
l dis
aste
r im
pact
ass
essm
ent a
nd re
cove
ry fo
r war
-dam
aged
so
ciet
ies
and
will
iden
tify
obst
acle
s to
reco
nstr
uctio
n an
d w
ays
of
impr
ovin
g im
plem
enta
tion.
Mili
tary
and
stra
tegi
c con
text
Iraq
inva
ded
Iran
in S
epte
mbe
r 198
0 an
d in
itiat
ed a
pro
tract
ed la
nd,
sea,
and
air
conf
lict t
hat l
aste
d un
til A
ugus
t 198
8, w
hen
it w
as b
roug
ht
to a
n en
d by
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Sec
urity
Cou
ncil
Res
olut
ion
598.
The
in
vasi
on f
ollo
wed
Sad
dam
Hus
sein
's un
ilate
ral a
brog
atio
n of
the
Tre
aty
of A
lgie
rs, w
hich
he
had
him
self
neg
otia
ted
with
the
then
Sh
ah o
f Ira
n in
197
5.2
Five
Iran
ian
prov
ince
s th
at b
orde
r Ira
q - K
huze
stan
, Ila
m, K
er-
man
shah
an, K
urde
stan
, and
Wes
t Aze
rbai
jan
- bec
ame
activ
e th
ea-
tres
of a
ir an
d gr
ound
con
flict
s, w
hile
ano
ther
11
prov
ince
s su
ffer
ed
sust
aine
d ae
rial b
omba
rdm
ent (
fig. 6
.1).
Thes
e fiv
e pr
ovin
ces
acco
unt
for 1
0.8
per c
ent o
f Ira
n's
land
are
a an
d in
clud
e th
e co
untr
y's
mos
t he
avily
pop
ulat
ed a
nd d
evel
oped
regi
on. I
n 19
80, t
he w
ar-t
orn
re-
gion
's po
pula
tion
dens
ity w
as 3
5.4
per s
quar
e m
ile, c
ompa
red
with
23
.2 fo
r the
nat
iona
l ave
rage
(Am
irah
mad
i 199
0b).
Bef
ore
the
war
, K
huze
stan
boa
sted
maj
or e
cono
mic
est
ablis
hmen
ts, i
nclu
ding
por
t fa
cilit
ies,
ste
el fa
ctor
ies,
oil
wel
ls a
nd re
finer
ies,
pet
roch
emic
al c
om-
plex
es, a
nd a
maj
or h
ydro
elec
tric
dam
and
irri
gatio
n pr
ojec
t. K
er-
man
shah
an w
as c
onsi
dere
d an
impo
rtan
t cen
tre
for a
gric
ultu
re a
nd
trad
ition
al in
dust
ry. N
earl
y 14
,000
squ
are
kilo
met
res
of Ir
ania
n te
r-rit
ory
wer
e oc
cupi
ed b
y Ir
aqi f
orce
s fo
r mos
t of t
he w
ar.
The
Iran
-Ira
q w
ar w
as u
nusu
al fo
r a n
umbe
r of r
easo
ns. T
houg
h it
was
the
long
est c
onve
ntio
nal w
ar o
f the
twen
tieth
cen
tury
, it w
as
conf
ined
to a
rela
tivel
y sm
all l
and
area
. A m
ixtu
re o
f anc
ient
and
m
oder
n ta
ctic
s w
ere
empl
oyed
, inc
ludi
ng in
tens
ive
"hum
an w
ave"
as
saul
ts (i
.e. t
he s
imul
tane
ous
conv
erge
nce
of th
ousa
nds
of a
rmed
tr
oops
on
one
targ
et) a
nd a
"w
ar o
n ci
ties"
that
incl
uded
the
use
of
tech
nolo
gica
lly a
dvan
ced
artil
lery
to ta
rget
dis
tant
indu
stri
es p
re-
cise
ly (S
hem
irani
199
3). I
raq
used
dire
ct m
issi
le a
ttack
s as
par
t of a
n ex
plic
it st
rate
gy to
dep
opul
ate
settl
emen
ts a
nd s
tran
gle
the
Iran
ian
econ
omy.
The
Iraq
i arm
y al
so u
sed
chem
ical
and
bio
logi
cal w
eapo
ns
150
Antir
ahm
adi
Impa
cts o
f the
war
on
hum
an h
ealth
and
long
-term
hab
itabi
lity
of th
e re
gion
Hum
an 1
,-, sse
s
Eig
ht y
ears
of i
nten
se c
onfl
ict e
xact
ed h
eavy
tolls
on
the
popu
la-
tion
of Ir
an. T
here
wer
e ap
prox
imat
ely
300,
000
Iran
ian
casu
altie
s,
incl
udin
g 61
,000
mis
sing
in a
ctio
n an
d 5,
000
in Ir
aqi p
riso
ns. T
he
relie
f and
reco
nstru
ctio
n pr
oces
s w
as fu
rther
com
plic
ated
by
the
fact
th
at a
noth
er 2
.5 m
illio
n Ir
ania
ns h
ave
beco
me
hom
eles
s, h
ave
lost
th
eir j
obs,
or a
re d
ispl
aced
. Mos
t of t
hese
hav
e ta
ken
sanc
tuar
y in
re
fuge
e ca
mps
, mak
eshi
ft s
hack
s, a
nd te
mpo
rary
she
lters
in m
ajor
ur
ban
cent
res o
r in
perip
hera
l are
as o
f war
zon
es (A
mira
hmad
i 199
0b:
63).
A g
over
nmen
t sur
vey
take
n af
ter t
he e
nd o
f hos
tiliti
es re
veal
ed
that
593
,000
civ
ilian
s w
ere
phys
ical
ly a
nd/o
r men
tally
dis
able
d by
the
war
(Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Sec
reta
ry-G
ener
al 1
991a
: 48)
. T
he fu
ture
pro
duct
ivity
of I
ran
has
been
per
man
ently
alte
red;
the
ener
gy a
nd c
apac
ity o
f mill
ions
of p
rodu
ctiv
e w
orki
ng p
eopl
e w
ho
serv
ed in
the
war
hav
e be
en ir
retr
ieva
bly
lost
. Alm
ost a
ll of
them
w
ere
youn
g an
d de
dica
ted
to th
e Ir
ania
n re
volu
tion.
Hum
an d
evel
-op
men
t inc
ludi
ng e
duca
tion
— h
as b
een
grie
vous
ly a
ffec
ted.
In th
e w
ar re
gion
alo
ne, m
ore
than
20
per c
ent (
9,30
0) o
f the
pre
-war
cla
ss-
room
s (4
4,30
0) w
ere
dam
aged
or d
estro
yed.
Ove
r a th
ird (4
50,0
00) o
f th
e re
gion
's 1.
25 m
illio
n st
uden
ts fl
ed e
lsew
here
. Thi
s pl
aced
gre
at
stra
ins
on re
ceiv
ing
scho
ol s
yste
ms,
whi
ch w
ere
forc
ed to
teac
h pu
pils
in
con
tinuo
us s
hift
s (U
nite
d N
atio
ns S
ecre
tary
-Gen
eral
199
1a: 4
5).
The
prov
isio
n of
hea
lth c
are
was
sim
ilarly
inte
rrup
ted:
" ..
. a to
tal o
f 10
2 'h
ealth
hou
ses',
84
rura
l hea
lth c
ente
rs, 8
0 ur
ban
heal
th c
ente
rs
and
12 p
rovi
ncia
l and
/or
dist
rict
hea
lth c
ente
rs w
ere
dest
roye
d"
(Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Sec
reta
ry-G
ener
al 1
991a
: 48)
. Wat
er a
nd s
ewer
age
syst
ems
in th
e ar
ea w
ere
also
hea
vily
dam
aged
. Th
e de
mog
raph
ic p
rofil
e of
Iran
has
bee
n gr
eatly
alte
red
sinc
e th
e be
ginn
ing
of th
e w
ar. M
any
of th
e ch
ange
s ar
e a
dire
ct c
onse
quen
ce
of g
over
nmen
t pol
icy
to in
crea
se th
e na
tiona
l pop
ulat
ion.
Dur
ing
the
war
yea
rs, p
opul
atio
n gr
ew a
t mor
e th
an 3
.7 p
er c
ent a
nnua
lly; b
y 19
88, t
otal
num
bers
wer
e ab
out 5
0 pe
r cen
t gre
ater
tha
n in
197
6. In
19
76, 1
7.2
per c
ent o
f Ira
n's p
opul
atio
n liv
ed in
the
five
war
-aff
ecte
d pr
ovin
ces;
by
1986
, the
pro
port
ion
had
falle
n to
15
per c
ent.
At
pres
ent,
45 p
er c
ent o
f th
e na
tiona
l pop
ulat
ion
are
unde
r the
age
of
14. C
onco
mita
nt d
eman
ds fo
r soc
ial s
ervi
ces a
nd e
duca
tiona
l fac
ilitie
s
152
Indu
stria
l dev
asta
tion
in Ir
an
pose
a c
halle
nge
for a
utho
ritie
s en
gage
d in
the
allo
catio
n of
reso
urce
s fo
r rec
onst
ruct
ion
(Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Sec
reta
ry-G
ener
al 1
991
a: 2
9). M
ore
rece
ntly
, the
gov
ernm
ent h
as a
cted
to s
low
pop
ulat
ion
grow
th. T
he
new
pol
icy
seem
s to
be
havi
ng s
ome
effe
ct, b
ut th
e co
untr
y's
pop-
ulat
ion
is st
ill g
row
ing
fast
eno
ugh
(3.2
per
cen
t in
1992
) to
caus
e se
ri-ou
s al
arm
.
Env
iron
men
tal d
amag
e
Info
rmat
ion
abou
t env
ironm
enta
l da
mag
e in
flict
ed b
y th
e w
ar is
sca
t-te
red
and
inco
nclu
sive
. Thi
s is
prim
arily
bec
ause
the
Iran
ian
auth
or-
ities
who
wer
e ch
arge
d w
ith r
econ
stru
ctio
n fo
cuse
d at
tent
ion
on
imm
edia
te re
lief e
ffor
ts a
nd o
n re
build
ing
both
the
econ
omy
and
the
mili
tary
. Mor
eove
r, in
con
trast
to th
e G
ulf W
ar o
f 199
0, th
e in
tern
a-tio
nal c
omm
unity
did
not
mon
itor e
nviro
nmen
tal e
ffec
ts o
f the
Iran
--Ir
aq w
ar. T
his
is a
ttrib
utab
le b
oth
to d
iffic
ultie
s th
at th
e m
ass
med
ia
expe
rien
ced
in re
port
ing
the
war
and
to th
e fa
ct th
at Ir
an h
ad fa
llen
out o
f fav
our w
ith W
este
rn g
over
nmen
ts th
at m
ight
oth
erw
ise
have
ta
ken
an in
tere
st.
Des
pite
the
lack
of r
elia
ble
data
on
envi
ronm
enta
l im
pact
s,
som
e ef
fect
s ar
e kn
own
(Haw
ley
1992
; Joc
hnic
k an
d N
orm
and
n.d.
). Fo
r ex
ampl
e, it
is k
now
n th
at e
xten
sive
min
efie
lds
and
unex
plod
ed w
ar
mat
eria
ls in
all
of Ir
an's
five
war
-affe
cted
pro
vinc
es h
ave
pose
d da
ily
haza
rds t
o lo
cal p
opul
atio
ns. R
eza
Mal
ekza
deh,
repr
esen
tativ
e of
the
Iran
ian
Min
istry
of H
ealth
, rep
orte
d in
199
1 th
at a
t lea
st 1
0 pe
ople
a
day
wer
e w
ound
ed, m
aim
ed, o
r kill
ed b
y liv
e w
ar m
uniti
ons (
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Sec
reta
ry-G
ener
al 1
991a
: 29)
. It i
s al
so k
now
n th
at g
roun
d ba
ttles
and
aer
ial b
omba
rdm
ents
cau
sed
exte
nsiv
e de
stru
ctio
n of
for-
ests
— a
pro
cess
that
was
exa
cerb
ated
by
peop
le se
arch
ing
for c
ooki
ng
fuel
to re
plac
e no
rmal
sup
plie
s; ru
n-of
f and
ero
sion
hav
e in
crea
sed
as
a re
sult.
Dur
ing
the
conf
lict,
mor
e th
an 3
mill
ion
date
pal
ms a
nd 5
,000
he
ctar
es o
f orc
hard
s w
ere
dest
roye
d. S
ome
130,
000
hect
ares
of n
atu-
ral f
ores
ts a
nd 7
53,0
00 h
ecta
res
of p
astu
re la
nd in
the
war
-aff
licte
d pr
ovin
ces
wer
e al
so re
nder
ed u
nusa
ble.
Th
e im
pact
of w
ar o
n fa
rmla
nd w
as e
qual
ly s
igni
fican
t. In
Khu
ze-
stan
, ]la
m, a
nd K
erm
ansh
ahan
, " ..
. rec
onst
ruct
ion
of th
e fa
rmin
g su
b-se
ctor
invo
lves
land
-leve
ling
and
grad
ing
of a
bout
251
,000
ha
of
irrig
ated
farm
land
and
roug
h le
velin
g of
53,
700
ha o
f rai
n-fe
d la
nd"
(Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Sec
reta
ry-G
ener
al 1
991a
: 40-
41).
Farm
land
s in
the
five
war
-impa
cted
pro
vinc
es a
ppea
r to
be c
onta
min
ated
by
toxi
c m
ate-
153
Atn
eral
imad
t
rial
s em
anat
ing
from
che
mic
al a
nd b
iolo
gica
l wea
pons
. Dur
ing
the
war
, pro
duce
from
sou
ther
n Ir
an w
as c
onsi
dere
d un
heal
thy
and
coul
d no
t be
mar
kete
d, th
ereb
y dr
ivin
g up
pric
es a
nd c
reat
ing
shor
tage
s.
The
situ
atio
n w
as n
ot s
impl
y on
e of
dir
ect d
estr
uctio
n an
d co
n-ta
min
atio
n. T
he p
robl
ems
of w
arfa
re w
ere
com
poun
ded
by o
ther
pr
oble
ms,
incl
udin
g re
mov
al o
f top
soil,
com
pact
ion
and
flood
ing
of
agric
ultu
ral l
ands
, mod
ifica
tions
of r
iver
flow
s, in
terr
uptio
n of
irrig
a-tio
n w
ater
sup
plie
s, a
nd w
ater
logg
ing
and
salin
izat
ion
due
to s
alt
wat
er fl
owin
g on
to a
gric
ultu
ral l
and
whe
n irr
igat
ion
cana
ls w
ere
dest
roye
d. F
inal
ly, s
tudy
of c
onta
min
atio
n in
rura
l are
as is
ham
pere
d by
the
pres
ence
of u
nide
ntifi
ed m
inef
ield
s (U
nite
d N
atio
ns S
ecre
tary
-G
ener
al 1
991a
: 28-
48).
Leve
ls o
f env
ironm
enta
l int
oxic
atio
n ar
e m
uch
mor
e di
ffic
ult t
o as
certa
in th
an d
irect
des
truct
ion,
par
ticul
arly
bec
ause
of t
he la
ck o
f re
cord
s m
entio
ned
abov
e bu
t als
o be
caus
e in
toxi
catio
n as
sess
men
t re
quire
s fai
rly so
phis
ticat
ed te
chno
logy
that
has
bee
n ne
ither
ava
il-ab
le in
Iran
nor
sup
plie
d by
the
inte
rnat
iona
l env
ironm
enta
l com
-m
unity
. Non
e th
e le
ss, i
t is p
ossi
ble
to p
rovi
de a
gen
eral
ove
rvie
w o
f th
e im
pact
s on
a re
gion
-by-
regi
on b
asis.
Th
e so
uth-
wes
tern
pro
vinc
es h
ave
expe
rienc
ed e
xtre
me
envi
ron-
men
tal d
amag
e, p
artic
ular
ly in
the
coas
tal s
trip
and
alon
g m
ain
inla
nd
wat
erw
ays.
The
Kar
oun
Riv
er, o
nce
the
mai
nsta
y of
eco
nom
ic a
ctiv
-ity
, is
now
hea
vily
pol
lute
d an
d un
usab
le. A
mon
g th
e ru
ral p
op-
ulat
ion,
a h
igh
inci
denc
e of
dis
ease
s, es
peci
ally
eye
infe
ctio
ns, s
tom
-ac
h ill
ness
es, a
nd s
kin
ailm
ents
, has
bee
n re
porte
d (U
nite
d N
atio
ns
Secr
etar
y-G
ener
al 1
991a
: 28-
48).
The
exac
t cau
se o
f the
se a
ilmen
ts is
not k
now
n, b
ut h
ealth
off
icia
ls n
ote
that
the
rate
of i
ncid
ence
is m
uch
high
er th
an in
are
as u
naff
ecte
d by
the
war
. Sin
ce th
e w
ar's
end
ther
e ha
s bee
n an
ala
rmin
g in
crea
se in
hea
lth-th
reat
enin
g in
sect
s and
pes
ts.
Ther
e ha
s als
o be
en a
n in
crea
sed
inci
denc
e of
acu
te re
spira
tory
dis
-ea
se, p
ossib
ly a
s a re
sult
of w
ar-in
duce
d to
xins
in th
e en
viro
nmen
t, as
w
ell a
s an
incr
ease
in
the
num
ber o
f tho
se a
fflic
ted
by se
vere
dia
r-rh
oea,
whi
ch c
an b
e m
ore
dire
ctly
link
ed to
the
disr
uptio
n of
the
prov
isio
n of
fres
h w
ater
sup
plie
s.
The
coa
stal
reg
ion
betw
een
Aba
dan
and
the
Stra
it of
Hor
muz
, en
com
pass
ing
appr
oxim
atel
y 25
0 sq
uare
kilo
met
res
of b
each
, was
co
vere
d in
tar a
nd a
spha
lt. T
hese
subs
tanc
es p
osed
a g
rave
thre
at to
al
read
y en
dang
ered
spec
ies a
nd p
rote
ctiv
e ve
geta
tion.
Lea
ks fr
om o
il ta
nker
s at
tack
ed in
the
Gul
f are
bel
ieve
d to
be
the
caus
e (W
alke
r 19
89).
Oil-
rela
ted
pollu
tion
is a
lso
attri
bute
d to
the
bom
bing
of o
il pl
atfo
rms
in th
e G
ulf.
Cap
ping
thes
e oi
l wel
ls h
as ta
ken
year
s of
1111
1111
1111
11 th
'Ia.V
ial1
011
Iii
Iran
effo
rt. T
he te
rrito
ry o
f Ira
n in
clud
es m
any
isla
nds
in th
e G
ulf,
20 o
f w
hich
hav
e be
en a
dver
sely
aff
ecte
d by
oil
pollu
tion
and
oil s
pills
. The
pr
awn-
fish
ing
indu
stry
has
bee
n se
vere
ly th
reat
ened
, ow
ing
to th
e de
stru
ctio
n 01
man
grov
e an
d se
a-gr
ass
cultu
res
in th
e co
asta
l reg
ions
of
the
Gul
f. Se
a gr
asse
s ar
e af
fect
ed b
y to
xic
hydr
ocar
bons
and
con
-ta
min
atio
n of
sed
imen
ts; o
ils p
enet
rate
the
stom
ata
and
kill
entir
e se
a-gr
ass c
omm
uniti
es th
at p
rovi
de n
urse
ry g
roun
ds fo
r pra
wns
(Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Sec
reta
ry-G
ener
al 1
991b
: 29)
. In
addi
tion,
the
dest
ruct
ion
of
all o
r par
t of t
he p
raw
n ye
ar c
lass
has
cum
ulat
ive
effe
cts o
n su
bseq
uent
ca
tche
s. A
noth
er s
ourc
e of
con
tam
inan
ts is
the
sunk
en s
hips
and
wre
cks
that
stil
l lie
in a
nd a
long
the
Shat
t-al-A
rab
wat
erw
ay. T
he m
agni
tude
of
the
prob
lem
incr
ease
s with
tim
e be
caus
e cu
rren
ts c
arry
con
tam
inan
t ca
rgoe
s th
roug
hout
the
wat
erw
ay s
yste
m a
nd o
ut to
the
Gul
f. T
his
pose
s a
dist
inct
thre
at to
the
fishi
ng in
dust
ry a
s w
ell a
s to
the
ecol
ogy
of th
e ar
ea, a
nd q
uite
pos
sibl
y to
the
adja
cent
wat
er-ta
ble.
The
nat
ure
of th
e ca
rgo
in th
ese
ship
s is
unk
now
n an
d on
ly a
sub
stan
tial i
nves
-tig
atio
n w
ould
reve
al th
e ex
act c
onta
min
ants
. The
est
imat
ed c
ost o
f cl
ean-
up h
as b
een
put b
y va
rious
sou
rces
at $
2 bi
llion
to $
4 bi
llion
. N
o le
ss th
an tw
o ye
ars
of c
ontin
uous
wor
k is
nee
ded
to re
habi
litat
e th
e riv
er.
Furt
her d
esta
biliz
atio
n of
the
envi
ronm
ent i
n so
uthe
rn Ir
an h
as
resu
lted
from
dis
turb
ance
s in
the
Gul
f reg
ion
durin
g th
e U
S-le
d Pe
rsia
n G
ulf W
ar o
f 199
0-19
91. S
ome
of th
e en
viro
nmen
tal e
ffec
ts th
at a
re
now
obs
erve
d in
sou
ther
n Ir
an m
ay b
e tra
ceab
le in
par
t to
that
war
.'
Dam
age
to h
uman
set
tlem
ents
and
the
econ
omy
Dam
age
to se
ttlem
ents
in Ir
an w
as e
norm
ous.
The
war
wip
ed o
ut 4
,000
vi
llage
s, da
mag
ed 5
2 ci
ties,
and
destr
oyed
abo
ut 1
20,0
00 h
ouse
s; 6
of
the
citie
s wer
e co
mpl
etel
y le
velle
d w
hile
ano
ther
15
sust
aine
d da
m-
age
of 3
0 -8
0 pe
r cen
t. Th
e ci
ty o
f Kho
rram
shah
r (19
80 p
opul
atio
n 30
0,00
0) w
as Ir
an's
mos
t im
porta
nt p
ort o
n th
e G
ulf.
It no
w li
es in
ne
ar-to
tal r
uin,
hav
ing
sust
aine
d de
stru
ctio
n of
80
per c
ent o
f its
bu
ildin
gs. I
mpa
cts i
n ru
ral a
reas
wer
e eq
ually
gre
at: o
ver 3
0 pe
r cen
t of
the
villa
ges i
n th
e fiv
e m
ost w
ar-to
rn p
rovi
nces
wer
e co
mpl
etel
y de
stro
yed;
oth
ers
sust
aine
d se
vere
dam
age.
The
mon
etar
y va
lue
of
dam
age
to h
uman
set
tlem
ents
was
est
imat
ed a
t $13
bill
ion
for t
he
peri
od S
epte
mbe
r 198
0 to
Sep
tem
ber 1
985.
For
the
entir
e w
ar,
hum
an s
ettle
men
ts d
amag
e m
ay h
ave
exce
eded
$18
bill
ion
(Am
ir-ah
mad
i 199
2a: 8
2).
154
155
I 2 eo 2 1 Si a r. O E is 5
0
•5
DU
0. '9
•g
CD N CD N 00 00 ,t 00 vn vn
.4. 4
7CI ,t 01,
00
r-
. .
. .
. .
. .
c4 r
4 en e
n
on en r
- vl
ol o
n •
A--.1
en o
n N
e. e.
rq
8 8
8 8
8 8
8 8
ei*.
•
c43 r'
g 4
n E.8
V2 g;
ch.
q; ei
47 00 c
D e
n et
un NC ,
r (s.1
Nr-
CD 00 vn vn N NO
r- e
n e.
4D
el e. e
l 410
oo
e4
-4. s
o r-
c3 c)
92
47 410 e
A o
n N u
n 0'
. 0'
st ,s
On
on In V
D VD
CD
CD N
•
et V1
wl wl
01 ,r.
ocr
r- oo
od
on v
i 7t
.zr M
on
N N
el
.er
r- on
oo C
D t".
.. r-
el CA O
n 00
•en
.1-
en CO
en on C
D
§ r-
CD
oC r-
so .9 § i
r- F,
't 71- .1-
cn c,
,-...
„ 1-..
. 01, N.
N.
00
, ,-^
„
g 4 gg * T,
g g T
-1 ;71
' N
VI
cv u
n et r- el
-. e
l
en c
4
c4
e.
e.
,-.
a 73g
g FA
‘11...ma° !!
CN
00 C- • In
0'r
CD C
A 00
en
Ch
en 0
0 cr e.
In
• r- •nch
on
,r 47 00
ri
r- e
n cD
e.
oti
,4
•vi
00
71 A I
n 2;
,r43 N
VD
Cr;
0 o
gu 0 --
a) Li 2
5g ;8
Fx1 S2
n 4
g E; 2
8 L
Cr,
Ch C
h Ch
O'
N 0
it
r. ,4
r.
r.
r.
O
GO N N
A m
irah
mad
i
Thre
e ty
pes o
f dir
ect e
cono
mic
dam
age
resu
lting
from
the
war
wer
e di
sting
uish
ed b
y th
e Ira
nian
gov
ernm
ent —
bui
ldin
gs a
nd in
stalla
tions
, m
achi
nery
and
equ
ipm
ent,
and
mat
eria
ls a
nd g
oods
(see
tabl
e 6.
1).
The
gove
rnm
ent a
lso
calc
ulat
ed a
sepa
rate
ind
irec
t eco
nom
ic d
amag
e ca
tego
ry th
at in
clud
es o
ppor
tuni
ty c
osts
but
exc
lude
s dam
age
to th
e de
fenc
e se
ctor
and
hum
an lo
sses
; a v
alue
-add
ed a
ppro
ach
was
use
d w
ithin
a n
atio
nal i
ncom
e-ac
coun
ting
fram
ewor
k. T
he se
ven
econ
omic
se
ctor
s fo
r whi
ch d
ata
are
avai
labl
e in
clud
e ag
ricu
lture
, min
ing,
m
anuf
actu
ring,
oil,
ele
ctric
ity/g
as/w
ater
, con
stru
ctio
n an
d ho
usin
g,
and
serv
ices
.' B
y th
e tim
e th
at Ir
an a
nd Ir
aq a
gree
d to
a c
ease
-fire
, Ira
n's i
ndus
-try
was
ope
ratin
g at
onl
y 20
-30
per c
ent o
f cap
acity
. Dire
ct e
cono
mic
da
mag
e (i.
e. p
hysi
cal d
estru
ctio
n) in
flict
ed o
n Ir
an a
mou
nted
to a
ye
arly
ave
rage
of 2
3.35
per
cen
t of t
he c
ount
ry's
gros
s dom
estic
pro
d-uc
t (G
DP)
. The
UN
Sec
urity
Cou
ncil
estim
ates
that
the
cost
of d
irect
ec
onom
ic d
amag
e, e
xclu
ding
mili
tary
dam
age
and
loss
of h
uman
life
, am
ount
ed to
$97
.3 b
illio
n. U
sing
a di
ffere
nt e
xcha
nge
rate
, the
Iran
ian
gove
rnm
ent p
uts t
he fi
gure
muc
h hi
gher
, at o
ver $
300
billi
on. M
ilita
ry
dam
age
was
est
imat
ed a
t $50
bill
ion.
Som
e ob
serv
ers e
stim
ate
that
th
e to
tal c
ost
of d
amag
e is
in th
e ne
ighb
ourh
ood
of U
S$1,
000
billi
on
(Ath
ari 1
991)
. O
f all
the
prod
uctiv
e se
ctor
s, th
e oi
l sec
tor s
usta
ined
by
far t
he
mos
t dam
age
(tabl
e 6.
2; fi
g. 6
.2).
This
sect
or a
ccou
nted
for 2
3.96
per
ce
nt o
f the
tota
l dire
ct e
cono
mic
dam
age
and
59.4
5 pe
r cen
t of t
he
dam
age
infli
cted
on
all p
rodu
ctiv
e se
ctor
s. In
thes
e se
ctor
s, ne
arly
86
per c
ent o
f all
the
dam
age
infli
cted
on
build
ings
and
inst
alla
tions
was
bo
rne
by th
e oi
l ind
ustry
. O
il in
stal
latio
ns in
the
Gul
f reg
ion
wer
e a
prim
ary
atta
ck ta
rget
. Th
e m
ain
Irani
an lo
adin
g te
rmin
al, l
ocat
ed in
Kha
rg Is
land
, was
bad
ly
dam
aged
in A
ugus
t 198
2, e
ffect
ivel
y ha
lvin
g Ira
nian
oil
expo
rts. B
efor
e th
e at
tack
s, K
harg
had
an
offlo
adin
g ca
paci
ty o
f 14
mill
ion
barre
ls of
oi
l per
day
at 1
4 be
rthin
g fa
cilit
ies;
its 1
993
capa
city
was
just
2 m
illio
n ba
rrel
s pe
r day
. Of 3
9 cr
ude
oil s
tora
ge ta
nks,
21
wer
e co
mpl
etel
y de
stro
yed
by fi
res r
esul
ting
from
atta
cks;
ass
umin
g fu
ll ca
paci
ty, o
il sp
ills
into
the
Gul
f fro
m th
e K
harg
faci
lity
alon
e am
ount
ed to
12
mill
ion
barr
els (
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Sec
reta
ry-G
ener
al 1
991a
: 29)
Th
e oi
l ind
ustry
was
, and
is, e
xtre
mel
y im
porta
nt to
the
econ
omic
vi
abili
ty o
f Ira
n. O
il re
venu
es a
ccou
nted
for 5
1 pe
r cen
t of t
otal
gov
-er
nmen
t rev
enue
s in
1983
-198
4 an
d 44
per
cen
t of t
otal
gov
ernm
ent
reve
nues
in 1
986-
1987
. In
fact
, oil
reve
nues
gen
eral
ly a
ccou
nt fo
r ov
er 9
5 pe
r cen
t of I
ran'
s for
eign
exc
hang
e ea
rnin
gs a
nd p
ay fo
r the
156
157
N
00
cr,
N m
s
? gs; 'Pm
04.
a4
S' 4
6,'"
0!! 2
306%
Man
uluc
lurI
ng 5
2a%
M
lnin
p 01
2%
Agr
icul
lure
579
%
Elec
, Gas
. Wal
er 4
26%
C
onsl
ruct
ion
0.80%
Ser
vice
s 50
7%
Indu
stri
al d
evas
tatio
n in
Ira
n
c i ic.,
_q
n .." .
..--..'-'
"
N
li. (. 4 p
.. 'D
- F^ ̂ A
i'° 1
e'l
mi‘o ch
.4:
P4 '
N7as "r
. is:
g n
es;
n 0
ta. '
. 2.
g I
°1 ^1°
1 N
0
(Ni
(.4 N
-
:pi Ti
- .0
tE
l a
i". 4:
E F
:. il
°. ; ;
i ,A
°..
_. •-,,
..`g
'NF'
2,n5
;:giis
e - -
_ 2
E
41 ei 0, " -•• 0
.,i "
A ,..,,,
I
.s
•
,, 71.
,--? ° ...r t-F
-' .Nir
i 0s N
00 ,
.a.
.O ..
... .
.2
,,i --,
so &
4 .T
. ic:
8
E2 :
: ? -
0 .1
M
e%
v
N -
c,
vl v)
00
a'
ffi °..4
g ✓1
o, 2 T
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'2' ' ' '
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4. 4
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4 -7
4...m.0
4,..04
v r, . 1
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rz N
"P ' yo.'4
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(-sir '''. i ''.
'
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...,
42 1
r-
m w
-, m
m
•-
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11 1
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'51 f
.1 i s
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5 !!
--; t- -. N
N r
:i ,c
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13
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X
g
r'
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p,
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4 m
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at p,
on .,,
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0. 0
N
;7144
ti
, 5
§
a 4
g, 1
.--.
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a° '"
V E
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c4 N g
:--:
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O CD
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X
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si
h 0
.4 6
''-i c
4 7:
v.
7,.' E
..:
1
'4 s' c
oA
a
' 7 -3 8 ." " '
4 ." , , - - .p
"
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6. A
L''̀'
I .
g '''
/ 'c:
g 3
!I R
g. i
* ?.
5 ii
1 il
" t
...:
e e F
Oa
2 12
0 =
3 .
0
o 0
Ts 2
pi 0
xi
a '-.
.4)
0 .
2
2
.0 2
.2 -‘3
.2
-g 5
T1.32 ac
i i
.S 2
.5
-.
ar
" 4
"g
2 " I
g 1 .
4 -
.v.I
00 0
....
a al
i :,.
,' -.E- d
g i i
A
u .
o .g
2 a
',.2
4 'o
""'l
-a c
, -
...g
ri
2
0
,0 I I
i l 1
i 8 a
l / .
g 4
it: 1 1
1 1
c Al
..,t0t .-
4 (-4
m ..
.. '.- ..
.) sO
(2 e
, N
m ,
13
WI
g CI3
6 i
Fig. 6
.2
Dir
ect e
cono
mic
loss
es b
y se
ctor
(Sou
rce:
Pla
n an
d B
udge
t Org
aniz
atio
n,
Isla
mic
Rep
ublic
of I
ran
1991
: 50)
bulk
of I
ran'
s in
dust
rial
inpu
ts, f
ood
impo
rts,
and
mili
tary
nee
ds.
Iran
ian
indu
strie
s de
pend
on
fore
ign
mar
kets
for o
ver 6
5 pe
r cen
t of
thei
r raw
mat
eria
ls, 7
5 pe
r cen
t of t
heir
inte
rmed
iate
inpu
ts, a
nd o
ver
90 p
er c
ent o
f the
ir ca
pita
l goo
ds. O
ne a
naly
st e
stim
ated
that
the
cost
of
the
war
abs
orbe
d 60
per
cen
t of
Iran
's gr
oss
natio
nal p
rodu
ct
(GN
P) d
urin
g th
e 19
80-1
988
perio
d (M
olid
199
0).
Furt
her b
reak
dow
n of
sec
tora
l dam
age
reve
als
that
the
man
ufac
-tu
ring
sect
or s
uffe
red
mos
t hea
vily
in te
rms
of m
achi
nery
and
equ
ip-
men
t, na
mel
y, lo
ss o
f cap
ital s
tock
: it a
ccou
nts
for t
he la
rges
t sha
re
of d
amag
e in
this
cat
egor
y, a
t 59.
17 p
er c
ent,
with
agr
icul
ture
a d
is-
tant
sec
ond
at 2
2.86
per
cen
t. E
lect
rici
ty, g
as, a
nd w
ater
incu
rred
th
e m
ost d
amag
e in
term
s of
mat
eria
ls a
nd g
oods
-- c
onst
itutin
g 49
.57
per c
ent o
f the
tota
l los
ses
to m
ater
ials
and
goo
ds, w
hile
agr
icul
ture
ac
coun
ts fo
r 28.
17 p
er c
ent o
f thi
s typ
e of
dam
age.
With
in a
gric
ultu
re,
farm
ing
suff
ered
the
mos
t dam
age,
follo
wed
by
fore
stry
, ani
mal
hus
-ba
ndry
, hun
ting,
and
fish
erie
s. M
ost d
amag
e in
the
cons
truct
ion
sec-
tor w
as to
bui
ldin
gs a
nd in
stal
latio
ns, w
hich
con
stitu
ted
65.4
9 pe
r cen
t of
the
dam
age
to th
at s
ecto
r. D
irect
eco
nom
ic d
amag
e to
the
natio
n's
publ
ic se
rvic
es a
lone
acc
ount
s for
51.
19 p
er c
ent o
f the
tota
l and
85.
74
per c
ent o
f the
dam
age
sust
aine
d by
the
serv
ice
sect
or a
s a
who
le.
158
159
0
N
N
N
N
in
N 00
O N 00
Ch
2 3 2
0
00
E CO tg E 445 0
in 8 N
r.
0
O N N So
1 2 is 1 I I 2 COcn 0
N N
AD
N —
N-amooquq
BIER
00,445
,4vi
r--
r183
1:.."
N.
sc..
'11
00 N
cry
ri 0,00
ma—
tm
N. 01. rid
v1
4.
8 ri
N
—_;
§ .
8
-5 E
o 1 g m
11
5.1
0 t, o
rz
161
'ex .1.
1
itc2
s.0
N
N
00 00
Amir
ahm
adi
The
trans
porta
tion,
stor
age,
and
com
mun
icat
ions
sect
or su
stai
ned
the
maj
ority
of d
amag
e to
its m
achi
nery
and
equ
ipm
ent,
at 8
3.48
per
cen
t of
its d
irect
loss
es. W
ithin
this
sect
or, t
rans
porta
tion
was
the
hard
est
hit,
owin
g to
the
dest
ruct
ion
of ro
ads,
railw
ays,
and
priv
ate
vehi
cles
(P
lan
and
Bud
get O
rgan
izat
ion
1991
). A
bre
akdo
wn
of th
e da
ta fo
r sec
tora
l dam
age
by p
rovi
nce
reve
als
that
Khu
zesta
n in
curre
d 34
.27
per c
ent o
f all
dire
ct e
cono
mic
dam
age
(tabl
e 6.
3). K
huze
stan
's la
rge
shar
e of
the
dam
age
was
not
une
x-pe
cted
: man
y pe
troch
emic
al e
stab
lishm
ents
, lig
ht in
dust
ry fa
cilit
ies,
oil i
nsta
llatio
ns, m
ajor
por
t fac
ilitie
s, an
d m
oder
n ag
ribus
ines
ses —
prim
e ta
rget
s of a
eria
l bom
bard
men
ts —
are
loca
ted
ther
e. T
he c
ity o
f K
horr
amsh
ahr a
nd th
e w
orld
's la
rges
t oil
refin
ery
at A
bada
n w
ere
alm
ost c
ompl
etel
y de
stroy
ed, w
hile
the
city
of A
bada
n its
elf s
usta
ined
50
per
cen
t dam
age.
Of t
he to
tal d
amag
e to
the
prov
ince
, app
rox-
imat
ely
40 p
er c
ent w
as a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith b
uild
ings
and
insta
llatio
ns.
Rec
over
y fr
om w
ar
Def
inin
g pr
iorit
ies f
or re
cons
truct
ion
beca
me
a fu
lcru
m fo
r par
tisan
de
bate
and
pol
itica
l con
test
in th
e Ir
ania
n go
vern
men
t. Th
is is
an
expe
rienc
e co
mm
on to
man
y so
ciet
ies t
hat h
ave
expe
rienc
ed w
ide-
spre
ad d
estru
ctio
n fro
m d
isaste
r, w
heth
er it
is w
ar, i
ndus
trial
cal
amity
, or
nat
ural
dis
aste
r. In
Iran
, diff
eren
t pol
itica
l gro
ups s
ough
t to
have
th
eir o
wn
soci
al a
nd e
cono
mic
age
ndas
refle
cted
in th
e re
cons
truct
ion
strat
egy.
Deb
ate
cent
red
arou
nd fo
ur is
sues
— re
build
ing
the
mili
tary
, re
invi
gora
ting
the
natio
nal e
cono
my,
pro
mot
ing
the
econ
omic
wel
l-be
ing
of th
e po
or, a
nd re
cons
truct
ing
war
-dam
aged
are
as. O
nly
the
mos
t rad
ical
fact
ion
of th
e go
vern
men
t was
con
cern
ed w
ith e
quity
an
d so
cial
just
ice.
Con
serv
ativ
e an
d pr
agm
atis
t fac
tions
bel
ieve
d th
at
econ
omic
gro
wth
and
effi
cien
cy sh
ould
gui
de re
cons
truct
ion,
and
it is
th
ese
view
s tha
t cam
e to
dom
inat
e of
ficia
l pol
icy.
As a
resu
lt, m
ost
reco
nstru
ctio
n ef
forts
are
dev
oted
to s
treng
then
ing
mar
ket m
echa
-ni
sms,
priv
atiz
atio
n, a
nd li
bera
lizat
ion
of tr
ade.
Im
ports
are
an
esse
ntia
l com
pone
nt o
f the
Iran
ian
econ
omy,
and
re
cons
truct
ion
of b
oth
the
civi
lian
and
mili
tary
sec
tors
can
not b
e ac
com
plish
ed w
ithou
t the
m.
But i
mpo
rts m
ust
be p
aid
for w
ith h
ard
curr
ency
and
mos
t of
this
is o
btai
ned
in e
xcha
nge
for
Iran
ian
oil.
Unf
ortu
nate
ly, I
ran'
s oil
reve
nues
hav
e bee
n in
suffi
cien
t for
the t
ask
and
gove
rnm
ent l
eade
rs a
re p
reoc
cupi
ed w
ith fi
ndin
g al
tern
ativ
e so
urce
s of h
ard
curr
ency
. Con
serv
ativ
e fac
tions
— w
hich
are
curr
ently
in
pow
er —
favo
ur o
peni
ng th
e Ira
nian
econ
omy
to fo
reig
n in
vest
ors,
160
Aln
II'ah
? la
th
limiti
ng s
tate
inte
rven
tion,
and
allo
win
g th
e m
arke
t and
the
priv
ate
sect
or to
stim
ulat
e ra
pid
econ
omic
gro
wth
. Mor
e ra
dica
l fac
tions
ha
ve a
rgue
d fo
r gro
wth
at a
slow
er p
ace
and
for g
over
nmen
t inv
est-
men
t in
dom
estic
indu
strie
s tha
t will
supp
ly c
emen
t, st
eel,
and
othe
r co
mm
oditi
es to
mee
t the
bas
ic n
eeds
of r
econ
stru
ctio
n. T
he ra
dica
ls
have
als
o fa
vour
ed a
wel
fare
relie
f pro
gram
me
that
targ
ets
the
need
iest
. Whi
le d
omes
tic in
vest
men
t and
relie
f are
incl
uded
in th
e go
vern
men
t's re
cons
truct
ion
plan
, con
serv
ativ
e po
licie
s ar
e cl
early
do
min
ant.
Sinc
e 19
89, P
resi
dent
Ali
Akb
ar H
ashe
mi R
afsa
njan
i, a
polit
ical
pr
agm
atis
t, ha
s tri
ed to
acc
omm
odat
e pu
blic
, priv
ate,
and
coo
pera
- tiv
e se
ctor
s in
the
reco
nstru
ctio
n pr
oces
s. H
is g
over
nmen
t has
relie
d on
a b
lend
of d
omes
tic re
sour
ces a
nd c
apab
ilitie
s; in
tern
atio
nal t
rade
, in
vestm
ent a
nd b
orro
win
g; e
xpan
sion
of th
e ro
le o
f the
priv
ate
sect
or;
and
utili
zatio
n of
pub
lic p
lann
ing
and
mar
ket m
echa
nism
s. Fo
llow
ing
reco
mm
enda
tions
of t
he W
orld
Ban
k an
d th
e In
tern
atio
nal M
onet
ary
Fund
(IM
F), t
he g
over
nmen
t has
impl
emen
ted
econ
omic
stab
iliza
tion
and
stru
ctur
al a
djus
tmen
t pro
gram
mes
that
are
des
igne
d to
put
the
econ
omy
on a
pea
cetim
e fo
otin
g th
at e
mph
asiz
es in
crea
sed
grow
th
and
grea
ter e
ffic
ienc
y. M
ost p
rice
cont
rols
hav
e be
en li
fted;
nat
iona
l-iz
ed in
dust
ries
are
bein
g so
ld to
the
priv
ate
sect
or; s
ubsi
dies
hav
e la
rgel
y be
en e
limin
ated
; a si
ngle
exc
hang
e ra
te h
as b
een
intro
duce
d;
the
Iran
ian
rial h
as b
een
deva
lued
and
mad
e co
nver
tible
, and
the
gove
rnm
ent's
bud
get d
efic
it ha
s be
en b
roug
ht u
nder
con
trol.
The
Iran
ian
gove
rnm
ent h
as a
lso
take
n a
serie
s of o
ther
step
s: it
has
bor
-ro
wed
upw
ards
of $
30 b
illio
n fro
m fo
reig
n go
vern
men
ts an
d fin
anci
al
and
indu
stria
l ins
titut
ions
; it h
as e
ncou
rage
d - w
ith le
ss s
ucce
ss -
fore
ign
inve
stm
ent;
and
it ha
s cr
eate
d fr
ee e
cono
mic
zon
es in
the
Pers
ian
Gul
f isl
ands
and
els
ewhe
re in
the
coun
try. ,
The
imm
edia
te
impa
cts o
f thi
s mac
roec
onom
ic p
olic
y ha
ve b
een
high
er in
flatio
n, a
w
ider
gap
bet
wee
n th
e in
com
es o
f ric
h an
d po
or, a
nd a
larg
er in
ter-
natio
nal d
ebt;
mea
nwhi
le, i
ts lo
ng-te
rm s
ucce
ss re
mai
ns in
dou
bt
whi
le th
e U
S go
vern
men
t opp
oses
the
gove
rnm
ent i
n Te
hera
n an
d th
ere
is u
ncer
tain
ty a
bout
pol
itica
l cha
nges
follo
win
g th
e en
d of
Raf
-sa
njan
i's te
rm in
199
7. H
owev
er, f
rom
the
pers
pect
ive
of e
cono
mic
gr
owth
, the
pol
icy
has
alre
ady
been
suc
cess
ful b
ecau
se th
e gr
owth
ra
te h
as a
vera
ged
abou
t 8 p
er c
ent p
er y
ear b
etw
een
1989
and
19
92. N
one
the
less
, mos
t of t
he b
enef
its o
f thi
s gr
owth
hav
e be
en
erod
ed b
y a
popu
latio
n in
crea
se ra
te o
f aro
und
3.2
per c
ent p
er y
ear
(199
2).
162
Indu
stri
al d
evas
tatio
n in
Iran
Nat
iona
l rec
onst
ruct
ion
plan
s
The
Firs
t Soc
io-E
cono
mic
and
Cul
tura
l Dev
elop
men
t Pla
n of
the
Isla
mic
Rep
ublic
pro
vide
d fo
r thr
ee, m
ore
or le
ss d
istin
ct, s
tage
s of
econ
omic
reco
nstru
ctio
n. In
dust
rial r
ecov
ery
is a
n im
porta
nt o
bjec
-tiv
e. In
the
first
stag
e, e
ffor
ts a
re d
irect
ed to
war
d fu
ll us
e of
exi
stin
g pr
oduc
tive
capa
citie
s (pa
rticu
larly
in o
il an
d ga
s), i
nfra
stru
ctur
e, a
nd
hum
an re
sour
ces.
Stro
ng e
mph
asis
is a
lso
plac
ed o
n ag
ricul
ture
and
ru
ral d
evel
opm
ent.
The
goal
at t
his
stag
e is
the
rest
orat
ion
of th
e ec
onom
y to
its
norm
al fu
nctio
ning
leve
l and
the
incr
ease
of o
il ex
-po
rts to
gen
erat
e as
muc
h fo
reig
n ex
chan
ge a
s po
ssib
le. S
truct
ural
ad
just
men
t and
sta
biliz
atio
n, a
s pr
escr
ibed
by
the
Wor
ld B
ank
and
IMF,
and
inve
stm
ent i
n th
e oi
l sec
tor a
re th
e m
ajor
gov
ernm
ent p
ro-
gram
mes
at p
rese
nt.
The
next
pla
n (1
994-
1998
) will
focu
s on
usin
g oi
l rev
enue
to a
chie
ve
econ
omic
gro
wth
and
incr
ease
d pe
r cap
ita in
com
e by
exp
andi
ng p
ro-
duct
ive
capa
citie
s and
job-
gene
ratin
g in
vestm
ents.
The
third
and
fina
l pl
an w
ill a
ttem
pt to
con
solid
ate
the
grow
th p
roce
ss a
nd m
ake
it in
de-
pend
ent o
f the
oil
sect
or. T
his
is a
sta
ge fa
r int
o th
e fu
ture
. Ira
nian
le
ader
s bel
ieve
that
onl
y th
en w
ill th
e co
untry
be
able
to a
chie
ve g
oals
of so
cial
justi
ce a
nd e
cono
mic
self-
suffi
cien
cy.
Whi
le e
cono
mic
nor
mal
izat
ion
is th
e fo
cus o
f the
firs
t nat
iona
l pla
n,
the
gove
rnm
ent h
as a
lso
been
mak
ing
prog
ress
tow
ard
the
phys
ical
re
cons
truct
ion
of w
ar-d
amag
ed a
reas
and
the
esta
blis
hmen
t of n
ew
econ
omic
act
iviti
es. B
efor
e au
thor
ities
cou
ld p
lan
for r
ebui
ldin
g ur
ban
and
indu
stria
l are
as, t
hey
need
ed to
kno
w h
ow m
any
peop
le w
ould
be
retu
rnin
g to
pre
-war
settl
emen
ts; h
ence
pop
ulat
ion
proj
ectio
ns w
ere
unde
rtake
n. S
econ
d, th
e go
vern
men
t stu
died
the
func
tions
of v
ari-
ous c
ities
in a
ntic
ipat
ion
of c
hang
ing
thei
r pre
-war
role
s. Th
ird, a
u-th
oriti
es a
dopt
ed a
regi
onal
vie
w o
f dev
elop
men
t acc
ordi
ng to
whi
ch,
citie
s an
d vi
llage
s w
ere
rega
rded
as
inte
gral
par
ts o
f pro
vinc
es th
at
wer
e th
emse
lves
par
t of a
n in
tegr
ated
nat
iona
l sta
te.
The
Nat
iona
l Spa
tial P
lann
ing
Stra
tegy
requ
ires
that
reco
nstru
c-tio
n of
rura
l set
tlem
ents
will
pre
cede
that
of t
he c
ities
. The
inte
nt is
to
prev
ent u
nwan
ted
mig
ratio
n of
rura
l peo
ple
to th
e ci
ties.
This
stra
t-eg
y is
con
sist
ent w
ith th
e go
vern
men
t's e
arlie
r pla
n to
mak
e ag
ricul
-tu
re a
n ax
is o
f dev
elop
men
t and
to re
settl
e ru
ral a
reas
. The
gov
-er
nmen
t's p
lan
calls
for g
radu
al re
cons
truct
ion
of to
wns
and
vill
ages
so
that
peo
ple
will
retu
rn to
thei
r pre
viou
s se
ttlem
ents
as
esse
ntia
l pu
blic
and
priv
ate
activ
ities
are
taki
ng sh
ape.
Pla
nnin
g, c
ultu
ral m
at-
163
Am
irahm
adi
ters
, and
oth
er h
uman
dim
ensi
ons o
f rec
onst
ruct
ion
are
said
to h
ave
rece
ived
par
ticul
ar a
ttent
ion.
It is
judg
ed th
at, a
s ra
vage
d ar
eas
are
revi
taliz
ed, w
ar m
igra
nts
will
retu
rn a
nd h
elp
to re
build
dam
aged
st
ruct
ures
. Hou
sing
reco
nstru
ctio
n ha
s rem
aine
d a
maj
or p
aram
eter
in
the
over
all p
lan
for n
orm
aliz
atio
n of
con
ditio
ns (
tabi
'i sa
zi) i
n th
e da
mag
ed a
reas
. D
urin
g th
e w
ar, r
econ
stru
ctio
n w
as a
n em
erge
ncy
or re
plac
e-m
ent a
ctiv
ity th
at fo
cuse
d la
rgel
y on
hou
sing.
Now
it in
clud
es u
pgra
d-in
g bu
ildin
g qu
ality
, inf
rast
ruct
ure,
and
eco
nom
ic p
rodu
ctiv
ity. T
he
Supr
eme
Cou
ncil
for R
econ
stru
ctio
n an
d R
enov
atio
n of
War
-Dam
-ag
ed A
reas
is th
e hi
ghes
t-lev
el b
ody
resp
onsi
ble
for r
econ
stru
ctio
n.
It m
akes
stra
tegi
c de
cisi
ons
and
over
sees
eff
orts
to p
rom
ote
publ
ic
finan
cial
con
tribu
tions
. Ano
ther
bod
y, th
e C
entra
l Hea
dqua
rters
for
Reco
nstru
ctio
n, se
ts pr
iorit
ies,
mak
es p
olic
ies,
supe
rvise
s im
plem
enta
-tio
n of
pro
ject
s, an
d co
ordi
nate
s the
wor
k of
oth
er o
rgan
izat
ions
. The
va
rious
sect
oral
reco
nstru
ctio
n he
adqu
arte
rs c
oord
inat
e re
cons
truc-
tion
wor
ks w
ith th
e se
ctor
al p
lann
ing
com
mitt
ees a
nd su
perv
ise
proj
-ec
ts b
eing
impl
emen
ted
by c
ontra
ctor
s. F
inal
ly, t
he p
rovi
ncia
l and
co
unty
reco
nstru
ctio
n he
adqu
arte
rs a
re re
spon
sibl
e fo
r a v
arie
ty o
f ta
sks,
incl
udin
g pr
iorit
izin
g th
e re
cons
truct
ion
proj
ects
for i
mpl
e-m
enta
tion.
The
se g
over
nmen
tal i
nstit
utio
ns a
re a
ssis
ted
by o
ther
pub
-lic
and
priv
ate
orga
niza
tions
incl
udin
g th
e H
ousi
ng F
ound
atio
n, th
e M
inis
try o
f Rec
onst
ruct
ion
Cru
sade
, the
End
owm
ent f
or th
e Ei
ghth
Im
am,
Seta
dha-
ye M
o'in
(su
ppor
ting
cent
res
for p
artic
ular
pro
ject
s or
citi
es su
ch a
s Kho
rran
isha
hr's
Seta
d),
phila
nthr
opic
org
aniz
atio
ns,
and
revo
lutio
nar y
fou
ndat
ions
(ba
seej
and
kom
iteh)
. W
here
pos
sibl
e, th
e Ir
ania
n go
vern
men
t doe
s no
t rel
ocat
e or
at
tem
pt to
com
bine
dam
aged
set
tlem
ents
. Rat
her,
the
polic
y is
to
rebu
ild th
em o
n th
eir o
rigin
al s
ites
(dar
ja .s
azi).
Thi
s is
inte
nded
to
min
imiz
e co
st, s
ave
time,
and
pre
vent
unn
eces
sary
con
flict
bet
wee
n th
e pe
ople
and
the
gove
rnm
ent.
The
gove
rnm
ent a
lso
avoi
ds c
erta
in
actio
ns su
ch a
s rec
onst
ruct
ing
apar
tmen
t com
plex
es, b
uild
ing
hous
es
befo
re th
e ow
ners
hav
e re
turn
ed to
the
settl
emen
ts, a
nd u
sing
pre
-fa
bric
atio
n te
chni
ques
. Exp
erie
nce
in Ir
an in
dica
tes
that
pre
viou
sly
thos
e ac
tions
wer
e no
t pop
ular
with
the
peop
le. R
athe
r, en
doge
nous
te
chni
ques
and
one
s th
at u
se m
ore
loca
l or n
atio
nal r
esou
rces
are
pr
efer
red:
they
are
sai
d to
redu
ce th
e na
tion'
s te
chno
logi
cal d
epen
-de
ncy.
A fl
exib
le p
lann
ing
appy
bach
is a
dopt
ed so
that
feed
back
and
in
puts
from
peo
ple
are
easi
ly in
corp
orat
ed to
impr
ove
the
qual
ity o
f op
erat
ions
. In
reco
nstru
ctin
g po
pula
tion
cent
res,
the
orde
r of p
riorit
y is,
firs
t, re
siden
tial a
nd c
omm
erci
al u
nits
and
fact
orie
s pro
duci
ng c
on-
indu
stria
l dev
asta
tion
in Ir
an
stru
ctio
n m
ater
ials
, fol
low
ed b
y ot
her e
mpl
oym
ent-g
ener
atin
g ac
tiv-
ities
, par
ticul
arly
in a
gric
ultu
re a
nd sm
all i
ndus
tries
. Pro
visio
n of
hea
t, w
ater
, ele
ctric
ity, r
oads
, inf
rast
ruct
ures
, edu
catio
nal a
nd h
ealth
ser-
vice
s, co
mm
unic
atio
n lin
ks, a
nd u
rban
am
eniti
es a
re a
lso
give
n hi
gh
prio
rity.
At t
he n
atio
nal l
evel
, spe
cial
prio
rity
has
been
atta
ched
to
reco
nstru
ctio
n of
larg
e in
dust
rial u
nits
suc
h as
pet
roch
emic
al c
om-
plex
es, o
il re
finer
ies,
and
pow
er p
lant
s. Th
ere
are
thre
e le
vels
of r
econ
stru
ctio
n pl
ans.
"N
atio
nal s
ecto
r"
plan
s (b
akhs
h-e
mel
li)
incl
ude
larg
e in
dust
rial a
nd in
fras
truct
ural
pr
ojec
ts th
at a
re im
plem
ente
d by
min
istri
es. "
Popu
lar s
ecto
r" p
lans
(b
akhs
h-e
mar
dom
i)
deal
with
reco
nstr
uctio
n of
resi
dent
ial a
nd
com
mer
cial
uni
ts b
y th
eir o
wne
rs. "
Reg
iona
l sec
tor"
pla
ns (
bakh
sh-e
m
anta
qehe
i) en
com
pass
regi
onal
dev
elop
men
t pro
gram
mes
and
ur
ban
or ru
ral s
ervi
ce p
roje
cts.
They
are
impl
emen
ted
by re
cons
truc-
tion
offic
es in
the
dam
aged
are
as. T
he ro
le o
f gov
ernm
ent i
s lim
ited
to in
vest
ing
in jo
b-ge
nera
ting
prod
uctiv
e un
its, s
uper
visi
on o
f rec
on-
stru
ctio
n pr
oces
ses,
prov
isio
n of
tech
nica
l ser
vice
s, an
d fin
anci
al a
s-si
stan
ce. I
n al
l cas
es, s
ite p
repa
ratio
n is
a p
ublic
resp
onsi
bilit
y. T
he
gove
rnm
ent i
s als
o re
spon
sibl
e fo
r equ
ippi
ng p
ublic
off
ices
with
ade
-qu
ate
equi
pmen
t and
ski
lled
labo
ur, a
s w
ell a
s fo
r del
iver
ing
basi
c co
nstru
ctio
n m
ater
ials
to th
e pr
ojec
t site
s. Fi
nanc
ially
, the
pub
lic se
ctor
ass
ists
reco
nstru
ctio
n by
inve
stin
g in
in
fras
truct
ure;
pro
vidi
ng te
chni
cal a
nd m
anag
eria
l per
sonn
el; r
eim
-bu
rsin
g th
e pu
blic
for p
art o
f the
war
-rel
ated
loss
es; a
nd g
rant
ing
cred
its, l
oans
, and
oth
er b
anki
ng se
rvic
es. F
or re
build
ing
urba
n re
si-
dent
ial u
nits
(fro
m 6
0 to
120
squa
re m
etre
s), t
he g
over
nmen
t pay
s up
to 6
mill
ion
rials
, plu
s the
cos
t of c
onst
ruct
ion
mat
eria
ls.
Supp
ort f
rom
inte
rnat
iona
l org
aniz
atio
ns a
nd lo
cal
com
mun
ities
Inte
rnat
iona
l eco
nom
ic a
nd d
iplo
mat
ic c
omm
uniti
es a
re p
layi
ng a
lim
ited
but d
irect
role
in re
cons
truct
ion,
to so
me
degr
ee re
vers
ing
the
"han
ds-o
ff"
appr
oach
ado
pted
by
othe
r cou
ntrie
s du
ring
the
war
. Fi
rms f
rom
Wes
tern
Eur
ope,
Japa
n, R
ussi
a, a
nd th
e U
nite
d St
ates
(as
subc
ontra
ctor
s) a
re c
urre
ntly
invo
lved
in re
build
ing
oil i
nsta
llatio
ns
and
have
join
ed in
oth
er m
ajor
indu
stria
l and
infr
astru
ctur
al p
roje
cts.
The
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Sec
urity
Cou
ncil
(Dec
embe
r 199
1) h
as m
ade
unsu
cces
sful
ove
rture
s to
the
Wes
t for
tech
nica
l and
fina
ncia
l ass
is-
tanc
e to
Iran
.5
The
supp
ort o
f loc
al c
itize
ns h
as b
een
cruc
ial
to fi
ghtin
g th
e w
ar
165
164
166
167
A^ n
iral
unad
i
and
rebu
ildin
g ra
vage
d co
mm
uniti
es. D
urin
g th
e w
ar's
early
yea
rs
ther
e w
as g
reat
pop
ular
ent
husi
asm
for t
he Ir
ania
n re
volu
tion,
and
ci
tizen
s w
ere
will
ing
to ta
ke th
e le
ad in
reco
nstru
ctin
g ho
uses
and
pu
blic
faci
litie
s. T
his
spiri
t con
tinue
s ev
en a
fter t
he w
ar's
end:
it
is re
flect
ed in
reco
mm
enda
tions
of t
he C
ounc
il of
Pol
icy
Mak
ing
for R
econ
stru
ctio
n. In
198
8, th
e C
ounc
il, a
ctin
g on
reco
mm
enda
tions
fr
om th
e la
te A
yato
llah
Kho
mei
ni, o
utlin
ed it
s Dire
ctiv
e on
the
Com
-pr
ehen
sive
Nat
iona
l Rec
onst
ruct
ion
Plan
. The
Dire
ctiv
e ca
lled
for a
re
cons
truct
ion
stra
tegy
that
is fo
unde
d on
the
capa
bilit
ies o
f peo
ple
in w
ar-to
rn a
reas
, and
that
stre
sses
the
impo
rtanc
e of
"ob
serv
ing
the
cultu
ral,
tradi
tiona
l, an
d ps
ycho
logi
cal c
hara
cter
istic
s of t
he p
eopl
e in
ea
ch a
rea.
..."
(Am
irahm
adi 1
990b
: 247
). D
espi
te th
e em
phas
is o
n lo
cal i
nitia
tives
, the
gov
ernm
ent a
nd so
cial
syst
ems o
f Ira
n ar
e ce
n-tra
lized
. The
nat
iona
l gov
ernm
ent i
s who
lly re
spon
sibl
e fo
r all
reco
n-st
ruct
ion
plan
s. It
deci
des w
hich
pro
duct
ive
cent
res a
re to
be
rebu
ilt,
the
pace
of r
ebui
ldin
g, a
nd la
nd-u
se p
atte
rns.
Loca
l par
ticip
atio
n w
as in
tend
ed to
be
inst
itutio
naliz
ed b
y m
eans
of
exp
ande
d pr
ovin
cial
and
mun
icip
al a
utho
ritie
s, a
s w
ell a
s to
wn
coun
cils.
How
ever
, the
re is
no
auto
nom
ous n
on-g
over
nmen
tal a
genc
y th
at e
ncou
rage
s gr
ass-
root
s in
puts
. The
nat
iona
l gov
ernm
ent's
cal
l fo
r citi
zen
parti
cipa
tion
in th
e re
build
ing
is a
top-
dow
n m
anag
emen
t st
rate
gy, w
here
in th
e ce
ntra
l aut
horit
y m
akes
the
impo
rtant
dec
isio
ns
abou
t a w
ide
rang
e of
mat
ters
, inc
ludi
ng h
ow to
refa
shio
n ci
ties,
re
invi
gora
te lo
cal i
ndus
try, a
nd c
reat
e po
st-w
ar lo
cal a
dmin
istra
tions
. O
ver t
ime,
the
gove
rnm
ent h
as a
lso
rede
fined
loca
l par
ticip
atio
n in
te
rms
of in
crea
sing
priv
atiz
atio
n of
the
publ
ic s
ecto
r by
mea
ns o
f va
rious
ince
ntiv
e pa
ckag
es. C
onse
quen
tly, t
he c
laim
that
resi
dent
s of
war
-aff
licte
d ar
eas w
ill b
e in
volv
ed in
the
rebu
ildin
g pr
oces
s has
a
hollo
w ri
ng, e
xcep
t in
the
case
of p
rivat
e ho
usin
g re
cons
truct
ion.
W
ith th
e ad
optio
n of
free
mar
ket m
echa
nism
s as t
he u
ltim
ate
arbi
ters
of
reco
nstru
ctio
n, c
omm
unity
mem
bers
bec
ome
invo
lved
in th
e pr
o-ce
ss o
nly
to th
e ex
tent
that
they
pro
vide
the
hum
an c
apita
l nec
essa
ry
for e
cono
mic
gro
wth
and
rest
ruct
urin
g. T
he g
over
nmen
t doe
s, ho
w-ev
er,
cont
inue
to p
rovi
de m
ater
ials
to in
divi
dual
s wis
hing
to re
build
. C
ompe
nsat
ion
of v
ictim
s for
loss
es in
curr
ed d
urin
g th
e w
ar is
vie
wed
as
ess
entia
l for
mai
ntai
ning
pop
ular
supp
ort o
f the
regi
me.
O
wne
rs a
re re
spon
sibl
e fo
r the
des
ign
and
reco
nstru
ctio
n of
thei
r ow
n un
its. T
he D
irect
or o
f the
Pro
vinc
ial R
econ
stru
ctio
n O
ffic
e m
ay,
at h
is d
iscr
etio
n, a
ssis
t an
owne
r with
up
to 1
80 sq
uare
met
res o
f roo
f co
vera
ge. A
n ow
ner m
ay b
e al
so a
ssis
ted
by b
ank
loan
s. F
or u
rban
co
mm
erci
al e
stab
lishm
ents
, the
gov
ernm
ent p
ays
up to
1.5
mill
ion
Indu
stri
al d
evas
tatio
n in
Iran
rials
and
ass
ists
the
owne
r with
ban
k lo
ans.
For r
ebui
ldin
g an
d re
no-
vatin
g pr
oduc
tion
units
, the
gov
ernm
ent p
ays u
p to
6 m
illio
n ria
ls an
d pr
ovid
es c
onst
ruct
ion
mat
eria
ls a
t off
icia
l pric
es. O
ther
gov
ernm
ent
assi
stan
ce in
clud
es b
ank
loan
s and
pro
visi
on o
f for
eign
exc
hang
e to
be
use
d fo
r pur
chas
e of
mac
hine
ry a
nd e
quip
men
t. Th
e go
vern
men
t al
so re
imbu
rses
priv
ate
vict
ims
for a
long
list
of d
amag
ed it
ems,
ra
ngin
g fr
om a
gric
ultu
ral p
rodu
cts
and
palm
tree
s to
ani
mal
s an
d pr
ivat
e ve
hicl
es. B
uild
ing
perm
its a
nd a
cces
s to
wat
er a
nd e
lect
ricity
ar
e al
so p
rovi
ded
free
of c
harg
e. T
he R
econ
stru
ctio
n O
rgan
izat
ion
is
resp
onsi
ble
for c
lear
ing
and
rem
oval
of d
ebris
at n
o co
st to
ow
ners
. Fi
nally
, the
gov
ernm
ent s
ells
the
follo
win
g se
ven
"bas
ic"
hous
ehol
d ite
ms t
o w
ar m
igra
nts w
ho a
re re
turn
ing
to v
illag
es: m
achi
ne-m
ade
carp
et; r
efrig
erat
or; b
lack
and
whi
te te
levi
sion
; sto
ve; k
itche
n w
are
and
plat
es; s
ewin
g m
achi
ne, a
nd fa
n.
Urb
an re
cons
truc
tion
Citi
es a
re b
eing
reco
nstru
cted
on
thei
r pre
viou
s site
s and
with
an
eye
tow
ard
mod
erni
zatio
n. W
hile
mix
ed la
nd u
ses a
re m
aint
aine
d in
mos
t ca
ses,
indu
stria
l and
com
mer
cial
zon
es a
re se
para
ted
from
resi
dent
ial
area
s. T
his
has
led
to s
igni
fican
t cha
nges
in la
ndho
ldin
g pa
ttern
s w
ithin
reco
nstru
cted
urb
an s
ettle
men
ts. A
ttem
pts
are
bein
g m
ade
to e
nfor
ce Is
lam
ic b
uild
ing
code
s and
arc
hite
ctur
e, b
ut w
ithou
t muc
h su
cces
s. A
new
urb
an st
rate
gy is
now
in p
lace
. It f
ocus
es fi
rst o
n th
e re
cons
truct
ion
of p
rodu
ctiv
e se
ctor
s of
the
econ
omy
and
then
on
infr
astru
ctur
e, h
ousi
ng, a
nd se
rvic
es a
s bot
tlene
cks d
evel
op in
thos
e ar
eas.
The
new
stra
tegy
is in
tend
ed to
brin
g ab
out a
gra
dual
repo
pu-
latio
n of
dam
aged
settl
emen
ts, a
djus
ted
to th
e ra
te a
t whi
ch h
ousi
ng
and
jobs
are
ava
ilabl
e.
In m
any
plac
es re
cons
truct
ion
has p
roce
eded
slow
ly a
nd w
ith c
on-
side
rabl
e de
bate
. For
exa
mpl
e, th
e re
build
ing
of K
horr
amsh
ahr w
as
slow
ed b
y di
sagr
eem
ent a
bout
whe
ther
the
city
had
lost
its j
ustif
ica-
tion
as a
maj
or p
ort.
Alte
rnat
ive
ports
had
bee
n de
velo
ped
else
whe
re
durin
g th
e w
ar, s
ome
on m
ore
stra
tegi
cally
secu
re si
tes.
Whe
n re
con-
stru
ctio
n be
gan
in so
me
parts
of K
horr
amsh
ahr,
orig
inal
foun
datio
ns
wer
e ex
cava
ted
in a
n at
tem
pt to
con
firm
land
ow
ners
hip
with
surv
i-vo
rs. T
he e
ffor
t req
uire
d to
car
ry o
ut su
ch p
ains
taki
ng re
cons
truct
ion
was
judg
ed to
be
war
rant
ed b
y th
e ps
ycho
logi
cal,
soci
al, a
nd e
cono
mic
be
nefit
s tha
t acc
rued
from
wor
king
clo
sely
with
loca
l res
iden
ts (Z
arga
r an
d Po
or 1
991)
. Im
plem
enta
tion
of re
cons
truct
ion
plan
s beg
ins w
hen
the
Min
istry
Atn
irahm
adi
Indu
stria
l dev
asta
tion
in Ir
an
of H
ealth
and
the
Red
Cre
scen
t Soc
iety
hav
e fin
ishe
d di
sinf
ectin
g a
war
-dam
aged
are
a. A
t tha
t tim
e an
are
a m
anag
er is
app
oint
ed to
ov
erse
e th
e re
build
ing
of h
ouse
s. H
e (in
varia
bly
mal
e) is
the
sole
re
pres
enta
tive
of th
e H
ousi
ng F
ound
atio
n in
the
loca
lity
and
his
deci
sion
may
not
be o
vert
urne
d by
oth
er p
ublic
offi
cial
s. H
owev
er,
the a
rea
man
ager
mus
t wor
k w
ithin
the f
ram
ewor
k of
the r
elev
ant
prov
inci
al d
evel
opm
ent p
lan
and
coor
dina
te h
is ac
tiviti
es w
ith p
ro-
vinc
ial o
ffici
als a
nd a
ctiv
ities
. In
addi
tion
to a
rea
man
ager
s, ot
her
agen
ts in
volv
ed in
the t
ask
of h
ousin
g re
cons
truc
tion
incl
ude
owne
rs
of h
ouse
s, Is
lam
ic C
ounc
ils, a
uxili
ary
wor
k gr
oups
, and
pr
ovin
cial
re
pres
enta
tives
of t
he H
ousi
ng F
ound
atio
n.
Hou
sing
reco
nstru
ctio
n
The
natio
nal g
over
nmen
t put
s litt
le m
oney
into
the
reco
nstru
ctio
n of
da
niag
ed h
ouse
s. M
ost g
over
nmen
t fun
ds a
re in
vest
ed in
pub
lic se
r-vi
ces,
site
pre
para
tion,
em
ploy
men
t-gen
erat
ing
prod
uctiv
e ac
tiviti
es,
prov
isio
n of
con
stru
ctio
n m
ater
ials
, arc
hite
ctur
al d
esig
n, te
chni
cal
supe
rvis
ion,
and
bui
lder
trai
ning
. The
gov
ernm
ent h
as a
dopt
ed a
"n
ew to
wn"
dev
elop
men
t stra
tegy
and
em
ploy
s the
"si
te a
nd se
rvic
e pr
ovis
ion"
app
roac
h ad
voca
ted
by th
e W
orld
Ban
k. In
rura
l are
as,
the
Hou
sing
Foun
datio
n is
prim
arily
resp
onsib
le fo
r the
qua
lity
of th
e co
nstru
ctio
n m
ater
ials
and
bui
ldin
gs.
Som
e fin
anci
al a
ssis
tanc
e is
ava
ilabl
e to
hom
e-bu
ilder
s: it
can
take
th
e fo
rm o
f gra
nts,
cre
dit,
or b
ank
loan
s. B
ut th
e em
phas
is o
n se
lf-he
lp m
akes
hom
e-ow
ners
resp
onsib
le fo
r des
ign
and
cons
truct
ion
and
enco
urag
es th
em to
rely
on
loca
l tec
hnol
ogy
and
reso
urce
s.
Indu
stri
al re
cons
truc
tion
Maj
or e
cono
mic
ent
erpr
ises
and
indu
strie
s are
resp
onsi
ble
for r
econ
-st
ruct
ing
thei
r res
pect
ive
faci
litie
s und
er th
e di
rect
ion
of th
e M
inist
ry
of H
eavy
Indu
stries
, the
Min
istry
of (
Ligh
t) In
dustr
ies o
r the
Min
istry
of
Min
es a
nd M
etal
s. O
il, g
as, p
etro
chem
ical
indu
strie
s, b
asic
in-
dust
ries,
firm
s pro
duci
ng c
onst
ruct
ion
mat
eria
ls, m
etal
pro
duct
s, an
d ba
sic
need
s con
sum
er g
oods
hav
e be
en g
iven
top
prio
rity.
A
com
mitt
ee fi
rst d
eter
min
es if
a sp
ecifi
c fir
m s
houl
d be
scra
pped
or
rebu
ilt a
nd w
heth
er it
s fac
ilitie
s war
rant
repa
ir, r
epla
cem
ent,
or
upgr
adin
g. U
nits
that
are
unl
ikel
y to
be
rebu
ilt in
clud
e th
ose
with
m
ore
than
30
per c
ent d
amag
e, th
ose
tech
nica
lly to
o ob
sole
te o
r too
de
pend
ent,
and
units
with
littl
e pr
ospe
ct fo
r sig
nific
ant v
alue
-add
ed
capa
bilit
y. A
ttent
ion
is a
lso
paid
to la
bour
and
fina
ncia
l mar
kets
, ca
pita
l mar
kets,
pro
duct
ion
tech
nolo
gy, i
nput
s -ou
tput
s mar
kets,
trad
e pr
ospe
cts,
man
agem
ent r
equi
rem
ents
and
cap
abili
ties,
and
othe
r nec
-es
sary
inst
itutio
nal a
rran
gem
ents
. Whi
le th
ese
activ
ities
hav
e be
en
follo
wed
in th
e ca
se o
f ind
ustri
al re
build
ing,
the
natio
n as
yet
doe
s no
t hav
e a
clea
r ind
ustri
al p
olic
y or
a p
olic
y of
indu
stria
l sec
urity
in
case
of a
noth
er w
ar.
Wha
t thi
s ove
rvie
w o
f pos
t-war
reco
nstru
ctio
n sh
ows i
s tha
t ind
us-
trial
rede
velo
pmen
t is
a pr
iori
ty o
f the
Iran
ian
gove
rnm
ent,
but t
hat
ther
e is l
ittle
expl
icit
conc
ern
for i
ndus
tria
l saf
ety
as a
pla
nnin
g cr
ite-
rion
, for
add
ing
impr
oved
acc
iden
t-pre
vent
ion
syst
ems t
o th
e re
built
in
dust
rial f
acili
ties,
or fo
r mak
ing
othe
r atte
mpt
s to
miti
gate
pot
entia
l in
dust
rial d
isas
ters
. Whe
reas
pea
cetim
e in
dust
rial d
isas
ters
hav
e so
met
imes
stim
ulat
ed h
azar
d-re
duct
ion
legi
slat
ion
and
othe
r ini
tia-
tives
, one
less
on o
f Ira
n's
expe
rienc
e is
that
war
-rel
ated
indu
stria
l di
sast
ers a
re n
ot fo
llow
ed b
y su
ch c
hang
es.
Con
cept
ual f
ram
ewor
k fo
r a
mod
el o
f pos
t-war
rec
onst
ruct
ion
and
indu
stri
al h
azar
d re
cove
ry
The
best
way
to p
reve
nt w
ar-r
elat
ed in
dust
rial d
isas
ters
is to
pre
vent
w
ars f
rom
occ
urrin
g in
the
first
pla
ce. O
bvio
usly
, it i
s too
late
to p
re-
vent
the
outb
reak
of h
ostil
ities
bet
wee
n Ir
an a
nd Ir
aq: t
he d
amag
e ha
s al
read
y be
en d
one.
Reg
retta
bly,
sim
ilar s
ituat
ions
are
like
ly
to
arise
in th
e fu
ture
and
ther
e w
ill c
ontin
ue to
be
a ne
ed fo
r rec
on-
stru
ctio
n in
the
wak
e of
arm
ed c
onfli
ct. F
igur
e 6.
3 su
mm
ariz
es a
fr
amew
ork
for p
ost-w
ar re
cons
truct
ion
that
is b
ased
on
the
Iran
ian
expe
rienc
e. In
the
page
s tha
t fol
low
, the
mos
t im
porta
nt e
lem
ents
of
the
fram
ewor
k ar
e ex
plai
ned,
with
spec
ial a
ttent
ion
to th
e re
cove
ry
of in
dust
rial f
acili
ties
that
hav
e be
en d
estro
yed
or d
amag
ed a
nd o
f ad
jace
nt a
reas
and
pop
ulat
ions
tha
t hav
e be
en p
ollu
ted.
A r
econ
struc
tion
strat
egy
The
form
ulat
ion
of a
pos
t-war
reco
nstru
ctio
n st
rate
gy is
bou
nd to
be
com
e th
e ce
ntre
of f
ierc
e de
bate
, for
it m
ust s
atis
fy a
nd c
ut a
cros
s va
ryin
g id
eolo
gies
, soc
ial g
roup
s, ti
me
perio
ds, a
nd c
ultu
res.
The
ch
osen
stra
tegy
will
dep
end
in la
rge m
easu
re o
n th
e nat
ure o
f the
war
its
elf a
nd th
e ex
tent
of d
amag
e. E
ach
natio
n m
ust f
ashi
on it
s ow
n na
tiona
l rec
onstr
uctio
n str
ateg
y, b
ut th
e Ira
nian
expe
rienc
e can
serv
e as
a g
uide
to is
sues
and
alte
rnat
ives
.
169
168
Am
ira
hn
iud
i
I eco
nstr
ucti
on
/ P
lan
R
Priori
ties
Progra
mmes
Polici
es
Hum
an
Relief
Mat
eria
l dR
ecov
ery
I Im
pleme
ntatio
n (R
econst
ructio
n Pro
cess)
Input
Outpu
t F
inan
cial
dR
eplac
emen
ti
dnev
elopm
enti
Tec
hnic
al
Obs
tacl
es
Ski
ll
Lev
el
For
eign
E
xcha
nge
Pol
itic
al
Cul
ture
Fig.
6.3
Fr
amew
ork
for
post
-w
ar r
econ
stru
ctio
n
Firs
t and
fore
mos
t, a
reco
nstru
ctio
n st
rate
gy m
ust b
e ve
rsat
ile a
nd
flex
ible
. Thi
s m
eans
that
it m
ust h
e br
oad
enou
gh to
be
usab
le b
y di
ffer
ent s
ecto
rs a
nd d
iffer
ent l
evel
s of
pol
itica
l adm
inis
tratio
n, a
nd
able
to a
ccom
mod
ate
the
chan
ging
mix
of p
robl
ems
that
aris
e at
dif-
fere
nt s
tage
s of
the
reco
nstr
uctio
n pr
oces
s. It
mus
t als
o be
abl
e to
re
spon
d to
the
need
s of
diff
eren
t soc
io-e
cono
mic
gro
ups
and
to fo
cus
reso
urce
s on
urg
ent p
robl
ems
that
dem
and
quic
k ac
tion
(e.g
. ind
us-
trial
haz
ards
and
ass
ocia
ted
cont
amin
atio
n). T
he s
trate
gy m
ust a
lso
strik
e a
bala
nce
betw
een
com
petin
g de
man
ds fo
r the
imm
edia
te re
lief
of d
estru
ctio
n an
d th
e ne
ed to
inve
st in
act
iviti
es th
at w
ill e
vent
ually
re
stor
e th
e co
untry
's lo
ng-te
rm e
cono
mic
bas
e. T
ypic
ally
, in
the
post
-w
ar a
tmos
pher
e of
eco
nom
ic a
uste
rity
, man
y fo
rces
com
pete
for
scar
ce re
sour
ces,
and
gov
ernm
ents
can
be
draw
n in
to w
aste
ful s
ocia
l pr
ojec
ts th
at a
re a
ttrac
tive
on p
oliti
cal g
roun
ds.
In a
dditi
on to
thes
e ge
nera
l pri
ncip
les,
a re
cons
truc
tion
stra
tegy
Indu
stria
l tle
va.s
iiitio
n in
Iran
shou
ld in
corp
orat
e cl
ear l
ong-
term
goa
ls. T
o en
sure
suc
cess
, goa
ls
mus
t be
tran
slat
ed in
to c
lear
ly d
efin
ed o
bjec
tives
that
real
istic
ally
ta
ke in
to a
ccou
nt th
e so
ciet
y's
reso
urce
s, e
xpec
tatio
ns, c
onst
rain
ts,
and
capa
bilit
ies.
Afte
r an
eval
uatio
n of
thes
e fa
ctor
s, a
hie
rarc
hy o
f go
als
mus
t be
form
ed, b
ased
on
a se
t of n
atio
nal p
rior
ities
. In
post
-w
ar so
ciet
ies t
hese
goa
ls g
ener
ally
incl
ude
rest
orat
ion
of h
uman
hea
lth
and
long
-term
hab
itabi
lity,
reco
nstru
ctio
n of
the
econ
omy,
rebu
ildin
g of
nat
iona
l def
ence
, reh
abili
tatio
n of
war
-dam
aged
are
as, a
nd th
e co
rrec
tion
of s
ocia
l im
bala
nces
cau
sed
by w
ar.'
Nat
iona
l pla
nnin
g is
bas
ed o
n an
ass
umpt
ion
that
"th
e de
tails
" ca
n be
left
to re
gion
al, l
ocal
, or s
ecto
ral p
lans
. But
wha
t hap
pens
whe
n th
ere
is w
ides
prea
d lo
caliz
ed d
estr
uctio
n of
indu
stri
al fa
cilit
ies
that
ha
ve th
e po
tent
ial t
o cr
eate
per
vasi
ve, l
ong-
runn
ing
haza
rds
for
regi
ons,
cou
ntri
es, o
r the
ent
ire
eart
h? P
erha
ps it
will
be
nece
ssar
y to
dev
ise
new
form
s of
nat
iona
l pla
nnin
g or
to c
once
ptua
lize
loca
l-na
tiona
l—gl
obal
eve
nts
and
stra
tegi
es in
new
way
s. F
or th
e m
ore
focu
sed
task
of i
ndus
trial
revi
val,
such
pro
cedu
ral a
ppro
ache
s ha
ve to
be
com
e ev
en m
ore
spec
ific
, allo
win
g fo
r im
plem
enta
tion
of ta
sks
rela
ting
to v
ario
us re
sour
ces
and
com
mod
ity m
arke
ts, a
nd o
rgan
iza-
tiona
l arr
ange
men
ts w
ithin
and
out
side
the
indu
stri
es. P
artic
ipat
ion
of e
mpl
oyee
s in
the
revi
val o
f ind
ustri
es is
a c
ritic
al n
eed
that
may
be
met
by
orga
nizi
ng th
em in
var
ious
con
sulta
tive
and
exec
utiv
e bo
dies
. Im
plem
enta
tion
is b
ette
r ach
ieve
d if
acco
mpa
nied
by
wel
l-def
ined
an
d sp
ecif
ic p
olic
ies
conc
erni
ng e
nvir
onm
enta
l, ec
onom
ic, s
ocia
l, po
litic
al, i
deol
ogic
al, c
ultu
ral,
infr
astru
ctur
al, t
errit
oria
l, ed
ucat
iona
l, te
chni
cal,
and
lega
l cha
nges
. Env
iron
men
tal p
olic
ies
not o
nly
mus
t ta
ke in
to c
onsi
dera
tion
exis
ting
prob
lem
s bu
t als
o m
ust a
ddre
ss th
e fu
ture
sec
urity
of
indu
stri
al p
lant
s an
d su
rrou
ndin
g po
pula
tions
ag
ains
t int
erna
l and
ext
erna
l haz
ards
. Eco
nom
ic p
olic
ies
need
to
acco
unt f
or b
udge
t def
icits
incu
rred
in a
war
eff
ort,
whi
ch g
ener
ate
infla
tion,
une
mpl
oym
ent,
and
pove
rty. T
he g
over
nmen
t mus
t als
o be
re
spon
sibl
e fo
r gen
erat
ing
ince
ntiv
e pa
ckag
es th
at w
ill in
duce
the
priv
ate
sect
or to
inve
st in
pro
duct
ive
activ
ities
, whi
le a
t the
sam
e tim
e cu
rbin
g no
n-pr
oduc
tive
uses
of c
apita
l thr
ough
sel
ectiv
e m
easu
res
such
as
taxe
s an
d cu
mbe
rsom
e lic
ensi
ng re
quire
men
ts. T
he g
over
n-m
ent c
ould
als
o se
ek o
ut d
irec
t for
eign
inve
stm
ent f
or re
vita
lizin
g in
dust
ries.
Soci
al p
olic
ies m
ust b
e di
rect
ed to
war
d th
e pr
ovis
ion
of b
asic
nee
ds
in s
uch
area
s as
hea
lth,
edu
cati
on, h
ousi
ng, a
nd r
ecre
atio
n, w
ith
expl
icit
emph
asis
on
serv
ices
for
thos
e w
ho w
ere
phys
ical
ly o
r m
en-
tally
trau
mat
ized
dur
ing
the
war
. Hou
sing
pol
icy
is th
e m
ost c
ritic
al
170
171
Strate
gy
A nz
irahm
adi
com
pone
nt o
f the
gov
ernm
ent's
soc
ial p
olic
y du
ring
reco
nstru
ctio
n af
ter t
he w
ar: t
he h
ousi
ng s
ecto
r nor
mal
ly re
ceiv
es th
e m
ost d
amag
e an
d su
ffer
s fr
om s
horta
ges
even
in p
eace
time.
Impl
emen
ting
a po
licy
that
allo
ws
for a
sus
tain
able
hou
sing
pro
cess
is th
e m
ost i
mpo
rtan
t as
pect
of a
mor
e ef
fect
ive
soci
al p
olic
y. H
ere,
inco
me
gene
ratio
n sh
ould
bec
ome
the
prim
ary
goal
. Edu
catio
n po
licy
play
s a
very
sig
-ni
fican
t rol
e in
reco
nstru
ctio
n, p
artic
ular
ly in
the
third
wor
ld w
here
pr
ofes
sion
al a
nd te
chni
cal e
duca
tion
leve
ls re
mai
n lo
w. A
mor
e ef
fec-
tive
educ
atio
n pr
ogra
mm
e sh
ould
be
spec
ifica
lly d
irect
ed a
t tra
inin
g po
licy
mak
ers,
pla
nner
s, m
anag
ers,
and
loca
l lea
ders
, as
wel
l as
tow
ard
trans
form
ing
fight
ers
into
pro
duce
rs a
nd p
ollu
ters
into
env
i-ro
nmen
talis
ts! C
ultu
ral p
olic
ies
are
need
ed to
mai
ntai
n di
vers
ity a
nd
unity
dur
ing
the
high
ly d
isru
ptiv
e an
d tr
ansf
orm
ativ
e pr
oces
s of
re
cons
truct
ion.
A
fter
hou
sing
, inf
rast
ruct
ure
is th
e se
ctor
of s
ocie
ty th
at is
mos
t se
vere
ly a
ffec
ted
by w
ar. T
here
fore
, the
suc
cess
of a
reco
nstru
ctio
n st
rate
gy h
inge
s on
wel
l-de
sign
ed in
fras
truc
tura
l pol
icie
s th
at ta
ke
into
acc
ount
futu
re n
eeds
of c
omm
uniti
es a
nd s
tren
gthe
n lin
kage
s be
twee
n th
em. I
nfra
stru
ctur
al p
olic
ies
are
best
impl
emen
ted
in c
on-
junc
tion
with
set
tlem
ent p
olic
ies.
The
se c
an b
enef
it fr
om a
n in
te-
grat
ed re
gion
al a
ppro
ach
in w
hich
a h
iera
rchy
of r
ural
and
urb
an
area
s ar
e lin
ked
toge
ther
func
tiona
lly, a
s w
ell a
s by
tran
spor
tatio
n an
d co
mm
unic
atio
n ne
twor
ks. T
arge
ting
spec
ific
citi
es a
s m
arke
t ce
ntre
s or
oth
er fu
nctio
nal c
entr
es m
ay re
quir
e re
stru
ctur
ing
of th
e pr
e-w
ar u
rban
sys
tem
. Sm
all-s
cale
rura
l ind
ustri
es th
at s
timul
ate
the
agric
ultu
ral s
ecto
r (e.
g. fo
od p
roce
ssin
g) c
ould
be
linke
d to
indu
strie
s at
hig
her l
evel
s of
the
terr
itoria
l hie
rarc
hy.
An
esse
ntia
l par
t of t
he im
plem
enta
tion
proc
ess
is th
e co
dific
atio
n of
all
the
polic
ies
men
tione
d ab
ove,
in th
e fo
rm o
f an
appr
opri
ate
lega
l fra
mew
ork.
The
reco
nstr
uctio
n pl
an it
self
mus
t be
mad
e in
to
law
if it
s im
plem
enta
tion
is tr
uly
to b
e ca
rrie
d ou
t. L
ast,
but b
y no
m
eans
leas
t, re
cons
truc
tion
stra
tegy
mus
t dea
l with
pol
itica
l iss
ues
that
per
mea
te e
very
asp
ect o
f rec
onst
ruct
ion:
ther
e is
a g
reat
dea
l of
pote
ntia
lly d
estru
ctiv
e am
bigu
ity a
bout
the
role
s of
pos
t-war
mili
tary
fo
rces
, abo
ut fa
ctio
nalis
m, a
nd a
bout
sta
te—
soci
ety
rela
tions
. Whi
le
dem
ocra
tizat
ion
and
publ
ic p
artic
ipat
ion
are
the
only
mea
ns f
or
crea
ting
polit
ical
legi
timac
y, m
ost p
ost-
war
sta
tes
are
too
frag
ile
and
unst
able
to a
llow
for t
heir
impl
emen
tatio
n in
the
shor
t ter
m if
th
ey w
ere
not f
irmly
ent
renc
hed
in th
e po
litic
al s
yste
m b
efor
e w
ar
bega
n. M
ost p
ost-w
ar so
ciet
ies a
re c
hara
cter
ized
by
polit
ical
dis
cord
an
d na
tiona
l con
flict
s. In
spite
of t
his,
ther
e si
mpl
y is
no
alte
rnat
ive
Indu
stria
l dev
asta
tion
in Ir
an
to n
atio
nal r
econ
cilia
tion
if r
econ
stru
ctio
n is
to b
e im
plem
ente
d su
cces
sful
ly.
The
reco
nstr
uctio
n pr
oces
s
To so
me
degr
ee, t
he re
cons
truct
ion
proc
ess
exhi
bits
pre
dict
able
cha
r-ac
teris
tics.
The
se in
clud
e th
e te
nden
cy fo
r dam
aged
citi
es a
nd in
dus-
trie
s to
be
rebu
ilt o
n th
e sa
me
site
s, c
ontin
uatio
n of
pre
-war
tren
ds
in p
opul
atio
n gr
owth
and
urb
an e
xpan
sion
, con
tinua
tion
of p
redo
m-
inan
ce o
f cer
tain
indu
strie
s, a
nd c
ontin
uatio
n of
pre
viou
s so
cial
stra
t-ifi
catio
n pa
ttern
s (H
aas,
Kat
es, a
nd B
owde
n 19
77).
The
tend
ency
for
a so
ciet
y to
retu
rn to
the
stat
us q
uo a
nte
afte
r war
can
be
expl
aine
d by
tw
o po
wer
ful f
orce
s — fe
ar o
f cha
nge
(par
ticul
arly
in a
soci
ety
that
has
al
read
y se
en s
o m
uch
nega
tive
tran
sfor
mat
ion)
and
the
desi
re o
f th
ose
who
con
trol e
xist
ing
inst
itutio
ns to
hol
d on
to p
ower
. If m
arke
t m
echa
nism
s ar
e re
lied
upon
too
heav
ily d
urin
g po
st-w
ar re
cons
truc-
tion,
cla
ss c
leav
ages
may
bec
ome
even
mor
e pr
onou
nced
than
bef
ore
the
war
. Und
erpr
ivile
ged
mem
bers
of s
ocie
ty a
re th
e m
ost v
ulne
rabl
e in
a d
isas
ter:
they
are
the
leas
t lik
ely
to li
ve in
wel
l-con
stru
cted
she
l-te
rs th
at m
ay s
urvi
ve a
ttack
s, a
nd th
e le
ast l
ikel
y to
hav
e sa
ving
s to
fa
ll ba
ck o
n fo
r the
repl
acem
ent o
f des
troy
ed p
osse
ssio
ns. S
ome
owne
rs a
nd m
erch
ants
, on
the
othe
r han
d, a
re a
ble
to b
enef
it fr
om
the
busi
ness
boo
ms
gene
rate
d by
the
floo
d of
res
ourc
es in
to th
e re
cons
truct
ion
effo
rt. T
hese
circ
umst
ance
s m
ust h
e bo
rne
in m
ind
at
ever
y st
age
of th
e pl
anni
ng p
roce
ss.
An
acce
ptab
le re
cons
truc
tion
proc
ess
muc
h lik
e an
app
ropr
iate
re
cons
truct
ion
stra
tegy
— w
ill, o
f cou
rse,
var
y fr
om c
ase
to c
ase.
Fur
-th
er r
esea
rch
into
the
criti
cally
impo
rtan
t pro
pert
ies
of p
ost-
war
re
cons
truc
tion
will
pro
vide
soc
ietie
s w
ith b
ette
r in
form
atio
n fo
r de
cisi
on-m
akin
g. T
he fo
llow
ing
set o
f hyp
othe
ses
is b
ased
on
exis
ting
liter
atur
e an
d th
e au
thor
's ex
peri
ence
with
dis
aste
r pl
anni
ng a
nd
post
-war
reco
nstr
uctio
n, a
nd is
off
ered
as
a fr
amew
ork
for f
urth
er
anal
ysis.
1.
Reco
nstr
uctio
n te
nds
to b
ecom
e po
litic
ized
and
fact
iona
lism
tend
s to
del
ay th
e re
cons
truc
tion
of w
ar-d
amag
ed a
reas
. W
ar s
imul
ta-
neou
sly
plac
es d
eman
ds o
n a
coun
try'
s re
sour
ces
and
incr
ease
s pu
blic
exp
ecta
tions
of p
ost-
war
eco
nom
ic im
prov
emen
ts. T
he
shor
tage
s th
at o
ccur
gen
erat
e so
ciet
al te
nsio
n an
d in
tens
ify p
res-
sure
on
the
stat
e to
impl
emen
t im
med
iate
cor
rect
ive
mea
sure
s.
Fact
ions
stru
ggle
ove
r rec
onst
ruct
ion
stra
tegy
(pla
nned
ver
sus
mar
ket a
ppro
ach)
and
ther
e is
redu
ced
polit
ical
will
for r
econ
- 173
172
A m
irahm
adi
Indu
stri
al d
evas
tatio
n in
Iran
stru
ctio
n of
war
-dam
aged
are
as. A
lthou
gh th
ere
is g
ener
al a
gree
-m
ent a
bout
the
need
to re
solv
e ec
onom
ic c
rises
, pol
itica
l fa
ctio
n-ali
sm m
ay p
reve
nt s
peci
fic
mea
sure
s fr
om b
eing
impl
emen
ted.
E
nvir
onm
enta
l dib
asic
's —
incl
udin
g th
ose
that
are
con
nect
ed
with
indu
strie
s — a
re, h
owev
er, a
mor
e se
rious
mat
ter t
hat c
anno
t lo
ng b
e ig
nore
d. A
s a
resu
lt, th
ey te
nd to
requ
ire e
xpen
ditu
re o
f na
tiona
l res
ourc
es in
the
post
-war
per
iod.
2.
Rec
onst
ruct
ion
is e
ssen
tial t
hera
py fo
r a
wou
nded
soc
iety
. So
cial
th
erap
y ce
ntre
s on
peo
ple
rebu
ildin
g th
eir c
omm
uniti
es, b
oth
phys
ical
ly a
nd e
mot
iona
lly, a
nd th
is p
roce
ss c
an s
ucce
ed o
nly
if th
ere
is a
nat
iona
l com
mitm
ent t
o he
alin
g. L
ong-
term
hab
itabi
lity
mus
t bec
ome
a pr
iorit
y an
d th
e gu
idin
g go
al o
f the
reco
nstru
ctio
n.
3.E
nfor
cem
ent o
f leg
al s
afet
y co
des
and
prov
isio
n of
soc
ial i
nsur
-an
ce a
re e
ssen
tial t
o re
cons
truc
tion.
Thi
s is
par
ticul
arly
true
whe
n in
dust
rial h
azar
ds a
re p
erva
sive
and
env
ironm
enta
l deg
rada
tion
has
beco
me
thre
aten
ing.
The
imm
edia
te p
ost-w
ar p
erio
d ge
ner-
ates
hig
h em
otio
ns a
nd p
ress
ures
for r
apid
resp
onse
, and
ther
e is
an
und
erst
anda
ble
tend
ency
tow
ard
quic
k fix
es. H
owev
er, q
uick
fi
xes
may
ulti
mat
ely
be m
uch
mor
e co
stly
than
mor
e co
mpr
e-he
nsiv
e re
pairs
. Uns
afe
indu
stria
l site
s an
d po
orly
reco
nstru
cted
bu
ildin
gs p
ose
dang
erou
s ha
zard
s fo
r rec
onst
ruct
ion
wor
kers
and
re
side
nts,
with
bot
h m
oral
and
mat
eria
l con
sequ
ence
s.
4.Ju
st a
s re
cons
truc
tion
afte
r na
tura
l dis
aste
r m
ust b
e us
ed to
pre
-pa
re fo
r or
miti
gate
the
effe
cts
of th
e ne
xt d
isas
ter,
so
mus
t pos
t-w
ar r
econ
stru
ctio
n be
use
d to
red
uce
the
risk
of a
noth
er w
ar a
nd
its c
onse
quen
t ind
ustr
ial h
azar
ds b
y in
corp
orat
ing
the
caus
es o
f th
e w
ar in
to th
e st
rate
gy it
self.
In
add
ition
to w
ar-re
duct
ion
stra
t-eg
ies,
a n
atio
n m
ust a
lso
adop
t pre
vent
ive
stra
tegi
es th
at re
duce
in
dust
rial
haz
ard.
The
refo
re, n
atio
nal a
nd in
dust
rial
sec
urity
sc
hem
es, a
nd d
efen
sive
and
pre
vent
ive
mea
sure
s, b
ecom
e m
ajor
co
mpo
nent
s of
the
post
-war
reco
nstru
ctio
n. T
hese
mea
sure
s ar
e be
st a
chie
ved
by e
mph
asiz
ing
peac
e an
d by
reno
unci
ng w
ar a
s a
mea
ns to
set
tle d
ispu
te. S
ever
al s
trat
egie
s ca
n he
use
d to
ope
r-at
iona
lize
this
goa
l. Fi
rst,
ther
e m
ust b
e w
ide
reco
gniti
on o
f the
fa
ct th
at a
goo
d de
fenc
e po
licy
mus
t be
base
d on
dip
lom
acy,
as
wel
l as
on th
e fa
ct th
at m
aint
aini
ng a
n of
fens
ive
forc
e at
the
expe
nse
of e
cono
mic
dev
elop
men
t doe
s lit
tle to
war
d in
crea
sing
a
natio
n's
shar
e of
the
inte
rnat
iona
l bal
ance
of p
ower
. Sec
ond,
pe
ople
's at
titud
es to
war
d th
e en
emy
as w
ell a
s to
war
d th
e w
ar
and
envi
ronm
enta
l saf
ety
mus
t be
trans
form
ed. T
his
may
pro
ve
diff
icul
t, pa
rtic
ular
ly a
fter
a d
efea
t, bu
t rec
onst
ruct
ioni
sts
can
174
play
an
impo
rtan
t rol
e as
pea
ce a
ctiv
ists
, as
wel
l as
envi
ron-
men
talis
ts, a
nd e
duca
tion
can
be ta
rget
ed to
war
d re
duci
ng th
e co
untr
y's
zeal
for w
ar a
nd in
crea
sing
its
appr
ecia
tion
of e
co-
logi
cal s
afet
y. R
ealis
tic d
efen
sive
mea
sure
s th
at a
re d
esig
ned
to
impr
ove
a na
tion'
s pe
rcep
tion
of s
ecur
ity c
an b
e bu
ilt in
to th
e re
cons
truct
ion
proc
ess,
as
can
prev
entiv
e m
easu
res
that
impr
ove
indu
stria
l sec
urity
. Bor
der a
reas
mus
t be
repo
pula
ted
and
phys
i-ca
lly re
cons
truct
ed w
ith th
e ex
plic
it go
al o
f sec
urity
, whi
le s
tra-
tegi
c ec
onom
ic a
ctiv
ities
and
indu
stri
al p
lant
s ca
n be
relo
cate
d to
saf
er p
lace
s. R
egio
nal g
over
nmen
t and
mili
tary
inst
alla
tions
m
ust b
e re
forg
ed w
ith a
n ey
e to
terr
itori
al b
alan
ce a
nd c
ultu
ral
inte
grat
ion.
5.
War
dam
age,
indu
stri
al h
azar
ds, a
nd r
econ
stru
ctio
n ne
eds
mus
t be
care
fully
det
erm
ined
and
ass
esse
d. A
n as
sess
men
t of w
ar d
amag
e an
d in
dust
rial h
azar
ds re
quire
s an
inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y ap
proa
ch, f
or
dam
age
and
haza
rd s
ituat
ions
diff
er in
term
s of
thei
r phy
sica
l and
ch
emic
al n
atur
e, th
e so
cial
con
sequ
ence
s th
ey g
ener
ate,
and
the
econ
omic
feas
ibili
ty o
f the
ir re
pair
and
cle
an-u
ps. S
kille
d pr
o-fe
ssio
nals
in a
ll di
scip
lines
, as
wel
l as
the
popu
latio
n at
larg
e,
mus
t joi
n to
geth
er to
form
a c
onse
nsus
on
rebu
ildin
g pr
iorit
ies.
R
ecor
d ke
epin
g of
dam
age
and
haza
rds
is e
ssen
tial.
Am
ong
othe
r th
ings
, car
eful
ly k
ept r
ecor
ds o
f dam
age
avoi
d co
nfus
ion
over
ow
ners
hip
and
prov
ide
help
in d
eter
min
ing
com
pens
atio
n fo
r war
vi
ctim
s, ta
rget
ing
prio
rity
reco
nstr
uctio
n pr
ojec
ts, a
nd lo
catin
g re
sour
ces.
6.
Exi
stin
g an
d po
tent
ial r
esou
rces
far
reco
nstr
uctio
n an
d cl
ean-
ups
mus
t be
quic
kly
iden
tifie
d an
d m
obili
zed.
Th
e m
obili
zatio
n of
res
ourc
es m
ust b
egin
with
an
iden
tific
atio
n of
thei
r ty
pe,
qual
ity, a
mou
nt, d
istr
ibut
ion,
cos
ts, f
unct
ion,
eas
e of
use
, and
im
pact
. Ind
igen
ous
reso
urce
s m
ust b
e di
stin
guis
hed
from
ext
er-
nal r
esou
rces
, and
thes
e re
sour
ces
mus
t be
wei
ghed
in te
rms
of th
eir p
oten
tial t
o ca
use
depe
nden
cy, u
nwan
ted
cont
rol o
ver
deve
lopm
ent,
and
unev
en d
evel
opm
ent.
Aft
er r
esou
rces
are
id
entif
ied
and
anal
ysed
, the
y m
ust b
e m
obili
zed.
Mob
iliza
tion
will
dep
end
larg
ely
on g
over
nmen
t act
ion,
but
can
eff
ectiv
ely
be
augm
ente
d th
roug
h th
e ut
iliza
tion
of g
rass
-roo
ts o
rgan
izat
ions
su
ch a
s se
lf-h
elp
proj
ects
, wom
en's
grou
ps, a
nd c
oope
rativ
es
desi
gned
to tr
ain
peop
le a
nd p
rovi
de m
ater
ials
for r
ebui
ldin
g.
Mili
tary
per
sonn
el c
an b
ecom
e cl
ean-
up c
rew
s an
d re
build
ers.
Pu
blic
and
priv
ate
initi
ativ
es, s
uch
as th
e se
lling
of w
ar b
onds
and
se
lf-fin
anci
ng, w
ill h
elp
the
gove
rnm
ent t
ap p
erso
nal w
ealth
for
175
A m
irah
mad
i
mob
iliza
tion.
Mat
eria
l res
ourc
es c
an b
e m
obili
zed
by ex
pand
in
min
eral
expl
orat
ion
and
by re
lyin
g on
loca
l mat
eria
ls fo
r bui
ld.
ing.
Effe
ctiv
e co
mm
unic
atio
n an
d tra
nspo
rtatio
n sy
stem
s are
vita
l fo
r re
sour
ce m
obili
zatio
n.
7.Su
cces
sful
rec
onst
ruct
ion
and
haza
rd r
educ
tion
depe
nd o
n ac
cu-
rate
tim
ing.
Sp
eed
is es
sent
ial i
n ha
rnes
sing
polit
ical
will
an
d pu
blic
enth
usia
sm b
efor
e allo
catio
n of
dw
indl
ing
reso
urce
s ind
u ce
s pes
simism
. The
firs
t ste
p in
pos
t-disa
ster
pla
nnin
g is
an a
nal-
ysis
to d
eter
min
e the
caus
e and
cons
eque
nces
of t
he d
isast
er. T
he
optim
al ti
me
for
reco
nstr
uctio
n an
d cl
ean-
ups i
s afte
r th
e w
ar,
whe
n pe
ople
are
ret
urni
ng to
war
-dam
aged
are
as a
nd c
an b
e in
volv
ed in
the p
roce
ss. T
he b
est t
ime t
o pl
an, h
owev
er, i
s dur
ing
the w
ar so
that
the n
atio
n is
read
y to
rebu
ild a
s soo
n as
the w
ar
is ov
er. I
t is
doub
tful i
f the
exist
ing
indu
stri
al d
isast
er re
spon
se
plan
s (lik
e a U
S Su
perf
und-
style
prog
ram
me)
inte
nded
for p
eace
-tim
e use
will
wor
k du
ring
or a
fter a
war
. 8.
Reco
nstr
uctio
n sh
ould
be
defin
ed, p
lann
ed, a
nd im
plem
ente
d in
sta
ges.
Acc
ordi
ng to
exist
ing
liter
atur
e abo
ut d
isast
er p
lann
ing,
th
e m
ain
stag
es a
re e
mer
genc
y, r
esto
ratio
n, r
epla
cem
ent,
and
deve
lopm
enta
l rec
onst
ruct
ion
(Am
irah
mad
i l99
0b: 2
68).
Thes
e st
ages
are
not
nec
essa
rily
chr
onol
ogic
al, n
or a
re th
ey m
utua
lly
excl
usiv
e. Th
e dur
atio
n of
each
stag
e will
var
y ac
cord
ing
to th
e sc
ale
of th
e di
sast
er, t
he le
vel o
f com
mitm
ent t
o cl
ean-
up a
nd
reco
nstr
uctio
n, a
nd th
e ab
ility
of a
soci
ety
to c
ope
with
the
dis-
aste
r an
d to
form
ulat
e st
rate
gies
. Oth
er fa
ctor
s inc
lude
ava
il-ab
ility
of r
esou
rces
and
the
gove
rnm
ent's
abi
lity
to m
obili
ze
them
, qua
lity
of le
ader
ship
, the
spee
d at
whi
ch d
ecis
ions
are
m
ade a
nd im
plem
ente
d, ex
isten
ce o
f pop
ular
and
hum
anita
rian
or
gani
zatio
ns, a
nd in
tern
atio
nal c
oope
ratio
n.
The g
oal o
f the
em
erge
ncy
stage
is to
cop
e w
ith th
e di
saste
r and
to
hel
p vi
ctim
s sur
vive
. The
urg
ency
of t
his
stag
e pre
clud
es a
ny
real
pla
nnin
g; in
this
case
the
plan
ning
mus
t com
e be
fore
the
disa
ster.
It in
clude
s suc
h ac
tiviti
es a
s sea
rch,
resc
ue, m
ass f
eedi
ng,
clea
ranc
e of
deb
ris,
para
med
ical
hel
p, a
nd p
rovi
sion
of sh
elte
r an
d ot
her b
asic
nee
ds fo
r the
vic
tim. T
he p
rim
ary
reso
urce
s for
th
e em
erge
ncy
stag
e are
com
mun
ity em
erge
ncy
serv
ices
and
self-
help
, alth
ough
inte
rnat
iona
l rel
ief a
genc
ies o
ften
may
pro
vide
as
sista
nce.
The e
mer
genc
y st
age o
verl
aps w
ith th
e res
tora
tion,
or
reco
very
, sta
ge, i
n w
hich
the
goal
is to
mak
e th
e co
mm
unity
at
leas
t par
tially
func
tiona
l. D
amag
ed st
ruct
ures
are
pat
ched
up
or
retr
ofitt
ed a
nd m
ade u
sabl
e aga
in. T
his s
tage
obv
ious
ly in
volv
es
Indu
stria
l dev
asta
tion
in Ir
an
mor
e co
mpr
ehen
sive
pla
nnin
g, a
s w
ell a
s gr
eate
r nee
d fo
r re-
sour
ces,
par
ticul
arly
con
stru
ctio
n m
ater
ialu
res. I
tem
pora
ry, a
nd
nves
tmen
ts a
nd
expe
nditu
res
duri
ng th
is s
tage
are
by
nat
repa
irs g
ener
ally
requ
ire a
seco
nd, m
ore
perm
anen
t inv
estm
ent.
The
goal
of t
he re
plac
emen
t sta
ge is
to re
turn
the
com
mun
ity
to its
pre
-disa
ster
stat
e thr
ough
the c
reat
ion
serv
ices,
of p
erm
anen
t hou
s-
ing,
the r
etur
n of
disp
lace
d pe
rson
s, re
sum
ptio
n of
pub
lic re
quire
s re
viva
l of i
ndus
trie
s, an
d th
e cr
eati
wel
l as m
assiv
e re
sour
ces.
on as
of j
obs.
This
stage
subs
tant
ial c
ompr
ehen
sive p
lann
ing
It
shou
ld b
e fol
lowe
d —
or e
ven
acco
mpa
nied
— b
y a
four
th st
age,
deve
lopm
enta
l rec
onstr
uctio
n, in
whi
chve
l e l t
heC
ombi
ning
pol
icy
and
goal
is to
dev
elop
the
com
mun
ity b
eyon
d th
e pre
-disa
ster
.
reso
urce
s for
the r
epla
cem
ent a
nd d
evel
opm
ent
staof
ten
lead
s ge
s may
miti
-
gate
the t
ende
ncy
to p
atch
thin
gs q
uick
ly, w
hich
to
doub
le in
vest
men
t and
was
te. T
h st
e de
velo
pmen
t rec
onru
ctio
n
stag
e is v
ery
diffi
cult
in a
war
-torn
soci
ety,
for w
ars
do n
ot si
m-
reve
nt so
ciet
y fr
om
o ac
tion
capa
city
and
pl
y de
stro
y pa
rt o
f wha
t exi
sts:
they
also
p
mak
ing
new
inve
stm
ents
, fro
m u
tiliz
ingd
tech
nica
l cap
abili
ties.
prd
reso
urce
s, an
d fr
om d
evel
opin
g sk
ills a
n
9.Re
cons
truc
tion
and
haza
rd r
emov
al m
ust b
e pr
oper
ly a
nd e
ffi-
cien
tly m
anag
ed.
The
gove
rnm
ent m
ust,
of c
ours
e, a
ssum
e ul
ti-
mat
e res
pons
ibili
ty fo
r man
agem
ent,
yet c
erta
in lo
cal f
unct
ions
co
uld
be a
ssum
ed b
y gr
ass-
root
s org
aniz
atio
ns. A
com
preh
ensiv
e m
anag
emen
t sys
tem
can
be
embo
died
in o
ne o
f thr
ee fo
rms o
f
gove
rnm
ent b
urea
ucra
cy —
esta
blish
men
t of
a sp
ecia
lized
new
lammi
ng,
lann
ing,
cre
atio
n of
m
inist
ry fo
r re
cons
truc
tion
and
disa
ster
p
reco
nstr
uctio
n an
d di
saste
r-m
anag
emen
t offi
ces w
ithin
th
e ex
ist-
uarte
rs
ing
min
istri
es, o
r for
mat
ion
of a
hea
dq
with
in th
e ex
ecu-
tive
offic
e fo
r the
jobs
. 10
.Pr
ogre
ss m
ade
tow
ard
reco
nstr
uctio
n an
d cl
ean-
upll
i m
ust b
e do
cu-
men
ted
and
eval
uate
d. R
esul
ts sh
ould
be
perio
dcay
pub
lishe
d in
acad
emic
and
pro
fess
iona
l, as
wel
l asp
opu
lar,
med
ia. E
valu
atio
n
of re
cons
truct
ion
and
haza
rd-r
emov
al a
ctiv
ities
shou
ld b
e un
der-
ta
ken
by in
depe
nden
t age
ncie
s th
at h
ave
acce
ss to
key
gov
ern-
m
enta
l dat
a an
d po
licie
s bu
t rem
ain
outs
ide
the
gove
rnm
ent's
sphe
re o
f dire
ct in
fluen
ce.
Impr
ovin
g re
cove
ry a
nd p
olic
y im
plic
atio
ns
Thi
s ch
apte
r has
ana
lyse
d th
e re
latio
nshi
p of
war
, com
mun
ity d
e-
stru
ctio
n, a
nd in
dust
rial
dis
aste
r in
term
s of
Ira
n's
expe
rien
ce. 177
176
A in
iralo
nadi
It ha
s sh
own
how
par
ticul
ar is
sues
of r
ecov
ery
from
indu
stri
al d
isas-
ters
bec
ame
caug
ht u
p in
bro
ader
con
cern
s of r
ecov
ery
from
mor
e en
com
pass
ing
dam
age t
o th
e com
mun
ity, a
nd it
has
hig
hlig
hted
the
role
of m
acro
econ
omic
pla
nnin
g iss
ues.
Furt
her,
the
chap
ter
has
expl
ored
inte
rcon
nect
ions
am
ong
loca
l-lev
el re
cons
truc
tion
prio
ritie
s an
d na
tiona
l-lev
el g
oals,
dem
onst
ratin
g ho
w —
in Ir
an's
case
— th
e la
tter b
ecam
e dom
inan
t in
the c
ours
e of p
ost-w
ar re
cons
truc
tion.
Thi
s tr
end,
in tu
rn, l
ed to
a lo
wer
pri
ority
for
haza
rd c
lean
-up
and
for
rebu
ildin
g in
dustr
ies w
ith lo
w va
lue-
adde
d at
trib
utes
. Int
erve
ntio
n by
th
e int
erna
tiona
l com
mun
ity in
the p
ost-w
ar p
eace
and
reco
nstr
uc-
tion
effo
rts w
as sh
own
to h
ave b
een
min
imal
bec
ause
of I
ran'
s fra
c-tu
red
imag
e in
the W
est.
This
may
not
, how
ever
, be t
he ca
se in
oth
er
situa
tions
whe
re th
e nat
iona
l lea
ders
hip
mai
ntai
ns g
ood
cont
acts
with
th
e int
erna
tiona
l com
mun
ity.
Iran
's ex
peri
ence
sugg
ests
that
the p
roce
ss o
f pla
nnin
g fo
r ind
us-
tria
l haz
ards
mus
t tak
e in
to c
onsid
erat
ion
the
cont
ext o
f war
time
econ
omic
dam
age.
Afte
r a w
ar, t
he k
now
ledg
e tha
t des
truc
tion
was
th
e int
ent o
f an
aggr
esso
r put
s rec
over
y an
d re
cons
truc
tion
initi
ativ
es
in a
spec
ial l
ight
. Per
cept
ions
of m
ilita
ry a
nd d
iplo
mat
ic se
curi
ty
beco
me c
ruci
al to
the p
roce
ss o
f nat
iona
l reh
abili
tatio
n. D
emor
aliz
a-
tion
that
acc
ompa
nies
war
has
the p
oten
tial t
o th
war
t the
indu
stri
al
rebu
ildin
g pr
oces
s, pa
rtic
ular
ly if
such
effo
rts a
re a
lrea
dy h
ampe
red
by a
n ab
senc
e of
suffi
cien
t res
ourc
es, o
r if
the
fron
tier
of im
pact
is
subj
ect t
o po
ssib
le r
epea
ted
atta
cks.
In c
ases
such
as t
hese
, the
di
sast
er c
ycle
of e
mer
genc
y re
lief,
rest
orat
ion,
rep
lace
men
t, an
d re
cons
truc
tion
is un
dert
aken
aga
in a
nd a
gain
, ea
ch ti
me p
rogr
essiv
ely
erod
ing
the r
esili
ence
and
reso
urce
s of t
he a
ffect
ed p
opul
atio
n.
Mor
eove
r, be
caus
e the
impa
ct o
f war
is m
ore c
ompl
ex a
nd p
erva
-siv
e tha
n th
at o
f nat
ural
disa
ster
s or p
eace
time i
ndus
tria
l disa
ster
s, po
st-w
ar re
cons
truc
tion
is an
espe
cial
ly ch
alle
ngin
g ta
sk. F
or ex
am-
ple,
afte
r an
indu
stri
al d
isast
er, a
ffect
ed fa
cilit
ies a
re u
sual
ly ei
ther
re
pair
ed a
nd r
eope
ned
— w
ith o
r w
ithou
t im
prov
emen
ts —
or
are
clos
ed d
own,
aba
ndon
ed, o
r re
mov
ed. I
n ei
ther
cas
e, e
xplic
it an
d sw
ift d
ecisi
ons a
bout
the f
utur
e of t
hese
faci
litie
s are
gen
eral
ly ta
ken
by o
wne
rs a
nd g
over
nmen
ts. D
urin
g w
ars,
the
sam
e fa
cilit
ies m
ay
cont
inue
to o
pera
te in
an
impa
ired
state
for l
ong
perio
ds, a
fter p
artia
l an
d te
mpo
rary
repa
irs h
ave b
een
mad
e, or
they
may
rem
ain
inop
er-
able
unt
il su
ch ti
mes
as f
orm
al d
ecisi
ons a
bout
thei
r fu
ture
can
be
take
n at
the c
oncl
usio
n of
hos
tiliti
es. I
n sh
ort,
the c
ours
e of r
ecov
ery
from
a w
ar-in
duce
d in
dust
rial
disa
ster
is li
kely
to d
iffer
from
that
wh
ich o
ccur
s in
peac
etim
e.
Indu
stria
l dev
asta
tion
in Ir
an
The p
roce
ss o
f mai
ntai
ning
a w
ar ef
fort
and
the p
roce
ss o
f pos
t-war
re
cons
truc
tion
are l
inks
in th
e sam
e cha
in, a
nd th
at ch
ain
is fo
rged
of
mat
eria
ls an
d m
oney
. War
s cos
t phe
nom
enal
am
ount
s of m
oney
, whi
le w
ar d
amag
e is p
reci
sely
calc
ulat
ed to
redu
ce a
n en
emy'
s cap
acity
to
finan
ce a
war
. The
war
effo
rt o
ften
abso
rbs s
o m
uch
gove
rnm
ent
reve
nue t
hat t
here
are
few
rese
rves
left
for r
econ
struc
tion
or cl
ean-
up
work
. Lac
k of
fund
ing
for r
elief
, haz
ard
redu
ctio
n, a
nd re
cons
truc
tion
beco
mes
par
ticul
arly
seve
re if
the n
atio
ns en
gage
d in
war
cont
inue
to
feel
thre
aten
ed a
nd su
bseq
uent
ly fe
el co
mpe
lled
to ch
anne
l the
few
re
mai
ning
fund
s int
o th
e mili
tary
. A g
over
nmen
t's ti
me a
nd la
bour
m
ay b
e sp
ent i
n ev
alua
ting
the
futu
re p
oten
tial o
f its
ow
n ar
med
fo
rces
, ins
tead
of f
irst
ana
lysin
g th
e im
pact
of w
ar d
estr
uctio
n an
d as
soci
ated
indu
stri
al h
azar
ds a
nd th
en d
eter
min
ing
the b
est p
lan
for
heal
ing
soci
ety
and
rein
vigo
ratin
g ec
onom
ic p
rodu
ctiv
ity.
Iran
's e
xper
ienc
e pr
ovid
es in
sigh
ts a
bout
the
com
pone
nts o
f a
mod
el o
f disa
ster
-impa
ct a
sses
smen
t and
reco
very
for w
ar-d
amag
ed
soci
etie
s, he
lps t
o sp
ecify
pos
sible
obs
tacl
es to
rec
onst
ruct
ion,
and
su
gges
ts w
ays o
f im
prov
ing
impl
emen
tatio
n. H
owev
er, i
f the
con
-ce
ptua
l fra
mew
ork
deve
lope
d in
this
chap
ter
wer
e to
be
appl
ied
to
Iran
, it w
ould
forc
e the
gov
ernm
ent t
o be
com
e mor
e con
cern
ed w
ith
indu
stri
al h
azar
ds a
nd w
ays o
f rec
over
ing
from
them
than
has
bee
n th
e ca
se so
far.
Unf
ortu
nate
ly, I
ran'
s rel
ativ
e ne
glec
t of i
ndus
tria
l ha
zard
s in
the
larg
er r
ecov
ery
proc
ess i
s not
at a
ll un
ique
. In
mos
t de
velo
ping
nat
ions
, whe
re re
sour
ces a
re sc
arce
and
mac
roec
onom
ic
dist
ortio
ns te
nd to
des
tabi
lize r
egim
es, e
cono
mic
mat
ters
take
pre
ce-
denc
e ov
er e
nvir
onm
enta
l con
cern
s. Th
is is
as tr
ue o
f nat
ions
that
ha
ve g
one t
hrou
gh a
war
as i
t is o
f nat
ions
that
hav
e bee
n at
pea
ce fo
r de
cade
s. Th
eref
ore,
the m
odel
pro
pose
d in
this
chap
ter m
ay b
e con
-sid
ered
equa
lly a
pplic
able
to m
any
deve
lopi
ng n
atio
ns th
at fa
ce ec
o-no
mic
decli
ne a
nd re
cove
ry fr
om m
an-m
ade o
r nat
ural
disa
sters
.
Not
es
I. S
ome
over
view
s of
the
war
pro
vide
ske
tchy
info
rmat
ion
abou
t the
war
's im
pact
on
Iraq
's
popu
lati
on a
nd e
nvir
onm
ent.
See,
for
exam
ple,
Kub
ba (1
993)
. 2.
Tha
t tre
aty
had
been
bas
ed o
n pr
inci
ples
of "
terr
itori
al in
tegr
ity, t
he in
viol
abili
ty o
f bor
ders
, an
d no
n-in
terf
eren
ce in
inte
rnal
aff
airs
." I
t was
inte
nded
to s
ettl
e po
litic
al a
nd te
rrit
oria
l di
sput
es b
etw
een
the
two
gove
rnm
ents
and
to e
nsur
e sh
ared
sov
erei
gnty
ove
r th
e Sh
att-
al-
Ara
b w
ater
way
, whi
ch p
rovi
des
both
cou
ntri
es w
ith
vita
l acc
ess
to th
e P
ersi
an G
ulf.
Pre
si-
dent
Hus
sein
pro
clai
med
that
he
had
ampl
e ju
stifi
catio
n fo
r an
nulli
ng th
e tr
eaty
bec
ause
Ira
n ha
d al
lege
dly
brok
en it
by
refu
sing
to r
elin
quis
h te
rrito
rial
rig
hts
and
by in
terf
erin
g in
Ira
q's
inte
rnal
aff
airs
. In
retr
ospe
ct, e
vide
nce
sugg
ests
that
Pre
side
nt H
usse
in w
as a
lso
mot
ivat
ed
by o
ther
inte
rest
s in
clud
ing
the
pros
pect
of g
aini
ng fu
ll so
vere
ignt
y ov
er th
e Sh
att-
al-A
rab,
178
179
A m
irah
mad
i
cont
rol o
f K
huze
stan
pro
vinc
e (w
here
ove
r 90
per
cen
t of
Iran
's o
il re
serv
es a
re lo
cate
d), t
he
poss
ibil
ity
of in
stal
ling
a p
ro-I
raq
gove
rnm
ent i
n Ir
an, a
nd th
e pr
ospe
ct o
f se
curi
ng a
re
gion
al le
ader
ship
rol
e fo
r Ir
aq in
the
afte
rmat
h of
the
Sha
h's
over
thro
w.
3.T
he P
ersi
an G
ulf
is a
long
, sha
llow
, rel
ativ
ely
narr
ow, s
emi-
encl
osed
sea
that
rec
eive
s on
ly)
limite
d fr
eshw
ater
inpu
ts f
rom
riv
ers
and
poss
esse
s w
eak
flus
hing
cur
rent
s. T
he e
ntir
e sy
stem
is
rea
dily
dis
rupt
ed b
y po
llut
ants
. The
wea
k ti
dal c
urre
nts
prev
ent r
apid
dis
sipa
tion
of
con.
ta
min
ants
, whi
ch r
emai
n in
the
wat
er -
the
non-
vola
tile
com
pone
nts
of o
il f
alli
ng to
the
bott
om a
nd c
onti
nuin
g to
cau
se d
amag
e fo
r m
any
year
s. T
he f
ood
chai
n, w
hich
nor
mal
ly
sust
ains
250
spe
cies
of
fish
and
app
roxi
mat
ely
140
spec
ies
of m
igra
ting
bir
ds, i
s se
vere
ly
thre
aten
ed. H
igh
tem
pera
ture
s, s
hallo
w w
ater
s, a
nd h
igh
win
ds, w
hich
cha
ract
eriz
e th
e G
ulf,
ca
use
rapi
d ev
apor
atio
n, in
crea
sing
the
salin
ity o
f th
e w
ater
and
con
trib
utin
g to
the
stre
ss o
f or
gani
sms
livin
g th
ere.
Con
tam
inat
ion
by o
il an
d he
avy
met
als
stre
sses
the
ecos
yste
m e
ven
furt
her.
Cru
de o
il co
ntai
ns s
uch
heav
y m
etal
s as
mer
cury
, cad
miu
m, a
nd v
anad
ium
, as
wel
l as
othe
r ca
rcin
ogen
ic c
hem
ical
age
nts.
Com
mer
cial
fis
hing
in th
e ar
ea is
sev
erel
y re
stri
cted
, and
re
plen
ishm
ent o
f G
ulf
stoc
ks f
rom
the
ocea
n w
ill b
e ve
ry s
low
. For
Ira
n, a
s w
ell a
s fo
r ot
her
coun
trie
s th
at d
epen
d on
Gul
f fi
sh f
or d
aily
pro
tein
req
uire
men
ts, t
he d
estr
ucti
on o
f th
e fi
shin
g in
dust
ry m
eans
inc
reas
ed f
ood
impo
rts,
fur
ther
exa
cerb
atin
g fo
reig
n cu
rren
cy
rese
rves
and
fos
teri
ng d
epen
denc
ies
on o
ther
cou
ntri
es f
or b
asic
foo
dstu
ffs.
4.
The
tall
y of
dir
ect e
cono
mic
dam
age
may
be
slig
htly
infl
ated
bec
ause
the
gove
rnm
ent's
im
med
iate
con
cern
was
to p
rovi
de c
ompe
nsat
ion.
Any
infl
atio
n at
trib
utab
le to
this
cau
se is
lik
ely
to b
e of
fset
by
the
abse
nce
of s
ome
type
s of
rea
l eco
nom
ic c
osts
, suc
h as
env
iron
men
tal
cons
eque
nces
, con
cess
ions
giv
en to
reg
iona
l all
ies,
incr
ease
d in
sura
nce
cost
s, a
nd th
e ps
y-ch
olog
ical
and
soc
iocu
ltura
l cos
ts o
f th
e w
ar (
Am
irah
mad
i 199
2a: 6
9).
5.T
he W
orld
Ban
k re
spon
ded
by g
ivin
g a
few
sm
all l
oans
to I
ran
for
reco
nstr
ucti
on o
f ea
rth-
quak
e-da
mag
ed a
reas
($2
50 m
illio
n) a
nd f
or im
prov
ing
urba
n in
fras
truc
ture
($6
7 m
illio
n). I
n 19
93, a
noth
er lo
an f
or $
162
mill
ion
was
app
rove
d fo
r th
e ex
pans
ion
of a
pow
er-g
ener
atin
g pl
ant i
n Q
um c
ity.
IM
F a
nd th
e B
ank
have
hel
ped
the
Iran
ian
gove
rnm
ent t
o fo
rmul
ate
an
econ
omic
sta
bili
zati
on p
rogr
amm
e bu
t ha
ve n
ot a
s ye
t res
pond
ed to
req
uest
s fo
r a
maj
or
loan
. Reg
iona
l aut
hori
ties
, suc
h as
the
Org
aniz
atio
n of
Isl
amic
Con
fere
nce,
the
Ara
b L
ea-
gue,
and
the
Gul
f C
oope
ratio
n C
ounc
il, h
ave
larg
ely
rem
aine
d in
activ
e (A
mir
ahm
adi 1
992a
: 27
7). B
y id
enti
fyin
g Ir
aq a
s th
e ag
gres
sor
stat
e, th
e U
nite
d N
atio
ns S
ecur
ity
Cou
ncil
has
pr
ovid
ed a
n im
plic
it ba
sis
for
rest
itutio
n by
the
Iraq
i gov
ernm
ent.
It is
like
ly th
at I
ran
wou
ld
have
reg
aine
d in
tern
atio
nal r
espe
ctab
ilit
y am
ong
the
com
mun
ity
of n
atio
ns a
nd b
een
the
bene
fici
ary
of in
crea
sed
inte
rnat
iona
l ass
ista
nce
if it
was
not
for
con
tinue
d op
posi
tion
by th
e U
nite
d St
ates
. 6.
Eco
logi
cal r
esto
rati
on s
houl
d gu
ide
the
othe
r go
als
and
take
pri
orit
y be
caus
e it
und
erpi
ns
hum
an h
ealt
h; in
oth
er w
ords
, res
tora
tion
of
hum
an h
ealt
h an
d lo
ng-t
erm
env
iron
men
tal
habi
tabi
lity
are
pre
cond
itio
ns f
or th
e ge
nera
l rev
ival
of
soci
ety.
Pla
ns a
nd p
roje
cts
mus
t be
draw
n up
for
env
iron
men
tal c
lean
-up
and
rem
oval
of
haza
rdou
s si
tuat
ions
in v
ario
us e
co-
nom
ic s
ecto
rs, i
ndus
trie
s in
par
ticul
ar,
whe
re s
uch
haza
rds
tend
to p
ose
heal
th p
robl
ems
and
crea
te o
bsta
cles
for
reb
uild
ing.
Ach
ievi
ng e
cono
mic
vit
alit
y is
a tw
o-pa
rt p
roce
ss w
hich
hi
nges
, fir
st, o
n m
akin
g th
e m
ost o
f av
aila
ble
reso
urce
s an
d re
mov
ing
supp
ly b
ottl
enec
ks
(e.g
. in
fore
ign
exch
ange
and
ski
lled
labo
ur)
and,
sec
ond,
on
achi
evin
g ec
onom
ic g
row
th.
Ref
eren
ces
Am
irah
mad
i, H
oosh
ang.
198
7. "
Des
truc
tion
and
reco
nstr
uctio
n: A
str
ateg
y fo
r th
e w
ar d
amag
ed a
reas
of I
ran.
" In
tern
atio
nal J
ourn
al o
f Dis
aste
r Stu
dies
and
Pra
ctic
e 11
(2):
134
-147
.
. 199
0a. "
Eco
nom
ic r
econ
stru
ctio
n of
Ira
n: C
ostin
g th
e w
ar
dam
age.
" Th
ird
Wor
ld Q
uarte
rly 1
2(1)
: 26-
47.
180
Indu
stria
l dev
asta
tion
in Ir
an
1990
b. R
evol
utio
n an
d E
cono
mic
Tra
nsiti
on.
Alb
any,
New
Yor
k: S
tate
Uni
-
vers
ity o
f New
Yor
k Pr
ess.
-.
199
2a. "
Eco
nom
ic c
osts
of
the
war
and
the
reco
nstr
ucti
on in
Ira
n."
In: C
yrus
Bin
a an
d H
amid
Zan
gene
h, e
ds.
Mod
ern
Cap
italis
m a
nd Is
lam
ic Id
eolo
gy in
Iran
.
New
Yor
k: S
t. M
artin
's P
ress
. 19
92b.
"E
cono
mic
des
truc
tion
and
imba
lanc
es in
pos
t-re
volu
tion
ary
Iran
."
In: H
. Am
irah
mad
i and
N. E
ntes
sar,
eds
. Re
cons
truct
ion
and
Reg
iona
l Dip
lom
acy
in th
e Pe
rsia
n G
ulf.
Lon
don:
Rou
tledg
e.
Ath
ari,
Dja
mal
. 199
1. "
Rev
olut
iona
ry c
hang
es a
nd p
ost-
war
rec
onst
ruct
ion
in
Iran
."
In: R
eviv
ing
War
Dam
aged
Set
tlem
ents
. A
Rep
ort a
nd C
hart
er p
repa
red
in c
onne
c-
tion
with
the
Thi
rd I
nter
natio
nal Y
ork
Wor
ksho
p on
Set
tlem
ent R
econ
stru
ctio
n Po
st-W
ar, 2
2-24
Jul
y 19
91. Y
oika
lluve
rgity
of-Y
ork,
Ins
titut
e of
Adv
ance
d A
rchi
-q
tect
ural
Stu
dies
, Pos
t-W
ar R
econ
stru
ctio
n an
d D
evel
opm
ent U
nit,
p. 1
4.
Cor
desm
an, A
ntho
ny H
. 199
0.
The
Less
ons
of M
oder
n W
ar.
Bou
lder
: Wes
tvie
w
Pres
s. E
I-B
az, F
arou
k, a
nd R
.M. M
akha
rita
. 19
94.
The
Gul
f War
and
the
Env
ironm
ent.
New
Yor
k: G
ordo
n an
d B
reac
h Sc
ienc
e Pu
blis
hers
. -H
aas,
J. E
ugen
e, R
ober
t W. K
ates
, and
Mar
tyn
J. B
owde
n (e
ds.)
. 197
7.
Rec
on-
stru
ctio
n Fo
llow
ing
Dis
aste
r. C
ambr
idge
, Mas
s.: M
assa
chus
etts
Ins
titut
e of
Tec
h-
nolo
gy P
ress
. H
awle
y, T
.M.
1992
. A
gain
st th
e Fi
res
of H
ell:
The
Env
ironm
enta
l Dis
aste
r of t
he G
ulf
War
. New
Yor
k: H
arco
urt B
race
Jov
anov
ich.
Jo
chni
ck, C
hris
A.F
., an
d R
oger
Nor
man
d. "
A c
ritic
al lo
ok a
t the
law
of w
ar: L
esso
ns
from
the
Pers
ian
Gul
f war
." U
npub
lishe
d pa
per
in ti
le w
ith t
he a
utho
r. A
utho
rs o
f
the
arti
cle
are
Co-
Edi
tor
in C
hief
and
Exe
cuti
ve E
dito
r of
the
Har
vard
Hum
an
Righ
ts J
ourn
al.
Kub
ba, L
aith
. 199
3. "
The
war
's im
pact
on
Iraq
." I
n: F
arha
ng R
ajae
e, e
d.
The
Iran-
Iraq
War
: The
Pol
itics
of A
ggre
ssio
n.
Gai
nesv
ille:
Uni
vers
ity
of F
lori
da P
ress
,
pp. 4
7-54
. M
ofid
, Kam
ran.
199
0. "
Iran
: War
, des
truc
tion
and
rec
onst
ruct
ion.
" In
: Cha
rles
Dav
ies,
ed.
Afte
r the
War
: Ira
n, Ir
aq a
nd th
e A
rab
Gul
f. C
hich
este
r: C
arde
n Pu
b-
licat
ions
, pp.
117
-141
. Pl
an a
nd B
udge
t Org
aniz
atio
n, I
slam
ic R
epub
lic o
f Ira
n. 1
991.
Fi
nal R
epor
t on
the
Asse
ssm
ent of
the
Econ
omic
Dam
ages
of t
he W
ar Im
pose
d by
Iraq
on
the
Isla
mic
R
epub
lic o
f Ira
n (1
980-
1988
). T
eher
an: C
entr
e fo
r So
cio-
Eco
nom
ic D
ocum
enta
-
tion
and
Publ
icat
ions
. Sh
emir
ani,
Tah
eri.
1993
. "T
he w
ar o
f the
citi
es."
In:
Far
hang
Raj
aee,
ed.
The
Iran
-
Iraq
War
: The
Pol
itics
of A
ggre
ssio
n. G
aine
svill
e: U
nive
rsit
y of
Flo
rida
Pre
ss,
pp. 3
2-40
. SI
PRI
(Sto
ckho
lm I
nter
natio
nal P
eace
Res
earc
h In
stitu
te).
1977
. W
eapo
ns o
f Mas
s
Des
truct
ion
and
the
Envi
ronm
ent.
New
Yor
k: C
rane
, Rus
sak,
and
Com
pany
.
1980
. W
arfa
re in
a F
ragi
le W
orld
: Mili
tary
Impa
ct o
n th
e H
uman
Env
iron-
men
t. L
ondo
n: T
aylo
r an
d Fr
anci
s. U
nite
d N
atio
ns S
ecre
tary
-Gen
eral
. 199
1a. "
Rep
ort o
n Ir
an's
rec
onst
ruct
ion
effo
rts
in 't
he w
ake
of t
he c
onfl
ict
betw
een
the
Isla
mic
Rep
ublic
of
Iran
and
Ira
q."
24 D
ecem
ber.
19
91b.
"R
epor
t on
the
scop
e an
d na
ture
of d
amag
e in
flict
ed o
n th
e K
uwai
ti in
fras
truc
ture
dur
ing
the
Iraq
i occ
upat
ion.
" 26
Apr
il.
181
Am
irahm
adi
Wal
ker,
A.R
. 198
9. "
Rec
essi
onal
and
Gul
f War
impa
cts
on p
ort d
evel
opm
ent a
nd
ship
ping
in th
e G
ulf s
tate
s in
the
1980
s." G
eoJo
urna
l 18
(3):
273-
284.
W
inne
feld
, Jam
es A
., an
d M
ary
E. M
orris
. 199
4. W
here
Env
ironm
enta
l Con
cern
s an
d S
ecur
ity S
trate
gies
Mee
t: G
reen
Con
flict
in A
sia
and
the
Mid
dle
Eas
t. Sa
nta
Mon
ica:
Ra
nd.
Zarg
ar, A
kbar
, and
Moh
sen
Poor
. 199
1. "
City
reco
nstru
ctio
n: T
he
case
of K
hora
m-
shar
, Ira
n."
In:
Rev
ivin
g W
ar D
amag
ed S
ettle
men
ts.
A R
epor
t and
Cha
rter
pre
-pa
red
in c
onne
ctio
n w
ith th
e Th
ird In
tern
atio
nal Y
ork
Wor
ksho
p on
Set
tlem
ent
Rec
onst
ruct
ion
Post
-War
, 22-
24 Ju
ly 1
991.
Yor
k: U
nive
rsity
of Y
ork,
Inst
itute
of
Adv
ance
d A
rchi
tect
ural
Stu
dies
, Pos
t-W
ar R
econ
stru
ctio
n an
d D
evel
opm
ent
Uni
t, p.
10.
182